Food Chemistry 291 (2019) 38–48

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Food Chemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem

Review

Carnauba wax uses in food – A review T

a b c
Claisa Andréa Silva de Freitas , Paulo Henrique Machado de Sousa , Denise Josino Soares ,
José Ytalo Gomes da Silvaa, Stephen Rathinaraj Benjamina, , Maria Izabel Florindo Guedesa
⁎

a
Laboratório de Bioquímica Humana, Universidade Estadual do Ceará, Avenida Silas Muguba, (1700), Campus do Itaperi, Fortaleza, Ceará CEP 60.714.903, Brazil
b
Instituto de Cultura e Arte, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Avenida Mister Hull, 2977, Campus Universitário do Pici, Fortaleza, Ceará CEP 60356-000, Brazil
c
Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia de Pernambuco, Rua Edson Barbosa de Araújo, S/N, Manoela Valadares, Afogados da Ingazeira, Pernambuco CEP
56800-000, Brazil

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Carnauba wax is widely used in food, due to its physico-chemical characteristics with a predominance of esters
Copernicia prunifera and inert and stable components. Even with so many possibilities for the use of carnauba wax in food, there are
P-methoxy cinnamic acid still a large number of researchers around the world searching for new applications and a demand for new
Phytochemistry products with new technologies to improve existing ones. Recently, many parts of research which focus on the
Ethnopharmacology
use of this wax in conservation and food processing have been carried out, some of which highlight the role of
Biotechnological applications
this wax in the microencapsulation of flavours, in preparing edible films and super hydrophobic and biode-
gradable packaging. This paper discusses the use of carnauba wax in food, including the extraction process of the
wax, its chemical and physical characteristics, safety aspects, national and international law and permitted uses,
along with the presentation of the main scientific research conducted.

1. Introduction 2012). Its components are relatively inert and stable (European Food
Safety Authority, 2012). Due to these and other characteristics car-
Carnauba wax, the most important vegetable wax in terms of eco- nauba wax has been widely used in foods. It is currently authorized by
nomics and possible applications (Zlokarnik, 2012), is extracted from Anvisa (2011a), by the FDA - Food and Drug Administration (FDA,
the leaves of the carnauba (Copernicia prunifera (Miller) H. E. Moore), a 1983), the FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Brazilian palm (Lorenzi et al., 2010), which is found in conditions of Nations and by the European Union (Howard Oltas Triebold, 1946).
economic exploitation only in the dry environment of the Northeast In food it is used as a glazing agent, body or bulking agent, acidity
caatingas (scrublands) (de Carvalho & Gomes, 2008b). The Brazilian regulator, carrier, and anticaking in surface treatment of other func-
production of carnauba powder was 17,844 tons in 2012 with a pro- tions (dos Santos Alves & Alex Soares de Souza, 2014). However, a lot
duction value of R$ 95.1 million. The extraction of carnauba powder is of research has been conducted in an attempt to expand the possibilities
concentrated in the Northeast, with the State of Piaui the main pro- of applications of this raw material. With this objective, research has
ducer (11,625 tons), followed by Ceara (5662 tons), Maranhao been done optimizing conventional applications and investigating in-
(513 tons) and Rio Grande do Norte (44 tons) (IBGE, 2012). Almost all novations such as the use of wax for the microencapsulation of flavours
of this production is exported, reaching an export volume of and as a source of molecules acting on the prevention and treatment of
15,288.6 tons in 2012 (BRASIL, 2012), which shows the low level of dyslipidemia, diabetes and others. The wax is a product with great
domestic consumption and possibly even the lack of importance of the potential for use throughout the food production chain (Fig. 1).
use of this wax for the Brazilian food production chain. Therefore, it is important to professionals in the food industry to better
Carnauba wax is the hardest wax and has the highest melting point understand this raw material in order to exploit its full potential.
of any commercial natural wax, has low solubility and is predominantly Therefore, this paper discusses the use of carnauba wax in food ranging
comprised of aliphatic esters and diesters of cinnamic acid (Zlokarnik, from the extraction process of the wax, national and international

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (S.R. Benjamin).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.03.133
Received 11 December 2018; Received in revised form 18 March 2019; Accepted 25 March 2019
Available online 26 March 2019
0308-8146/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
C.A.S. de Freitas, et al. Food Chemistry 291 (2019) 38–48

Fig. 1. Food applications and pharmacological actions of carnauba wax and its active components.

classifications, the chemical and physical characteristics, safety aspects, grayish brown, and which lines the epidermal leaf cells of Carnauba.
national and international law, the permitted uses and concludes with The waxy powder is classified as the origin (Table 1) as olho powder
the presentation of the main scientific research conducted. (Type A) and straw powder (Type B). Olho powder is removed from
unopened leaves that are at the center of the crown of carnauba and
2. Carnauba wax extraction they have a yellowish white colour. Straw powder, on the other hand, is
removed from mature, open leaves that form the canopy of the car-
The carnauba leaves are externally coated by a waxy coat. This wax nauba and have a grayish colour. Olho powder allows a greater yield of
is possibly a consequence of the adaptation of the plant to dry regions, wax (Carnaúba, 2004) and has greater commercial value. The crude
since this waxy material prevents excessive water loss, keeping the carnauba wax product is extracted from waxy powder, melting with
balance within the plant (de Carvalho & Gomes, 2008b), as well as water or extracted with organic solvents (Brasil, 2009; de Carvalho &
protecting it against fungi attack (S. Silva, 2001). After extraction, the Gomes, 2008a). This wax has great importance for the chemical, elec-
waxy material from the leaves is called carnauba powder and becomes a tronic, cosmetic, food and pharmaceutical industries where it has been
basic raw material for the production of wax (de Carvalho & Gomes, used as a raw material for many industrial products.
2008b). The average yield of wax powder and wax depends greatly on According to data released by Grand View Research (2016), the
environmental factors, and also varies significantly with the type of leaf estimate is that the extraction and income of carnauba wax there will be
and the method of drying used in the powder extraction process (da a significant increase in the future in the purchase of carnauba wax due
Silva Ferreira et al., 2013). The average yield of carnauba straw sub- to the high applicability. The world market of carnauba wax in 2015
jected to traditional drying (sample direct exposed to sunlight, in an amounted about USD 246 million. Of this value obtained, approxi-
open area subject to the action of climatic factors) is 5.45 g, while in the mately USD 92 million corresponds to the trade of wax type 1. The
solar dryer it is 7.17 g (de Lourdes Lima, 2009). remaining values are distributed between type 3 and 4 waxes, which
The waxy powder accumulates primarily in younger leaves. The are more indicated in the automobile industry and polishes, due their
attributes related to the quality of the wax from the waxy powder also colouration and properties.
vary according to the type of leaf. The wax produced from the powder
extracted from the leaves or new straw, especially straw-eye has a 2.1. Carnauba wax classification
higher commercial value (da Silva Ferreira et al., 2013).
The carnauba waxy powder is a product which ranges from white to In order to promote conditions of national and international trade

Table 1
Classification of waxy powder.
Type Origin Prevalent colour (Colouration) Moisture and Volatile materials (% max.) Minimum yield Wax Content (%)

A Olho Powder White 3 70

B Straw Powder Light Gray 3 50

Source: (Carnaúba, 2004).

