English Language Learning Book (Bahan Ajar, ISBN)

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English Language Learning Book
Quick Start and Guide to Learn English Grammar
Copyright © Andhi Dwi Nugroho

All Rights Reserved
First Edition, September 2021
Author : Andhi Dwi Nugroho

Editor : Mipa Tiyasmala
Art Direction : Muhammad Kavid
Andhi Dwi Nugroho
Layout : Moko Dwi Saputro
Andhi Dwi Nugroho
Prepress : Wahyu Saputra
Okta Dwi Purnama
Publisher:
Yuma Pustaka
47 Samudra Pasai Street, Kleco, Kadipiro Surakarta, Indonesia
Postal Code: 57136, Ph. 0271-723523. Fax. 0271-654 394,
Hunting 081391423540
E-mail: [email protected]
Facebook: @YumaPustaka
viii + 94 pages, 18 cm x 25 cm
ISBN: 978-623-6000-19-9
Any unauthorized copying, alteration, distribution, transmission,

performance, display or other use of this material is prohibited.
Author holds the responsibility of the content.
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PREFACE
English Language Learning Book: Quick Start and Guide presents the
combination of reference guide and practical workbook on current English
usage. The emphases of the book are on both spoken and written English,
formal and informal. Its availability helps students to develop the habits of
English usage.
The book represents a synthesis of the old and new. The conceptual
framework for the book has been determined by modern theories (both
structural and transformational) because it is believed they present a clearer
and more accurate image of the English language learning system than the
older views, which were patterned on Latin than English. Additionally, the
American usage is recorded in this book; however, differences between
American and British have been pointed out. Different levels and varieties
of usage have been accounted for as well.
Andhi Dwi Nugroho
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Table of Contents
Title....................................................................................................... i
Preface................................................................................................... v
Table of contents................................................................................... vii
Unit I : Basic Sentence Patterns............................................................. 1
Unit II : Nouns........................................................................................ 7
Unit III : Subject-Verb Agreement.......................................................... 18
Unit IV : Conjunctions............................................................................ 35
Unit V : Clauses...................................................................................... 37
Unit VI : Participles................................................................................ 49
Unit VII : Modals.................................................................................... 56
Unit VIII : Passive Voice......................................................................... 63
Unit IX : Degrees of Comparison........................................................... 72
Unit X : Conditional Sentences.............................................................. 81
Unit XI : Inversion.................................................................................. 87
References............................................................................................. 93
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UNIT 1
Basic Sentence Patterns
Subject = Noun/the equivalence of noun

a person or thing which is the main topic in the discussion
Noun/ Noun phrase Auxiliary Gerund/ Infinitive/ Noun
(Lucy, book, air (I, You, We, Gerund phrase Inf. phrase clause
history, a good idea, They, He, She, It) (V-ing) (To + V1)
the book)
Examples:
1. Knowledge is something we get by an experience or study.
N
2. The bus schedule has changed since last week.
N
3. Accidentally, she dropped the glass on the floor.
Aux.
4. Reading detective novels is fun.
Gerund
5. To learn history is very important.
Infinitive
6. What the man did was not very polite.
Noun clause
Predicate = Verb ± Object/Complement/Adverb

Auxiliary (Be) Linking verb Transitive verb (verb Intransitive verb
Is, am, are, was, Appear, look, followed by object) Agree, arrive,
were seem, feel, smell, Need, enjoy, build, become, fly, cry,
sound, taste, cut, find, like, make, exist, happen,
become, get, keep, send, use live, occur, rain,
prove, remain, stay rise
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Examples:
1. My teacher is a young woman.
Be
2. Yesterday, she looked so pale.
Linking verb
3. They often order some food from us.
Transitive verb
4. The train usually arrives on time.
Intransitive verb
Exercise 1: Choose the letter of word or group of words that best completes
the sentence.
1. The president the election.
(A) won
(B) he won
(C) yesterday
(D) fortunately
2. greeted me enthusiastically at the front gate.
(A) parental
(B) my friends
(C) if
(D) them
3. The large carotid artery to main parts of the brain.
(A) carrying blood
(B) blood is carried
(C) carries blood
(D) blood carries
4. first settled the Hawaiian Islands between A.D. 300 and 750.
(A) the Polynesians
(B) the Polynesians arrived
(C) because of the Polynesians
(D) it was the Polynesians
5. To Mike, was a big surprise.
(A) really
(B) the party
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(C) funny
(D) when
6. Early toes instead of hooves on their feet.
(A) horse
(B) had horses
(C) horses had
(D) horses having
7. was ringing continuously when the secretary greeted the guests.
(A) loudly
(B) in the morning
(C) the phone
(D) the bells
8. The plane landing at the airport in five minutes.
(A) it is
(B) it really is
(C) in descending
(D) will be
9. In 1867, Alaska from the Russians for $7.2 million.
(A) purchased the United States
(B) to purchase the United State
(C) the United Stated purchased
(D) the United Stated’ purchase of
10. In the early 1900s, Eastman inexpensive Brownie box cameras.
(A) developed
(B) developing
(C) in developed
(D) it was developed
11. In 1975, the first successful space probe to beginning to send
information back to Earth.
(A) venus
(B) venus the
(C) venus was
(D) venus it was
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12. NASA’s Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center control center for the
Gemini and Apollo space flights.
(A) it was at the
(B) it was the
(C) was the
(D) the
13. In some old type cameras, through a hole in the back
of the box.
(A) the object’s view
(B) the object was viewed
(C) from the view of the object
(D) viewed the object
14. radio as the first practical system of wireless telegraphy.
(A) Marconi’s development
(B) the development by Marconi
(C) developing Marconi’s theory
(D) Marconi developed
15. in the United States spends 900 hours per years in class and
1,170 hours in front of the television.
(A) the average third-grade
(B) the third grade is average
(C) there are three grades
(D) there average grades
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Review : Identify the underline word or phrase that contains an error.
Then, circle the letter that corresponds to the answer you have
chosen, and correct the sentence.
1. Above tundra plants grow close to the short Arctic summer.
A B C D
2. A sudden freezing can destroy citrus corps.
A B C D
3. The two biggest resort towns in Arkansas be Hot Springs and Eureka
A B C D
Springs.
4. Scientists belief that the continents once formed a single continent
A B
surrounded by an enormous sea.
C D
5. The first steamship to cross the Atlantic in 1819 is the Savannah.
A B C D
6. The sun raises in the east and sets in the west.
A B C D
7. Hot and drought continued for more than three months.
A B C D
8. The research for the book Roots taking Alex Haley twelve years.
A B C D
9. In a serve dry season, the leaves of the trees remain brown or black
A B C D
and die.
10. Our teacher read a story us before we started the lesson.
A B C D
11. The unit of measuring called the foot was originally based on the
A B C
length of the human food.
D
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12. The first plant-like organisms probably living in the sea, perhaps 3
A B C
billion years ago.
D
13. On December 17, 1903, the Flyer it took of near Kitty Hawk, North
A B
Carolina, with Orville Wright as pilot.
C D
14. If a strike is called in violation of an existing contract between labor and
A B C
management, it’s a wildcat strike.
D
15. When Pierre L’Enfant designed the national capital in1791, her
A B C
envisioned a broad boulevard linking the White House and Capitol.
D
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UNIT II
Nouns
The noun is one of the important parts of speech. Its arrangement

with the verb helps to form the sentence core which is essential to every
complete sentence. In addition, it may function as the chief or “head” word
in many structures of modification. Nouns can be classified by meaning
and form.
Noun classified by meaning such as countable or uncountable noun.
Moreover, nouns in many European languages may be inflected, that is,
changed in form, for certain grammatical properties. Usually these changes
are made through special endings. Inflectional forms of nouns number. As
a matter of fact, the only grammatical properties for which the English
noun is inflected are number and possession.
A. SINGULAR AND PLURAL NOUNS

The general rule for writing the plural of English nouns is to add s to the
singular form (boy—boys, apple—apples). However, this rule is complicated
because of the many exceptions below:
1. After a sibilant sound spelled as s, z, ch, sh, x, es is added: classes,
churches, dishes. However, if final ch is pronounced [k], only s is added:
monarchs, stomachs, epochs.
2. After y preceded by a consonant, the y is changed to i and es is added
such as in the words lady—ladies and country—countries. If final y is
preceded by a vowel, no change is made (attorney—attorneys, valley—
valleys).
3. In one-syllable words, final f or fe becomes ves in the plural (wife—
wives, leaf—leaves, thief—thieves). However, some such words take
the regular s ending (chief—chiefs, roof—roofs). Every word has either
form for the plural (wharves or wharfs, scarfs or scarves).
4. After final o, ending es is sometimes added, especially in some common
words (heroes, Negroes, echoes, potatoes). If a vowel precedes the final
o, or if the word is a term used in music, only s is added (studios, zoos,
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pianos, sopranos). Sometimes the es alternates with a less common s
ending (cargoes or cargos, mottoes or mottos, volcanoes or volcanos).
5. Irregular plurals based on older English may take the form of:
(a) an internal change (man—men, foot—feet, mouse—mice).
(b) an en ending (child—children: ox—oxen). Brethren (the older
plural of brother) is found mainly in religious contexts.
6. The plural has the same form as the singular (sheep—sheep, deer—
deer).
7. The singular has the same form as the plural (series—series, means—
means).
8. Many foreign words retain their foreign plural in English.
(a) Singular us ending becomes plural i ending (stimulus—stimuli,
radius—radii).
(b) Singular a ending becomes plural ae ending (larva—larvae,
vertebrata—vertebratae).
(c) Singular um ending becomes plural a ending (memorandum—
memoranda, stratum—strata). Some such words are used chiefly
in the plural (data, bacteria).
(d) Singular is ending becomes plural es ending (crisis—crises,
parenthesis—parentheses).
(e) Singular on ending becomes plural a ending (criterion—criteria,
phenomenon—phenomena).singular ex or ix ending becomes
plural ices ending (vortex—vortices, matrix—matrices).
(f) Singular eau ending becomes plural eaux ending (bureau—
bureaux, plateau—plateau).
Note:
1. Regular Plural Noun
Singular Plural
Book Books
chair chairs
ship ships
baby babies
candy candies
tax taxes
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axe axes
brush brushes
photo photos
2. Irregular Plural Noun

Rule Singular Plural
1. latinate Plurals Alga algae
alumnus alumni
bacterium bacteria
cactus cacti
curriculum curricula
datum data
stimulus stimuli
syllabus syllabi
fungus fungi
datum data
2. -o into -oes Echo echoes
(ended by -s/es) embargo embargoes
hero heroes
potato potatoes
tomato tomatoes
3. changing vowel sound foot feet
goose geese
man men
mouse mice
tooth teeth
woman women
4. –f into -ves elf elves
half halves
knife knives
leaf leaves
self selves
thief thieves
wife wives
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5. –is into –es axis axes
analysis analyses
basis bases
crisis crises
diagnosis diagnoses
hypothesis hypotheses
parenthesis parentheses
thesis theses
6. –ix into –ices appendix appendices
index indices
matric matrices
7. no change deer deer
fish fish
means means
series series
sheep sheep
species species
Key Words: Singular and Plural Nouns

that this each Every single one a/an Followed by singular
nouns
those these both two many several Various Followed by plural
nouns
my, your, his, her, our, their, & its John’s the Followed by singular
and plural nouns
Example:
1. She studied each chapter of the book.
Singl.N
2. There is not a single bit of food in the refrigerator.
Singl.N
3. We must answer every question on the test.
Singl.N
4. He just finished several books.
Pl.N
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5. Both classes will start soon.
Pl.N
6. Mr. and Mrs. Kim have many children
Pl.N
B. COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

