Sabp A 003

Best Practice 19 May 2022
SABP-A-003
Unconventional Gas Development in Saudi Aramco
Document Responsibility: Environmental Protection Standards Committee
Previous Revision: 10 June 2018 Next Revision:02 August 2027

Contact: ARKADASV Page 1 of 86
© Saudi Arabian Oil Company, 2022
Saudi Aramco: Company General Use
Document Responsibility: Environmental Protection Standards Committee SABP-A-003
Issue Date: 19 May 2022
Next Planned Update: 02 August 2027 Unconventional Gas Development in Saudi Aramco
Table of Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 6
1.1 Principal Reference Sources........................................................................................................ 7
1.2 Environmental Challenges of Unconventional Gas Development ..................................... 8
1.2.1 High Water Consumption ......................................................................................................... 8
1.2.2 Toxicity of Chemical Additives ................................................................................................ 8
1.2.3 Integrity of the Unconventional Wells ..................................................................................... 9

1.2.4 Waste Management Issues ................................................................................................... 10
1.2.5 Wastewater Management Issues ......................................................................................... 10
1.2.6 Air quality impacts ................................................................................................................... 10
1.3 Environmental Mitigation Measures......................................................................................... 11
2.0 BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES ............................................................................................... 12
2.1 Environmental Evaluation of Unconventional Operations ................................................. 12

2.1.1 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) ............................................................................ 12
2.2 Baseline Survey and Environmental Monitoring .................................................................. 13
2.2.1 Baseline Environmental Survey ............................................................................................ 13
2.2.2 Environmental Monitoring ...................................................................................................... 15
2.2.3 Advanced Geochemical Tracing Methods........................................................................... 16

2.3 Water Resources Management.................................................................................................. 17
2.3.1 Water Sourcing ........................................................................................................................ 17
2.3.2 Groundwater Management .................................................................................................... 20
2.3.3 Water Assessment Plan (WAP) ............................................................................................ 21
2.3.4 Water Delivery ......................................................................................................................... 23
2.3.5 Water Measurement ............................................................................................................... 25

2.3.6 Water Storage.......................................................................................................................... 26
2.3.7 Water Lifecycle Flowchart ...................................................................................................... 29
2.4 Wastewater Management ............................................................................................................ 29
2.4.1 Managing Fracturing Fluids and Recovered (Flowback & Produced) Waters ............... 30
2.4.2 Wastewater Pit Management ................................................................................................ 34
2.4.3 Sanitary Wastewater Management ...................................................................................... 36
© Saudi Arabian Oil Company, 2022 Page 2 of 86

2.5 Solid Waste Management............................................................................................................ 38

2.5.1 Waste Management Plan....................................................................................................... 38
2.5.2 Closed-Loop Drilling ............................................................................................................... 39
2.5.3 Drilling Waste Segregation .................................................................................................... 41

2.5.4 Drilling Waste Minimization through Improved Solids Separation ................................... 41
2.5.5 On-Site Treatment and Disposal of Drilling-Generated Wastes ...................................... 42
2.5.6 Centralized Disposal Facilities .............................................................................................. 43
2.5.7 Site Reclamation ..................................................................................................................... 44
2.6 Fluid/Spill Containment and Chemical Handling .................................................................. 45

2.6.1 Fluid/Spill Containment .......................................................................................................... 45
2.6.2 Management of Chemicals .................................................................................................... 49
2.7 Drilling Design and Execution ................................................................................................... 52
2.7.1 Drilling Site ............................................................................................................................... 52
2.7.2 Subsurface Well Location ...................................................................................................... 53
2.7.3 Protective Barrier Design and Construction ........................................................................ 54
2.8 Hydraulic Fracturing ..................................................................................................................... 62
2.8.1 Well Integrity Testing Prior to Hydraulic Fracturing ........................................................... 62
2.8.2 Hydraulic Fracturing Design and Execution ........................................................................ 65
2.8.3 Alternative Fracturing Technologies ..................................................................................... 69
2.9 Well Integrity Management ......................................................................................................... 71
2.10 Well Abandonment........................................................................................................................ 72
2.11 Air Emissions Management........................................................................................................ 74
2.11.1 Reduced Emissions Completions ......................................................................................... 75
2.11.2 Ambient Air Quality and Fugitive Sources Monitoring ....................................................... 77
2.11.3 Emissions Measurement – Routine and Emergency Flares ............................................ 78
2.11.4 Emissions Measurement – Root Cause Analysis – Emergency Flares.......................... 79

2.12 Radiation Protection ..................................................................................................................... 81
2.12.1 NORM Monitoring ................................................................................................................... 81
2.12.2 NORM – Worker Protection ................................................................................................... 82
2.12.3 Control of NORM contaminated Equipment ........................................................................ 82

2.12.4 NORM – Waste Control ......................................................................................................... 83

2.12.5 Radioactive Tracers ................................................................................................................ 84
3.0 CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................................................................. 85

Acknowledgment
This report was prepared by Mansor Kashir and is based on Reports from ALL Consulting Company,
USA that were prepared and submitted under Service Agreement Number 6600033927 between EPD
and ALL Consulting Company. The Consultant reports are:
• Volume 1: Background, Literature Review, References and BMP Summaries

• Volume 2: Best Management Practices and Implementation Guidance
BOTH REPORTS ARE PLACED IN EPD SHARED FOLDER
This summary report was reviewed and edited by:
• Mansor Kashir (EPD, Groundwater Protection and all other sections)

• Serguey Arkadakskiy (EPD, Groundwater Protection)
• Zeyad Ahmed (EPD, Wastewater Management)
• Esam Sayid (EPD, Air Quality Protection)
• Mojeed Oladimeji (EPD, Air Quality Protection)
• Jihad Shana'a (EPD, Land Protection)
• Michael Cowie (EPD, Radiation Protection)
• Luay Qtaish (EPD, Industrial Hygiene)
• Drew Hall (Unconventional Resources)

1.0 INTRODUCTION
This document is a summary of the reports submitted by the ALL Consulting Company, (USA)
describing the Environmental Best Management Practices (BMPs). These reports are placed on
EPD shared folder.
In 2014, EPD prepared the scope of work and contracted the work with the mentioned consultant
through our Aramco Services Company, Huston. The Consultant collected all relevant information
and visited the unconventional gas development sites at Northern Saudi Arabia and South Jafwra
fields, to witness the ongoing practices and field conditions at both locations. In addition, EPD
supplied all available relevant information to the consultant. During the course of the project,
EPD team had the chance to review the consultant work and provide comments to improve the
outcome of the project. The project was then concluded by conducting a detailed workshop that
was attended by EPD team and representatives from drilling and unconventional gas
departments. Review comments on the workshop materials and the project reports were provided
and considered to produce the final reports of the BMPs.
The aim of the BMPs is to ensure that company operations are conducted in compliance with
national, company and international environmental regulations and reduce any potential impact
on the Kingdom resources. The role of the BMPs is to supplement current Saudi Aramco technical
manuals, engineering procedures, general instructions and standards by providing a guidance on
how to conduct those practices in an environmentally responsible manner. The document
highlights the environmental challenges that are faced while developing unconventional gas
resources and provides a guidance on how to conduct those operations without exerting any
damage to the environment.
These BMPs are intended to serve as a blueprint of future Saudi Aramco environmental standards
and/or other documents dedicated to upstream unconventional (and conventional) operations.
The concerned departments and their contractors should follow these BMPs during the
transitional period after which new company standards and regulations will be prepared.
The main environmental concern associated with the development of Saudi Arabia’s
unconventional resources is the sustainability of the limited Kingdom’s groundwater resources.
Recent studies demonstrated that water consumption in the Kingdom is estimated to be five times
greater than the total renewable water recharge including all sources of groundwater recharge
both natural and artificial (i.e., dams and etc. Chowdhury and Al-Zahrani, 2015; FAO, 2009).
Since the available groundwater reserves are practically non-renewable, all possible efforts
should be devoted to protect these limited resources. Since the latest National environmental
regulations place no limit on the quality of groundwater to be protected, all groundwater aquifers
or parts thereof, not classified as hydrocarbon reservoirs, should be protected. The conservation
and protection of groundwater have been promoted by Government and Saudi Aramco’s policies
and regulations, the most important amongst being the following:
• Paragraph No. 8 of the 2002 General Environmental Law, which calls for conservation of
natural resources with emphasize on extending the longevity of the Kingdom’s non-
renewable resources;
• PME regulations (2014) require industrial facilities to apply all possible means and
technologies to conserve groundwater. The regulations also emphasize water

conservation and the use of treated wastewater in order to protect the Kingdom’s
groundwater resources;
• Saudi Aramco’s Water Conservation Policy promotes the use of alternative water sources;
• SAEP-13 “Project Environmental Impact Assessments” requires that an optimization
assessment study is conducted to evaluate the economic feasibility of utilizing alternative
water sources in all Company projects;
This document is divided into sub-sections detailing the various areas of best practices for each
area of environmental concern. Each BMP consists of a description of the practice, a list of
environmental and economic benefits and a guidance on how to implement the BMPs. The EPD
recognizes the fact that these recommended protection practices may result in higher capital
expenditures for the concerned department. However, the added costs are required to ensure
that the risks to human health and the environment associated with unconventional gas
development are minimized. It is often difficult to appreciate the potential benefits of adhering to
risk mitigating practices, since the economic benefits of those are realized by cost avoidance.
1.1 Principal Reference Sources

A study conducted by ALL Consulting, USA, retained to produce Environmental Best
Management Practices (BMPs) for unconventional gas development in Saudi Arabia serves as
the basis of this document. This study and references listed below were quoted in many parts of
the document and are available at Saudi Aramco web site.
• The General Authority of Meteorology and Environmental Protection (GAMEP)

o Wastewater Discharge Standards for KSA (2014) - WWS, 2014
o Ambient Water Quality Standard for KSA (2014) - AWQS, 2014
o Underground Injection Control Permit - UICP (1998, 2003)
• Saudi Aramco Environmental Policy
• INT-11 Water Conservation Policy Statement
• Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards
o SAES-A-104
o SAES-S-007
o SAES-A-010
o SAES-B-062
o SAES-013
o SAES-A-102
• Saudi Aramco Engineering Procedures
o SAEP-358
o SAEP-396
o SAEP-370
• Saudi Aramco General Instructions:
o GI 150.100
• Saudi Aramco Manuals:
o Saudi Aramco Drilling Manual (2013)
o Saudi Aramco Workover Manual (2013)
• EPD Documents
o SNC-Lavalin Inc. (2013) Final Report Onshore Drilling Environmental Impact
assessment, prepared for Saudi Aramco, May 2013 Project Number 510281

• American National Standards Institute/American Petroleum Institute:

o ANSI/API Recommended Practice 100-1 (2015) Hydraulic Fracturing - Well
Integrity and Fracture Containment
o ANSI/API Recommended Practice 100-2 (2015) Managing Environmental Aspects
Associated with Exploration and Production Operations Including Hydraulic
Fracturing
• United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management
o Oil and Gas; Hydraulic Fracturing on Federal and Indian Lands; Final Rule (2015)
• European Commission
o Exploration and Production of Hydrocarbons (Such as Shale Gas) Using High
Volume Hydraulic Fracturing in the EU (2014)
• Alberta Energy Regulator
o Directive 020: Well Abandonment (2013)
o Directive 083: Hydraulic Fracturing – Subsurface Integrity (2013)
• Energy Resources Conservation Board (ERCB)
o Regulating Unconventional Oil and Gas in Alberta: A Discussion Paper
• ENFORM, Canada
o Interim IRP 24: Fracture Stimulation: Interwellbore Communication. An Industry
Recommended Practice For The Canadian Oil And Gas Industry
• Norwegian Oil and Gas Association's Well Integrity Forum, Norwegian University of
Science and Technology and University of Stavanger
o An Introduction to Well Integrity (2012)
1.2 Environmental Challenges of Unconventional Gas Development

The principal environmental risk factors associated with unconventional hydrocarbon (natural gas)
development include high water consumption, toxicity of chemicals used, poor unconventional well
integrity, high well density, wastewater management, air quality impacts and waste management
issues.
1.2.1 High Water Consumption

Unconventional wells require significant amounts of water and in many occasions it is a fresh non-
renewable groundwater that is being used for these operations. The amounts of water may double,
or triple depending on how many times the wells will have to be re-fractured in order to maintain
the economic production rates. Since Saudi Arabia’s groundwater resources are practically non-
renewable, proper management of these resources is essential to the environmentally responsible
development of the KSA’s unconventional hydrocarbon resources.
1.2.2 Toxicity of Chemical Additives

There are numerous chemicals that are used for drilling and hydraulic fracturing and data indicates
that many of these chemicals have the potential to cause chronic toxicity and cancer health effects.
The list of hydraulic fracturing additives include chemicals classified as generally toxic, endocrine
disruptors, carcinogens and mutagens. Some of those chemicals are so toxic that they may
contaminate large volumes of groundwater even if released in small amounts. Others are volatile
and therefore present a hazard when evaporating from water make-up tanks and temporary
recovered water storage facilities. The biodegradability of most of these chemicals is poorly
understood, thus remedial actions are likely to be difficult/costly, or impossible, especially in deep

groundwater aquifers. This underscores the importance of proper chemical management in

unconventional operations.
Figure 1.1 Key environmental risks of hydraulic fracturing (after Environment Agency, 2012)
1.2.3 Integrity of the Unconventional Wells
Drilling and completion practices require that the well be sealed by casing throughout the aquifer
intervals. A properly cased well would allow the gas to be produced up the well to the surface,
preventing gas from leaking into the aquifer, contaminating groundwater. Similarly,
groundwater would be prevented from leaking down the well where it could interfere with the
gas production process. The challenge is sealing off the groundwater zone and isolating it from
possible contamination. As a groundwater protective measure against leaking, operating
companies are using a succession of casing types down the well from the surface through the
aquifer. Failure of the cement or casing surrounding the wellbore poses a great risk to water
supplies. Other potential contamination issues include:
• Release (loss of circulation) of toxic drilling fluids (i.e., oil-based muds) to groundwater
aquifers during drilling (exacerbated by the higher density of the unconventional wells);
• Propagation of hydraulic fractures outside of the target zone, also known as a
geological protection barrier failure. This is particularly important at “critical separation”
wells located in target zones that underlie high quality groundwater aquifers.