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C.A.S. de Freitas, et al. Food Chemistry 291 (2019) 38–48

Table 3
Saponification index (mg KOH/g) Amerwax classification of refined carnauba wax.
Specifications Type 1 Type 3 Type 4 Type 4
(Filtered) (Centrifuged)

90.00
85.0
90.0
90.0
90.0
Max

Origin Olho powder Straw powder Straw Straw powder

powder
Moisture 0.5% max. 0.5% max. 0.5% max. 1.0% max.
Saponification 78–95 mg/g 78–95 mg/g 78–95 mg/g 78–95 mg/g
index
78.0
80.0
80.0
80.0
80.0
Min

Acidity index 2–7 mg/g 2–7 mg/g 2–7 mg/g 2–7 mg/g
Melt índex 80–86 °C 80–86 °C 80–86 °C 80–86 °C
Insoluble 0.2% max. 0.2% max. 0.2% max. 0.5% max.
impurities
Volatile material 0.6% max. 1.0% max. 1.0% max. 1.3% max
Melting point

Esters index 75–88 mg/g 75–88 mg/g 71–88 mg/g 71–88 mg/g
(°C min)

Ignition residue 0.25% max. 0.25% max. 0.25% max. –

Heavy metals 20 ppm max 20 ppm max 20 ppm max 20 ppm max
83.0
82.5
82.5
82.5
82.5

Colour Yellow Orange yellow Brown Dark brown

Source: (da Carnauba, 2014).

and to ensure the quality of the carnauba wax produced, norms and
(mg KOH/ g max)

standards have been established by different institutions. Brazilian law

Acidity index

classifies the crude carnauba wax into three types, olho wax, fatty wax
and sandy wax. The olho wax is the crude wax extracted from the olho
powder and is yellow. Fatty and sandy waxes are the crude waxes ex-
10.5
10.5
10.5
10.5
8.0

tracted from the straw powder and are dark brown to black and gray,
respectively. From the crude wax subjected to physical and/or chemical
processes to improve quality, the refined wax is obtained. For refining,
(% max)

the crude wax can be filtered or centrifuged and clarified. In clarifica-

Ash

0.2
0.3
0.3
0.3
1.0

tion the filtered crude wax is subjected to an oxidation process by a

reaction with an oxidizing agent, resulting in colour clarification. The
refined waxes are classified into five types according to the specifica-
tions outlined respectively (Table 2) (Carnaúba, 2004).
Insoluble impurities

The standardization of refined waxes for international trade follows

the classification of the American Association of Importers and Refiners
of Wax (Amerwax), association of American class that brings together
(% max)

the leading importers of carnauba wax of United States. According to

0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
1.0

this institution the refined wax can be classified into four types
(Table 3). The wax Type 1 (Cleared filtered) is obtained by filtering the
olho wax. The waxes Type 3 (Cleared filtered cleared) and Type 4
Moisture and Volatile materials

(Filtered) are produced by filtering the straw wax (sandy or fat), while
Type 4 (Centrifuged) is obtained by centrifugation of the straw wax (da
Carnauba, 2014).

2.2. Carnauba wax characterization

(% max)

The carnauba wax is constituted by a complex mixture (Wang et al.,

0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5

2001) of esters, free alcohols, aliphatic acids, aromatic acids, ω-hy-

Refining process

droxycarboxylic free acids, hydrocarbons (paraffins) and diols tri-

Centrifugation

terpenes (Table 4). Among these, esters are the major components,
Filtration
Filtration
Filtration
Filtration

corresponding to over 80% of the composition, with a predominance of

aliphatic esters and diesters of cinnamic acid (Ullmann’s, 1997;
Brazilian classification of refined carnauba wax.

Vandenburg & Wilder, 1970).

Light orange

Aliphatic esters contain monocarboxylic acids of medium chain

Light yellow

Dark orange
Dark brown

length C26 and monohydric alcohols of medium chain length C32. The
Colour

Black

ω-hydroxy esters contain 90% of esters of ω-hydroxy acids (C26), and

mono alcohols (C32) and 10% of mono-carboxylic acids esters (C28) and
α, ω-diols (C30). Esters contain 4-hydroxy and 4-methoxycinnamic acid
Medium 2 or Extra fat filtered

Black 5 or Gray centrifuged

and are mainly present as oligomers and polymers. The monomeric

Source: (Carnaúba, 2004).
Prime 1 or Yellow filtered

Bruna 4 or Gray filtered

units of these are diesters of cinnamic acid with mono and polyhydric
Light 3 or Fat filtered

alcohols and ω-hydroxycarboxylic acids. The free alcohols are those of

similar composition in aliphatic esters. The wax also contains a small
proportion of secondary alcohols (Ullmann’s, 1997). In the assessment
of the fatty acids profile of carnauba wax, tetracosanoic acid (C24) ap-
Table 2

pears as the most abundant (Batista et al., 2010; Batista et al., 2009;
Type

Wang et al., 2001). Among the components of the wax, 56.4% are

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C.A.S. de Freitas, et al. Food Chemistry 291 (2019) 38–48

Table 4 Table 5
Type 1 carnauba wax composition. Quantification of inorganic elements in different types of carnauba wax.
Constituent Amount (%) Elements Type 1 wax Type 3 wax Type 4 wax