A countable noun can be usually be made plural by the addition of –s
(one girl, two girls). An uncountable noun is not used in the plural. Mass
nouns form one type of uncountable noun. They are words for concrete
objects stated in an undivided quantity (coffee, iron). Abstract nouns
(including names of school subjects and sports) are uncountable.
Some uncountable nouns may also be used in a countable sense and
will therefore have a plural. In the sentence: We had chicken for dinner,
chicken is a mass noun; in There were many chickens in the yard, chickens
is a countable noun. In addition, uncountable noun may be used in the
plural with special meaning of kinds of—Many fruits were displayed at
the fair.
There are some rules to be applied in writing countable and uncountable
noun:
1. No plural is used for uncountable nouns such as information, advice,
clothing, furniture.
2. Some words ending in s are singular uncountable nouns, especially
names of diseases and fields of study. However, when words that
name field of study are used for practical matters, such words are often
considered plural—His business ethics are very questionable.
3. Some words ending in s are used chiefly as plurals (ashes, brains, good,
riches). In this group are words for items that have two parts (scissors,
trousers, spectacles, pliers).
Countable Noun →
trip – trips room – rooms criterion – criteria
culture – cultures potato – potatoes child – children
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Uncountable Noun →
water wood advice money
oil sand politics news
oxygen cheese equipment information
Key Words: Countable and Uncountable Nouns

many number few fewer some a lot of Followed by countable and
plural nouns
much amount little less some a lot of Followed by uncountable
nouns
Example:
1. You have a number of choices.
CN
2. We have fewer opportunities now.
CN
3. We visited many beautiful places.
CN
4. The car now uses less oil.
UN
5. She has much money.
UN
6. This sauce needs a little salt.
UN
Exercise 1 : Choose the letter of word or group of words that best
completes the sentence.
1. He did not give me .
(A) much information
(B) much informations
(C) many informations
(D) many information
2. Jan is a married woman with three young .
(A) child
(B) children
(C) childs
(D) childes
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3. Much of the in our office needs updating.
(A) computers
(B) tools
(C) utensils
(D) equipment
4. Some are really sharp, so you have to be careful when using
them.
(A) knife
(B) knive
(C) knives
(D) knifes
5. During an eclipse, the sun and the moon are pretty much
exactly opposite.
(A) both
(B) every
(C) each
(D) several
6. Some theatres receive a small from the state.
(A) number of funding
(B) number of fundings
(C) amount of funding
(D) amount of fundings
7. Two people were taking to hospital after un upset customer sprayed
with pepper at a west Edmonton Walmart.
(A) several people
(B) less people
(C) much people
(D) very people
8. Mature red blood cells (erythrocytes) in lack a nucleus.
(A) several mammal
(B) all mammals
(C) each mammals
(D) few mammal
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9. The is define as those persons who work for the affiliate and
who have contract of employment.
(A) number of employee
(B) amount of employee
(C) number of employees
(D) amount of employees
10. Studying can unlock vital clues about disease and lead to
improved healthcare.
(A) every single cell
(B) single every cell
(C) every cell single
(D) single cell every
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Review : Identify the underlined word or phrase that contains an error.
1. Modern computers can hold huge amount of informations.
A B C D
2. Cone shells live in much different seas and feed mainly and small fish
A B C
and worms.
D
3. The leaves of the common sunflower are rough to the touch on both
A B C
side.
D
4. Hemoglobin enables the red blood cells to carry oxygen and small
A B C
numbers of carbon dioxide.
D
5. Those with narcolepsy experience the uncontrollable desire to sleep,
A B
perhaps several time in one day.
C D
6. Another great artists of the time and possibly the most gifted silversmith
A B C
in the colonies was Paul Revere.
D
7. Alzheimer’s disease afflicts two in ten person over the age of seventy
A B C D
in the United States.
8. The red cardinal spends many of its time feeding on the ground.
A B C D
9. In the 1920s, Tulsa had a higher number of millionaire that any other
A B C D
U.S. city
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10. Because Washington is a district and no a state, its residents have less
A B C
rights than other citizen.
D
11. The long necks of much plant-eating dinosaurs were useful for reaching
A B C D
up to the treetops to feed.
12. In a copperhead snake, the venom flows from a single venom glands to
A B
a pair of follow teeth.
C D
13. Cavemen created a large amount of early works of art using mixture of
A B
clay, chalk, and burned wood and bones.
c D
14. The common was the heart of every New England villages build in the
A B C D
eighteen century.
15. Succulents suck up water in just a few hour, but they can store it in
A B C
their stems for months.
D
INFLECTION (Prefix and Suffix)
Suffix Noun
-ity ability, similarity, responsibility, curiosity
-ness darkness, preparedness, consciousness
-cy urgency, efficiency, frequency
-tion alteration, demonstration
-sion expansion, inclusion, admission
-er advertiser, driver, computer, silencer
-ment development, punishment, unemployment
-ant/-ent assistant, consultant, student
-age breakage, wastage, package
-al denial, proposal, refusal, dismissal
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-ence preference, dependence, interference
-ance attendance, acceptance, endurance
-ery/-ry bribery, robbery, misery, refinery, bakery
-er astronomer, geographer
-ism Marxism, Maoism, Thatcherism
-ship friendship, citizenship, leadership
-age baggage, plumage
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UNIT III
Subject-Verb Agreement
1. S-V agreement with 3 Irregular Verbs

Subject Verb Object/complement/Adverb
Singular Mr. John is our English teacher.
Linda was my classmate in high school
My new friend has a big house near the lake.
My father does not like rock music.
Plural Doni and I are from Surabaya
They were rich before the crisis
Some have many special menu
Restaurants
We do not have enough money
2. S-V agreement with Regular Verbs

In the sentence, if the subject is the third person singular in the simple
present tense—she, he, and it, consequently the verb is added s/-es.
Meanwhile, plural subjects are paired with verb without s/-es. Moreover,
if in the sentence contains two or more subjects connected by and require
a plural verb. However, there’s an exception if the sentence begins with
“every” and “each”, then it immediately follows by singular verb.
The following table shows the examples of singular and plural noun
paired with regular verbs:
Object/complement/
Subject Verb
Adverb
Singular Mia studies hard every day.
One of my cousins lives in a luxurious apartment.
The mother of the children cooks a delicious meal.
Every/Each company supports a local charity.
Somebody/Someone/ agrees with him.
Anybody/Anyone
The students or the professor walks the hall.
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Plural Many students learn cooking every Sunday.
We spend our spare time together.
The owners of the house look happy.
The professor and the student walk the hall
3. S-V Agreement with Neither … Nor …

Object/complement/
Subject Verb
Adverb
Singular Neither the plates nor the bowl goes*on that shelf
Plural Neither the bowl nor the plates go**on that shelf
* : verb is determined by noun which appear after nor (the bowl – singular)
**: verb is determined by the nouns which appear after nor (the plates –
plural)
Note : Some
Most
All of + Noun + Adverb
Half
Part
Subject Predicate → Adv. depends on the subject
All of the book + is interisting. All of the books + are interisting.
Exercise 1: Choose the letter of word or group of words that best

1. The heart the blood flow.
(A) controls
(B) control
(C) controlled
(D) is controlled
2. All of the next chapter very important information.
(A) contains
(B) containing
(C) contain
(D) be containing
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3. Nowadays, people face as meeting places.
(A) uses
(B) is used
(C) using
(D) use
4. One propose to decide if there is sufficient evidence to try a
person for a crime.
(A) of a grand jury are
(B) for a grand jury are
(C) of a grand jury is
(D) of a grand jury
5. Projective tests no right or wrong answers.
(A) has
(B) have
(C) having
(D) does not have
6. Overexposure to the sun ___ various health problems.
(A) cause
(B) are causing
(C) causes
(D) were causing
7. , the outer layer of skin, contains pigment, pores, and ducts.
(A) that the epidermis
(B) the epidermis
(C) the epidermis is
(D) the epidermis which
8. once every ten years.
(A) Jupiter rotates
(B) the rotation of Jupiter
(C) The occurrence of Jupiter’s rotation
(D) Jupiter’s rotation
9. Neither the mother nor here.
(A) the children is
(B) the childrens are
(C) the children are
(D) the childs are
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10. heated by solar energy have special collectors on the roofs to trap
sunlight.
(A) A home is
(B) Homes
(C) Homes are
(D) A home
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Review: Identify the underlined word or phrase that contains an error.
Then, circle the letter that corresponds to the answer you have chosen,
and correct the sentence.
1. The children remain silent every time their mother asks them about
A B C
their scores.
D
2. Because mistletoe berries are poisonous, everyone with Christmas
A
decorations containing mistletoe need to be aware of the potential
B C
danger.
3. Neither the student nor the teacher are going to the seminar on
A B C
science.
D
4. Some of agricultural practices used to day is responsible for fostering
A B C D
desertification.
5. In male pattern baldness, heredity strongly influence the degree of
A B C
hair loss.
D
6. In the Stone Age, stone tool were polished with other rock materials.
A B C D
7. The United State have imported all carpet wools in recent years
A B
because domestic wools are too fine and soft for carpets.
C D
8. The great digital advances of the electronic age, such as integrated
A
circuitry and a microcomputer, has been planted in tiny chips.
B C D
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9. Scientists at the medical center is trying to determine if there is a
A B C
relationship between saccharine and cancer.
D
10. There are frequently mentioned reasons why one out of four arrests
A B C
involve a juvenile.
D
11. At the end of the Revolution, most of the army units of the young
A
nation was almost entirely disbanded.
B C D
12. Kepler’s Laws, principles outlining planetary movement, was
A
formulated based on observation made without a telescope.
B C D
13. The term “Yankee” was originally a nickname for people from New
A
England, but now anyone from the United States are referred to as
B C D
Yankee.
14. There is two ways to make a gas condense: cooling it or putting it under
A B C D
pressure.
15. The long string of genes making up a chromosome have been linked to
A B C D
a string of pearls.
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INFLECTION (Prefix and suffix)
Noun Prefixes Noun Prefixes

anti- anticlimax, antidote, mono- monosyllable, monograph
antithesis neo- neo-colonialism, neo-
auto- autobiography, automobile impressionism
bi- bilingualism, biculturalism, out- outbuilding,
bi-materialism poly- polysyllable
co- co-founder, co-owner, co- pseudo- pseudo-expert
descendent. re- re-organization, re-
counter- counter-argument, assessment
counter-example, counter- semi- semicircle, semidarkness
proposal sub- subset, subdivision
dis- discomfort, dislike super- superset, superimposition
ex- ex-chairman, ex-hunter sur- surtax
hyper- hyperinflation, tele- telecommunications
hypersurface tri- tripod
in- inattention, incoherence ultra- ultrasound
inter- interaction, inter-change under- underpayment,
kilo- kilobyte under-development,
mal- malfunction, maltreatment undergraduate,
mega- megabyte vice- vice-president
mis- miscounduct, misdeed
mini- mini-publication, mini-
theory
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UNIT IV
Conjunctions
Most conjunctions are historically derived from other parts of speech