• Well integrity failures and the resulting leakage/migration of hydrocarbons or formation

water/brine (either in or outside the well’s protective casings) to lower pressure
permeable zones and/or to surface. Note: the unwanted leakage of natural gas to soil
or shallow groundwater aquifers and subsequently to municipal/private water wells in
North America has been exploited by the media. Similar cases in Aramco’s
unconventional development areas could be particularly damaging to the Company’s
public image.
1.2.4 Waste Management Issues

In contrast to conventional oil and gas operations, the development of unconventional resources
involves the drilling and completion of a significantly larger number of wells over a smaller area.
The high number of drilled wells will generate significant volumes of drilling waste including; drill
cuttings, drilling muds and the usual residual materials produced by each worksite. Drill cuttings
from the horizontal boreholes are often obtained from formations that contain radioactive zones
which can leach from these cuttings as they are exposed to oxygen at the ground surface.
In addition, drilling cuttings often contain hydrocarbon contaminates that could have adverse
environmental impacts. Drilling muds can also constitute an environmental risk because they
often contain some hydrocarbons and other contaminants. The amount and sequence of waste
generation creates far greater management problems to deal with at these sites.
1.2.5 Wastewater Management Issues
The unconventional gas industry generates wastewater primarily during fracturing activities (in
the form of flow back water) as well as from the decanting of drilling muds.
Flow back could include liquid hydrocarbons as well as toxic dissolved components and/or
Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM). Proper management is essential to reducing
the risk of surface and shallow groundwater contamination. The use of evaporation ponds is very
common practice in wastewater management. These ponds are used for both evaporation
purposes or as retention basins during bacterial control before reuse. However, the presence
of hydrocarbons in these ponds could limit evaporation processes and create air pollution
issues. In addition, entrainment of radionuclides in the flowback water could hinder the use
of these management options. Disposal of flow back water by injection at depth is a universal
practice. However, this option may not be available in all unconventional development areas.
Hauling wastewater to far away disposal wells may not be practical.
1.2.6 Air quality impacts
• Gas Flaring and burning of liquid hydrocarbons in burn pits;

• Natural gas leakage from faulty surface equipment;
• Regulated air pollutants releases from operational processes (mainly combustion)
• Greenhouse gases releases from drilling and production operations

• Volatile Organic Carbon (VOC) emissions from mixed hydraulic fracturing fluid storage
tanks and recovered water tanks or impoundments;
• Unwanted “behind pipe” leakage of hydrocarbons (natural gas) to surface;
1.3 Environmental Mitigation Measures
The environmental risks associated with unconventional development can be minimized by
adhering to the best management practices adopted worldwide and especially in areas where
unconventional development is now established as a mainstream hydrocarbon production activity
(i.e., the USA, Canada). Proper risk mitigation practices include (but are not limited to): the
development/implementation of an environmental baseline and monitoring programs;
consideration for flaring and emissions assessment and mitigation as part of regular job safety
analysis; the development and implementation of an appropriate water conservation and
management strategy; the proper design, construction, stimulation (fracturing), maintenance and
abandonment of the unconventional wells; proper chemical, solid and liquid waste management.
Hazardous chemical management is of particular importance and along with measures to prevent
spills and releases, it should also involve the substitution of highly toxic chemicals for less toxic
varieties. Knowledge of the chemical composition of those chemicals/additives ensures that
appropriate mitigation measures may be taken in case of accidental releases to the environment.

2.0 BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
This section comprises the reference of the best management practices Saudi Aramco should
follow in their development of the unconventional hydrocarbon resources in the Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia (KSA). Covered below are the following topics:
• Environmental evaluation;
• Baseline survey and environmental monitoring;
• Water resources management;
• Wastewater management;
• Solid waste management;
• Spill/fluid containment and chemical handling;
• Well drilling and cementing;
• Hydraulic fracturing;
• Well integrity;
• Well abandonment;
• Air emissions management;
• Radiation protection.
Each BMP is presented in sufficient detail so that it may serve as a template for actions and
implementation by the concerned Saudi Aramco departments and their contractors.
2.1 Environmental Evaluation of Unconventional Operations
Unconventional operations can be divided into exploration and production stages. The
environmental impact during the exploration stage is limited to small number of wells
drilled/stimulated. During the production stage, much more wells will be drilled and the impact
will be much greater however, by adopting best management practices, these impacts can be
reduced and development can be conducted without compromising or impacting the other
resources such as fresh aquifers, air quality and land or community impacts. The evaluation of
the environmental risks associated with Unconventional resource development, can be
addressed by a comprehensive Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) conducted by third party
consultants.
2.1.1 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
Once an unconventional resource potential has been established and an area has been
designated for development, a comprehensive Category III strategic Environmental Impact
Assessment per field shall be conducted as per SAEP-013. The EIA is prepared by a qualified
third-party environmental consulting company with expertise in unconventional operations. In
addition to the potential impacts to air, soil, groundwater, terrestrial ecology and historic and
cultural artifacts, the Scope of Work (SoW) of the EIA includes an evaluation of the environmental
risks associated with all subsurface activities such as drilling, stimulation, completion, production,
workover and abandonment at the same level of detail required for the Environmental Analysis

(EA) above. To ensure that the EIA will properly evaluate all aspect of Unconventional
Development EPD shall:
• Work with the proponent to produce an adequate Scope of Work (SoW) for the EIA;
• Participate in the selection of consulting companies, including the approval of a final list of
bidders to include only contractors with substantial experience in conducting
comprehensive Environmental Impact Assessments for Unconventional Resource
development projects;
• Participate in the technical evaluation of the bidding contractors;
• Make sure that the proponent provides the contractor retained to conduct the EIA with
adequate information to complete the EIA;
Once the EIA is prepared, a team of EPD specialists will review and comment on the document.
When all EPD comments have been addressed, the EIA will be submitted to the EPD for a final
review and approval. The finalized document will then be submitted to the Ministry of Petroleum
and Mineral Resources for approval.
The EIA should be updated whenever significant changes to the original development plans for
the area are made. Examples of such changes include significant design and construction
modifications to surface and subsurface facilities, extending operations outside the original area
(i.e., where geology is sufficiently different, or new relevant information about the geology has
become available), changes in clean water consumption volumes or wastewater disposal
practices and the implementation of large scale programs for re-fracturing of the wells.
At any time EPD may conduct inspections of unconventional drilling and stimulation operations to
ensure compliance with the National and Company environmental policies and regulations, these
BMPs and/or the conditions of approval (EA). EPD should also follow up the well drilling,
completion and stimulation progress on-line (i.e., the Morning Report) and if there are deviations
from the approved plan, that present greater risks to the environment, the EPD may request that
appropriate corrective measures are taken. EPD may also inspect any unconventional well/facility
during the production phase. Field inspections should focus on the surface facilities while record
reviews should examine available subsurface equipment performance records and logs for loss
of integrity, unwanted fluid migration and etc.
As noted above, the proponent/contractor should submit their plans to plug and abandon
unconventional wells and to rehabilitate the well pad surface according to the National and
Company guidelines and those BMPs. The EPD specialists may inspect both the well plugging
and surface restoration records to ensure that those were conducted as planned. The EPD
specialists may also request to witness the processes of well plugging and site restoration to
ensure that these are adequately conducted.
2.2 Baseline Survey and Environmental Monitoring
2.2.1 Baseline Environmental Survey

Description
A baseline environmental survey is an essential part of the unconventional resource development
plan. The purpose of the survey is to determine the environmental conditions such as air quality,

terrestrial ecology, soils, surface water and groundwater that exist in the area prior to resource
development. In addition to evaluating the nature and extent of potential future changes in the
local environment, baseline data are also intended to safeguard against unfounded litigation
based on preexisting (legacy) contamination or elevated background concentrations of naturally
occurring compounds (e.g., methane) in private or public water supply wells, soils and/or facilities.
In order to be effective, the baseline survey should be completed prior to or initiating
unconventional operation/production.
A baseline survey is essential to all projects assigned category III Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA), which due to the inherent risks to the environment include all unconventional
development projects. However, a baseline study should also be conducted as a part of the
Environmental Analysis during the exploratory stage of unconventional development. Depending
on the scope of the unconventional operations, the baseline study may vary from a small sampling
program to a large comprehensive study.
Where unconventional development is to take place in areas already under conventional

development, existing data and information from these areas may be used to complement the
survey on the conditions that the data: a) cover (vertically and laterally) the unconventional area
to be developed, b) contain relevant parameters (analytes) and c) are of acceptable quality and
recent origin. The list of components to be analyzed for an unconventional baseline survey (and
during the environmental monitoring stage) should be based upon on National environmental
regulations on air, soil and ambient water quality standards and should be approved by EPD.
Since the analysis of specific toxic chemical additives may not be mandated by Government
and/or Company standards, the list should be finalized after the compositions of all
chemicals/additives planned to be used at different stages of unconventional development are
disclosed to and reviewed by EPD.
The non-renewable nature of Saudi Arabia’s groundwater reserves underscores the need for
groundwater protection and conservation. Therefore, an unconventional baseline survey should
include a comprehensive hydrogeological section to identify all principal and secondary
groundwater aquifers, their outcrops/recharge areas (if present in the area) and relevant
hydrogeological parameters. That section should also include a review of all existing geological
geochemical and geochemical data (i.e., from geophysical logging, mug gas logging, seismic data
collection and etc.). All data collected during the hydrogeological study should be used to assess
groundwater aquifer vulnerability following industry accepted methodologies such as DRASTIC,
with the ultimate goal of providing an adequate assessment of all potential risks.
Environmental Benefit
The baseline survey is an essential part of the (Category III) Environmental Impact Assessment
and should also be a part of the proposed Environmental Analysis (EA) process. As such the
baseline survey is instrumental for identifying the potential risks and the mitigation measures to
safeguard the environment during the development of the unconventional hydrocarbon resources.
Economic Benefits
Baseline data provides defense against litigation that may be based on preexisting (legacy)
contamination or elevated background concentrations of naturally occurring compounds (e.g.,
methane in groundwater aquifers). The addition of advanced environmental forensic data (see
Section 2.2.3) during the baseline survey and also during the environmental monitoring stage may
result in significant cost savings throughout the lifecycle of an unconventional development
project.

Guidance
• To ensure integrity baseline surveys should be conducted prior to unconventional
exploration and production activities;
• The plan/scope of work (SoW) of the baseline survey should be reviewed and approved
by the EPD;
• Permanent sample sources such as air quality monitoring sites, groundwater wells, soil
gas probes and etc. should be established so that these can be used for an environmental
monitoring program;
• The baseline survey should include a comprehensive hydrogeological study to evaluate
the vulnerability of all groundwater aquifers in the area by using industry accepted
methodologies (e.g., DRASTC). The hydrogeological study should provide an adequate
risk assessment to all groundwater aquifers in the area;
• Baseline surveys should include advanced geochemical tracer studies to constrain the
local geochemical compositions of hydrocarbon (natural gases) and aqueous fluids in the
subsurface (and in the reservoir), which can be used to precisely identify the sources of
pollutants;
• Baseline surveys should include terrestrial ecology studies, identify wildlife habitats and
historic sites;
• Baseline surveys should be conducted by qualified consultants and under the guidance
and supervision of EPD specialists (in the case of wells see also the standard for sampling
groundwater wells). The personnel collecting air, soil and groundwater samples should be
trained and familiar with all industry accepted protocols for sample collection and handling;
• The analytical laboratory/laboratories that will analyze the samples should be accredited
through applicable international and national accreditation agencies (i.e., ISO and etc.) to
perform the analyses required. Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QA/QC) samples (e.g.,
blind duplicates, matrix spike duplicate, matrix spike/matrix spike duplicate (MS/MSD)
samples, trip blanks, and field blanks) should be collected analyzed and documented to
provide a higher level of confidence regarding the validity of the analytical results;
2.2.2 Environmental Monitoring