Ullmann’s Vandenburg and Ca (mg/kg) 33.83 ± 2.80 92.61 ± 4.25 87.76 ± 5.55
(1997) Wilder (1970) K (mg/kg) 37.18 ± 2.48 131.66 ± 5.22 180.56 ± 2.49
Mg (mg/kg) 6.76 ± 0.69 105.62 ± 2.24 116.27 ± 1.90
Aliphatic Esters 40 38–40 Na (mg/kg) 4.53 ± 0.46 77.83 ± 4.25 65.63 ± 2.31
Diesters of 4-hydroxycinnamic acid 21 20–23 Al (mg/kg) 28.63 ± 1.46 108.52 ± 8.05 166.03 ± 3.75
Esters of ω-hydroxycinnamic acid 13 12–14 Fe (mg/kg) 18.54 ± 1.10 104.47 ± 3.23 105.58 ± 4.15
Free alcohols 12 10–12 Mn (mg/kg) 1.77 ± 0.60 18.35 ± 1.64 19.98 ± 1.32
Diesters of 4-methoxycinnamic acid 7 5–7 Zn (mg/kg) Not detected 9.35 ± 1.29 12.34 ± 0.81
Free aliphatic acids 4 –
Free aromatic acids 1 – Source: (de S. Dantas, Magalhães, Matos, Gouveia, & Lopes, 2013).
Hydrocarbons (paraffins) 1 0.3–1
Free ω-hydroxycarboxylic acids 0.5 –
Triterpene diols 0.5 0.4
type 4, cinnamic esters were highly polymerized and none of the
Aromatic compounds and/or resins 4.4 – combined triterpenoids can be isolated.
Free acids and other unknown – 5–7 Table 5 shows the quantification of inorganic elements in different
constituents types of carnauba wax. In general, carnauba wax T1 has lower levels of
inorganic elements than T3 and T4 waxes. This can be explained by the
Source: (Ullmann’s, 1997; Vandenburg & Wilder, 1970).
fact that the waxes obtained from the opened leaves (straw powder)
experience greater loss of water due to exposure to solar radiation, and
unsaponifiable and 39.2% are specifiable (Ullmann’s, 1997).
also because of the aging of leaves, which results in the pre-con-
Vandenburg and Wilder (1967) identified the aromatic acid of carnauba
centration of these elements in the wax powder which is extracted and
wax. For this, they isolated cinnamic acid in the form of para-hydroxyl
used to produce T3 and T4 waxes. T4 carnauba wax contains a higher
and para-methoxy substituted from carnauba wax, with a yield of 5%,
content of most quantified elements. The iron and manganese are re-
approximately. It was observed that the para-hydroxycinnamic acid
sponsible for the darkening of the wax, the intensity of which increases
represents approximately 75% of these aromatic acids and that these
from T1\T3\T4. The iron content of T1 is 82% lower than T3 and 85%
aromatic acids, previously unreported, predominantly occur as part of a
lower than T4, which may be an indication that iron contributes to the
polymerizable diester (molecular weight approximate of 1025). Ac-
darkening of waxes (de S. Dantas, Magalhães, Matos, Gouveia, & Lopes,
cording to these authors, these aromatic acids in the free state would
2013).
not be isolated in significant quantities from the wax. They claimed that
Carnauba wax is the hardest wax and has the highest melting point
some properties of the carnauba wax may be due to the presence of
of the commercial natural waxes (Ullmann’s, 1997). The Normative
these diesters.
Instruction N°. 35 (Carnaúba, 2004) establishes a minimum melting
Initially, only one type of triterpene was isolated from carnauba wax
point of 82.5–85.0 °C. However, Batista et al. (2010) analyzed carnauba
and identified as methyldammar-25-ene-3β,20-diol (Vandenburg &
waxes derived from different subspecies of carnauba tree, and obtained
Wilder, 1970). However, de Brito Cysne et al. (2006) have isolated
melting points ranging from 79.2 °C to 84.2 °C and observed that the
three other dimer triterpenoids whose structures were determined as
wax has eutectic behavior when exposed to elevated temperatures. This
hydroperoxydammar-23-ene-3β,20-diol, 24-methyldammar-25-ene-3-
wax is a dielectric material (Neto et al., 2003), slightly soluble at room
one and 24-methyldammar-21,25-diene-3β-ol.
temperature but soluble in many non-polar heated solvents and only
Although they have very similar chemical compositions, when
partially soluble in polar solvents (Ullmann’s, 1997). In addition,
compared with the type 1 wax, other types of waxes are distinguished
Perlman (1971) and Deurex® Company (2019) predict that carnauba
by not containing triterpenes and contain the esters of 4-hydroxy and 4-
wax has a density ranging from 0.92 to 1.0 g/cm3.
methoxy cinnamic in a more polymerized form. This can be partially
Müller, Lindner, Briesen, Sommer & Forest (2018) described in their
attributed to differences in climate, but also because type 1 wax is
studies a comparison between the hardness of pure carnauba wax, palm
harvested from young leaves, while the other types are collected from
oil and pure beeswax. The authors reported that carnauba wax was able
older leaves, which have been exposed to the sun for longer (Ullmann’s,
to form a more resistant surface (17 N/mm2), while palm oil and
1997).
beeswax obtained results of 9 N/mm2 and 2 N/mm2, respectively. In
The quality and chemical composition of carnauba wax can be af-
addition, they tested samples of waxes mixed with palm oil (100, 70, 50
fected by atmospheric conditions such as the intensity of rain or sun,
and 30%) and found that carnauba wax proved to be more suitable for
local moisture and soil characteristics. Climatic conditions are natural
mixing with palm oil because it provides greater stiffness to material.
agents that modify the biochemical cycle of trees and provide changes
As described previously, it can be observed that the structural and
in physical and chemical characteristics of waxy powder (de S. Dantas,
physico-chemical composition of carnauba wax is similar to beeswax,
Magalhães, Matos, Gouveia, & Lopes, 2013). However, the chemical
but differs in proportions. While carnauba wax is composed of a vast
composition of waxes, which affects the properties for practical pur-
mixture of chemical compounds, beeswax is composed of 71% long
poses such as viscosity and hardness, also depends on the growth phase
chain fatty acids linked to esters and alcohols, 15% long chain hydro-
of the leaves from which the wax has been collected (Wang et al.,
carbons, 8.5% fatty acids free, presents 591 M mass media, insoluble in
2001).
water and its appearance is solid at room temperate (Tulloch, 1970;
Vandenburg and Wilder (1967) analyzed waxes Type 1, 4 and 3;
Zhang et al., 2016).
they reported a definite change in the molecular structure of carnauba
Similar to carnauba wax, rice bran wax, also authorized by FDA, is
wax during aging of the leaves. These authors believed that cinnamic
widely used in the food industry as a structurant for chocolates, fruit
esters are primarily responsible for the exceptional properties assigned
and vegetable coating and cheeses, as well as the cosmetic and phar-
to carnauba wax. The exposure of the wax to sun radiation and other
maceutical industries. Chemically, rice bran wax contains saturated
weather conditions causes an increase in the polymerization of these
monoesters, long chain fatty acids, long chain fatty alcohols, wax esters,
esters with an increase in the age of the leaves from which the wax is
policosanols and phytosterols. In addition, it has melting points similar
extracted.
to those of carnauba wax, approximately 80 °C, and crystallizes at room
Vandenburg and Wilder (1970) found that structural constituents of
temperature (Pandolsook & Kupongsak, 2017; Kodali, 2009).
carnauba wax type 1 and type 4 are essentially the same, except that for

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C.A.S. de Freitas, et al. Food Chemistry 291 (2019) 38–48