particularly from prepositions. Like prepositions, the conjunctions are
members of a small class that have no characteristic form. They function
chiefly as non-movable structure words that join such units as parts of
speech phrases or clauses. There are two types of conjunctions, coordinate
and subordinate.
A. COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS
The coordinate conjunction joins structural units that are equal
grammatically. The conjunction comes before the last unit and is
grammatically independent of this unit. Units joined by a coordinate
conjunction are labeled compound. Compound units may be classified
according to the formal structure of the units (parts of speech, phrases,
clauses) or according to the function of the units (subject, predicate,
modifier, object).
• Coordinate conjunctions: to connect two words, phrases or clauses in
parallel construction.
• Types of coordinate conjunctions:
AND • A week has 7 days, and a years has 365 days.
Satu minggu memiliki 7 hari dan satu tahun memiliki 365 hari.
• I talked to Ben, and he listened carefully.
Aku berbicara dengan Ben dan dia mendengarkan dengan baik.
• I washed the dishes, and my daughter put them on the shelves.
Saya mencuci piring, dan anak perempuan saya menyimpannya ke
dalam rak.
OR • I have to do my homework, or my teacher will punish me.
Saya harus mengerjakan pekerjaan rumah saya, atau guru saya akan
menghukum saya.
• You should eat more, or you’ll make yourself ill.
Kamu sebaiknya makan lebih banyak, atau kamu akan membuat
dirimu sakit.
• Put your coat on, or you’ll freeze.
Kenakan mantelmu, atau kamu akan kedinginan
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BUT • The phone rang, but nobody answered.
Telepon itu berbunyi, tapi tak satupun menjawabnya.
• I talked to Amy, but she didn’t listen to me.
Aku berbicara pada Amy, namun ia tak mendengarkan.
• The students were on time, but the teacher was late.
Murid-murid itu tepat waktu, tapi gurunya terlambat.
SO • He was very hungry, so he ate all the cake
Ia sangat lapar, sehingga ia memakan semua kuenya.
• I forgot to bring a pencil, so I borrowed it from my friend.
Saya lupa membawa pensil, jadi saya meminjamnya dari teman saya.
We can apply the formula below to use the coordinate conjunctions:

S V Co.C. S V
Any sings a song And Jack plays guitar.
I want to buy new But I do not have enough
books, cash.
We need to finish our Or The will be angry.
homework teacher
Next will be the exam So we have to study hard
Week week,
Correlative conjunction
• When and, or, but join coordinate elements, the first item may also be
preceded by a conjunction. Such paired conjunctions, called correlative
conjunctions, serve to intensify the coordination.
• Both may follow the coordinate elements—She is older sister and
mother both.
• Not only but also is a pair expresses addition, with greater emphasis
placed on the second element. When this correlative joins two
independent clauses, also may be omitted or it may be separated
from but and placed in one of the adverbial positions. But also may be
omitted as a second correlative with independent clauses—Not only
did he bring wine, he bought flowers.
• Usually either—or and neither—nor are used for two items, but
sometimes they appear with three.
26
Correlative conjunction merupakan kata hubung berpasangan yang
menghubungkan dua hal setara dan penggunaanya harus bersamaan
dalam sebuah kalimat.
Correlative Examples Notes
conjunction
1. Both___and___ •Both my mother and my Two subjects which
sister are here. are connected with
both…and followed
by plural verb.
2. Not only ____ • Not only my parents but If subject is connected
but also____ also my sister is here. with not only … but
• Not only my sister but also also, either … or,
my parents are here. neither … nor, thus
3. Either___or____ • I am fine with either Monday the subject near the
or Wednesday. verb that determine
• You can have either apples whether singular or
or pears. plural verb follows
4. Neither __nor__ Neither my parents nor my sister the subject.
is here.
Neither my sister nor my parents
are here.
The example below, two sentences connected by correlative conjunction

should have the same grammatical form. Look at this table below:
(a) The research project will take both time both + noun + and + noun
and money
(b) Yesterday is not only rained but (also) not only + verb + but also +
snowed. verb
(c) I’ll take either chemistry or physics next either + noun + or + noun
quarter.
(d) That book is neither interesting nor neither+ adjective + nor +
accurate. adjective
27
Exercise 1 : Choose the letter of the word or group of words that best
1. Receptionists must be able to relay information ____ pass message
accurately.
(A) or
(B) and
(C) but
(D) because
2. Keep the food covered ____ the flies will contaminate it.
(A) or
(B) and
(C) until
(D) though
3. Read over your answers ____ correct all mistakes before you pass them
up.
(A) or
(B) and
(C) because
(D) while
4. It is up to you, we can ____ watch the movie _____ go to the coffee
shop this evening.
(A) both, and
(B) neither, nor
(C) either, or
(D) though, or
5. It seems that ____ the students _____ the teacher came to class when
I saw no one there.
(A) not only, and
(B) neither, nor
(C) either, nor
(D) though, or
28
B. SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS
A subordinate conjunction introduces a clause that depends on a main
or independent clause. The subordinate conjunction is grammatically part
of the clause it introduces; it is never separated from its clause by a comma.
Broadly speaking, all the introductory words in the three subordinate
clauses, even pronouns or adverbs, may be classified as subordinate
conjunctions. In a more limited sense, the term is restricted to (1) the
words introducing adverbial clauses—when, until, if, although, etc. and
(2) that, whether introducing noun clauses.
Subordinate conjunctions range in meaning from those having strong
semantic content—time, place, cause, etc.—to those having purely
structural meaning—that, than, as, whether.
Some subordinate conjunctions have the same form as prepositions,
especially the conjunctions of time—before, after, until, since, as. Some of
these forms may also be used alone with verbs as adverbs.
Subordinate conjunctions may have –ing or –ed participial form.
Actually, in some cases, it is hard to draw the line between an –ing or an
–ed form used as a participle or as a conjunction.
Moreover, some subordinate conjunctions are phrasal—as soon as, so
that, in order that. Other conjunctions consist of prepositions that have
been turned into conjunctions by the addition of the fact that—on account
of the fact that, in spite of the fact that.
Subordinate conjunctions may be preceded by intensifiers—just
because, only, when, right after—or negatives—not because, never
because. By the greatest number of subordinate conjunctions introduce
adverbial clauses. These conjunctions are listed below:
1. Subordinate conjunction:
This conjunction is used to connect independent clause and
dependent clause to be a complex sentence.
2. Complex sentence:
The sentence contains of independent clause and dependent
clause which are connected by subordinate conjunction.
29
3. The types of subordinate conjunctions:
TIME CAUSE
• After • before • until • as • now that
• as • by the time • when • because • since
• as long as • once • whenever • inasmuch as
• as soon as • since • while
CONDITION CONTRAST MANNER PLACE
• if • providing • although • as • where
• in case • unless • even though • in that • wherever
• provided • whether • though
• while
• where as
S V So.C. S V
Jack went to office even though he felt sick.
So.C. S V , S V
Even though jack felt sick, he went to office
30
Exercise 2: Choose the letter of the word or group of words that best
1. I did not go to the show … I had ready seen it.
(A) until
(B) because
(C) so
(D) but
2. … he is thin, he is strong.
(A) But
(B) As
(C) Although
(D) Because
3. She had an unpleasant experience … she was in Thailand.
(A) but
(B) and
(C) because
(D) while
4. The committee rejected the proposal … they did not think that it was
practical.
(A) if
(B) unless
(C) though
(D) because
5. John meets his guests in the office … he works.
(A) where
(B) while
(C) until
(D) as
31
1. Marry is a member of the Historical Society … the Literary Society.
(A) but
(B) and
(C) or
(D) yet
2. We got caught in pouring rain with … raincoats nor umbrellas.
(A) both
(B) either
(C) neither
(D) not only
3. The lifeguard will warn you about the reptiles, …she may require you
to get out of the water.
(A) or
(B) nor
(C) both
(D) that
4. The missing wallet was found, … had been removed.
(A) but
(B) and also
(C) the cash
(D) but the cash
5. The sun uses up over 4 million ton of hydrogen per second, … still has
enough hydrogen to last for the next 5 million years.
(A) it
(B) it does not
(C) but it
(D) to it
6. All living things are made up of one or more cells, … were produced by
an already existing cell.
(A) and these cells
(B) and cell
(C) but there
(D) or this cell
32
7. In 1927, critics gave had reviews to Buster Keaton’s film The General,
which is now regarded as both classic … the best work of the cinematic
genius.
(A) furthermore
(B) nevertheless
(C) and
(D) beyond
8. He … lied or told unbelievable story.
(A) either
(B) neither
(C) both
(D) not only
9. The music at the concert was …well played nor well liked.
(A) both
(B) either
(C) neither
(D) not only
10. He regularly studies both in the morning … in the evening.
(A) both
(B) either
(C) and
(D) neither
11. Vitamin C is necessary for the prevention and … of scurvy.
(A) it cures
(B) cures
(C) cure
(D) for curing
12. John is an adventurous person who enjoys … goes parasailing.
(A) skydiving but also
(B) skydiving and
(C) either skydiving
(D) not only skydiving but also
33
13. Truman Capote’s in Cold Blood in neither journalistically accurate …
(A) a piece of fiction
(B) nor a fictitious work
(C) or written in a fictitious way
(D) nor completely fictitious
14. A baby’s development is influenced by both heredity and …
(A) by environmental factor
(B) environmentally
(C) the influence of the environment
(D) environment
34
Review : Identify the underlined word or phrase that contains an error.
1. He is a globalist; nevertheless, we are nationalists who will put our