Description
Environmental monitoring is the natural extension of the baseline survey. It is essential for
unconventional development projects reaching the production stage and its purpose is to assess
the nature and extent of the changes or natural variations in air soil and water quality throughout
the life of an unconventional project. To be representative environmental monitoring should use
the same (or as close as possible to) sample sources such as air quality monitoring sites,
groundwater wells, soil gas probes and etc. established during the baseline survey. Additional
monitoring stations at new wellpads centralized facilities and etc. should also be established as
development in the area progresses.
An adequate environmental monitoring program is essential to all Unconventional projects as it
serves as an early warning system to identify environmental problems at a stage that these may
(still) be mitigated.
Economic Benefit
The principal economic benefits of environmental monitoring are realized through cost avoidance.
Fixing leaking wells in time and modifying fracturing practices to avoid out-of-zone fracture

propagation and the associated environmental and operational complications are amongst the
many benefits of proper environmental monitoring.
Guidance
• A detailed plan for environmental monitoring should be reviewed and approved by the
EPD prior to the beginning of significant production activities in the unconventional
development area;
• Regular monitoring of the air and groundwater quality should begin as soon as large scale
unconventional development is initiated
• Environmental monitoring should use both the data sample sources (wells, probes,
sample points) established during the baseline survey as well as new dedicated sampling
sources at wellpads, centralized facilities and etc. established as per the Environmental
Monitoring plan.
• New monitoring stations should also be established as development in the area
progresses;
• The same requirements listed above for the contractors conducting baseline studies are
valid for those conducting environmental monitoring;
2.2.3 Advanced Geochemical Tracing Methods

Description
Concern about the potential negative impacts of hydraulic fracturing to air, soils and the
groundwater has extended the scope of standard baseline and/or environmental monitoring
programs to include advanced geochemical tracing methods (environmental forensics). Those
typically include the determination of the molecular and isotope (stable and radiogenic)
compositions of hydrocarbon gases, noble gases such as He, Ne, Ar, Xe, Kr as well as the
concentrations and isotope compositions of dissolved solute and/or gas contents of waters and
brines. While advanced methods could be used ad hoc, their effectiveness is based on the fact
that different subsurface zones contain gases and fluids of different chemical, stable and
radiogenic isotope compositions. Thus, success rates increase significantly, if the compositions
of gases and liquids in the subsurface are determined preferably before or during the
environmental baseline survey of an area. Methods such as isotope mud gas logging, low-flow
deep groundwater sampling and MDT testing of flow zones (aquifers, hydrocarbon horizons) are
now routinely used by the resource industry to compile the subsurface geochemical databases
needed to ensure the greater effectiveness of those methods.
The use of carbon and hydrogen stable isotope analyses to determine the origin of methane
and/or other hydrocarbon gases in groundwater aquifers is one of the best examples of the
benefits of the advanced geochemical methods. Isotope data from unconventional development
areas worldwide demonstrate that methane and/or other hydrocarbon gases often originate
outside of the producing/fractured zones, and are thus unrelated to the resource industry
operations there. Consequently, the inclusion of advanced geochemical tracing methods in the
baseline surveys (and in the environmental monitoring) is one of the best management practices
that will be critical to Saudi Aramco’s ability to defend itself against frivolous litigation.
Advanced geochemical methods are also effective in establishing the integrity of geological
protective barriers (seals), monitoring the integrity of well protection barriers (cement, casing), the
propagation of hydraulic fracturing beyond the target zone (reservoir), tracing and apportioning
the fractions of different fluids in the recovered fluids (thus helping wastewater management).

Since these methods are cost effective, do not require downtime or the injection of artificial
tracers, Saudi Aramco could benefit from their wider use.
The application of environmental forensic methods is very important to both conventional and
unconventional projects since it increases significantly the likelihood of properly identifying, and
thus mitigating, the nature and source(s) of air, soil and groundwater contamination.
Economic Benefit
In addition to having the capability to effectively prevent frivolous litigation and hence safeguard
the Company’s reputation, advanced forensic studies may also help solve operational issues,
thus realizing significant savings to the Company.
Guidance
• Unconventional Development departments should approach EPD to enquire about the
various applications of advanced environmental forensic methods;
• EPD will assist in the development and/or the implementation of an appropriate advanced
forensic study tailored to the specific needs of concerned departments and/or their
contractors;
2.3 Water Resources Management

The pre-production stage of unconventional well development (i.e., from drilling to stimulation)
require significantly higher quantities of water than that needed for conventional wells. Hydraulic
fracturing comprises the majority of water use consuming on average from 6 to 9 Million BBL per
fracturing job. One of the measures used to counteract the rather steep unconventional production
rate decline is re-fracturing wells, which is widely practiced now in North America. Since re-
fracturing is conducted on more than one occasion, water demand during the lifetime of an
unconventional gas production project may increase dramatically. Considering the large number
of wells needed to economically develop unconventional resources, the stress placed on local
groundwater sources could be significant. Hence, proper water management is essential to
conserving and responsibly utilizing Saudi Arabia’s groundwater resources. The water resources
management concept presented in this document includes an evaluation of alternative water
resources for drilling and hydraulic fracturing operations, water acquisition, delivery
(transportation), storage, and conservation, as well as water metering and accounting. The
remaining aspects of the water lifecycle (e.g. water treatment, recycling/reuse, and disposal) for
unconventional development activities are also discussed in the following sections.
2.3.1 Water Sourcing

Description
As part of the water management program, and as per SAES-13 and INT-11 an in-depth analysis
should be conducted to determine the feasibility of using alternative water sources to replace
groundwater. Potential alternative sources of water include treated municipal, industrial
wastewater and/or seawater as well as wastewater from the Company’s own downstream
industrial facilities. Recent advances in hydraulic fracturing fluid formulations increasingly allow
the use of higher TDS waters for hydraulic fracturing. That enables the potential use of treated
seawater, groundwater from saline aquifers and treated co-produced water from conventional

operations for hydraulic fracturing. To further reduce water demand, unconventional operations
should also consider the reuse of treated (either on or off site) recovered fluids, produced water,
and/or water from water-based drilling muds.
The use of alternative water supply sources has the potential to dramatically reduce the impact
of unconventional development on the local non-renewable groundwater resources, thereby
saving better quality groundwater for local municipal and/or agricultural uses.
Economic Benefit
An in-depth water supply analysis should help to identify cheaper and more sustainable water
sources for the unconventional operations. That will not only reduce Saudi Aramco’s demand on
the already strained groundwater resources, but may also help lower costs and improve
economics.
Guidance
An in-depth water supply analysis should be conducted to determine the availability and feasibility
of utilizing alternative water sources for Saudi Aramco’s unconventional oil and gas operations.
The analysis should take into consideration the water quality (i.e., whether treatment may be
necessary), the available water volumes (including source supply reliability), the proximity of the
water source/sources to the location where the water will be used and the options for effectively
and economically delivering the water to the drill site(s).
2.3.1.1 Alternative Water Sourcing Decision Tree

There are technical and economic drivers that factor into the decision of which alternative water
source would be the most appropriate for Saudi Aramco’s planned unconventional gas
development program in lieu of withdrawals from groundwater aquifers. A decision tree has been
developed (Figure 2.1) as an initial point of reference to highlight the key elements to be
considered and to assist Saudi Aramco with this process.

Figure 2.1 Alternative water source decision tree.

2.3.2 Groundwater Management

2.3.2.1 Aquifer Optimal Yield
Description
The concept of aquifer safe yield is based on sustainable withdrawal of groundwater that does
not result in either depletion of the aquifer or impairment of the quality of groundwater due to
overdraft. Over pumping an aquifer can result in water quality deterioration (i.e., dramatic loss of
hydrostatic head resulting in the intrusion of poor quality water from low permeability zones) and
hydraulic shortcutting between stratigraphically adjacent aquifers. Because the groundwater
aquifers in the two regional areas of exploration (northern and southeastern regional areas) are
non-renewable resources, it is not possible to manage withdrawal for true sustainability; in
essence safe yield cannot be established. Therefore, managing for optimal yield through carefully
managed “smart mining” of groundwater for efficient use must be the goal for the non-renewable
groundwater resources of KSA. The Groundwater Division of the Reservoir Characterization
Department (RCD) is the organization within Saudi Aramco tasked with the management of
groundwater resources for the Company needs.
Producing a water supply well at too great a pumping rate can adversely impact the water
quality and long-term productivity of the well and, hence, the aquifer.
Economic Benefit
Establishing and adhering to a pumping rate at or below the optimal discharge rate of the well
will maximize the efficient, and therefore economic, production of groundwater.
Guidance
Sourcing groundwater for oil and gas development purposes must involve evaluating resource
availability against competing demands for the use of these non-renewable potable water
supplies.
• Aquifer pump tests must be conducted to determine aquifer properties. Pump tests can
be performed on single wells; however, it is advantageous to test and observe the
drawdown effects in multiple wells. The use of multiple wells allows for analysis of
permeability/hydraulic conductivity, storativity and specific yield of the aquifer, which are
all important parameters in evaluating the efficient development of the groundwater
resource. This is to establish optimal pumping rates for the water supply wells at the area
to be developed.
• In addition to optimizing any water withdrawal from potentially potable aquifers, these
same techniques can be used to evaluate the potential use of saline aquifers. If saline
aquifers are discovered, their development as a source of make-up water would be
preferable to the use of potable water resources.
2.3.2.1 Aquifer Modeling

Description
Over pumping an aquifer can result in water quality deterioration (i.e., dramatic loss of hydrostatic
head resulting in the intrusion of poor quality water from low permeability zones) and hydraulic
shortcutting between stratigraphically adjacent aquifers. Therefore, modeling of groundwater
resources (i.e., mathematical analyses of aquifer data typically performed by computer programs
to provide predictive simulations of various groundwater parameters like flow, water quality, etc.)
will aid in the efficient and strategic development of these non-renewable aquifers. Such modeling

of geologic and hydrogeologic data will facilitate the wise development of these non-renewable
resources and, hence, serve to prolong their useful life. Groundwater aquifer modeling is also a
function of the Company’s Groundwater Division.
It will also minimize the potential for overdrafting and dewatering a portion of an aquifer, which
can adversely impact the water quality and long-term productivity of the aquifer. Allowing
effective management of the resources to prolong their useful life for the benefit of society.
Economic Benefit
Modeling and planning in advance to determine the number, spacing, and optimal withdrawal
rates of water supply wells can minimize the total number of water wells drilled and maximize
the pumping efficiency of those wells, thereby conserving the limited water resources in Saudi
Arabia.
Guidance
The following actions should be used to implement this BMP:
• Use analytical modeling to support development of water supply well fields (Smart
Mining). Various mathematical simulation models such as the U.S. Geological Survey’s
MODFLOW and related computer programs provide the means to perform aquifer
modeling.
• Employ model results to locate water wells to maximize efficiency of water sourcing and
minimize adverse impacts on non-renewable aquifers.
2.3.3 Water Assessment Plan (WAP)

Description
To optimize water use and foster conservation, a water management plan commensurate with
the needs of the unconventional drilling, completion and well stimulation (hydraulic fracturing)
program should be developed. A Water Assessment Plan (WAP) is an essential part of the water
management and should comprise of a cradle-to-grave management and accounting system
capable of providing full understanding of the water life cycle. The principle stages of the water
lifecycle for unconventional operations include sourcing, transportation, storage, treatment,
consumption and disposal. An assessment of each category will facilitate the development of the
WAP so that the plan can be used to assess costs and water-related management options as
well as to identify water loss points. WAP must define source water locations, establish water
quality and quantity (including the volume of water scheduled for storing), the volume of water
necessary to support an end use, and the volume of water that will be reused or disposed. The
WAP should also consider the logistics involved with the transportation or transfer of water from
an initial source (e.g., local aquifer, impoundment, storage devices, etc.) and the time frame
required to receive the water. Figure 2.2 presents a flow diagram illustrating the lifecycle of water
for unconventional oil and gas operations and the suggested measuring points for the WAP.
The successful implementation of a water accounting strategy to accurately estimate the water
lifecycle is contingent on the ability to meter water volumes at each water source and consumption
point in the process. The objective of the strategy is to obtain the necessary data so that at any
time, accurate volumes by water source, type, and location can be used to facilitate management
decisions associated with costs (e.g., water sourcing, transport, storage, treatment, use and
disposal), timing and reliability of supply, and water conservation. The water accounting system
will facilitate water conservation, thereby reducing costs associated with water management.