2.3. Carnauba wax safety 2.4. Permitted utilization in food

In the U.S. carnauba wax is classified as Generally Recognized as Possibly because of its high melting point, hardness, insolubility in
Safe (GRAS) and its use in the amounts that are required to adhere to water and supposed stability, as has been outlined in this paper, car-
the good manufacturing practices (GMP) in several foods (FDA, 1983; nauba wax has been widely used in foods as a food additive, performing
2018) is allowed. several functions, according to the specific legislation in different
Carnauba wax was evaluated by the Scientific Committee on Food countries. The Codex Alimentarius allows the use of carnauba wax (INS
(SCF) and by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives 903) as a food additive with the functions of glazing agent, body or
(JECFA), which assigned an Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) of 7 mg/kg mass agent, acidity regulator, anticaking and carrier, and establishes
of body weight per day. The SCF has not established an ADI, but ap- the amount of carnauba wax allowed per kg of food according to its
proved the use of carnauba wax as an acceptable coating agent category (Table 6) (dos Santos Alves & Alex Soares de Souza, 2014).
(European Food Safety Authority, 2012). In the European Union, carnauba wax (E 903) is allowed as a
In the European Union, carnauba wax (E 903) is an authorized food coating agent for food supplements, for small products of fine bakery
additive as a coating agent. In 2012, the European Food Safety wares coated with chocolate, and for snacks, nuts and coffee beans. The
Authority promoted a reassessment of carnauba wax (E 903) as a food maximum permitted use is 200 mg/kg of food. It is also allowed as a
additive. The Committee on Food Additives and Sources of Added surface treatment on fresh citrus, melons, apples and pears, as well as
Nutrient to Food (ANS) in its opinion on the revaluation, carnauba wax peaches and pineapple up to 200 mg/kg of food. In confectionery it may
is not significantly absorbed from the diet and its main constituents can be used up to 500 mg/kg and in chewing gum up to 1200 mg/kg
be absorbed and incorporated during normal cellular metabolic path- (European Food Safety Authority, 2012).
ways. Based on the available information and the lack of structural In the U.S. carnauba wax is considered GRAS (Generally Recognized
alerts in carnauba wax, the committee concluded that there is no con- as Safe) and is permitted in several foods, with no limitation of quantity
cern about genotoxicity of the wax. In-vivo toxicological studies such as, as long as good manufacturing practices (GMP) are adhered to. As an
sub-chronic toxicity and reproductive and developmental toxicity additive, it is authorized as an anticaking agent, formulation aid, lu-
showed no adverse effects related to the ingestion of carnauba wax. bricant, release agent, surface finishing agent in baked goods and
There are no available studies on the chronic toxicity and carcino- baking mixes, chewing gum, toppings, fresh fruits and fruit juices,
genicity of carnauba wax. In general, the committee considered that sauces, processed fruits and soft candy (FDA, 1983). In Brazil, carnauba
there were insufficient data on the toxicity of carnauba wax in the long wax is allowed as a glazing agent, body agent, anticaking/antiwetting,
term and therefore has not established an ADI. However, the committee regulator agent of acidity in several foods as long as it complies with the
considered that the estimated exposure of carnauba wax in the uses maximum limits established by law (Table S1) (Anvisa, 2011b).
currently proposed resulted in sufficient safety margins compared to the In 2009 the use of carnauba wax was approved in Brazil as adjuvant
levels at which no adverse effects (NOAELs) for carnauba wax are ob- technology with the function of lubricant, mold release or agent for
served, allowing the committee to assert that the use of carnauba wax molding of bread ready for consumption, breads with yeast; breads with
as a food additive for the uses currently allowed is not of concern for baking powder; biscuits and similar with or without filling, with or
safety (European Food Safety Authority, 2012). As regards the possible without coating; confectionery; cakes, pastries and confectionery
reactions and stability in food, no specific documentation is available in masses with yeast or natural fermentation, with or without filling, with
the literature but as carnauba wax components are quite inert and or without coating, ready for consumption or prepackaged (including
stable it is believed that degradation or reactions with food components panettone and pan dulce); cakes, pastries and confectionery masses
will not occur to a significant degree (European Food Safety Authority, with baking powder, filled or otherwise, with or without coating, ready
2012). for consumption or prepackaged (Republica Federativa do Brasil,
According to Alrowaishdi et al. (2013), carnauba waxes are con- 2008).
sidered hypoallergenic and sensitizations or irritations related to them
are uncommon. However, there are two reported cases in the literature.
3. Ethnobotanical investigation of carnauba wax
One of them, noticed a dermatitis in the eyelid caused by a mascara.
The presence of carnauba wax and low density polyethylene was de-
Even with so many possibilities for the use of carnauba wax in food
tected in the tests (Chowdhury, 2009). The other case is related to
there are still a large number of researchers around the world searching
atopic dermatitis with episodes of cheilitis, in which the patient used
for new applications for this raw material, searching for new products
multivitamins that had an unspecified amount of carnauba and bee
and new technologies or trying to improve those which already exist.
waxes (Jacob, Chimento, & Castanedo-Tardan, 2008).
Accordingly, in recent years many pieces of research have been carried

Table 6
Amounts of carnauba wax as an additive allowed by CODEX Alimentarius.
Food Category Maximum allowed amount*

Surface treatment of fresh fruits 400 mg/kg

Processed fruits 400 mg/kg
Surface treatment of fresh vegetables (including mushrooms and fungi, roots and tubers, legumes, and aloe vera), seaweeds, nuts and seeds 400 mg/kg
Cocoa and chocolate products 5000 mg/kg
Imitation product of chocolate and chocolate substitutes 5000 mg/kg
Some confectionery products 5000 mg/kg
Chewing gum 1200 mg/kg
Decorations (for example, fine bakery wares), covers (not fruit) and sweet sauces 4000 mg/kg
Bakery products BPF
Dietary supplements 5000 mg/kg
Flavoured drinks based on water, including “sport”, “energy,” or “electrolyte” drinks 200 mg/kg
Coffee, coffee substitutes, tea, herbal infusions, and other hot drinks of cereal grains, excluding cocoa 200 mg/kg
Ready to eat snacks 200 mg/kg

Source: (dos Santos Alves & Alex Soares de Souza, 2014). *mg/Kg of food.

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C.A.S. de Freitas, et al. Food Chemistry 291 (2019) 38–48