A B C
country first.
D
2. I was too tired that I could slept in this chair.
A B C D
3. If this project fails, it will effect not only our apartment, and the whole
A B C D
organization.
4. He came home early in order to seeing the children before they
A B C
went to bed.
D
5. You have to go to college for a lot of years if she want to be a doctor.
A B C D
6. They speak neither Spanish nor Germany, but a curious mixture of
A B C
the two.
D
7. Both man and women have complained about the advertisement.
A B C D
8. I’d put on such a lot of weigh that I couldn’t get into my trousers.
A B C D
9. In spite repeated assurances that the product is safe, many people has
A B C D
stopped buying it.
10. Everyone on the office complains that he smells awful, or nobody dares
A B C
mention it to him.
D
35
11. Because their complex structures, trilobites are ideal of studying small
A B C
evolutionary change.
D
12. You can move the course either by using the mouse or to use the arrow
A B C
keys on the keyboard.
D
13. Electricity is the phenomenon associated with positively and negatively
A
charged particles of matter at rest and in motion, either individually
B C
nor in great numbers.
D
14. Pesticides protect us from insects, weeds, disease, and hunger;
A B
therefore, some pose a risk of cancer birth defense, genetic mutations,
C
and sterility.
D
15. The Earth has had several ice ages, but the scientists think the last one
A B
begun about two million years ago.
C D
36
UNIT V
Clauses
Clauses are classified into two that are independent and dependent
clause. Clause is a part of sentences which consists of a subject and a
verb. Independent clause also called as main clause is already meaningful
without join with other clauses. On the other hand, dependent clause is
meaningless if it doesn’t connect to the main clause. In addition, both of
clauses can be combined into one sentence using the conjunctions.
Independent Clause
Absolutely, independent clause contains a subject and a verb or it can
be formed like this: S + V, but it isn’t necessarily a complete thought as a
sentence is. Independent clause can be joined coordinately by punctuation
alone, by coordinate conjunctions, or by conjunctive adverbs.
Dependent Clause
In a dependent clause, the full predication is altered in such a way that
the clause must be attached to another clause, an independent clause.
Dependent clause may be altered by adding introductory word or changing
the subject or object. There are three types of clauses which are named by
their functions in the sentence, namely adjective clause, adverbial clause,
and noun clause. Those three clauses will be explained below:
• Clause: a part of sentence which has subject (noun) and verb.
• Types of clauses:
 Independent Clause or Main Clause
è clause which can stand as a meaningful sentence.
 Dependent Clause or Sub Clause
è clause which cannot stand alone as a complete sentence
because it doesn’t express a complete thought.
• There are three types of depedent clauses:
37
1. ADJECTIVE CLAUSE
In an adjective clause, a full subject and predicate is changed through
an extraordinary basic word which has a similar referent as the former thing
or pronoun. The form and position of this introductory word subordinates
the adjective clause to a main clause. The introductory word also performs
one of three functions in the adjective clause itself: (1) nominal function,
(2) adjectival function, (3) adverbial function. The noun or pronoun being
modified is called the antecedent. In adjective clause, there are relative
pronouns such as who, whom, which, that, and where. Relative pronouns
like who, whom, and that belong to a person. Meanwhile, which and that
belong to a thing. In addition, the usage of relative pronoun—where belong
to the place.
In the table below, we have already known the usage of adjective
clause. Moreover, there are some rules to be done if we are going to write
adjective clause:
a. The preposition overseeing the relative pronoun is placed at the end of
the clause.
b. Who often alternates with whom for a pronoun object of a verb or of
a preposition placed at the end of the clause.
c. Relative pronouns functioning as objects of verbs or prepositions may
be omitted from restrictive clauses.
• Adjective clause: this clause gives an additional information about
noun.
• Relative pronoun: which connects a main sentence and its clause
itself (who, whom, which, that, dan where).
38
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE CONNECTOR
that which who whose whom Where
S + V + O Adjective connector + S + V
He knows the girl whom/that I met last night.

I like the book which/that you recommended.
I saw the man whose car was stolen
S + Adjective connector/subject + S + V + V
The book which/that you recommended was interesting.

The place where she lives is far from here.
S + V Adjective connector + V
He meets a girl who/that wears white skirt.
S +V Adjective connector/subject + v + V
The girl who/that wears a white skirt is not here
• that • mainly used for subject and object for people and
things.
• who • subject for people.
• whom • object for people.
• which • mainly used for subject and object for things.
• where • mainly used for a place.
• whose • replace the possessive pronouns: my, your, our, his,
their, her. “Whose” is used to replace the omitted
possessive pronouns.
Reduced Adjective Clause

• To simplify clauses to the phrases.
• Only adjective clause that uses the connectors: who, which atau that.
39
a. Cls: The man who is talking to John is Korean. If adjective clause has verb
Phr: The man who is talking to John is be, just omit the connector
Korean. (subject pronoun) and its to
b. Cls: The ideas which are presented are good. be.
Phr: The ideas which are presented are
good.
c. Cls: English has an alphabet that consists of If the clause doesn’t have a
26 letters. verb be, omit the connecter
Phr: English has an alphabet that consisting change the verb into the
of 26 letters. form of –ing.
d. Cls: Paris, which is the capital of France, is If the adjective clause is
a city. followed by comma, the
Phr: Paris, which is the capital of France, is phrase turn into the noun
a city. followed another nouns is
called ap-positive. (see Unit
II)
1. He is the student … … always arrives late.
(A) who
(B) whom
(C) which
(D) whose
2. We visited the building … … famous for its unusual design.
(A) who is
(B) which are
(C) which is
(D) whom are
3. There was a story in the paper about the man … … car was stolen.
(A) who
(B) whom
(C) which
(D) whose
40
4. Rina’s marriage has been arranged by her family. She is marrying a
man……
(A) that she hardly knows him.
(B) whom she hardly knows him.
(C) who she hardly knows.
(D) whom she hardly knows.
5. Algebra problems contain letters … … for unknown numbers.
(A) stand
(B) stands
(C) standing
(D) which standing
2. ADVERB CLAUSE
Adverb clause is used to give an information to the main clause. The
information can be in the form of time, cause, contrast and condition.
In an adverb clause, a special phrase is added to a full subject-predicate
structure. This phrase requires the clause to be attached to another full
predication, the main clause—I could not come last night because I had to
work.
Most types of adverb clauses are considered as modifying the verb of
the main clause, some more loosely than others. A few types, such a clauses
of time or clauses of places, are sometimes interpreted as modifiers of the
entire sentence.
In addition, adverb clause can be written in three positions:
(A) The first position is initial position in which the adverb clause
adds one means of variety to a sentence opening. An introductory
adverb clause is usually using commas, especially if the clause is
long. Choosing this position, it gives more emphasis to the adverb
clause. It may also show the connection of the adverb clause and
the previous sentence.
(B) The second position is mid-position. It means that the adverb
clause often comes after the subject of the main clause. The adverb
have to be set off by commas, if it breaks the element. Using this
position, it helps you to create more various rhythm of sentences.
41
(C) The adverb clause is also can be written in final position or in the
end of the sentence. This position is often used as it is for most
adverb expressions. In addition, no commas needed in writing
clauses of time and place in this position.
a. When the phone rang, the baby In the examples (a) dan (b), when the
woke up. phone rang is an adverb clause which
Adv. Clause , shows adverb of time.
Main Clause
b. The baby woke up when the In the example (a) can be seen that,
if an adverb clause preceded the
phone rang.
main clause so that the second clause
Main Clause Adv. Clause
should be separated by comma (,).
*see the use of adverb clauses below
• Reduced Adverb Clause

Adverb clause can be simplified using the same principle as
adjective clause.
• If there is a verb be, omit the subject and verb be.
• If it isn’t in the form of verb be, omit subject and change the verb
into –ing.
a. While I was walking to class, I saw In the example (a), the clause
an old friend. contains verb be (was), thus it can
è While I was walking to class, I saw be simplified by omitting the verb be
an old friend. and the subject (I).
b. Before I left for work, I ate Meanwhile, there is no verb be in
breakfast. the example (b). It contains a verb:
left. Thus it can be simplified by
è Before leaving for work, I ate omitting the subject and changing
breakfast. the verb into leaving (adding –ing).
* These sentences can be simplified
because it has the same subject.
Note: If an adverb clause started by a conjunction because, it can be

simplified by omitting the conjunction but it has the same meaning which
shows a cause and effect.
Adv. Cl.
a. Because she needed some money to buy some book, Sue cashed a
check.
è Needing some money to buy some books, Sue cashed a check.
42
1. John insisted that he didn’t need any help, … I helped him anyway.
(A) and
(B) so
(C) for
(D) but
2. … I get angry and upset, I try to take ten deep breaths.
(A) Until
(B) Whenever
(C) Whereas
(D) For
3. After seeing the movie Goosebumps, …
(A) the book was read by many people.
(B) the book made many people want to read it.
(C) many people wanted to read the book.
(D) the reading of the book interested many people.
4. Since … to a warmer and less humid climate, I’ve had no trouble with
my asthma.
(A) moved
(B) move
(C) moving
(D) I moving
5. … to be on-time, Rio drove his motor-cycle fast.
(A) He has
(B) He having
(C) Having
(D) Because
3. NOUN CLAUSE
In a noun clause, the full subject and predicate are retained, but the
structure is changed by the addition of a special introductory word, by a
special word order, or by both. These changes permit the noun clause to fill
the same positions and to serve the same functions as nouns.
43
Noun clauses may be classified according to the kinds of sentences from
which they are derived—statements, questions, requests, exclamations.
As can be seen below, noun clause connector including what, where,
when, why, how, whatever, whenever, if, that—can be used to create noun
clauses both as subject and object.
1. Noun Clause è functions as a noun in the sentence.
2. This clause can be functioned as a subject, object or complement.
NOUN CLAUSE CONNECTOR
• What, where, when, • W h a t e v e r, • Whatever, if • that

why, how whenever
NOUN CLAUSES AS OBJECT
S V Noun connector + S + V
I know what you did.
I think (that) he is a good actor.
She does not know where I live.
NOUN CLAUSES AS SUBJECT

Noun connector + S + V
What you did was wrong

Whether she will come or not is unknown
That a cat has four feet is a fact
Note: that in noun clouse is different with that in the adjective clause. In a
noun clause, that can be interpreted as ‘bahwa’ in Indonesia. Meanwhile
in the adjective clause, it can be interpreted as ‘yang’.
44
1. Do you know … ? I myself have no idea.
(A) where does she work
(B) where she does work
(C) where she works
(D) where she work does?
2. … he will go or stay is his own choice.
(A) What
(B) Where
(C) Who
(D) Whether
3. … do not study is bad news for the teachers.
(A) That most students
(B) Most students
(C) Whether most students
(D) If most students
4. The Consumer Price Index lists …
(A) how much costs every car
(B) how much does every car cost
(C) how much every car costs
(D) how much are every car costs
5. Most botanists have observed … a period of dormancy, even when
conditions may be favorable for growth.
(A) that seeds exhibiting
(B) that seeds exhibit
(C) seeds that exhibiting
(D) seeds that they exhibit
45
REVIEW : Identify the underlined word or phrase that contains an
error. Then, circle the letter that corresponds to the answer
you have chosen, and correct the sentence.
1. Ocean currents that help transfer heat from the equator to the poles,
A B
thereby creating a more balanced global environment.
C D
2. Gas and dust that stream away from a comet forming one or more
A B C
tails that may extend for millions of miles.
D
3. By studying the fossils of pollen, which extremely resistant to decay,
A B
researchers can gain useful information about the vegetation of
C D
the past.
4. Because I did not heard the telephone ring, I didn’t answer it.
A B C D
5. What a patient tells a doctor it is confidential.
A B C D
6. My young son wants to know where do the stars go in the daytime.
A B C D
7. Mary usually arrives at the office at nine o’clock, but because the
A B C
storm, she is two hours late.
D
8. When we walked past the theater, there were a lot of people waited in
A B C
a long line outside the box office.
C
9. Do you know whether is there a post office near here?
A B C D
10. Make noise when we eats is the reason why Sue does not like to eat
A B C
with us.
D
46
11. When T.S. Eliot’s The Wasteland appeared in 1922, critics were divided
A
into how well it was wrote.
C D
12. Plant cutting who are placed in water will develop roots and it can
A B
then be planted in soil.
C D
13. The National Wildflower Research Center which was established in
A
1982 by Lady Bird Johnson on sixty acres of land east of Austin.
B C D
14. The idea that artistic achievement ranks in importance with scientific
A B
achievements has been upheld by painters, writers, and musicals for
C D
centuries.
15. Astronomers do not know how many galaxies there are, but is it
A B C
thought that there are millions or perhaps billions.
D
INFLECTION (Precfix and Suffix)