Figure 2.2 Components of the Water Lifecycle for Unconventional Oil and Gas Development
(Source: ALL Consulting, 2015)
A comprehensive Water Assessment Plan (WAP) will provide an accurate evaluation of the water
lifecycle during unconventional operations, which is essential to responsible water utilization. A
better understanding of the water life cycle will facilitate more informed decision making by
management that in turn will further improve water conservation.
Economic Benefit
A better understanding of the operational water lifecycle, to include volumes sourced, used, and
disposed, will not only foster a more efficient water use but may also reduce significantly costs
associated with water sourcing and water management.
Guidance
A comprehensive water assessment plan commensurate with the needs of the unconventional
development program should be developed. The development of this plan requires that at
minimum the following is conducted:
• Develop a target list of core analytical parameters should be used to capture baseline
conditions based on geographic or geologic conditions in order to determine whether local
water sources are fit to support operational needs, (Section 2.1);
• A detailed audit of all water volumes necessary to support end-users, the volumes of
surplus water, and the volumes of water loss should be completed in order to enable
effective water conservation strategies;

• A water lifecycle with supporting purpose and goals should be established to prioritize
uses by water quality and volume and to benchmark current Saudi Aramco water uses;
• A proper water metering system should be developed and implemented;
Relevant guidance is also presented in Sections 2.3.5 and 2.3.6, respectively.
2.3.4 Water Delivery

Description
The delivery of clean water needed for drilling and hydraulic fracturing to and from well sites
and/or multi well pads during the different phases of unconventional resource development is an
important part of the water management plan. Environmental and economic factors influence
different aspects of the plan such as the selection of transportation method (i.e., truck
transportation vs. pipelines), the pipeline type and/or material used and also whether above-
ground or buried pipes are used. Pipelines are more cost efficient than trucking, and could also
mitigate water loss and environmental impacts. Aluminum piping has been used as the primary
means to transport water from water supply wells to the well pads during Saudi Aramco operations
(Figure 2.3). However, the installation of aluminum piping can be labor intensive and their
couplings are prone to leaks. Other types of piping, such as spoolable high density polyethylene
(HDPE) or lay-flat hose are typically less labor-intensive to install and have fewer couplings
designed to minimize leaks (see Figures 2.4 and Figure 2.5).
Burying pipelines (or sections thereof) removes the lines from exposure to the elements, thus
reducing the potential for damage and leaks. Buried pipelines are also less susceptible to damage
from vehicles and vandalism. The decision of whether to bury the water delivery piping will depend
upon a number of factors including the piping type (i.e., rigid metal vs. flexible plastic lines, the
latter being unsuitable for burial), the potential for damage to the pipe, as well as the length of
time that the pipeline will be in use. Additionally, the decision of whether or not to use permanent
water pipelines depends on the planned lifetime of the unconventional project.
Proper design and use of suitable pipeline material can help conserve freshwater water by
reducing the potential for leaks. Pipeline safeguard installation and monitoring will minimize water
waste and if the pipeline transports contaminated fluid will help to reduce/contain soil and/or
groundwater contamination.
Economic Benefit
The use of HDPE or lay-flat lines can reduce operational costs relative to more traditional
pipelines, such as aluminum, because the lines can be installed more efficiently and they are less
susceptible to leaks and water losses. Timely discovery of pipeline failures will reduce water
waste.
Guidance
• All Government and Company requirements regarding the utilization of pipelines for fluid
delivery should be followed;
• Water pipeline design and choice of materials should consider but not be limited to the
following: the compatibility of the piping material with the fluids being transported (e.g., to
reduce corrosion), the anticipated fluid flow rates and operating pressures as well as the
need for burial and etc.

• Pipelines should be positioned away from traffic and/or be properly shielded so that the
possibility of damage to the pipeline integrity is minimized. If necessary, pipelines or critical
sections thereof could be buried for better protection;
Figure 2.3 Aluminum water transfer pipe installed in KSA.
Figure 2.4 Tractor with spool of lay-flat hose. Figure 2.5 Lay flat hose installed across
pasture.
• To minimize leaks and potential water loss as well as maintenance costs rolling plastic
lines should be favored over rigid metal (aluminum) lines. However, flexible lines have
certain limitations (i.e., these cannot be buried), which should also be considered;

• After installation, piping should be tested and inspected to ensure integrity. If leaks are
identified, piping should be promptly repaired;
• Proper operational safeguards to identify pipeline failures should be installed and a
monitoring plan that includes periodic inspection of the water delivery system should be
developed to insure early detection of pipeline damage so that spills are minimized and
corrective measures implemented in timely manner;
• Upon completion of operations, pipelines should be flushed before being dismantled, with
the flush water disposed of according to the appropriate Government and Company
standards and regulations.
2.3.5 Water Measurement

Description
The volume of water for each end-use, reuse, storage, etc. should be measured (see Figure 2.6)
as part of a water accounting system so that volume patterns and needs for each end-use are
understood. An accurate measurement of water volumes allows the operator to collect the
necessary data to anticipate current as well as future needs, and to determine if water
conservation strategies can be implemented to support water demand.
Figure 2.6 Water Meter Showing Current Pump Rate and Total Barrels Pumped.
The measurement of water should also include the volumes of water going to treatment or reuse.
The volume of water pumped into storage impoundments should be compared to the volume
in storage and the volume pumped from storage to account for water loss due to evaporation.
Water meters should not be prone to glitches that could be caused by weather conditions. Errors
from such glitches could yield huge errors in water measurements.
An accurate account of the volume of water being sourced and where and how the water is being
used, will help identify the volumes of water used in each phase of the development process.
Once the water uses and volumes are understood, those water uses can be evaluated to identify
measures that would reduce fresh water usage and improve economics. In addition, a water
measurement system can be used to help identify potential leaks in pipelines and minimize water
loss, or reduce environmental impact in situations where flowback or produced water is being
transported.
Economic Benefit

Accurate measurements conserve water by identifying water loss a n d reduce water handling
and water-related infrastructure, as well as the costs associated with water management.
Guidance
In order to develop a comprehensive and sustainable water measurement system, the following
should be implemented:
• Installing meters on all water sourcing and use locations and initiate a water meter calibration
program;
• Identifying volume of water loss and corrective actions to reduce loss, and;
• Developing a centralized and single data collection system to determine the total volume of
water sourced, transported, used, and disposed.
2.3.6 Water Storage

Description
The pre-production stage of unconventional wells (i.e., drilling, stimulation and completion)
consumes significantly larger quantities of clean water when compared to conventional wells.
Hence, large water quantities are not only delivered but also stored on site. Clean water may be
stored either in engineered (lined) in-ground impoundments (Figure 2.9) or in above-ground steel
or fiberglass tanks (Figure 2.7). The latter are modular reservoirs that should contain no more
than 500 bbl (Figure 2.8). Both water storage methods have advantages and disadvantages and
the selection of a particular method will depend upon a number of factors such as site location,
size of operations, time, ease of construction and relocations and etc. Modular steel storage tanks
provide a number of environmental advantages over in-ground impoundments. These include:
• Significant minimization of the facility footprint;

• Less construction and material costs;
• Reusability;
• Dual use - metal tanks can also be used for making up (mixing) and storing fracturing fluid
as well as for recovered water storage (see Section 2.4.1).
Figure 2.7 Bolted steel open-top above ground tank.
Another advantage of the modular tank storage is their smaller surface area, which minimizes
evaporative losses. The high ambient air temperatures and low relative humidity of Saudi Arabia’s

climate makes evaporation a serious water loss problem. If water is stored in open impoundments
with large surface areas, water loss could be significant and should be factored in the water
accounting plan/costs. The installation of HDPE floating covers is an effective method to reduce
evaporation. That method has been implemented in North America as a component of the
operators Water Management Programs. However, plastic cover use in Saudi Arabia may be
limited by the accumulation of windblown sediment a top of the cover. Mitigation measures such
as barrier fencing installed on the prevailing upwind side of the impoundments could mitigate the
problem.
Clean water can also be stored in centralized storage facilities designed and constructed to have
adequate capacity to meet the planned volume and water quality needs to support operations.
Based on the size of the unconventional area, as well as on the existing infrastructure, a
centralized facility may be a more efficient approach to clean water storage and should, therefore
be considered during the formulation stage of an integrated unconventional field development
plan.
Figure 2.8 Modular above ground impoundment.
Environmental Benefits
The use of proper clean water storage facilities will minimize water losses and the impact on local
water resources. The use of modular steel tanks would not only minimize water loss but will also
reduce the drill pad/facility’s footprint. The use of a centralized water storage facility may further
reduce water losses and the overall footprint of the unconventional facilities/drill pads.

Figure 2.9 Engineered in-ground impoundment.
Economic Benefits
Proper storage that minimizes the loss of water will reduce significantly the costs associated with
water supply.
Guidance
• Clean water should be stored either in steel/fiberglass tanks or in properly lined earth
ponds. No clean water should ever be stored in an unlined earthen impoundments/pits for
water losses will be severe and unjustifiable;
• Modular above-ground storage tanks should be the preferred method for fresh water
storage, since these have important advantages over the in-ground impoundments;
• Floating covers may be installed on open-top storage impoundments to minimize
evaporation. To mitigate the risk of windblown sediment deposition and floating cover
failure, wind barrier fencing should be installed on the prevailing upwind side of the
impoundments;
• An interconnected network of water storage facilities including centralized storage facilities
should be considered wherever feasible.

Figure 2.10 Life water cycle flow chart (Source: ALL Consulting, 2015)
2.3.7 Water Lifecycle Flowchart

The Water Lifecycle Flowchart (Figure 2.10) delineates the potential water sources, inbound
treatment, storage, points of water consumption and production, and potential treatment for reuse
or disposal associated with the development of unconventional gas resources in the KSA. The
diagram also indicates the points of water measurement that will provide the data needed to
implement a water tracking system as well as the relative volumes involved with each use and
production point. The columns in the flowchart are the main categories of water sources, uses
and activities within the water management system. Within each column are the details of water
types, any treatment applied, and storage methods, metering points, and activities where water
is consumed, produced, treated for reuse, or disposed. By following this comprehensive
approach, Saudi Aramco can increase the efficiency of its development activities while also
reducing its consumptive use of water and, hence, minimizing environmental impacts.
2.4 Wastewater Management

2.4.1 Managing Fracturing Fluids and Recovered (Flowback & Produced) Waters
Description
Once mixed with the chemical additives, the water to be used for hydraulic fracturing becomes an
environmental hazard that should be managed according to the relevant National and Saudi
Aramco hazardous wastewater codes and regulations. Proper training and the use of personal
protection gear in accordance with Saudi Aramco regulations is imperative to safeguard the health
and safety of personnel involved with recovered fluid and produced water management and
handling. Following hydraulic fracturing, an unconventional well will typically co-produce a
relatively large volume of water that comprises a mixture of fracturing fluid and formation
water/brine and/or water of condensation known as recovered fluid. The recovered fluid may also
contain gaseous and liquid hydrocarbons e.g., BTEX, VOC, toxic dissolved elements and/or
compounds and/or NORM brought from the reservoir. Hence, recovered fluids also fall into the
hazardous wastewater group and as such these should be managed accordingly. With time
(about 90 days on average for North American operators), the fraction of hydraulic fracturing fluid
in the mixture will diminish significantly, which in many instances will be accompanied by a
significant reduction of the total volume of aqueous fluids co-produced from the well. Wells
completed in reservoirs at or below irreducible water saturation may end up co-producing small
amounts of aqueous fluid consisting predominantly of water of condensate. However, other
unconventional wells may continue co-producing appreciable quantities of formation water/brine,
i.e., produced water. The potential presence of NORM and other toxic dissolved constituents (e.g.,
BTEX, VOC, Br, Hg, As and etc.) in those fluids renders the produced water a potential
environmental hazard. Consequently, proper management of all environmentally hazardous
unconventional fluids, including the storage, transportation, treatment and disposal of mixed
fracturing fluids and recovered waters is of utmost importance to preserving soil and shallow
groundwater in the unconventional development areas. Extra care should be exercised in areas
where groundwater aquifer vulnerability is high and shallow groundwater quality is good.
The design and execution of a proper fracturing and recovered water management plan is one of
the most important factors concerning environment protection in areas of Unconventional
development. Proper storage and/or transportation of those fluids are essential at preventing
catastrophic spills and releases at surface, while the treatment and reuse of the recovered fluids
will reduce the demand on water resources that might otherwise be used as sources for hydraulic
fracturing make-up water. This will also minimize the volume of waste ultimately requiring
disposal. The use of central wastewater storage and treatment facilities could also be beneficial
by reducing the wellpad footprints.
Economic Benefit
The use of centralized wastewater storage and treatment facilities will reduce significantly the
wastewater management costs. Reducing demand on freshwater aquifers from unconventional
gas development activities preserves the opportunity for other beneficial uses of those water
resources within the KSA.
Guidance
As noted a typical fracturing and recovered fluid management plan consists of the following:
storage, transportation, treatment and reuse (if economically feasible) and disposal. These
elements are discussed below:
Storage: The mixed hydraulic fracturing fluid and the recovered fluids should be temporarily
stored (i.e., prior to be transported for disposal) in modular steel (or fiberglass) tanks not

exceeding 500 bbl and equipped with adequate secondary enclosures. The maximum size of the
individual tanks is justified by the history of catastrophic failures of larger storage tanks. The tanks
should be at the very minimum netted to prevent wildlife death. Plastic covers compatible with the
chemicals/hydrocarbons in the water to be stored can be used to reduce volatile organic
compound (VOC) emissions. However, closed-loop VOC systems are suggested instead in areas
close to human settlements/plants/facilities. Lined surface impoundments may be used for
recovered water storage only as a last resort and on a case-by-case basis upon EPD approval.
Exceptions may be granted only if the following conditions are met:
• It is demonstrated unequivocally that the use of steel tanks is not feasible for public health
and safety and environmental reasons;
• The pit is built as per SAES-A-104 and the pit liners should be selected for compatibility
with the type of water stored and for durability under the environmental and operational
conditions expected at the storage location;
• Irrespective of the above, no pits will be allowed in environmentally sensitive areas,
including areas flagged by the DRASTIC groundwater vulnerability model;
When water storage facilities are no longer required, these should be properly decontaminated
and/or removed for reuse or disposal at an approved facility.
Transportation: On the basis of expected volumes and existing infrastructure, a consideration

should be made whether pipelines or trucks be used for recovered fluid transportation.
Transportation is essential at determining the feasibility and type of treatment facilities (i.e., local
or centralized)
Treatment and Reuse: The treatment and reuse of recovered waters should be preferred over
disposal whenever possible and/or feasible. Proper treatment of flowback and produced water
from hydraulically fractured wells to an acceptable quality for reuse in future fracturing jobs
reduces demand on local water resources. The methods of treatment vary widely based on the
constituents in the untreated water and the target water quality characteristics that must be
achieved for reuse in future fracturing jobs. Significant developments in two key areas have
improved the viability of flowback/produced water treatment:
• Innovations in fracturing fluid chemistry have made it possible to use non-freshwater

sources for hydraulic fracturing make-up water;
• Innovations across the range of treatment technologies available to process the water
continue to improve the feasibility of treatment for reuse.
In addition to transportation and storage, the following criteria are essential in determining the
feasibility of on-site or centralized treatment facilities:
Recovered Water Quality: The characteristics of flowback and produced water vary
significantly from play to play and within plays due to variations in chemical/mineral
composition of the target reservoirs. As a result, water testing and analysis is necessary
so that the most appropriate treatment technology can be identified and selected to ensure
the delivery of appropriate water quality for reuse in future hydraulic fracturing jobs.
Recovered Water Volumes: An assessment of flowback/produced water volumes

generated from each well in the unconventional development areas should be conducted
to ensure whether adequate volumes will be consistently available;