out focusing on carnauba wax in terms of its production, storage and covered with coating based on 10% gelatin, 10% gelatin with 10%
applications in food processing. Hereafter are presented some of these stearic acid, 10% modified starch, 18% carnauba wax and fondant
studies. (commercial cover). On the 1st and 3rd day of storage, the cakes with
The potential of wax to improve the agricultural production of food and without coating were evaluated for acceptance of colour, aroma,
was verified by Narciso, Widmer, Ference, Ritenour, and Diaz (2012) flavour, texture and overall acceptability, beyond the intent of pur-
who searched for solutions to the problems faced by producers in chase. Cakes covered with fondant were better accepted in the attri-
Florida trying to control citrus canker, caused by the bacterium Xan- butes evaluated, presenting high purchase intent. The cakes with the
thomonas citri subp. citri (Xcc) and melanosis caused by Diaporthecitri. other reached an acceptance level similar to the uncoated cakes control,
The orchards were sprayed with formulations of copper (Cu), but these with and without packaging. However, their purchase intention was
were removed by heavy rain and strong sunlight. Therefore, these re- less than desirable. The coatings had sensory perceptibility, but did not
searchers evaluated the effectiveness of a new spray combining copper confer the fondant features, probably frustrating the panellists, who had
with a special formulation of carnauba wax (WashGard®) (WG) and hoped for richer cakes with toppings/fillings. Despite this, all the
found that the use of this spray allowed the control of infections, by evaluated coatings had similar performance to packaging in main-
significantly reduced citrus canker and melanosis, increasing the per- taining the texture of cakes.
centage of marketable fruits. Rodrigues et al. (2013) developed edible films based on starch
Several authors have reported their experiences with the use of (15–30%), cashew gum (75–85%) and carnauba wax (0–15%). Ac-
carnauba wax, optimizing the conservation and food processing, high- cording to the author, the relative proportions of starch and cashew
lighting the role of wax in microencapsulation flavours for the pre- gum did not greatly affect the properties of the formed films. The in-
paration of superhydrophobic edible films (inedible) and biodegradable corporation of carnauba wax, by minimizing the content of the hy-
packaging (coated paper). drophilic film matrix, reduced both water solubility and permeability to
water vapour. Moreover, carnauba wax increased the opacity of films,
3.1. Food processing and reduced tensile strength and elastic modulus. For elongation at
break it was the opposite, that is, carnauba wax favored elongation. The
Milanovic et al. (2010) performed a flavours microencapsulation in presence of wax (crystalline material) in the film promoted the ap-
carnauba wax, to improve the functionality of the flavour and to pro- pearance of endothermic peaks in the heat flux curve. The author em-
vide protection against the evaporation of volatile active ingredients phasized that the films produced are promising due to their biode-
during processing. The melt dispersion technique was applied in the gradability and the choice of the “best treatment - film” will depend on
encapsulation in vanillin wax microcapsules. The authors produced the purpose and manner in which it is intended.
micro-sized spherical beads (210–360 μm) and demonstrated that the Chiumarelli and Hubinger (2012) produced and evaluated the sta-
process of decomposition under heating proceeds in several steps. The bility, solubility, and mechanical and barrier properties of edible
evaporation of vanillin occurs at about 200 °C, while the degradation of coatings formulated with cassava starch (3%), glycerol (1.5%), car-
the wax matrix begins at 250 °C and progresses to maximum at ap- nauba wax (0.2%) and stearic acid (0.8%), used for preserving fresh cut
proximately 360, 440 and 520 °C. They claimed that carnauba wax is an apples. Initially, they determined an optimized formulation for the
attractive carnauba wax material for use as an encapsulating flavours preparation of coatings, which provided a better barrier, mechanical
matrix to improve the functionality and stability of the products. properties and low solubility. The stability of the emulsion, the rate of
In order to optimize the encapsulation of flavours for use in the food respiration of apple slices with coatings and the resistance to water
industry, Milanovic, Levic, Manojlovic, Nedovic, and Bugarski (2011) vapour were strongly influenced by the ratio carnauba wax: stearic
also produced microcapsules (from 150 μm to 300 μm) of the carnauba acid. The mechanical properties and solubility of the films were pri-
wax by melt dispersion technique and obtained uniform spherical mi- marily influenced by the content of glycerol and the ratio carnauba
croparticles using a mixture of Tween 20/Span 40 as an emulsifier. The wax: stearic acid. According to the authors, the proposed coating pre-
authors determined the optimal conditions (concentration of wax, sented a potential for application in processing industry to maintain the
speed, stirring time and types of surfactants) for the production of product quality.
microparticles and emphasized that these experimental conditions can Mehyar, Al-Ismail, Han, and Chee (2012) developed and char-
be applied to the encapsulation of some compounds of food or phar- acterized edible coatings composed of isolated whey protein (WPI), pea
maceuticals thermostable products. starch (PS), and their combinations with carnauba wax (CW). The ad-
Stojaković et al. (2012) studied the kinetics of the release of vanillin dition of PS to WPI: CW combination in the ratio of 1:1:1, respectively,
encapsulated in carnauba wax microcapsules. According to the authors, resulted in a stable and homogeneous emulsion film. All coating for-
thermal release of vanillin encapsulated in carnauba wax takes place mulations were effective in preventing the oxidation and hydrolytic
with activation energy lower than 40 kJ mol−1, indicating that the rancidity in pine nuts stored at 25 °C during storage (12 days), but were
microcapsules of carnauba wax easily release vanillin, and thus sug- less effective at 50 °C. The increase in the concentration of carnauba
gesting that the carnauba wax can be suitably used as a carrier of va- wax did not contribute to preventing rancidity at 25 °C. Using the
nillin in many applications, especially in the food industry. They also coating PS:WPI:CW (1:1:1) on nuts stored at either temperature sig-
observed that thermal release is not a single reaction step, but a process nificantly improved smoothness and flavour.
of complex kinetics. Bayer et al. (2011) produced completely organic and solvent-re-
Talens and Krochta (2006) assessed the possible effect of plasticity sistant, superhydrophobic and self-emulsifying alcohol films from car-
of beeswax (viscoelastic wax) and carnauba wax (elastic wax) proper- nauba wax emulsions. The author prepared, for the first time, natural
ties on the water vapour permeability of films and isolated whey pro- wax emulsions in alcohol, that were highly stable surfactants for dis-
tein voltage. The authors found that the incorporation of carnauba wax persion of carnauba wax melted in hot isopropyl alcohol or ethanol,
in films does not produce a plasticizing effect. The tensile strength re- with subsequent mild ultrasonic mixing. According to the authors, these
mained the same, and the flexibility and elongation decreased. Thus, emulsions can easily suspend micro and nano hydrophobic colloidal
according to the authors, the carnauba wax had an antiplasticizing ef- particles. They also demonstrated the production of super-hydrophobic
fect. films from submicron polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). PTFE particles,
Walter, Fontes, Osawa, Steel, and Chang (2010) evaluated the in- submicron (∼150 nm) were dispersed without any surfactant in these
fluence of the application of 5 different edible coatings on sensory ac- emulsions to make super-thin hydrophobic films. Large surface areas
ceptance and purchase intent of chocolate cakes. The treatments were: could be coated by simple spraying emulsions. The authors emphasized
without coating and without packaging; packed in polypropylene bags; that the films exhibit superior resistance to aggressive solvents such as

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C.A.S. de Freitas, et al. Food Chemistry 291 (2019) 38–48