VERB Suffixes and Prefixes
Suffixes
-ize stabilize, characterize, symbolize, visualize, specialize
-ate differentiate, liquidate, pollinate, duplicate, fabricate
-fy classify, exemplify, simplify, justify
-en awaken, fasten, shorten, moisten
Prefixes
re- restructure, revisit, reappear, rebuild, refinance
dis- disappear, disallow, disarm, disconnect, discontinue
over overbook, oversleep, overwork
un- unbend, uncouple, unfasten
mis- mislead, misinform, misidentify
47
out- outperform, outbid
be- befriend, belittle
co- co-exist, co-operate, co-own
de- devalue, deselect
fore- foreclose, foresee
inter- interact, intermix, interface
pre- pre-expose, prejudge, pretest
sub- sub-contact, subdivide
trans- transform, transcribe, transplant
under- underfund, undersell, undervalue, underdeveloped
48
UNIT VI
Participles
A present participle is in the form of –ing (verb) such as talking and

playing. The present participle is often accompanied by some form of the
verb be.
Example: The man is playing the guitar.
In the example above, the present participle playing is part of the verb
because it is accompanied by is.
Meanwhile, a present participle can be in the form of adjective when it
is not accompanied by some form of the verb be.
Example: The man playing the guitar is my best friend.
It can be seen that playing in the sentence is an adjective because it is
not accompanied by the verb be.
Present Participle
Present participle is the word which comes from the verb base ends
with –ing. The present participle can be used as the verb tense or an
adjective. The present participle acts as a verb when it is accompanied by
some form of the verb be. Moreover, it acts as an adjective when it is not
accompanied by be (is, was, are, were, etc). For example:
1. The girl is watching the cinema.
2. The girl watching the cinema was naughty.
Past Participle
Past participle functions as adjective or the verb tense. The past
participle is the form of the verb which appears with have or be. The
past participle often ends in –ed, but there are also irregular form of past
participles.
In the first sentence, the past participle purchased is part of the verb
because it is accompanied by has. In the second sentence the past participle
written is part of the verb because it is accompanied by was.
49
A past participle is an adjective when it is not accompanied by some
form of be or have.
Example:
The bicycle purchased yesterday was expensive.
Adjective
The books written by J.K. Rowling read by people around the world.
Adjective
In the first sentence, purchased is an adjective rather than a verb

because there is no verb be which accompanied the verb, moreover later
in the sentence there is a verb was. Another example is the word written
that acts as an adjective in the sentence because it is not accompanied by
be or have. Then, there is the verb read later in the sentence.
It can be confusing that the past participles ended by –ed might simply
be a simple past, past participle, or an adjective. Here are the examples to
see the difference:
1. Becca played the piano.
2. Becca has played the piano.
3. The piano played by Becca is now broken.
In the first sentence, the word played functions as simple past. The
word played itself is a verb. Then, in the second sentence, it functions as
past pasrticiple which accompanied by the verb has. In addition, in the third
sentence, the word played is an adjective because it is not accompanied by
some form of be or have/has.
50
The Function of Participles
Adjective Verb
Without Be Follows Be
Be + V-ing = Countinuous
The boy standing there is my little brother. She is doing her homework now.
Adj. Adv.
The woman wearing blue shirt has a cute I am having my lunch alone.
Adj. Adv.
cat. They are discussing their group
Adv.
The dancing girl is from Bali. assignment.
Adj.
We were finishing the decoration when
Dr. Bob shows how to calm a crying baby in Adv.
Adj. it rained.
seconds. Be + V –ed = Passive
I am invited to Bob’s birthday party.
The books published that year are expensive. Adv.
Adj. Mike was hit by a car yesterday.
Adv.
The people hired had to take a training Leo and I were transferred to the main
Adj. Adv.
course. office.
The sung song is our national anthem. Our invited speakers are from Australia.
Adj. Adv.
1. The boy is ____ on the corner.
(A) eats
(B) eating
(C) was eating
(D) ate
51
2. The pizza ____ in this restaurant is the tastiest in the country.
(A) served
(B) is serving
(C) serving
(D) serves
3. The child ____ playing in the yard is my son.
(A) is
(B) he
(C) was
(D) now
4. You should not wake up the ____ baby.
(A) sleep
(B) sleeps
(C) sleeping
(D) slept
5. The ____ treasure has not been found yet.
(A) hidden
(B) hiding
(C) hide
(D) hid
6. The companies ____ the lowest princes will have the most customers.
(A) offer
(B) offering
(C) offered
(D) will offer
7. The poem ____ by Paul Gasol appeared in the magazine.
(A) was written
(B) writing
(C) written
(D) was writing
8. The artists ____ various handicrafts at booths throughout the fair.
(A) were demonstrating
(B) were demonstrated
(C) demonstrating
(D) demonstrates
52
9. The packages ____ mailed at the post office will arrive on Monday.
(A) have
(B) were
(C) them
(D) just
10. The ports ___ by the sailors were under the control of a foreign nation.
(A) were reached
(B) reached
(C) reaching
(D) which reached
11. Simple sails were made from canvas ____ over a frame.
(A) a stretch
(B) stretched
(C) was stretched
(D) it was stretched
12. In 1066, a bright comet ____ in the sky attracted much attention.
(A) appearing
(B) was appearing
(C) appears
(D) it appeared
13. The first ____ appeared during the last period of the dinosaurs’ reign.
(A) flowers are plants
(B) plants have flowers
(C) plants flowers
(D) flowering plants
14. The Earth’s plates meet each other at cracks in the Earth ____ faults.
(A) were called
(B) calls
(C) called
(D) it was called
15. At around two years of age, many children regularly produce sentences
____ three or four words.
(A) are containing
(B) containing
(C) contain
(D) contains
53
REVIEW: Identify the underlined word or phrase that contains an
error. Then, circle the letter that corresponds to the answer
you have chosen, and correct the sentence.
1. The picture painting by Karen is now in a museum.
A B C D
2. The car was listed in the advertisement had already stalled.
A B C D
3. The first team won four games is awarded the championship.
A B C D
4. The speaker was trying to make his point was often interrupted
A B C
vociferously.
D
5. The advertisements were announcing the half-day sale received a lot
A B C
of attention.
D
6. Any bills paying by the first of the month will be credited to your
A B C D
account by the next day.
7. The fruits were rotting due to the moisture in the crates carried them
A B C D
to market.
8. The loaves of bread were baking in an oven at a low temperature for
A B C
many hours.
D
9. Any students desired official transcripts should complete the
A B C D
appropriate form.
10. The principles of physics describing by Christian Doppler in 1842 for
A
the movement of stars had been adapted to evaluate the movement of
B
blood within the heart.
C D
54
11. The chapters were taught by the professor this morning will be on next
A B C
week’s exam.
D
12. Comets are relatively small celestial bodies make up chiefly of dirt and
A B C
icy materials.
D
13. Stalactites are formed in caves by groundwater contains dissolved
A B C D
lime.
14. A group of winged reptiles calling pterosaurs is believed to have been
A B C
the first vertebrates with the power of flight.
D
15. The cornea is located under the conjunctiva, on the exposing part of
A B C D
the eye.
55
UNIT VII
Modals
A. Modals
The following table involves modal auxiliaries that have various
meanings which point out the time such as present, pas, and future. As we
can see in the table below, every modals should be followed by verb base.
We can use modals for any meanings below:
Ability
Modal—can is used for talking someone’s ability which shows a
“timeless” time.
For example:
She can swim (physical ability)
He can lift this stone (learned ability)
I can see you tonight (general—equivalent to someone’s power
to do something)
Permission
A request or permission is often formed in a question. When you are
going to ask for permission, you can use these—may, can, might, could.
For example:
May I borrow your pen?
Can I go to the cinema tomorrow?
Might or could I borrow your car?
• Note that might and could can express only past time:
John’s mother said that he might (or could) go with us.
Obligation and Advisibility

Should and ought to occur in statements about one’s responsibility or
one’s advantage which one is free to accept or reject.
56
Necessity
The difference between obligation and necessity is often one of degree
only. When it comes to necessity, someone cannot deny it. This usually
expresses using modal—must.
Possibility
In the table below, it can be inferred that may is expressing possibility.
Depends on the context, the variety of possibilities can also be expressed
using can, should, must—that will give an effect to its degree.
Probability
May and should indicates surmise from some kind of evidence. May
expresses the greatest uncertainty, while should suggest a reasonable
degree of probability. However, it can only be used if the idea of expectation
is possible.
• Auxiliary verbs which is directly followed by V1 (verb base)