Fracturing Water Demand: Estimates of the hydraulic fracturing fluid volume required to
support the planned level of drilling and completion activity should be established for each
area.
Fracturing Water Quality: Based on the current and anticipated hydraulic fracturing fluid
design(s), the water quality needs of make-up water must be defined.
Contaminants: To meet the hydraulic fracturing make-up water requirements specific

contaminants in the recovered fluids may need to be removed or reduced in concentration.
The characteristics of recovered water vary significantly during the well life as well as from
area to area or even within an area due to the different mixing ratio as well as the variations
in chemical/mineral composition of the reservoirs. Therefore, regular water testing is
necessary to establish the most appropriate treatment technology that will ensure the
delivery of good quality water for reuse in the future hydraulic fracturing jobs. The primary
contaminants of concern for the purposes of treatment for reuse are:
• Total Suspended Solids (TSS);

• Total Dissolved Solids (TDS);
• Concentration of specific scale-forming chemicals (such as Fe, Ca, B, Ba, etc.);
• Microbial content;
• Residual hydrocarbon content;
Once those contaminants have been assessed, a plan should be developed to assemble
the suite of technologies necessary to treat the expected water volumes to deliver water
at the required quality for reuse. Most of the water treatment technologies will produce a
waste stream that will require disposal. Hence, a provision for waste handling should also
be included in the treatment plan. Technologies currently in use in unconventional plays
internationally include:
TSS reduction: Filtration systems are the most common technology used to remove
suspended solids. Hydrocyclones and centrifuges are effective at removing solids on a
continuous basis and producing less solid waste for disposal;

Figure 2.11 Produced/Flowback Water treatment Decision Tree (Source: ALL Consulting, 2015)
TDS reduction: Reverse Osmosis (RO), thermal processes (including distillation,

evaporation and crystallization) and Carrier Gas Extraction (CGE) are technologies that
have been used to reduce TDS in flowback and produced water;
Chemical Treatment: Treatment designed to precipitate specific scale-forming

components from the flowback and produced water; softening, coagulation and advanced
oxidation.

Biocide treatment: The systematic addition of specific chemicals to disinfect the flowback
and produced water prior to reuse is an effective method to control microbial activity;
Oil (liquid hydrocarbon) removal: Systems to remove oil include static separation in
tanks equipped with skimmers, filtration, hydrocyclones, dissolved air/gas floatation and
centrifugation, fluid acceleration, adsorption, and liquid-liquid extraction;
The range of water treatment technologies used in the global development of hydraulically
fractured plays is large and each technology is typically focused on specific constituents in the
untreated produced/flowback waters. A decision tree shown on Figure 2.11, has been developed
as a general and initial reference for the selection of potentially appropriate technologies while
developing a water treatment and reuse plan. For further clarifications or questions on the diagram
or treatment technologies, EPD specialists can be approached for consultation.
Disposal of Recovered Waters: If water reuse is not feasible either for the entire volume or
fractions/residues of the recovered waters, these should be properly disposed of. Since the
recovered water toxicity is of primary concern, disposal methods should be limited to deep aquifer
or hydrocarbon bearing formation injection and disposal to an evaporation ponds. Wastewater
injection should be conducted in accordance with all existing Government and Saudi Aramco
policies and regulations (i.e., WWS, 2014, AWQS, 2014; the UICP requirements as well as SAES-
A-104). With respect to the current Saudi Arabian environmental requirements, wastewater
injection into hydrocarbon-bearing horizons is preferable to that into non-hydrocarbon bearing
zones or aquifers, since the latter requires Government permitting (i.e., Underground Injection
Control Permit). Disposal to an evaporation pond/ponds is strongly discouraged by the EPD due
to the history of misuse and leakages that has caused environmental damage to soils and shallow
groundwater. With the exception of disposing to a hydrocarbon bearing zone recovered fluids will
have to be treated to meet the respective National and Saudi Aramco standards and regulations.
2.4.2 Wastewater Pit Management

Description
A proper inspection program for all pits or ponds storing waste fluids recovered during
unconventional operations is essential for identifying needed maintenance or repair. The program
will reduce the risk of environmental releases, since potential problems can be identified early on
and rectified before an environmental release occurs. Use of annual inspections, quarterly
inspections, and informal observations on a daily or weekly basis gives the best opportunity for
identifying such issues. Regular monitoring of the groundwater monitoring wells (SAES-A-104) is
essential for the early indication of leakages to local groundwater. Record keeping of inspections
can identify reoccurring problems that may require further corrective actions.
A wastewater pit inspection program will reduce the risk of environmental releases because
potential problems can be identified early, and rectified before an environmental release occurs.
Economic Benefit
Establishing and implementing a pit inspection program can identify potential integrity problems
before they escalate into costly repairs, reconstruction and/or Government imposed fines and
remedial costs.
Guidance

General Site Conditions

The first component of a pit inspection is to evaluate the general site conditions around the
pit/pond.
Figure 2.20 Pit berm at risk of being breached.
Figure 2.21 Tear in liner near wrinkle.
Items to assess include:

• Safety devices and warning signs – in place, visible, and accessible;
• Perimeter fence and gates – confirm the area is secure.
• General site condition – free of trash and debris and the site maintained.
Pit/Pond Conditions

Liners are inspected for evidence of sloughing, sliding, or slumping of fill under the liner. They
are also checked for cracks, tears, settlement, bubbles or bulges and should be intact and tight
against the fill, (Figures 2.20 - 2.23).
Figure 2.22 Liner puncture and fatigue.
Figure 2.23 Ballooning of a Liner
The corners of the liner should be free of abrasions and the depth markings visible and easily read
from a distance. Any trash and debris, or unwanted vegetative growth if present can be identified
and noted for later action or removed.
Embankment Conditions
Signs of erosion, settlement, ruts or transverse cracking in the embankments are to be noted and
repair work orders processed for immediate attention.
2.4.3 Sanitary Wastewater Management

Description
Practices that protect human health and the environment from the potential hazards associated
with sanitary waste, are central considerations in the management of sanitary waste storage and
treatment on remote well pads, and include methods of containment, treatment and disposal of
sanitary wastes.
Proper containment and disposal of sanitary waste protects the health of workers at the remote
sites and prevents potential environmental impacts.
Economic Benefit
Establishing and implementing proper storage and treatment/disposal of sanitary wastes
will minimize the potential for illness among workers or the public and thus provide the
economic benefit of ensuring a healthy workforce.
Guidance
Best management practices that reduce or eliminate risks of human exposure to sanitary wastes
and potential impacts to the environment include methods of containment, treatment and disposal
of sanitary wastes generated at the remote well sites, including:
• Small flow wastewater disposal systems (e.g., septic tanks as shown in Figure 2.12)
should be used;
• The treatment system should be located at a safe distance from the living quarters for
site personnel. Sufficient setback distance reduces the likelihood of pathogens contained
in the waste being transmitted to the personnel on-site through direct or indirect contact;
• Settled solids in the primary containment tank should be periodically vacuumed out,
removed, and disposed of at an approved sanitary waste treatment/disposal facility.
Figure 2.12 Septic Tank.
Existing Aramco codes and standards (SADHS, SAES-A-104, and the SAEP for environmental
requirements for D&WO operations, as applicable) provide the details for siting, installation and
operation of sanitary wastewater treatment systems for remote operations.

2.5 Solid Waste Management

Unconventional gas development generates a variety of wastes from each phase of operations,
including solid and liquid wastes. These wastes must be treated and disposed of, or
recycled/reused. The following guidance represents a broad-based approach for the planning,
minimization, segregation, recycling, treatment, and disposal of these wastes.
2.5.1 Waste Management Plan

Description
Properly managed waste reduces the company’s operating costs and liabilities while also
minimizing environmental and safety impacts as well as documenting compliance with applicable
regulations. A Waste Management Plan (WMP) developed specifically for Saudi Aramco’s
unconventional operations would help ensure compliance and proper documentation for the
identification, classification, minimization, handling, and disposal of solid and liquid wastes
generated by construction, drilling completion and production operations.
Once created, the WMP should be consulted whenever waste management decisions are made.
Applying consistent waste management techniques safeguards compliance, maintenance,
material handling, and the environment. The objectives of a WMP are:
• To assist project and contractor personnel in managing their wastes effectively and within
the requirements of established Project policies and applicable waste regulations, and
• To act as a communications and decision making tool for Project policy on waste
management.
A WMP would cover waste segregation, handling, packaging, recycling, manifesting, and disposal
(or discharge) of all types of waste typically generated during exploration and development
operations. Limiting waste quantities by recycling, reuse, alternative handling, etc., could be
included in the scope of the plan, although these are typically components of a complete waste
management system.
A WMP also enables better regulatory compliance and cost containment, and provides
opportunities for auditing and tracking waste streams across an operation.
Economic Benefit
Improving economic efficiency through proper waste management allows for tailored resource
use, treatment and disposal that in turn can create markets for recyclables. New markets can
lead to efficient practices in the production and consumption of products and materials resulting
in the potential for new jobs and new business opportunities.
Guidance
• WMP’s are intended to provide guidance during all phases of exploration and development
and consequently will need to be updated periodically. The plan should be developed
and revised as the exploration and development drilling progresses and more supporting
design details are established and procedures are identified.
• WMP’s need to be periodically reviewed and modified, as necessary, to help make sure
that they are complete, accurate, and up-to-date with current treatment or operational
activities and waste types generated.

2.5.2 Closed-Loop Drilling

Description
Closed-loop drilling is a method employed to drill oil and gas wells without the need for the
construction of a reserve drilling waste pit. By using mechanical and chemically enhanced
separation equipment, the closed-loop system removes drill solids from the drilling fluid and
produces dry waste suitable for treatment and disposal. Tangible environmental benefits derived
from utilization of the closed-loop drilling practice include the following:
• Reduction in the size of the well pads with an associated reduction in the disturbed surface
area;
• Soil and groundwater protection;
• Waste minimization;
• Water treatment for reuse and water resource preservation;
Closed-loop systems typically include a series of shaker screens, hydrocyclones, decanter

centrifuges and provisions for chemical enhancement of the centrifuges, configured to remove
successively smaller drill solids from the circulating fluids (Figure 2.13). The system can also
reclaim water from the water-based drilling fluids for beneficial reuse. Solids discarded from each
piece of equipment are diverted to a metal tank for temporary containment prior to further
treatment (if required) or disposal. To properly evaluate the drilling solids removal equipment, it
is necessary to understand the typical particle size distribution of cuttings that will be generated
during drilling of the well. The size distribution of the cuttings is influenced by several factors
such as formation, bit and drilling fluid types and rate of penetration. Once the characteristics of
the drill cuttings can be reliably predicted, the proper pieces, both the types and the specific
pieces of equipment (i.e., shaker screens, hydrocyclones, decanter centrifuges and provisions
for chemical enhancement of the centrifuges) and the sequencing of the drilling solids handling
equipment can be selected. The first piece of equipment (i.e., the shaker screens) removes the
coarsest cuttings and must be appropriately sized to handle the larger volume fraction of cuttings.
The remaining drilling solids can thereafter be handled by additional solids control equipment
configured to remove successively smaller particle sizes and to reclaim water from the water-
based drilling fluids.
Elimination of the reserve pit results in less disturbance to the land surface and reduced
environmental footprint of the well pads. Reduced total volume of waste generated extends the
life of disposal facilities, results in fewer waste transport miles being driven and reduction in
potential environmental impacts. Further, reclaimed water from the drilling fluids conserves water
resources and reduces demand on fresh water aquifers.
Economic Benefit
Direct economic benefits of adopting the closed-loop practice could reach as much as 30 % net
savings and are realized from:
• Eliminating construction costs for the drilling waste pit;

• Eliminating associated liner costs and waste pit clean-out and closure costs;
• Saving Drilling fluid for reuse as make-up water for mud and hydraulic fracturing.