chloroform, toluene, acetone and alcohols during immersion for one authors reported in their studies that biofilms incorporated with 40%
hour. The films remained hydrophobic after the removal of solvent carnauba wax reduced the water vapour permeability from 2.73 g.mm/
baths and the subsequent evaporation of these solvents from their kPa.m2.h (0% of wax) to 0.77 g.mm/h.kPa.m2. Finally, in the overall
surfaces. evaluation, they concluded that the samples presented promising re-
Seeking to develop a biodegradable packaging for food, Khwaldia, sults for applicability in foods.
Linder, Banon, and Desobry (2006) developed a coated paper and Won and Min (2018) incorporated carnauba wax into grapefruit
studied the effect of combined concentrations of the components of the seed extracts (1:1) and oregano oil (2:1) to evaluate the preservation of
coating, which were mica (0%–1.2%), carnauba wax (0%–0.8%), gly- tangerine (Citrus unshiu Marc.). In their studies it was observed that
cerol (0%–6%) and sodium caseinate (10%–13%). The authors noted both products were able to reduce the incidence rate of Penicillium
that the concentration of carnauba wax and glycerol were the most italicum on the surfaces of mandarins by 23.6 ± 3.6 and 25.0 ± 5.0%,
important parameters affecting the water vapour permeability (PVA). respectively, when compared with the samples of tangerines that had
The increase in the concentration of glycerol increased the PVA. Car- no coating (100%). In addition, coating emulsions composed of car-
nauba wax and mica decreased the PVA in the coated paper. Moreover, nauba wax exhibited higher colloidal and structural stability, lower
the increased quantity of glycerol led to a reduction in tensile strength weight loss and lower respiration rate compared to emulsion composed
(TS) and an increase in elongation (% E) of the resulting coated paper. of oregano (p < 0.05). Thus, the authors concluded that the coating
This study showed that the optimization of conditions to minimize PVA integrated with carnauba wax can prolong the shelf-life of the man-
and maximize the TS and the % must be obtained by increasing the darins.
amounts of mica, carnauba wax and sodium caseinate and decreasing Caron, Jacomino, Sarantópoulos, and Miguel (2015) evaluated the
the amount of glycerol. The coating resistance increased as much as the preservation and post-harvesting ability of previously prepared hygie-
ductility of the paper. According to the authors, the coated paper thus nized Tahiti acid waxes using carnauba wax incorporated into two
produced is biodegradable, constituted by cellulose, sodium caseinate, types of plastics (Cryovac® D-955 and Vegetal Pack®) besides a control
mica, carnauba wax and glycerol, with a more environmentally friendly sample only packed with carnauba wax. The fruits were stored at 10 °C
material than any synthetic packaging. for 24 days, followed by 6 days at 20 °C. The authors reported that the
Among the research related to the use of carnauba wax in food, a best fruit preservation and prolongation results were found in those
large number of studies have focused in the area of post-harvest sto- packed with the plastics associated with carnauba wax, when compared
rage, as can be seen below. to those that were only coated with carnauba wax. In addition, car-
nauba wax was not effective in maintaining the loss of fruit mass and in
3.2. Post-harvest storage the adequate chemical characterization for commercialization.
Chen, Sun, and Yang (2019) evaluated the coating effects of car-
Jacomino et al. (2003) evaluated the effects of carnauba waxes on nauba wax isolated and associated with glycerol monolaurate on the
post-harvest Pedro Sato guavas under ambient conditions. The experi- physical-chemical and qualitative characteristics of the Indian jujube
ment was performed using five commercial waxes: Citrosol AK (18%), (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk). The fruits were stored at 20 °C for 12 days.
Citrosol M (10%), Fruit wax (18–21%), Meghwax ECF-100 (30%) and The comparison of the results obtained with the fruits of the control
Cleantex wax (18.5–20.5%), evaluated at 2, 4 and 6 days after treat- group (sample washed only with distilled water) showed that carnauba
ment application. The authors observed that the wax had little effect on wax coatings isolated and associated with glycerol monolaurate were
levels of total soluble solids, titratable acidity and ascorbic acid. They able to reduce weight loss and respiration rate. In addition, the authors
were, however, effective in delaying ripening and reducing weight loss observed delay in the change of colouration and higher content of
and decay incidence. chlorophyll and ascorbic acid of fruits with coatings.
Ribeiro, de Assis, Silva, Siqueira, and Vilaronga (2005) evaluated Malgarim et al. (2007b) evaluated the quality of cv. Emerald peach
the effects of Citrus Carnauba Wax Premium® on the conservation of wrapped with different concentrations of carnauba wax, stored under
Paluma guava stored both under refrigeration and at room temperature, refrigeration. The authors observed that these fruits presented less
for a period of 12 days. The characteristics evaluated were weight loss, firmness in the treatments with 75 and 100% of wax. Fruits treated with
decay, soluble solids (SS), titratable acidity (TA), ascorbic acid, total 50, 75 and 100% wax showed lower occurrence of decay. In sensory
chlorophyll and flesh firmness. The coating waxes decreased the weight evaluation, acidity and astringency decreased in fruits treated with
loss and the degradation of chlorophyll in the guavas, and its applica- wax. The use of wax to 50% was associated with cooling and reduced
tion increased the shelf life of fruit stored under the ambient condition. weight loss and decay incidence, maintaining the firmness and allowing
The use of wax was unnecessary to increase the shelf life of the fruit peaches 'Esmeralda' to be stored for 30 days at 0 °C or four days at 8 °C.
stored under refrigeration. Malgarim et al. (2007a) evaluated the effects of concentrations of
da Mota et al. (2006) attempted to increase the post-harvest con- carnauba wax and the storage period in the conservation of Navelina
servation of yellow passion fruit, stored at room temperature (20–25 °C) oranges. According to the authors, the oranges with the greatest ac-
by use of carnauba wax (Fruit wax®), diluted in the ratio 1:4 (m/v) and ceptance by the testers, in sensory evaluation, were treated with wax of
stored in polyolefin plastic bags. The polyolefin plastic bag packaging 100% (undiluted). The overall quality, after 90 days of storage, re-
and the association between the immersion in carnauba wax and the mained higher in oranges treated with wax. The use of undiluted car-
plastic packaging were very efficient in extending the shelf life of the nauba-based wax on Navelina oranges intensified the brightness of the
fruits, reducing the percentage of fresh weight loss and consequent flavedo, reduced weight loss and the incidence of decay, enabling sto-
wilting, besides maintaining higher relative water content in the peri- rage for 90 days without affecting the sensory quality of fruits.
carp keeping the fruit in good condition for consumption. Carnauba Yi, Kim, Lee & Lee (2017) evaluated the oleogel, a mixture com-
wax presented the highest efficiency in post-harvest conservation posed of an oil and a structuring agent (canola oil, beeswax and car-
compared to untreated fruits, due to the lower percentage of fresh nauba wax), in order to provide a gelatinous form widely used in the
weight loss and the maintenance of higher relative water content in the food industry. The authors reported that an oleagel constituted of car-
pericarp. nauba wax presented higher temperature and enthalpy of crystal-
Santos, Silva, Xavier, Leite, and Aroucha (2017) evaluated the in- lization when compared to other oleogels. In addition, carnauba wax-
sertion of carnauba wax in different concentrations (0, 15, 30, 40 and based oleogel presented higher oxidative stability when compared to
50% w/w) in the production of chitosan-based biofilms. The opacity of beeswax.
the sample increased by 10.5% in the sample with a higher amount of Gonçalves et al. (2010) investigated the effects of carnauba wax on
carnauba wax (50%), compared to the control film. In addition, the the development of Monilinia fructicola (brown rot) and Rhizopus

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C.A.S. de Freitas, et al. Food Chemistry 291 (2019) 38–48