The pattern of modal: Modal + V1
Modals Sentence
Will She will go to Medan tomorrow
Would Kate would do the exercise
Can The teacher can explain the lesson clearly
Could Michael Jackson could sing well
May Alan may not come to the class today
Might They might never understand the situation
Should I should go to dentist tomorrow
Must Students must learn hard to finish their study
Ought to You ought to drive carefully in bad weather
Have / has to We have to come early before the class starts
She has to submit the assignment on time
Notes:
Could, might, would, and should can be used in the form of present to
show request in a polite way.
57
1. Drinking water containing excessive amount of fluorides … a stained or
mottled effect on the enamel of teeth.
(A) to leave
(B) be leaving
(C) may leave
(D) may be left
2. Lichens grow extremely well in very cold parts of the world where few
other plants …
(A) can survive
(B) can be survive
(C) can survival
(D) to survive
3. To be ranked as a masterpiece, a work of art ... the ideals of the period
in which it was created.
(A) must
(B) must transcend
(C) to be transcended
(D) must be transcended
4. Simple photographic lenses cannot ... sharp, undistorted images over a
wide field.
(A) to form
(B) are form
(C) forming
(D) form
5. The setting of Eudora Welty’s stories ... rather limited, but what she
exposes about human nature is quite broad.
(A) may been
(B) may be
(C) to may be
(D) may being
58
B. SIMILAR EXPRESSIONS
There are so many expressions which can be used as modal such as be
going to, be able to, used to, had better, be supposed to, have to, and have
got to.
(a) There’s no bread. –Really? As can be seen in the example (a) and (b)
I’ll go and get some. modal will and be going to, have the same
meaning as “akan”. However, those two are
used in the different conditions.
(b) There’s no bread – I know. In the example (a): will is used when the
I’m going to go and get speaker will do something which has not
some after lunch. been planned yet.
In the example (b): be going to is used when
the speaker has planned something since the
beginning.
In this chart below, the expressions which are often used as a modal
and its functions:
Functions: Example:
Be going Certainty 100% The train is going to be here at 5.
(prediction)
Fixed plan I’m going to go to school at 7.
Be able to Capability I am able to handle this problem.
Used to Past habits I used to visit my uncle every holiday.
Past I used to live in Beijing. Now I live in Jakarta.
Had better Suggestion You had better be on time.
Be supposed to Expectation She is supposed to be here soon.
Have to Necessity I have to attend a meeting.
Have got to Necessity I have got to go to class today.
59
Exercise 2: Choose the better of the word or group of words that best
1. Tattooists in New South Wales ... the fingerprints and palm prints to
gain license.
(A) have to submitting
(B) have be submitted
(C) have to submit
(D) to submit
2. Critical thinkers are ... main issue, recognize underlying assumptions,
and evaluate evidence.
(A) able to identify
(B) able in identify
(C) to be able to
(D) enable to identify
3. Cinderella ... long hours all alone talking to the cat.
(A) used to spent
(B) used to spending
(C) used to spend
(D) to spend
4. Whales ... drink seawater and yet maintain the same low salt
concentrations in their body fluids that other mammals do.
(A) are able to
(B) is able to
(C) enable to
(D) are enabled
5. Medieval coats of armor were so heavy that man died because they ...
maneuver inside them easily.
(A) were able
(B) were unable to
(C) enable to
(D) are able
60
Review: Identify the underlined word or phrase that contains an error.
chosen, and reconstruct the sentence to make it correct.
1. Liquid will flowing and take the shape of its container.
A B C D
2. Almost all maps to must include certain basic elements that provide
A B C
the reader with critical information.
D
3. An infringement is money you has to pay for breaking the rules
A B C
that apply in a certain place.
D
4. Modern societies are so complex that they could not existence without
A B
a well-developed system or law.
C D
5. The statue of Liberty was supposed to having a sister statue and
A B C
lighthouse in Egypt.
D
6. Cheese may hard or soft, depending on the amount of water left in it
A B C
and the character of the cutting.
D
7. A liquid that might a poor conductor when pure is often used to make
A B C
solutions that readily transmit electricity.
D
8. The owner of Titanic, J.P Morgan, was also suppose to be a part of the
A
maiden voyage; however, he cancelled it at the last minute
B C D
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9. Virtually all moving parts of an automobile need to be lubricated
A B
because, without lubrication, friction would increasing the power
C
consumption and damage the parts.
D
10. Some claim that vegetarian diets may to be more healthful than a diet
A B
that includes meat, since they contain generally less fat and more fiber.
C D
11. The soil in which a coffee is grown must being moist and absorbent
A B
to accept water readily, but sufficiently loose to allow rapid drainage.
C D
12. The legs of a road runner are strong enough that it can to run up to 24
A B C
kilometers per hour to catch lizards and small rodents.
D
13. Sometimes, it seems there is a difference between public service and
A B C
politics although the two concepts is supposed to be interchangeable.
D
14. When the Spanish – American War broke out in 1898, Mark Twain
A
was living in Austria, and was only able to summons a fuzzy picture of
B C D
its causes.
15. Sharks have to keep moving to stay alive because they have to forcing
A B C
seawater into their open mouths and over gills in order to allow ram
D
ventilation.
62
UNIT VIII
Passive Voice
In the passive voice, the subject is the receiver of an action and the
object is the doer of an action. The passive voice is used when there is a
desire to emphasize the event represented by a verb and its complement
rather than the person who is doing the action. Thus passive voice will be
preferred in the following instances:
1. Attention is to be drawn especially to the receiver of the “verb/action”
My wallet has stolen.
2. The person doing the action is unknown or not important. For instance,
in many textbooks or newspaper, the “doer” is often omitted because
it emphasized to the object of a verb being discussed.
Moreover, passive voice may indicate an action or state resulting from
an action.
The word which is essential in passive voice is past participle which
followed to be after the subject. The following is the examples and the
formula of passive voice:
In English, active voice is often used rather than passive voice. However,
the passive one is used for certain cases.
1. Passive voice is used if the doer is unknown or not important.
Example: That school was built in 1946, (Sekolah itu dibangun 1946.)
The sentence emphasizes when the school was built, it is not focus on
the person who built the school.
2. Only the transitive verb (verb which needs one or more objects) that
can be used in passive voice.
3. The formula of passive:
a. General form
S + Be + V3
Example:
This story was written by my sister. Pictures of animals were painted on the
bridge walk
(Cerita ini ditulis oleh kakak saya) (Gambar binatang dilukis pada dinding-
dinding jembatan)
63
b. Passive voice with modal
S + Modal + Be + V3
Verb
Complements
Subject Modal Be V3
Lisa will be invited to the party
The class would Be divided into two group
The door can’t be locked
The comet could Be seen from here last night
Your homework must Be done immediately
may I Be excused from this meeting?
Your health had better Be checked periodically
This book ought to Be published before September
Jane has Be informed about the new schedule
The cake is supposed to Be kept in the fridge
4. Continuous form
S + be + being + V3
Example:
• This story is being written by my sister
• Pictures of animals are being painted on bridge walls
EXERCISE 1: Choose the letter of the word or group of words that best
1. Most American cars ____ in Detroit, Michigan.
(A) Are built
(B) Is built
(C) Are building
(D) Was building
2. The main dish _____ in the kitchen now.
(A) is being served
(B) are being served
(C) to serve
(D) serving
64
3. More than one thousand books _____ to remote schools in Indonesia.
(A) will be deliver
(B) will be delivered
(C) will deliver
(D) to deliver
4. The book _____ when I entered the office.
(A) is being printed
(B) was being printed
(C) were being printed
(D) printing
5. The participants for the training program _____ next month.
(A) is selected
(B) will be select
(C) will be selected
(D) are be selected
6. A general election of members of parliament ____ in September 2016
in Bangkok, 90 days after the promulgation of three organic laws
according to the Constitution Drafting Committee.
(A) are held
(B) will probably
(C) to hold
(D) will probably be held
7. Novels written by J.K Rowling _____ by most of my friends when I was
in Senior High School.
(A) are read
(B) are reading
(C) were read
(D) were reading
8. Thousands of Palestinian people ___ to leave their homes now.
(A) is being forced
(B) are being forced
(C) was forced
(D) to force
65
9. We _____ to his wedding party in May.
(A) will be invited
(B) invite
(C) will invite
(D) invited
10. The roof of the house _____ in a storm a few days ago.
(A) was damaged
(B) damaged
(C) were damaged
(D) damaging
66
1. After the yolk is separated from the white, it ... immediately.
(A) must be boiled
(B) is boiling
(C) will boil
(D) can to be boiled
2. A magnet ... to separate iron from sand.
(A) can use
(B) can be used
(C) use
(D) be use
3. Because no two people think exactly alike, there will always be
disagreement, but disagreement ____; it can be healthy if handled
creatively.
(A) to avoid
(B) should always avoid
(C) should always be avoiding
(D) should not always be avoided
4. It is difficult to study element 104 because only a few atoms of this
substance ... at one time.
(A) place carefully
(B) was placed carefully
(C) were placed carefully
(D) placed carefully
5. Fingerprints from an unchangeable signature, and fingerprint records
... for identification, despite changes in the individual’s appearance or
age
(A) to can be used
(B) can use
(C) can be used
(D) with the use
67
REVIEW: Choose the letter of the word or group of words that best
1. The sport of hang gliding ____ by The Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA).
(A) regulated it
(B) is regulated
(C) was regulating
(D) be regulated
2. The Kentucky Derby, the biggest horse race in North America, ____
every May at Churchill Downs in Louisville, Kentucky.
(A) is run
(B) to be run
(C) run
(D) runs
3. In November of 1863, the city of Atlanta _____ during Sherman’s
famous ‘March to the Sea’.
(A) a completely burning
(B) burned completely
(C) completely burned it
(D) was completely burned
4. The scientific experiments _____ on the center table for the judge to
evaluate.
(A) place care
(B) was placed carefully
(C) were placed carefully
(D) placed carefully
5. In an internal combustion engine, both gasoline vapor and air ____
inside a cylinder.
(A) heat
(B) are heated
(C) heating
(D) to heat
68
REVIEW I: Identify the underlines words or phrases that contain errors.
1. More than 300 different kinds of nails is manufactured in the United
A B C D
States.
2. The teacher rushed to the room soon after the child were being hit
A B C D
there.
3. Balloons have used in various wars not only to direct artillery fire and
A B
report troop movements but also to carry bombs and protect against
C D
low-flying planes.
4. The boy had been kill by a running away biker.
A B C D
5. The factory problem solving will verified tomorrow in the meeting.
A B C D
REVIEW II: Identify the underlines words or phrases that contain errors.
1. Latex rubber is make of a milky substance in plants and trees of the
A B C D
sapodilla family.
2. Denver is call the Miley High City because it is at an altitude of 5,280
A B C
feet or 1 mile above sea.
D
3. Nuclear power production in the U.S is controlling by the Nuclear
A B C D
Regulatory Commission.
4. The flag is risen at 6:30 every morning without fail.
A B C D
69
5. Natural gas was compose of hydrocarbon molecules that break apart
A B
into hydrogen and carbon atoms.
C D
6. A candle will be light at the memorial service for the fallen soldier.
A B C D
7. The first nuclear-powered ship in the world, the Nautilus, launched by
A B C
the U.S. Navy in 1954
D
8. Soon after the United States entrance into the war, the major hotels in
A B C
Atlantic City was transformed into military barracks.
D
9. The national Wildflower Research Center were established in 1982 by
A B
Lady Bird Johnson on sixty acres of land east of Austin
C D
10. When heat from the Sun trapped near the Earth’s surface, the green
A B C
house effect occurs
D
11. The Narwhal can be easily recognize by the long spiraled tusk
A B
attached to the left side of its head.
C D
12. Plant cutting that are placed in water will develop roots and can be
A B C
planted in soil.
D
13. Neon is often used in airplane beacons because neon beacons are so
A B
visible that they can be saw even through dense fog.
C D
70
INFLECTION (Prefix and suffix)
ADJECTIVE Suffixes and Prefixes
Adjective Suffixes
al central, political, national, optional, professional
ent different, dependent, excellent
ive attractive, effective, imaginative, repetitive
ous continuous, dangerous, famous
ful beautiful, peaceful, careful
less endless, homeless, careless, thoughtless
able drinkable, countable, avoidable
Adjective Prefixes
un- unfortunate, uncomfortable, unjust
im-/in-/ir-/il- immature, , improbable, inconvenient, irreplaceable, illegal
non- non-fiction, non-political, non-neutral
dis- disloyal, dissimilar, dishonest
71
UNIT IX
Degrees of Comparison
Degrees of comparison is used to compare the qualities of one thing to