Guidance
It is strongly recommended that a closed-loop drilling approach is introduced at all Saudi
Aramco’s unconventional (and conventional) well sites. The following factors should be
considered in the development of the closed-loop management plan:
• Equipment selection should be aligned with the drilling program to ensure individual
machine capacity across the range of mud types, densities and circulation rates
anticipated for the well is correct;
Figure 2.11 A closed-loop drilling setup.
• The final disposition of the solid waste generated from the process (on-site treatment,
beneficial reuse, off-site disposal, etc.) should be determined early in the planning cycle
as this decision will impact site layout and construction;
• Based on the containment tank design, an appropriate method to remove solid waste is
required throughout the drilling operations;
• An area with primary containment should be provided to serve as a drying pad for the
solid waste. If both water-based and oil-based drilling fluids will be used, a separate
containment area for the oil-based waste should be provided;
• Preferred storage method (steel tanks, water impoundment, etc.) for reclaimed water
from the water-based drilling fluids should be designated;
• Characterization testing of the waste should be performed to determine if further
treatment is required to condition the waste for beneficial reuse or disposal;
Because there can be significant differences in the performance of closed-loop drilling systems,
it is important to thoroughly understand such variations prior to selecting the technologies,
equipment and service providers most suitable for Saudi Aramco’s operations. If the integrated
closed loop drilling practice cannot be achieved, the following (2.5.3 – 2.5.4) would be alternate
best practices to follow.

2.5.3 Drilling Waste Segregation
Description
Providing separate containment for drill cuttings removed from water-based and oil-based drilling
fluids reduces the potential of cross contamination of wastes with varying toxicities Segregation
practices typically include one of the following:
• Metal tank(s) to capture and contain the waste and, based on tank capacity, periodic
transferal of the waste to an appropriate on/off-site location for treatment and/or disposal;
• Excavation of a separate cell, properly lined and of sufficient size to contain the anticipated
volume of drilling waste per the well profile and located in proximity to the waste discharge
points.
Separate and waste-specific treatment of each waste stream prior to site closure/disposal will
reduce potential for environmental impacts.
Economic Benefit
Segregation by waste type allows Aramco to manage generated waste in the most economical,
technically and environmentally sound manner.
Guidance
Based on the nature and type of contaminants contained in each drilling waste, isolation (separate
containment) of the various drilling wastes generated allows for application of the most
appropriate treatment method(s) for each waste to ensure prevention of potential environmental
impacts.
2.5.4 Drilling Waste Minimization through Improved Solids Separation

Description
Sources of drilling waste include drill cuttings, drilling fluids, chemical spills onsite, and unused
cement and rig wash-down materials, all of which is deposited in the drilling waste (reserve) pit.
Typically, drill cuttings and drilling fluid represent the majority of the total waste volume generated
and, therefore, become the primary focus of minimization efforts and practices.
• Cuttings circulated from the wellbore must be removed from the carrier drilling fluid (water,
synthetic and oil based fluids) to maintain the physical, and chemical properties of the
fluid.
• Mechanical separation technology can be used to remove in excess of 90% of the drill
cuttings from the circulating mud system.
Increasing solids removal efficiency will:
• Reduce the volume of waste generated;

• Reduce the volume of water consumed;
• Provide a means to reclaim water from the drilling fluid for beneficial reuse, and;
• Minimize the volume of waste solids for treatment and/or disposal.
Economic Benefits
More efficient solids removal leads to reductions in mud cost, drilling days and number of drill bits
consumed, site preparation/closure costs, waste volumes, waste transportation cost and water

cost; all have been documented and attributed to wells drilled with improved solids control
efficiency.
Guidance
The cuttings are not one uniform size but rather a range of sizes that is constantly changing.
Mechanical equipment used to remove drill cuttings (shaker screens, hydrocyclones, centrifuges,
etc.) from the drilling fluid is typically efficient across a narrow range of the particle size
distribution. Therefore, equipment type and sequence of operation is important to establish an
effective system to remove the maximum volume of drill cuttings and recycle/reuse the maximum
volume of water. Together this will result in the minimum volume of waste generated (i.e., the
total fluid volume is not a waste as the water component will be recovered and only the solids
become waste).
2.5.5 On-Site Treatment and Disposal of Drilling-Generated Wastes

Description
Solid drilling wastes can be defined as a mixture of drilling mud and cuttings that often cannot be
pumped from the site. This waste drilling mud frequently contains solids and liquids that would
contaminate the local environment, if not handled properly. The recycling, proper treatment and
disposal of drilling fluids and associated cuttings (i.e., solid drilling wastes) that are generated
during the drilling process can be processed on-site.
Fresh-water drilling mud, oil-based drilling mud, and some saltwater-based drilling mud and
cuttings can be recycled into construction material. The technology treats drilling waste with
solidification and stabilization technology so that it can be reused as construction material for
lease roads, drilling pads, compressor station pads, tank battery berms, and other load-bearing
structures. After the mud is recovered or collected, it is centrifuged and the resulting slurry typically
contains high levels of water, diesel, and even crude oil.
After recycling and treatment, on-site burial can be used as a disposal method for water-based
drilling fluids and associated cuttings (water-based waste). This is conditional on ensuring that
the waste is not hazardous and is not continuing total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) o f < 1%
by weight (10,000 ppm).
The benefits of drilling solids recycling and treatment is that it takes waste that is otherwise
disposed onsite or offsite and reuses it as a building material for access roads and the creation
of structures that would otherwise need new raw materials to build.
Economic Benefit
The economic benefits to these methods are realized by the reduction of hauling costs as well as
the elimination of disposal fees.
Guidance
Implementation steps include:
• Drilling waste characterization: The analytical characterization of the drilling waste is

essential in determining the appropriate treatment, recycling or disposal method.

• Recycling: Recycling and reuse of oil and gas well drill cuttings and heavy mud are used
to recover the oil from the drilling muds, to reuse the drilling muds, or to generate
construction materials for new roads or drill pads.
• Oil recovery: Oil, diesel and other synthetics are used as lubricants in drilling muds. After
the mud is recovered or collected, it is centrifuged and the resulting slurry typically contains
high levels of water, diesel, and even crude oil.
• Treatment and disposal: On-site disposal methods for water-based drilling fluids and
associated cuttings.
2.5.6 Centralized Disposal Facilities

Description
With much higher waste generation rates and volumes than what is experienced in conventional
sites, waste disposal at the individual well sites is generally inefficient. Construction of centralized
facilities will reduce the spread of environmental impacts and provide operational and economic
efficiencies.
Once the development stage begins, a centralized disposal/treatment areas should be created
to handle generated wastes. The wastes would be transported from the individual well sites to
each central location. Siting of the locations would depend in part on density and geographic
distribution of the wells in order to minimize transportation costs.
Centralized facilities can incorporate large impoundments or above ground storage tanks to
handle produced water (including flowback) for disposal, evaporation and for treatment/recycling
for reuse to replace valuable fresh water. Drilling waste can be disposed of in a centralized
landfill. Household refuse can be buried in a centrally located landfill.
• Centralized disposal facilities minimize surface disturbance by substituting many
distributed disposal facilities, such as water impoundments, waste treatment sites and
landfills, with one or two large facilities.
• Environmental risks such as spills and air emissions can be better controlled at centralized
locations than at many distributed sites. Record keeping of wastes and their
characteristics is simplified so that it is easier to determine the location of stored wastes
as well as their characteristics.
Economic Benefit
• The operation of one or a few large disposal facilities presents economies of scale as
compared to many distributed facilities for the following reasons:
• Construction is cheaper over all.
• Because it is not necessary for field staff to spend time and resources traveling among
multiple sites for monitoring and maintenance, this task is also simplified.
• If vulnerable aquifers are present, fewer monitoring wells are needed than would be the
case with disposal facilities at each well pad.
• Centralized disposal also reduces the number of treatment facilities required, should
recycling be practiced, and replaces smaller, less efficient facilities with larger, more
efficient ones
• Truck trips are also reduced or at least focused in specific areas rather than involving the
larger landscape.

• The recycled water can be efficiently transported from a centrally located facility to new
drilling locations rather than being shuttled around among multiple well sites.
Guidance
The following practices should be followed when locating disposal facilities in a central location:
• Locate treatment and disposal facilities away from aquifers, if possible
• The treatment and disposal facilities should be fenced and secured to protect the
surrounding communities and wildlife.
• Line impoundments; commercial disposal facilities with appropriate materials
• Leak detection; may be required to warn operators of potential issues.
• Install monitoring wells; Installing monitoring wells around centralize impoundments is
practice as an early alarm for potential leaks.
• Segregate wastes; when waste streams are mixed the disposal requirement is elevated
to that of the more hazardous substance present in the mixture. This increases the volume
and cost of the disposal effort. Segregation of the waste streams coupled with individual
• disposal / treatment based on chemical characteristics or regulatory classification
generally reduces costs and limits potential environmental impacts.
• Establish centralized landfills; centralized disposal also reduces the number of treatment
facilities required, should recycling be practiced, and replaces smaller, less efficient
facilities with larger, more efficient ones. Truck trips are also reduced or at least focused
in specific areas rather than involving the larger landscape.
2.5.7 Site Reclamation

Description
Site reclamation is an essential part of conducting unconventional development in an
environmentally responsible manner. The ultimate goal of site reclamation is to return the land to
a condition approximate to or better than that, which existed before it was disturbed. Partial
reclamation can be conducted at different times during the life of an unconventional well pad and
it could take place as soon as practical after rig down and demobilization. The intent of partial
restoration is to reduce the disturbed surface area to the minimum footprint necessary for ongoing
operations. Final site reclamation is conducted after all wells have been properly plugged and
abandoned and equipment removed from the pad. It generally includes a complete cleanup of all
disturbed areas and the restoration of the topography to the contours that existed prior to
construction by re-contouring, soil stabilization, and by restoring the ecosystem function originally
found at the site. Final reclamation is typically considered successful when the re-contouring of
all disturbed surface areas match or blend with the original landform and a native plant community
that resembles the density and forage production of nearby vegetation is established and self-
sustaining.
Partial reclamation of areas not planned for further disturbance reduces the footprint of the
unconventional operations and improves the environmental outlook of the general area while the
final reclamation is essential to the complete restoration of the local ecosystem.
Economic Benefit
Economic benefits are achieved by reducing the size of the surface area that needs maintenance
or upkeep.
Guidance

Partial site restoration should be conducted as soon as practical after rig down and
demobilization. Partial restoration should include the following:
• Any unused fluids and additives should be removed for proper storage or transportation
and/or disposal;
• The site stormwater control and spill containment features, storage tank and impoundment
areas and access roads should be re-evaluated and if needed repaired prior to the
installation/reinstallation of natural gas and/or oil production and processing equipment;
• Any spills that have occurred during the drilling, completion and stimulation of the well
either on the pad and/or on protective liners should be properly dealt with and
contaminated materials disposed.
Interim reclamation should be conducted after the wells are put into production. During the interim
reclamation the topsoil around the well pad should be reclaimed (as described above) apart from
a small area required for ongoing production activities. If necessary, interim reclamation should
also include a short-term stabilization of disturbed areas to protect these from unnecessary
degradation.
After production is completed and the unconventional well/wells on the pad are properly plugged
and abandoned, land on the pad should be returned to a condition approximate to or better than
that which existed before it was disturbed is achieved during the final reclamation measures. A
successful reclamation is typically considered complete when the re-contouring of all disturbed
surface areas match or blend with the original landform and a native plant community that
resembles the density and forage production of nearby vegetation is established and self-
sustaining.
2.6 Fluid/Spill Containment and Chemical Handling
2.6.1 Fluid/Spill Containment

Description
Mixed hydraulic fracturing fluids, recovered fluids (flowback and produced water) as well as any
other hazardous fluids and liquids stored and used at the unconventional well pads should be
properly managed to reduce the risk of surface and/or groundwater contamination. There are two
principal spill containment measures for fluids/liquids - primary and secondary. Tanks, vessels,
pipes, trucks, rail cars or any other equipment containing the fluid/liquid during storage,
processing and/or transfer comprise the fluid/liquid’s primary containment. The secondary
containment consists of spill control structures intended to contain the liquids in case of accidental
ruptures of their primary containment. The secondary containment features should enclose the
primary containers providing enough volume to fully contain any spills. Secondary containment
structures such as berms, dikes, liners and etc. can be made of compacted clay, concrete and
synthetic materials. The Saudi Aramco’s drilling manual (Chapter 2-A) and SAES-B-062 mandate
that all conventional well pads are lined with a combination of dry and wet compacted marl to
confine or delay the penetration of chemical/hazardous liquids spilled on site. That, however, may
not provide adequate protection at unconventional sites, because of the large volumes of mixed
fracturing fluids and recovered fluids on the pads. Reinforcing the well pad’s clay lining with
synthetic liners made of chemically resistant materials as well as installing perimeter berms and
drains is, therefore, necessary in order to provide adequate protection in case of catastrophic

high-volume spills and/or the spread of contaminated storm water. Individual secondary
confinement enclosures are also needed for the equipment on the drill pads. An example of an
individual enclosure is the general rig containment, which is a secondary containment of the rig
area with engineered plastic liners providing a work area for the equipment and safe handling of
liquids and chemicals (see Figure 2.14). Individual secondary containment should also secure the
areas where hazardous liquids are handled, since the greatest potential for spills to occur is during
fluid transfers and the fueling of equipment. As noted, the highly reactive and/or incompatible
nature of some chemicals necessitates that these are stored separately (see Figures 2.18 and
2.19).
Proper containment of hazardous liquid spills reduces the risk of soil, surface water and
groundwater contamination. The effective separation of incompatible liquids will prevent
potentially harmful conditions as well as difficult disposal issues.
Economic Benefits
The lack of proper spill containment at unconventional sites may result in extensive soil and
groundwater contamination, which could be very costly to remediate or may even render the sites
permanently unfit for human, livestock or industrial use. Such incidents typically incur very high
compensation cost and the risks of such should, therefore be minimized as much as possible.
Figure 2.14 Drilling rig mat to protect soils and groundwater from potential spills.