stolonifer (rot Rhizopus) in vitro and on the infection of nectarine and to be a good alternative for protecting and extending the shelf life of
plums. According to the authors, in the in vitro evaluation (inhibition of these products, the edible coating prepared with carnauba wax in-
mycelial growth and spore germination) carnauba wax was tested at corporated with antimicrobials such as triclosan and sorbic acid may
concentrations of 1%, 2%, 3% and 4.5%, while the tests for infection of open perspectives for continuing the production of coatings on an in-
fruit (test post-infection and protection tests) used carnauba wax at dustrial scale.
concentrations of 4.5% and 9%. The authors observed no mycelial Machado et al., (2012) determined the changes in the quality of
growth of M. fructicola at any of the concentrations of wax. R. stolonifer Murcott ‘Ortanique’ after coating with carnauba-based wax, Aruá Tro-
was completely inhibited by carnauba wax at all concentrations, except pical® or ‘Star Light®’. According to the authors, the storage conditions
the 1% one. There was no in vitro spore germination with M. fructicola resembled the marketing conditions (22 ± 2 °C, 60 ± 5% relative
and R. stolonifer at any concentrations of wax. There was a 50% in- humidity). The coating with carnauba wax, especially Aruá Tropical®
hibition of the germination of spores of M. fructicola and 90% inhibition was effective in preserving visual quality through the retention of green
for R. stolonifera, on nectarine surface covered with 9% wax. The ap- colour and reduced weight loss and dehydration. The water content of
plication of protection of 4.5% and 9% of carnauba wax on the nec- the skin, chlorophyll skin and juiciness, decreased with lower rates in
tarines’ and plums’ surfaces significantly reduced the incidence of both the coated fruit. The penetration force, soluble solids (SS), titratable
diseases in these fruits. However, after infection by both diseases, the acidity (TA), pH and SS/TA showed little change during storage. Sen-
application of wax control was inefficient. sory analysis showed that the application of Aruá Tropical® allowed the
Barman, Asrey and Pal (2011) aiming to reduce the cold damage fruit to be marketed for six days longer.
and maintain the quality of pomegranate (Punicagranatum L., cv Mri- Kim et al. (2013) produced coatings of plum with nano emulsion of
dula), evaluated fruit treatment with putrescine and carnauba wax carnauba wax incorporated with lemon grass oil and investigated the
applied to the surfaces before storage (3 °C). According to the authors, effects of this coating on microbial safety and physicochemical qualities
in untreated fruits, rapid cooling injury developed, the main symptoms during storage (4 and 25 °C) of plums. According to the authors, the
of which were brown discolouration of the skin, surface corrosion, emulsions used for the coating were produced by mixing a solution
weight loss and reduced firmness during storage. All these undesirable based on carnauba wax (18%) with lemon grass oil at different con-
changes were significantly retarded by the application of pu- centrations (0.5% and 4.0%) using a dynamic processing of high-pres-
trescine + carnauba wax. The respiration and ethylene evolution rate sure (172 MPa). Uniform coating on plums, formed with stable emul-
were also reduced by the combined application of putrescine and car- sions, initially inhibited S. typhimurium and E. coli O157: H7. The
nauba wax. The superiority of the combined treatment compared to coatings did not significantly alter the flavour, firmness and brightness
other applications appears to be due to the addition of the anti- of plums. The anti-microbial effect of the coatings against S. typhi-
senescence benefit and barrier properties of putrescine and carnauba murium and E. coli O157: H7 was demonstrated during storage at 4 and
wax, respectively. The application of exogenous putrescine and car- 25 °C. The coatings reduced the weight loss and ethylene production
nauba wax showed an improvement in the storage capacity of pome- and also delayed the changes in the colour loss and in the concentration
granate at 3 °C, which otherwise leads to the occurrence of chilling of phenolic compounds during storage. When stored at 4 °C, the firm-
injury and a reduction in quality. Treatment with putrescine and car- ness of the coated plums was greater than the uncoated plums and re-
nauba wax reduced fruit softening, respiration rate and ethylene pro- spiration rates were reduced during storage. Finally, the authors point
duction, as well as weight loss. Thus, the shelf life could be prolonged in out that coatings containing nano emulsions of lemon grass oil have the
pomegranates stored at low temperatures (3 °C) up to 60 days. potential to inhibit contamination by Salmonella and E. coli O157: H7 of
Paixão (2011) evaluated the use of carnauba wax emulsion (Tro- plums and can also extend the shelf life of the fruit.
pical wax 2050) at concentrations of 0, 50 and 100%, in the protection Silva (2009) developed and then evaluated, during 35 days, edible
against insect pests and in preserving the quality of the beans. Ac- coatings prepared with carnauba wax to which the antimicrobial tri-
cording to the author, the use of the solution of carnauba wax as a closan (1%) and sorbic acid (0.1%) had been added aiming to extend
coating for the beans did not affect the sensory characteristics. How- the post-harvest quality of mango (Mangifera indica L.) variety “Tommy
ever, the wax was not effective in protecting the beans against the Atkins”. According to the author, the coated fruits were more efficient
development of insect pest Acanthoscelides obtectus. in the process of maturation delay, than the uncoated fruits. The fruit
da Silva et al. (2011) observed that the application of commercial coated with either kind of wax (ie. containing antimicrobials or not),
carnauba wax Megh Wax ECF-124 at three different concentrations (25, stored at 25 °C, showed greater control of the population of aerobic
50 and 100%) was effective in maintaining the post-harvest quality of mesophilic bacteria, molds and yeasts than on uncoated fruits, but this
Fuyu persimmon stored for 14 days, mostly in weight conservation and effect was not observed during storage at 10 °C. The fruits coated with
maintenance of the external colour of the fruit. The fruits with and wax containing triclosan 1% and wax containing sorbic acid 0.1%,
without wax coating did not present significant differences in pH and in showed no more antimicrobial activity in the population of aerobic
vitamin C content. The treatment at the concentration of 25% showed a mesophilic bacteria, molds and yeasts, than the fruit coated with wax
lower rate of rejection during storage, however higher concentrations without antimicrobials. The wax treatment resulted in a compact and
showed lower values of weight loss. The authors pointed to the appli- homogeneous epidermis. The temperature has an influence on the ap-
cation of carnauba wax in persimmon as a technique of great potential plication and retention of the coating on the surface of fruit. The sen-
in the post-harvest conservation and may be combined with other sory acceptance test showed that the mean results of treatments stored
technologies helping to maintain the quality of fruits for export. at 10 °C were superior to those stored at 25 °C, falling into the region of
de Pinheiro (2012) evaluated the antimicrobial application of edible acceptance.
coating prepared with carnauba wax associated with sorbic acid and Wan-Shin Jo et al. (2014) evaluated the quality and microbiological
triclosan in cashew apple (Anacardium occidentale L.) and guava (Psi- safety of Fuji apples coated with a nano emulsion of carnauba wax and
dium guajava). It was observed that the application of the coatings shellac containing lemongrass oil. According to the authors, during the
slowed down metabolic processes in the two fruits compared to the storage (five months) the hardness of the uncoated apples decreased by
uncoated fruit, thus verifying the effectiveness of the coating as a 3.3 N, and the weight loss was 7.7%. In contrast, the hardness of the
barrier to water vapour. There was no variation in pH and soluble solids coated apples did not change and the weight loss was lower (5.2%). The
during the storage period. There was, however, a reduction of the titratable acidity and total soluble solids were not significantly different
texture during storage time, as well as ascorbic acid, especially at a between coated and uncoated apples. Coated apples achieved the best
temperature of 24 °C. Microbial counts were lower in fruits that had sensory grades. After 5 months of storage, the population of total
been coated and submitted to refrigeration. The author points out that aerobic bacteria on the coated apples was lower than on the uncoated.