another using the adjectives or adverbs.
1. Possitive Degree
Possitive degree compares two person or things which have the
same qualities of adjectives or adverbs.
Form: NOUN + as + adjective + as
Form: VERB + as + adverb + as
Example:
• Tom is as tall as Mr. Robert.
• Princess Elsa dances as beautifully as Cinderella does.
2. Comparative Degree
Comparative Degree compares two person or things which have
different qualities of adjectives and adverbs.
a. The adjectives or adverbs which consist of one syllable or end with
–y, are added with suffix –er.
Formula: adjective/adverb + -er + than
Example:
1. John is 170 cm. Bill is 175 cm
Bill is taller than John.
2. Mr. Smith slept 4 hours last night. Mr. Stone slept 3 hours last
night.
Mr. Stone is sleepier than Mr. Smith.
b. The adjectives or adverbs which consist of two or more syllables,
are added with more in the front of the adjectives or adverbs.
Formula: more + adjective/adverb + than
Example:
1. Betty has 3,500 followers on twitter. Susan has 5,500 followers
on twitter.
Susan is more famous than Betty.
72
3. Superlative Degree
Superlative Degree shows that one of person or thing has more
qualities of adjectives or adverbs than three or more person or things.
a. Adjectives or adverbs consist of one syllable or ended with –y,
added with suffix –est.
Formula: the + adjective/adverb + -est
Example:
1. John is 170 cm. Bill is 175 cm. Bob is 180 cm
Bob is the tallest of all his friends
2. Mr. Smith slept 4 hours last night. Mr. Stone slept 3 hours last
night. Mr. Walker slept 2 hours last night
Mr. Walker is the sleepiest of all his friends
b. Adjectives or adverbs which consist of two or three syllable, added
with the most in front of the adjectives or adverbs.
Formula: the most + adjective/adverb
Example:
• Betty has 3,500 followers on Twitter. Susan has 5,500 followers
on Twitter. Eva has 7000 followers on Twitter.
Eva is the most famous of all his friends.
4. Double Comparative
a. Describing action
Formula: the + more/-er, the + more/-er
Example:
• The sooner, the better.
• The faster, the more dangerous.
b. Describing character
Formula: The + more/-er + S+V, The +more/-er + S+V
Example:
• The darker the berry is, the juicer it is.
• The more you practice, the better you perform.
73
5. Illogical Comparison
Illogical Comparison occurs when a sentence compares two things
that aren’t of the same type.
Example:
a. Avoid comparing two things which are not compared
Example:
1. That
Correct : Masjid Agung Jogja is older than Demak
Correct : Masjid Agung Jogja is older than Demak’s
Correct : Masjid Agung Jogja is older than that of Demak’s.
2. Those
Incorrect : Indonesian’s forests are much larger than Malaysia
Correct : Indonesian’s forests are much larger than Malaysia’s
Correct : Indonesian’s forests are much larger those of
Malaysia.
b. Avoid comparing a thing with its noun.
1. -er
Incorrect : Eva is smarter than anybody in her class.
Correct : Eva is smarter than any other students.
6. Irregular Comparison
There are adjectives and adverbs in which the comparative and
superlative are irregular, for example:
Positive Comparative Superlative
Bad Worse worst
Good Better best
Far farther; further farthest; furthest
Late Later latest
Little Less least
Many More most
Much More most
Well Better best
Example:
My problem is bad. Your problem is worse. Their problem is the
worst.
74
1. The speed of light is ____ the speed of sounds.
(A) fastest
(B) much faster than
(C) the faster
(D) as fast as
2. Yesterday was ____ day of the year.
(A) coldest
(B) colder
(C) colder than
(D) the coldest
3. Petrol is twice as ____ it was a few years ago
(A) expensive
(B) expensive as
(C) expensive than
(D) expensive that
4. The more children you have, the ____ house you need.
(A) bigger than
(B) biggest
(C) big
(D) bigger
5. Fashions in this year are ____ and more colorful than they were last
year.
(A) good
(B) gooder
(C) better
(D) best
75
EXERCISE II: Choose the letter of the word or group of words that best
completes the sentence
1. _____ the phone, the higher the bill will be.
(A) The more you use
(B) You use more
(C) More you use
(D) The most you use
2. The Pacific Crest Trail is America’s ______
(A) the long footpath
(B) footpath the longest one
(C) longest footpath
(D) the longest footpath
3. Celine was ____ this morning than she had been yesterday
(A) more happy
(B) more happier
(C) happier
(D) the happies
4. Since there were two possible ways to get to New York, we had to
decide which one was
(A) good
(B) the best
(C) better
(D) better than
5. The thicker the walls, _____ that comes through.
(A) The noise is less
(B) The lesses noise
(C) The less noise
(D) The more less noise
6. The number of people at the meeting is _____ last week’s meeting.
(A) larger than that at
(B) larger than
(C) larger than that
(D) larger
76
7. Alaska is larger than _____ in the United States.
(A) Any state
(B) Another state
(C) States
(D) Any other state
8. The ____ money I spend, the less I have to worry about debt.
(A) little
(B) lesser
(C) less
(D) least
9. The _____ the comic is, the more fun he is
(A) more funny
(B) funnier
(C) most funny
(D) funniest
10. Ultimately, people will fine ____ time to spend with their families.
(A) more and more
(B) much and much
(C) the most
(D) the most and the most
77
REVIEW I: Identify that underlined word or phrase that contains an error.
and correct the sentence
1. The most largest known gathering of bald eagles anywhere is in the
A B C D
forest.
2. Protein molecules are the most complex than the molecules of
A B C D
carbohydrates.
3. Certain types of snakes have been known to survive more fast as a year
A B C D
long
4. The food in this restaurant is gooder than the other restaurants we
A B C
visited before.
D
5. No structural style spreads as rapidly and as wide as the gothic.
A B C D
6. Belgian chocolate is considered by many to be more fine than any
A B C
other in the world.
D
7. The Kerman civilization was one of the earlier indigenous African tribal
A B C D
groups
8. The most time you spend talking to the audience, the better get at
A B C
public speaking
D
9. The direction to the exercise say to choose more appropriate response.
A B C D
10. The more thrilling the new movie is, the lesser the director worries
A B C D
about making a box office hit.
78
EXERCISE III: Choose the letter of the word or group of words that best
1. The warmer the weather, _____ at the outdoor concert
(A) the attendance is the greater
(B) the greater the attendance
(C) the greater the attendance is
(D) the more great the attendance
2. I really do not want to live in the Southeast because it is ____ areas in
the United States.
(A) one of the most hot
(B) one of the hottest
(C) the most hot
(D) the hottest
3. ___ your tax forms, the sooner you will receive your refund.
(A) the earlier are you send in
(B) the more early you send in
(C) the earlier you send in
(D) the earliest you send in
4. The use of the detail is ____ method of all.
(A) more common
(B) common
(C) most common
(D) the most common
5. ____ in Stevenson’s landscape, the more vitality and character the
paintings seem to possess.
(A) The brushwork is loose
(B) The looser brushwork
(C) The loose brushwork is
(D) The looser the brushwork is
79
REVIEW II: Identify that underlined word or phrase that contains an error.
1. The lesson you are studying now is the more important lesson that you
A B C D
will have.
2. The more widely used natural fiber of all is cotton.
A B C D
3. The leek, a member of the lily family, has a mildest taste than the
A B C
onion.
D
4. Peter Abelard, a logician and theologian, was the controversialist
A B C
teacher of his age.
D
5. Climate, soil type, and availability of water are the most critical factors
A B
than selecting the best type of grass for a lawn.
C D
6. The grizzly bear, which can grow up to eight feet tall, has been called
A B C
a more dangerous animal of the North America.
D
7. The more technical today’s world becomes, the compatible with
A B
humans and machines language need to be.
C D
8. Hilary felt worst, about the unkind remark than about anything else.
A B C D
9. The professor indicated that Anthony’s research paper was longer than
A B C
those other students.
D
10. Once the world’s most largest church, Hagia Sophia is now a museum.
A B C D
80
UNIT X
Conditional Sentences
Conditional Sentence is also known as conditional clauses or if clauses.

The sentences are used to express that the action in the main clause can
only take place if a certain condition (if clause) is fulfilled. These sentences
below are the types of conditional sentences:
Type 1: Real Conditional

• It is possible or very likely that the event or activities in the future will
be fulfilled.
Formula: If + S + V1, S + Will + V1
Example:
If I have a lot of cash, I’ll buy a car
Real situation: In this moment, I have no car yet. If I have a lot of
money, I will buy a car (in the future).
EXERCISE 1: Identify that underlined word or phrase that contains an

error. Then, circle the letter that corresponds to the answer you have
chosen, and correct the sentence
1. Susan will walk to school if she have enough time.
A B C D
2. You shall make the report if you faced the problem.
A B C D
3. If the teacher does not come, you may will go home.
A B C D
4. If the atoms or molecules of gas will increase the thermal energy if the
A B C D
gas is compressed.
5. You will lose your license if you were involved in a traffic accident.
A B C D
81
Tipe 2: Present Unreal Conditional
• This condition is possible but very unlikely will be fulfilled because it is
in the opposite with current situation.
a. Verb
Formula: If + S + V2, S + Would + V1
Example:
If I had a lot of cash, I would buy a new car.
Real situation: At the moment I don’t have money, thus I don’t buy
a car.
b. To be were
Formula: If + S + WERE, S + Would + V1
• In type 2, use to be were for all of the subjects.
Example:
If he were here right now, he would help us.
Real situation: He is not here now.
EXERCISE 2: Identify that underlined word or phrase that contains an

1. If the weather was nice today, I would go out.
A B C D
2. If I were you, I will tell my father honestly.
A B C D
3. I would use an extra room if I have a lot of important things.
A B C D
4. If the table were turned, they will be confessing their sins.
A B C D
5. I would send her an invitation if I would find her address.
A B C D
82
Tipe 3: Past Unreal Conditional
• The condition is impossible to be fulfilled because it refers to the past
time.
Formula: If + S + had + V3, S + Would + have + V3
Example:
If I had studied harder, I would have passed the exams
Real situation: In the past, I didn’t study harder, so I didn’t pass the
exam.
EXERCISE 3:Identify that underlined word or phrase that contains an

1. If she had not been sick, she would have come to your wedding party.
A B C D
2. If you have told me you were on the internet, I would have send you an
A B C D
e-mail.
3. If I need knew you were coming, I would have baked a cake.
A B C D
4. If Dr. King had give up in his struggle for equality, our world could have
A B
been an unpleasant place.
C D
5. Would you have bought Persian cats if you know how much they eat?
A B C D
REVIEW : Choose the letter of the word or group of words that best
1. If an asteroid has not collided million years ago, the dinosaurs _____
(A) would not become extinct
(B) became extinct
(C) would not have become extinct
(D) will extinct
83
2. If it ____ soon, a lot of crops will die
(A) did not rain
(B) does not rain
(C) have not rain
(D) had not rain
3. If you went to bed earlier, you ___ so tired
(A) would not been
(B) would not be
(C) would have not been
(D) will not be
4. If we had a yacht, we ____ the seven sea
(A) will sail
(B) would sail
(C) would had sailed
(D) would be sailed
5. What ____ if she came here?
(A) will you do
(B) would you do
(C) would have you done
(D) if will you do
6. They _____ me if I had had work experience
(A) might employ
(B) might have employed
(C) may employ
(D) may be employing
7. If you go to the boss, will you ____ me first?
(A) call
(B) will call
(C) called
(D) would call
8. She said that she ____ at home if she were me
(A) will stay
(B) would stay
(C) would have stayed
(D) stay
84
9. If they ____ a better goalkeeper, they would not have lost the game
(A) have had
(B) have
(C) had
(D) had had
10. If we had known you were there last year, we would ____ you a letter.
(A) write
(B) wrote
(C) had written
(D) have written
REVIEW : Identify that underlined word or phrase that contains an error.