Figure 2.15 Expandable cellar gasket retaining ring.
Guidance
• Unconventional well sites should be lined with the same or better (thicker) clay liner as per
Aramco’s drilling manual (Chapter 2-A; SAES-B-062) instructions. In critical areas the clay
liner should be reinforced by chemical resistant synthetic liners and other individual
secondary containment structures;
• The secondary containment structures should be capable of containing the entire volume
of fluid from the primary containment structure and be constructed so that a spill cleanup
is facilitated;
• The well sites should be equipped with perimeter berms and drains for runoff control to
contain catastrophic spills and the spread of contaminated storm water;
• Rigs should have individual general containment enclosures. Those provide a broad work
area for equipment and chemicals while preventing spills from reaching the natural soils
(Figure 2.14). The General Rig containment plastic sheet should have adequate size and
thickness to withstand its intended purpose.
Figure 2.16 Secondary containment for chemical storage at Well ST-122.

Figure 2. 17 Metal containers as secondary containment for dry chemicals.
• Plastic sheeting should be draped into the well cellar and sealed to the cellar wall to
prevent fluids from leaking between the well cellar and the plastic sheeting (see Figure
2.15);
• Task-specific individual containment structures should be built for equipment stored or
used outside of the general rig containment which has the potential to leak fuel, lubricants
or other materials. Examples include light plants, heaters, generators, etc., that have
integrated fuel tanks (see Figures 2.16 through 2.18);
Figure 2.18 Secondary containment for steel fracturing fluid tanks.

Figure 2.19 Secondary containment for segregated chemical storage.
• There should be individual truck containment structures large enough to cover the
ground beneath the entire truck and be capable of capturing splashes and spills from
the hose connections;
• Small containment structures (i.e., drip pans) should be placed beneath hose
connections, filter pods and vacuum truck tank exhaust discharges;
• To avoid spills during fluid transfer and refueling the following should be considered:
o Secondary containments for highly corrosive chemicals such as acids and etc.,
should be made from suitable resistant material. An acid spill cleanup kit should
be staged near the acid transfer location;
o Regular inspection for damage should be conducted to ensure the integrity of the
spill control structures;
• All personnel involved with the hydraulic fracturing process should be trained in the
correct procedures for transporting and handling hydraulic fracturing additives and
fluids and should have operational knowledge, including testing and inspection
procedures, of the equipment used during the treatment;
• All potential hazards of mixtures or dilutions should be considered during the pre-job
planning;
• Proper selection of equipment, pressure testing of piping, and the use of secondary
containment should all be used to avoid releases of additives and blended fracturing
fluids to the environment;
• Equipment should be properly calibrated and maintained in order to accurately track
the quantities of chemical additives used during the hydraulic fracturing. Analyses of
samples of the blended fracturing fluids could be used for tracking purposes;
• There should be a proper spill response plan in place.
2.6.2 Management of Chemicals

Description

The high toxicity of some chemicals used in unconventional resource development render
chemical management one of the most important aspects of the project’s environmental
protection strategy. Chemical management includes the development of a comprehensive
tracking and accounting system to ensure the safe transportation, storage, handling and disposal
of the chemicals and/or their mixtures or by-products. Chemical management must follow all
existing Government and Aramco standards and regulations on hazardous chemical handling
such as the (GI 150.100) HAZCOM; (SAEP-358) NORM; (SAES-S-007) Solid Waste Landfills.
The quality of the safety and professional training of all personnel involved with chemical
management and hydraulic fracturing as well as the proper maintenance of all equipment on and
off are essential to reduce risks to personnel and the environment.
Due to the large volumes, diversity and higher contaminant potential of hydraulic fracturing
additives, consideration should be given to all measures that may alleviate potential negative
environmental impacts. The use of central chemical storage facilities will also limit the quantity of
chemicals stored at the drill pads to the minimum needed to conduct current operations thereby
further minimizing the potential spills and environmental contaminations. The need for centralized
storage facilities is particularly applicable to the development phase when more concentrated
drilling activities will occur in proximity to each other.
Another important measure is the substitution of dangerous chemicals with more environmentally
friendly “green” alternatives. The use of environmentally friendly chemicals may not only reduce
the possibility of contamination but may also decrease the likelihood of injury to workers should a
release occur. Since the Company is already working on the substituting dangerous chemicals
used in its operations for safer and more environmentally friendlier alternatives, that measure
should also be extended to cover the chemicals used in unconventional operations. Contractors
should also be asked to provide suggestions of safer alternatives, along with the potential
environmental impacts and costs associated with each additive alternative.
The disclosure of all additives intended to be used during the hydraulic fracturing is another
essential step at reducing health, safety and environmental risks. This information will be used
first to ensure that the chemicals are properly tracked and all potential environmental risks
associated with those properly evaluated, and second to develop effective monitoring strategy by
including those chemicals in the list of analytes to be tested for in environmental samples collected
during the environmental monitoring. Knowledge of the chemical composition of all additives is
also needed to design appropriate mitigation measures in case of accidental spills. The disclosure
of the chemicals used for hydraulic fracturing is becoming a widely accepted industry practice. A
growing number of jurisdictions in North America now require that drilling/fracturing contractors
provide a complete list of all chemical additives and their volumes. Hence, Saudi Aramco’s
Unconventional departments should also mandate that all drilling/stimulation contractors involved
with unconventional development disclose the chemical compositions and anticipated quantities
of all chemicals to be used.
Voluntary refrain from the use of certain dangerous chemicals is yet another positive step by
operators. For example, some U.S. companies (e.g., EOG) have been moving away from the use
of diesel in fracturing fluids. While this could also in part be the result of the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency’s requirement for additional permitting to use diesel, it is nevertheless a
commendable undertaking and should be encouraged by Saudi Aramco.

Proper chemical management, such as the use of centralized storage facilities, the use of
alternative “green” chemicals, the disclosure of all chemicals to be used during unconventional
development and voluntary measures to reduce the use and/or volume of hazardous chemicals
along with proper personnel training will minimize potential impacts to the environment and will
protect the health and safety of personnel.
Economic Benefit
The measures listed above are expected to significantly reduce the risk of contamination and thus
the potential for incurring high cleanup costs and/or government fines in case of major accidents.
Proper chemical management will also improve inventory, efficiency and may save resources by
optimization.
Guidance
To alleviate risks to the health safety and the environmental and to simplify the management of
chemicals the following measures should be implemented prior to initiating unconventional
operations:
• It is strongly recommended that dangerous chemical additives be substituted with

environmentally friendly “greener” versions;
• Unconventional departments should ask contractors to disclose the complete chemical
compositions of all additives intended to be used during the development of
unconventional resources in the KSA.
• Contractors should be encouraged to voluntarily refrain from the use of hazardous
chemicals;
The following Best Management Practices should be adhered to in order to ensure the safe
storage, transportation, handling and disposal of chemicals:
• All hazardous materials should be properly transported, stored, tracked, and disposed of
in accordance with company policy, industry standards, and government requirements;
• Personnel tasked with handling or managing chemicals or responding to chemical spills
should be educated about the hazards of the chemicals stored and used the facility and
trained in the proper use of the PPE required to perform their duties;
• A comprehensive chemical tracking and accounting system should be developed and
implemented to keep track of the quantities and to ensure the safe management of
chemicals and/or their mixtures or by-products;
• Chemicals should be stored in their original packaging with proper identification or
labeling, in well-maintained containers away from direct exposure to sun, excessive heat,
or moisture, above ground and within secondary containments (see section X);
• Safety information for each additive should be obtained from the supplier or manufacturer,
be reviewed prior to using the additive, and be readily available at the job site (as per
citation). In the event of an emergency, the safety data sheets must be easily accessible
on the site in a location that is known to employees and responders;
• When chemicals are no longer used, these should be returned to the designated chemical
storage and containment locations;
• Incompatible chemicals such as acids, oxidative breakers, solvents with low flash-point,
and etc. should be stored and transported in dedicated containers, separate from each
other with barriers to prevent mixing in the event of a potential spill. See 13.1.2 for more
information on hazards and SDS considerations;

• Central chemical storage facilities should be used to limit the quantity of chemicals stored
at the drill pads to the minimum needed to conduct current operations thereby further
minimizing the potential spills and environmental contaminations;
• Any unused chemicals or mixtures thereof should be removed for disposal as appropriate.
Saudi Aramco should have a plan in place regarding the proper disposal of chemicals as
workers complete their tasks or when chemicals near the end of their useful life.
2.7 Drilling Design and Execution

Having a drilling program and design prior to starting an unconventional project is important not
only from operational but also from an environmental standpoint. Each phase of the drilling
program should be analyzed for possible problems, potential risks, and mitigation actions
developed by a multi-disciplinary team to determine the optimum design. The plan should
highlight any potential hazards along with appropriate contingency plans. The project planning
should include the following:
• Surface area locations and well pad designs;

• Subsurface well location/direction distribution design;
• Well & protective barrier designs.
2.7.1 Drilling Site

Description
The size, shape and geographic orientation of single well drill pads such as that used for
exploration/wildcat wells is specified in Chapter 2-A of the Aramco Drilling Manual and ultimately
by SAES-B-062. However, single well unconventional drill pad plans should also include
provisions for chemical storage areas and fluid storage enclosures (ponds or tanks) needed to
store clean water, mixed hydraulic fracturing fluid and recovered fluids.
The large number of production wells needed to develop unconventional plays require
organized multi well spacing designs that should take into consideration the potential
development of centralized facilities such as water/chemical storage and treatment (Sections
XX). Aramco’s Drilling manual provides multi well spacing designs for drilling islands, which in
are in essence multiple well drill pads. The drilling island design could, therefore, be used as a
blueprint for developing unconventional multi well pads, provided that enough space is
considered for the unconventional equipment and/or water/frac fluid and recovered fluid
enclosures. The single and multipad well site locations should be chosen so that these do not
encroach on human settlements or are located environmentally sensitive areas.
The development of adequate single exploration well/wildcat and production stage multi well
drillpad designs will help to better protecting the environment. Multi-well pads will reduce
significantly the surface footprint of unconventional development.
Economic Benefits
Proper unconventional multi-well pads designs will reduce overall costs of moving drilling and
hydraulic fracturing equipment.
Guidance

• Single well exploration/wildcat unconventional drill site designs should at a minimum

follow the requirements set forth in SAES-B-062. While the existing conventional design
should be used as a blueprint for unconventional wellpads, that should be modified to
accommodate water storage enclosures (ponds or tanks) as well as safe storage space
equipped with secondary enclosures for toxic chemicals;
• Unconventional multiwell drill pad sites could be designed on the basis of the existing
“drilling island” design as per SAES-B-062 modified to allow for unconventional
drilling/stimulation equipment access and/or the placement of water/fluid enclosures as
well as appropriate chemical storage facilities;
• To minimize environmental and societal impacts, unconventional drill pads should be
located as further away from human settlements and environmentally sensitive areas as
practical;
2.7.2 Subsurface Well Location

Description
Drilling and stimulating an unconventional well in the immediate vicinity of an operating or
abandoned (orphaned) wells presents risks to fracturing fluid containment, potential circulation
loss, stuck pipe, a fluid kick due to reservoirs being charged but not flown back, even a complete
loss of well control. Since unwanted wellbore communication also known as a “frack hit” has
already been implicated in several high profile surface contamination cases in North America,
every effort should be made to avoid the unwanted communication between unconventional
wells and legacy wells.
Environmental benefit
Preventing unwanted interwellbore contact or well collision is essential to avoiding massive
fracturing fluid releases at surface and/or in the subsurface.
Financial benefit
Preventing unwanted interwellbore contact or well collision will result in the avoidance of
substantial cleanup costs and/or Government fines as well as potential loss of Company
reputation.
Guidance
To avoid unwanted interwellbore communication (i.e., well collision) an Area of Investigation
(AOI) should be established in the subsurface around each unconventional well. Company
records, municipal databases (for water wells), maps, air or satellite photographs should be
used to locate existing/legacy wells (including water source wells) within an AOI. Field
reconnaissance and magnetometer surveys to detect metal casing may also be conducted. This
risk assessment should consider the condition of the well(s) within the AOI and should address
the offset well’s status and integrity as well as the distance to the well to be drilled/fractured.
The AOI investigation should also include information on the local stress field orientations,
permeability, the presence of natural fractures, non-sealing faults and other geological
heterogeneities as well as the anticipated directions of hydraulic fracture growth and the fracture
height and half-length. The vertical extent of the AOI should be controlled by one or more
confining layers (geologic barriers) above which hydraulic fractures should not grow. The length
of the AOI should be determined by the length of the well (for horizontal wells) with minimal
additional length beyond the well toe. The width of the AOI has the largest uncertainty and
require the largest safety factor. If potential for unwanted interwellbore communication is

established, mitigation measures should be taken to protect against loss of hydraulic fracturing
containment. Those measures should include but not be limited to:
• Redesigning the well to avoid the potential hazard (location, lateral length, etc.);
• Redesigning the completion (perforation cluster location, fracture size, stage avoidance,
etc.);
• Intervening in the well either to confirm or to provide integrity;
• Monitoring the well.
2.7.3 Protective Barrier Design and Construction