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C.A.S. de Freitas, et al. Food Chemistry 291 (2019) 38–48

Furthermore, the population of yeasts and molds in uncoated apples at the doses used showed significant hypolipidemic and hypoglycemic
was 2.2 log CFU/g at the end of storage, whereas yeasts and molds were effects, a significant reduction in total cholesterol, and glucose trigly-
not detected in the coated apples. The authors emphasized that the cerides in the studied protocols could also be observed, presenting
coating can improve the quality of Fuji apple during storage. The coated equal or sometimes better performances than those groups treated with
apples showed decreases during storage in the populations of total Gamma-Oryzanol or with reference drugs. The author also emphasized
aerobic bacteria as well as molds and yeasts, compared to uncoated that the results obtained in animals treated with PCO-C were promising,
apples. Furthermore, the coating minimized the loss of quality of the suggesting that this compound had therapeutic potential in the pre-
apples and improved sensory values during storage. Therefore, this vention and treatment of diseases associated with metabolism of lipids
study suggests that the coating of carnauba wax, shellac containing and carbohydrates.
lemongrass oil (lemongrass), can be applied to prolong the shelf life of Rodrigues et al. (2013) investigated the therapeutic potential of
Fuji apples. PCO-C in the treatment of mice with alloxan-induced diabetes mellitus.
Barman, Asrey, Pal, Kaur, and Jha (2014) evaluated the functional According to the author, the PCO-C showed a similar and even better
quality (anthocyanins, antioxidant activity, ascorbic acid, tannins) and hypoglycemic action than the reference drug (glibenclamide) when
sensory attributes of pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) during 60 days used in doses of 100 and 150 mg/kg of body weight.
of storage (3 and 5 °C), after being subjected to immersion in putrescine Freitas et al. (2016) evaluated useful organic impacts of cinnamic
(2 mM) or putrescine + carnauba wax. According to the authors, the acid derivatives on the antioxidant activity and bioavailability of cin-
combined application of putrescine (PUT) + carnauba wax had the best namic esters from carnauba wax, and diesters obtained from carnauba
response in maintaining the functional properties, better than the fruit wax powder. Physical and morphological characteristics were esti-
treated or not treated with putrescine. After 60 days of storage, pu- mated. p-Methoxy cinnamic diester (PCO-C) was recognized, which has
trescine + carnauba wax retained about 25% higher antioxidant ac- a crystalline, apolar structure. In human cells, PCO-C (250 μg/ml)
tivity, regardless of storage temperature. The authors stated that the controlled the production of intracellular receptive oxygen species,
application of exogenous putrescine and carnauba wax was an effective with an impact like that of Trolox (80 μM). Thermogravimetric in-
means of maintaining higher levels of anthocyanins, antioxidant, as- vestigation demonstrated that PCO-C had high thermal strength and
corbic acid, tannins and sensory quality of pomegranate during storage high UV absorption among 250 and 350 nm. These results showed that
at 3 and 5 °C. They also emphasized that combined application of this compound is promising as a cell reinforcement for pharmaceutical
PUT + carnauba wax was a simple technique to maintain the functional and sustenance industry applications.
properties of pomegranate during low temperatures and long storage of For general uses of carnauba wax, its plant-derived ingredients are
this fruit. considered safe in human absorption. However, rare adverse effects
The pharmacological activity of the leaves of the carnauba tree, have occurred in its cosmetic products such as eyeliners and mascara,
which contain carnauba wax, has been corroborated by several studies. when it comes in contact with eyes it causes rash and skin irritation.

3.3. Pharmacological activities

4. Conclusion and future directions
Rodrigues (2004) found analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial
and antioxidant activities in extracts of leaves of carnauba. Conducting In the previous couple of years, carnauba wax research has in-
a phytochemical study of the leaves of the carnauba, he observed vestigated the reduction of plasma lipid levels in in vivo exploratory
mixtures of fatty acids and long-chain hydrocarbons, both in the hexane models of intense and chronic hyperlipidemia, conveying new view-
fraction and ethyl acetate from the crude ethanol extract of the parti- points concerning the regular substance under investigation. This has
tion, as the crude hexane extract itself, plus a sesquiterpene, a terpene, increased knowledge concerning possible elaboration of a viable phy-
benzoic acid derivatives and aryl propanoidicos derivatives. From the totherapic product from this compound. However, due to its lipophilic
long chain fatty acids, only two of them, the hexadecenoic acid (or nature, stability conditions and antioxidant activity, it has potential
palmitic acid) and octadecanoic acid (or stearic acid) were found in uses as a cell reinforcement in oils and other nourishment items. In
carnauba. On the in vitro antioxidant activity of ethanol extracts by additions, its apolar nature and UV retention capacity make it pro-
chemical test with the DPPH free radical, all extracts tested showed mising for developing dynamic active food packaging. Future research
superior results than the standard extract of Ginkgo biloba and the should include the isolation of new phytochemicals and bioactive bio-
results were comparable to the standard rutin, a flavonoid with already chemical compounds of Copernicia Prunifera, as well as the optimization
recognized antioxidant activity. For in vivo antioxidant activity using of existing technologies for the recovery of high value-added target
the cells of S. cerevisiae test, the hexane extract of the leaves showed a compounds from products of these species. There should also be more
higher activity, as the standard extract of Ginkgo biloba was inactive in well-conducted clinical trials to isolate and identify the compounds
this test. As for analgesic activity, the ethanolic extracts of leaves and responsible for biological activities and biotechnological and safety
fruits of hexane showed higher results than other extracts, both in the demands.
hot plate test, and the tail-flick test. In the latter test, the ethanol extract
of leaves showed higher results than the hexane extract of the fruit. In Authors’ contributions
the writhing test, both the two extracts tested were consistent with
those observed for indomethacin. For the anti-inflammatory and an- Maria Izabel Florindo Guedes and Claisa Andréa Silva de Freitas
algesic activity, again the ethanol extract of the leaves showed the best contributed to the design and implementation of the research. Denise
result among all the extracts tested, both in the formalin test (phases I Josino Soares, José Ytalo Gomes da Silva and Paulo Henrique Machado
and II) and the ear edema test in mice. de Souza searched the literature, collected the data, and drafted the
From the carnauba wax, Filho et al. (2017) isolated a chemical paper. Stephen rathinaraj benjamin and Claisa Andréa Silva de Freitas
compound consisting of cinnamic acid esters (PCO-C) and evaluated its revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final
therapeutic potential in the prevention and treatment of dyslipidemia. manuscript.
The author evaluated the effect of PCO-C on lipid metabolism in groups
of mice induced by hypercholesterolemic diet, Triton WR1339 and
Poloxamer-407 and treated with Gamma-Oryzanol (50 mg/kg), PCO-C Conflict of interest statement
(10, 50 and 100 mg/kg) using Simvastatin (20 mg/kg) and Gemfibrozil
(100 mg/kg) as the reference drug. According to the author, the PCO-C We declare that we have no conflict of interest.

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C.A.S. de Freitas, et al. Food Chemistry 291 (2019) 38–48

Acknowledgement de S. Dantas, A. N., Magalhães, T. A., Matos, W. O., Gouveia, S. T., & Lopes, G. S. (2013).
Characterization of Carnauba Wax Inorganic Content. Journal of the American Oil
Chemists’ Society, 90(10), 1475–1483. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11746-013-2300-6.
The authors thank the BNB (Banco do Nordeste do Brasil) for their European Food Safety Authority (2012). Scientific Opinion on the re-evaluation of car-
financial support. nauba wax (E 903) as a food additive. EFSA Journal, 10. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.
efsa.2012.2880.
FDA. Food and Drugs Chapter 9 - federal food, drug, and cosmetic act, Subchapter II -
Appendix A. Supplementary data Definitions, Sec. 321 – Definitions; generally, Code of Federal Regulations, Titel 21,
Sec. 321 § (1983). https://doi.org/CFR.
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https:// FDA. Food and Drugs Chapter I- federal food, drug, and cosmetic act, part 184, direct food
substances affirmed as generally recognized as safe, Sec. 184.1978 - Carnauba wax.,
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