Then circle the letter that corresponds to the answer you have chosen,
1. If Jane know it was supposed to rain, she would have taken an umbrella.
A B C D
2. If he had not tried to jump over the stream, he would not break his leg.
A B C D
3. If he is rich, he would go to Europe to study.
A B C D
4. I will have given them my opinion if they had asked me.
A B C D
5. If I were you, I will give up my smoking.
A B C D
6. If she tell me that she, did not have enough money, I would have paid
A B C
for her trip last summer.
D
7. If my apartment had been larger, I would not have to move.
A B C D
8. Id classes had finished sooner, I will go to Canada last month.
A B C D
9. If you pour oil on water, it floated.
A B C D
10. If you boil water, it disappearing into the atmosphere as vapor.
A B C D
85
INFLECTION (Prefix and Suffix)
Suffixes Adverb
-ly quickly, loudly, beautifully
-ally historically, politically
86
UNIT XI
Inversion
Inversion is a construction which the verb preceeds the subject. Types

of inversions:
A. Inverted subject with adverb of place
When adverb of place initiates a sentence, the sentence
construction is:
Formula: adverb of place + verb + subject
Example:
a. Here come the cops.
b. There goes another SUV.
Commonly used adverb of place:
Here, there, nowhere, down the hill, around the corner, located at, etc.
EXERCISE 1: Identify the underlined word or phrase that contains an error

1. There is many good reasons to study language.
A B C D
2. Around the corner are several small shop.
A B C D
3. Located at the edge of the Hill Country are Austin, Texas.
A B C D
4. Here come the most beautiful girl in the world.
A B C D
5. Along the beach was several small boats that had been washed ashore.
A B C D
87
B. Inverted subject with Negative Expressions
When negative expression initiates a sentence, the sentence
construction is::
Formula: negative expression + auxiliary + subject + verb
Example:
a. Never will I do that again!
b. Rarely have I eaten delicious food.
Commonly used negative expression:
Never, not only, seldom, hardly, barely, scarcely, not only, neither, nor,
no dan so
EXERCISE 2: Identify the underlined word or phrase that contains an error

1. Hardly ever has ___ to the class on time
(A) he come
(B) he came
(C) come he
(D) he
2. On no occasion ____ that no time
(A) did they say
(B) that they say
(C) said they
(D) said they
3. Steve did not win the prize, nor _____ to do so
(A) he did not expect
(B) did he expect
(C) does he expect
(D) expect he said
4. Only for a short period of time ____ run at top speed
(A) cheetahs
(B) do cheetahs
(C) that a cheetah can
(D) can
88
5. ____ unhappy with his behavior, but I frankly just do not understand it
(A) Not only I am
(B) Not only am I
(C) Am I not only
(D) Not only
C. Inverted Subject with Conditional Sentences

In conditional sentences, inverted subject is constructed by
omitting ’if’ in the clause involving should, were, and had.
Formula: auxiliary + subject + verb, subject + verb
If I should have for only a minute to attend something, I would be fired.

Should I have for only a minute to attending something, I would be fired.
If I were position to help, I would help you.
Were I in a position to help you, I would help you.
If he had taken more time, the result would have been better.
Had he taken more time, the result would have been better.
EXERCISE 3 : Identify the underlined word or phrase that contains an error

1. ____ of the decision, we might have had something to say about it
(A) If had we been informed
(B) If had been we informed
(C) Had we been informed
(D) That we had been informed
2. Should ____ her, she might be here
(A) I invited
(B) I invite
(C) Invite I
(D) if I invite
3. ____ busy, I would accompany you
(A) Was I not
(B) Were I not
(C) If I was not
(D) If were I not
89
4. Were ____, they would visit her
(A) was she at home
(B) if she at home
(C) should she at home
(D) she at home
5. ____ visit this town again, I would be delighted to show you around
(A) Should would you ever
(B) Should you ever
(C) If should you
(D) If you
REVIEW : Choose the letter of the word or group of words that best
1. At the end of the tube ____ which gathers light and line which magnifies
the image.
(A) are two lenses there
(B) two lenses are
(C) are two lenses
(D) two lenses there
2. ____ live another 30 year, I would be 55.
(A) Were I
(B) If were I to
(C) If I to
(D) Were I to
3. There ____ a few possible explanations for his behavior.
(A) occur to me
(B) occur to I
(C) occurring to me
(D) to occur to me
4. Deep in the Rio Beck area of Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula _____
(A) Does a 1,250-year-old pyramid lie
(B) A 1,250-yeard old pyramid lie
(C) 1 1,250-year old pyramid lying
(D) Lies a 1,250-year old pyramid
90
5. Not until 1865 ____ at the first antiseptic treatment on a compound
fracture.
(A) Did Joseph Lister tried
(B) Did Joseph Lister try
(C) Joseph Lister tried
(D) Joseph Lister try
6. ____ been for your foolishness, we wouldn’t have got lost.
(A) Had it not
(B) Had not
(C) It had not
(D) It not had
7. ____ the article mention the names of the people involved
(A) Nowhere do
(B) Nowhere does
(C) Nowhere
(D) Does nowhere
8. ____the two trees that need to be pruned.
(A) There are in the backyard
(B) In the backyard is
(C) In the backyard are
(D) There in the backyard
9. ... we finished our assignments, we would have enjoyed our weekend
freely.
(A) Had
(B) Has
(C) Have had
(D) Has had
10. ____ more time, I would do more on my paper
(A) I had
(B) Had I
(C) Have I
(D) I have
91
REVIEW : Identify that underlined word or phrase that contains an error.
Then circle the letter that corresponds to the answer you have chosen,
1. The day might have been a little more enjoyable the sun had been out
A B C D
a little more.
2. Only once had the judge take the defense lawyer’s suggestion.
A B C D
3. Barely he had finished the exam when the graduate assistant collected
A B C D
the paper.
4. He might be a little more successful today if were he a little more willing
A B C D
to do some hard work.
5. Around the reaction hall and down the path the tents are where we
A B C
will be staying this.
D
6. In the cafe were a vast treasure of gems and jewel.
A B C D
7. Seldom their secretary has made such mistakes.
A B C D
8. He has not arrived in time to save the girl, and neither the paramedics
A B C D
do.
9. He would have been in a big trouble if had not remembered the
A B C
assignment at the last minute.
D
10. On Easter Island, the mysterious giant heads were carved by a forgotten
A B C
civilizations.
D
92
REFERENCES
Azar, B. S. (2002). Understanding and Using English Grammar (3rd edition).

New York: Longman Ltd.
Bragg, M. (2006). The Adventure of English: The Biography of a Language
(paperback edition). New York: Arcade Publishing.
Chakravarty, A., & Boehme, B. (2004). Grammar and Usage for Better
Writing. New York: Amsco School Publications, Inc.
Croft, W. & Cruse, D. A. (2004). Cognitive Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Eastwood, J. (2002). Oxford Practice Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Ellis, M. & Johnson, C. (1994). Teaching Business English. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Folse, K. S., Solomon, E. V., & Smith-Palinkas, B. (2008). Great Grammar for
Great Writing. Boston: Thomson Heinle.
Keizer, E. (2007). The English Noun Phrase: The Nature of Linguistic
Categorization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ladousse, G. P. (1994). Speaking Personally. New York: Cambridge University
Press.
Murphy, R. (2019). English Grammar in Use. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Peterson, P. (2007). Master TOEFL Skills. New Jersey: Peterson’s.
Phillips, D. (2001). Complete Course for the TOEFL Test. New York: Longman
Ltd.
Saussure, F. (1915). A Course in General Linguistics. New York: Philosophical
Library.
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Spencer, J. (2001) Ethnography after postmodernism, in P. Atkinson, A.
Coffey, S. Delamont, J. Lofland and L. Lofland (eds), Handbook of
Ethnography. London: Sage.
Swick, E. (2010). English Verbs & Essentials of Grammar for ESL Learners.
New York: McGraw-Hill Companies Inc.
Tennant, C. (2001) (cited 20 June 2002) Los Loros Multimedia CD-ROM: A
New HTML Ethnography, http://www.ethnoweb.com/loros/index.html.
Walker, E., & Elsworth, S. (2000). Grammar Practice for Upper Intermediate
Students. Essex: Pearson Education Ltd.
Wanner, A. (2009). Deconstructing the English Passive. Berlin: Mouton de
Gruyter.
94

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i

Copyright © Andhi Dwi Nugroho

First Edition, September 2021

Author : Andhi Dwi Nugroho

Any unauthorized copying, alteration, distribution, transmission,

Andhi Dwi Nugroho

Subject = Noun/the equivalence of noun

Predicate = Verb ± Object/Complement/Adverb

The noun is one of the important parts of speech. Its arrangement

A. SINGULAR AND PLURAL NOUNS

2. Irregular Plural Noun

Key Words: Singular and Plural Nouns

B. COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

Key Words: Countable and Uncountable Nouns

INFLECTION (Prefix and Suffix)

1. S-V agreement with 3 Irregular Verbs

2. S-V agreement with Regular Verbs

3. S-V Agreement with Neither … Nor …

Exercise 1: Choose the letter of word or group of words that best

Noun Prefixes Noun Prefixes

Most conjunctions are historically derived from other parts of speech

We can apply the formula below to use the coordinate conjunctions:

The example below, two sentences connected by correlative conjunction

1. He is a globalist; nevertheless, we are nationalists who will put our

that which who whose whom Where

He knows the girl whom/that I met last night.

The book which/that you recommended was interesting.

He meets a girl who/that wears white skirt.

The girl who/that wears a white skirt is not here

Reduced Adjective Clause

• Reduced Adverb Clause

Note: If an adverb clause started by a conjunction because, it can be

NOUN CLAUSE CONNECTOR

• What, where, when, • W h a t e v e r, • Whatever, if • that

NOUN CLAUSES AS OBJECT

NOUN CLAUSES AS SUBJECT

What you did was wrong

INFLECTION (Precfix and Suffix)

A present participle is in the form of –ing (verb) such as talking and

In the first sentence, purchased is an adjective rather than a verb

Obligation and Advisibility

• Auxiliary verbs which is directly followed by V1 (verb base)

Degrees of comparison is used to compare the qualities of one thing to

Conditional Sentence is also known as conditional clauses or if clauses.

Type 1: Real Conditional

EXERCISE 1: Identify that underlined word or phrase that contains an

EXERCISE 2: Identify that underlined word or phrase that contains an

EXERCISE 3:Identify that underlined word or phrase that contains an

REVIEW : Identify that underlined word or phrase that contains an error.

Inversion is a construction which the verb preceeds the subject. Types

EXERCISE 1: Identify the underlined word or phrase that contains an error

EXERCISE 2: Identify the underlined word or phrase that contains an error

C. Inverted Subject with Conditional Sentences

If I should have for only a minute to attend something, I would be fired.

EXERCISE 3 : Identify the underlined word or phrase that contains an error

Azar, B. S. (2002). Understanding and Using English Grammar (3rd edition).

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