Unconventional well design combines engineering, economics and environmental requirements
to provide an adequate degree of protection to the groundwater and surface environments
through better multilayer systems (well protective barriers). The protective barriers consist of the
well’s casings and cement, as well as various packers and the wellhead. Those barriers are
intended to provide effective isolation between the wellbore, groundwater aquifers, the target
producing zone(s) and other zones capable of hydrocarbon or non-hydrocarbon fluid flow. Natural
features such as rock seals are also considered a part of the unconventional protection barrier
system.
Conventional well design is discussed in detail in Chapter 2 of the Aramco drilling manual (i.e.,
Chapters 2-B casing, 2-C running casing and liners, 2-D cementing, 2-E wellheads) and also in
the Saudi Aramco Workover Manual (Chapters 2-B, C, D and E). Unconventional wells,
however, are subjected to significantly higher stress loads than their conventional counterparts.
Consequently, the design of the unconventional wells as well as the materials used for their
construction should be fit to withstand hydraulic fracturing related loads. Wells that are
hydraulically fractured require appropriate levels of engineering design in order to establish an
isolated wellbore. Guidance for zonal isolation practices and requirements for cement design,
testing, and placement is found in API 65-2. Additional guidance can be found in industry
recognized sources such as the Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE), the International
Association of Drilling Contractors (IADC), and from best practices established by service
companies and operators.
An unconventional well barrier plan should identify the potential flow paths and flow path
directions as well as the type of well barriers to prevent flow along each of these paths during
each phase of the well construction process. The operational and environmental conditions that
a barrier may be exposed to are identified at the well design stage. Failing of any of the protection
barrier elements could have significant environmental and economic consequences. For
example, lack of a rock seal or the seal’s inability to contain hydraulic fracture propagation may
cause an irreparable damage to overlying groundwater aquifers, especially at critical separation
wells (i.e., wells fractured immediately below groundwater aquifers). Poor fracturing design may
also result in fracturing out-of-zone and into adjacent flow zones that contain dangerous/corrosive
gases such as H2S. The unintended co-production of H2S is not only a safety concern but may
also damage well equipment not suitable to the production casing/string metallurgy. Similarly,
higher water/brine cuts due to the invasion of out-of-zone water/brine into the wells will not only
create technical difficulties but will also reduce profitability through high wastewater management
costs. Improper casing and/or cement designs may also result in damages (or failures) of the well
casings and/or the cement sustained during hydraulic fracturing. Those damages may result in
unwanted releases of hydraulic fracturing fluids, formation brines and hydrocarbons (gas and

liquid) to unintended zones including to groundwater and/or the surface. Such damages are costly
or impossible to mitigate and may also result in premature well abandonment. The environmental
and economic benefits of considering and properly designing the three most important parts of
the unconventional well protective barrier system are discussed below.
2.7.3.1 Casing
Description
A typical oil or gas well has two principal types of casings: protective and production. Cement
sheaths are emplaced between the protective casing strings and the borehole wall and/or
between multiple casing strings (see Figure 2.5-1). In addition to protecting the groundwater and
surface environment from contamination related to the unwanted migration of fluids along the
wellbore, the well casings and cement stabilize the borehole and prevent “loss of well control”
incidents.
The protective casings should be designed to contain load-cases that it may be subjected to while
drilling the next section of the borehole and prior to the setting of the next casing string. The choice
of casing metallurgy will also depend on the hydrochemical properties of the flow zones/aquifers
the casings come into contact with. In Saudi Arabia there are a number of well documented cases
of protective casings failures due to exposure to corrosive fluids/gases from aquifers such as the
Umm Er Radhuma and Wasia. Hence, special consideration should be paid to the choice of
metallurgy of the protective casings in areas where corrosive flow zones are intersected.
The number of protective casings and their setting depths depend on the local
geology/hydrogeology. That includes the presence of and depth to all potential flow zones and
groundwater aquifers in particular, the depth/thickness of the competent formations/seals that
underlie the aquifers, as well as on providing sufficient shoe track to manage contaminated
cement. A typical Aramco conventional onshore well in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia (see
Aramco Drilling Manual, Chapter 2-B) has at least three protective casing strings intended to
isolate most groundwater aquifers:

Figure 2.24 Elements of the well protective barrier.
• A 18’ casing set to the top of the Rus Formation to isolate the primary Alat and Khobar
aquifers in the upper part of the Dammam Formation;
• A 133/8’ casing to about 15 m below the top of the Aruma shale to isolate the primary
Umm er Radhuma aquifer/member of the Aruma Formation;
• A 9’ casing set about 100 m beneath the top of the Byadh shale to isolate the giant Wasia
sand aquifer and the secondary Shuaiba aquifer/formation;
Saudi Aramco Drilling Manual contains detailed information about the setting depths for the
protective casing strings for 35 different fields/areas. That information is particularly useful
wherever unconventional resources are being developed within or proximal to mature
hydrocarbon producing areas (e.g., Jafura, Ghawar).
The purpose of a production casing/string and its isolating medium is to house the primary
completion components and establish isolation between the producing zone(s) and other
subsurface formations. The production casing and its connections also serve as the fundamental
pressure containment vessel for the well. Since the loads resulting from the fracture stimulation
treatment can approach the design limits of the equipment, the design envelope should account
for these conditions. Therefore, the production casing design (and metallurgy) is critical for
insuring that the hydraulic fracturing treatments performed down the production casing string are
properly conducted and the risk for accidental releases to aquifers and other flow zones
minimized.
Proper protection and production casing centralization is critical for both conventional and
unconventional wells. Information related to centralizer selection and placement of conventional
Aramco wells can be found in the Aramco Drilling Manual, Chapter 2-C as well as in API 10TR4
and API 10D-2. Designing proper casing centralization is of particular importance for
unconventional wells, since it provides the correct casing standoff for mud removal, which is
critical for cement placement and overall well integrity. Particular attention should be paid on those
sections in the well where cement is used as a barrier to the growth of hydraulic fractures.
The proper design and suitable metallurgy of the protective and production casing strings would
not only insure the safe stimulation, completion and production of an unconventional well but will
also protect groundwater aquifers and the surface environment by preventing unwanted migration
of fluids into and out of the borehole.
Economic Benefit
Proper protection and production casing design and placement will reduce workover costs (and
the related time loss) and may prevent reservoir damage due to potential unintended hydraulic
communication between the reservoir and adjacent flowing zones/formations.
Guidance
Protective casing:
• The protective casing string design should at minimum follow the existing Aramco
practices and regulations as per Aramco Drilling Manual, Chapter 2-B;
• Protective casing placement depths in mature areas should follow the existing Aramco
practices with the following in mind: the groundwater protection zone in the KSA extends

to all groundwater aquifers irrespective of their quality/salt content, hence, all of these
should be properly protected;
• Setting depths should be determined for “new” areas where unconventional development
is planned/undergoing;
• The fluid quality, temperature and the presence of corrosive constituents in flow
zones/aquifers intersected in the borehole should determine the choice of casing
metallurgy for each interval;
Production casing/string:
• The production casing design should factor in the maximum hydraulic fracturing pressure
loads. Primary consideration during the design, metallurgy and the placement of the
production casing should be given to the following factors:
o Treating pressure: the hydraulic fracture treating pressures are typically the
highest burst loads exerted on the production casing;
o Temperature changes: the cooling of the casing due to the fracturing fluids being
pumped during hydraulic fracture treatments will exacerbate the already significant
casing loads;
o Casing bending: bending loads are always present in horizontal wells and hence
these should also be accounted for. The wellbore trajectory and degree of dog-leg
severity (DLS) should also be accounted for as it will impact the resulting load;
o Casing connection selection: connection selection considerations should consider
the following:
▪ Fracture stimulation loads;
▪ Flowback and production loads;
▪ Casing running loads specifically maximum sealing torque rating when
rotating casing;
▪ Connection bending strength;
▪ Compressive and tensile capacity;
▪ The need for a gas-tight seal;
o Fatigue loads should also be considered for the deeper/longer lateral sections of
the wells where the casing has to be rotated in the hole, as well as for wells
subjected to high number of fracturing stages, and/or for higher temperature/higher
pressure wells;
o The impacts of corrosion, erosion and any other metallurgical requirements should
also be included;
o As with the protective casing, the production casing and string metallurgy should
be appropriate for the produced fluid quality;
Casing centralization design:

• It is recommended that particular consideration is given to the adequate protective and
casing centralization design, which is essential to insuring proper cementing and thus the
integrity of the well’s protective barrier.
2.7.3.2 Cementing
Description
The goal of cementing is to obtain a continuous band of cement around the casings. The cement
band around the casing should extend without channels or voids from the casing shoe to surface
and should effectively preclude inter-zonal or annular flow of fluids. Cementing for conventional

Aramco wells is discussed in detail in chapter 2-D of the Aramco Drilling Manual. However, the
mechanical parameters of the set cement in an unconventional well should be able to maintain
well integrity under loads induced by temperature and pressure changes during the hydraulic
fracturing operations, which are significantly higher than those at conventional wells. Therefore,
unconventional well cements should provide better tensile strength, superior bonding to both rock
and the steel casing strings, as well as flexibility and gas migration prevention. Such qualities can
only be achieved with properly designed cement mixtures and by paying particular attention to
resolving operational challenges such as casing centralization, complete removal of mud from the
hole, and the prevention of high-side fluid channel development in the inclined/horizontal sections
of the well. Poor cementing of unconventional wells will have serious environmental and economic
consequences.
The specific performance areas to which close attention should be paid while designing and
cementing an unconventional wells are: gas control; static gel strength development; fluid loss;
slurry stability; thickening time; rheology; and the developed cement compressive or sonic
strength. Cement fluid velocity in the deviated and horizontal sections of the unconventional wells
could be limited due to the increased Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD). Consequently, proper
cement rheology and pumping techniques are essential to ensure that the slurry is fully displaced
into the annular spaces. The influx of corrosive constituents (e.g., H2S, CO2, chlorides and etc.)
from intersected flow zones/aquifers as well as the steep temperature gradients in the wellbore
can also affect the slurry set strength and ultimately the integrity of the well. Computer-based
cement placement simulators and thermal models are used to optimize cementing operations and
to provide assurance and continuity across the cement design process.
Post-cementing operations such as pressure testing casing, slacking off casing and setting casing
slips, drilling out of casing, etc. should also be accounted for in the impact on post-cement setting
and prevention of creating potentially conductive channels.
The proper cementing of the unconventional wells will ensure adequate protection of the
groundwater resources and surface environment.
Economic Benefit
Good cement integrity will reduce the need of costly well workovers. It will also prevent potential
reservoir damage and/or the waste of hydrocarbon resource that may occur if hydrocarbons
and/or water migrate along the borehole to and from the reservoir.
Guidance:
• The compositions of unconventional well cement mixtures should be designed so as to
provide excellent tensile strength, superior bonding to both rock and the steel casing strings,
as well as flexibility and gas migration prevention;
• Cementing design and placement operations should be optimized by using computer based
models to constrain important cementing parameters such as mud displacement efficiency,
centralization/standoff calculations, maximum allowable reciprocation rates; equivalent
circulating density (ECD), equivalent static density (ESD), circulating and post-cementing
operation temperature profiles and cement performance under the pressure and temperature
changes imposed by the anticipated hydraulic fracturing loads;
• Casing centralizers and scratchers should be properly installed and provide as uniform
annulus as possible;

• The unconventional wellbore should be thoroughly cleaned from mud and debris, and
cement flow should be achieved on all sides of the annulus by extending cleaning fluid
circulation and by reciprocating and/or rotating the casing during cement placement;
• Cement pump rates should be adjusted to produce turbulent flow in order to minimize
the potential for fluid (gas) channeling in the annuli;
• Proper casing running practices such as controlling running speed and circulation rates
while monitoring fluid returns, torque, and hook load readings, should be considered to
manage ECD and torque and drag;
• Lead and tail cement slurry densities should be monitored continuously to insure that
proper hydrostatic pressures are maintained in the annulus;
• Sufficient slurry volume should be pumped to obtain uncontaminated cement returns to
surface;
• Cement should develop at least 500 psi (3,447 KPa) compressive strength, (API Standards),
before any casing pressure tests are performed (casing can be tested prior to the cement
setting) and the casing shoe(s) drilled through;
• Post-cementing operations such as pressure testing casing, slacking off casing and
setting casing slips, drilling out of casing, etc. should also be accounted for in the impact
on post-cement setting and prevention of creating potentially conductive channels.
2.7.3.3 Mechanical Barriers

Description
The wellhead completes the well barrier system and provides pressure containment and structural
support while the packers are typically used to isolate the annulus from the production string. In
contrast to conventional wells, hydraulic fracturing exerts significantly heavier loads to those parts
of the protective barrier system. Fracture operations apply additional tensile forces on the
production casing and casing hanger. Extreme downward force can be exerted on all wellhead
components. Hence, the well head and all mechanical devices installed in unconventional wells
should be fit to withstand conditions much more difficult than those of their conventional
counterparts.
Proper function of the well head and the packers is essential to preventing unwanted releases of
contaminants to groundwater and/or to the surface.
Economic benefit
Proper design and choice of metallurgy and other materials used for the wellhead and the packers
will prevent expensive repairs and workover and/or even premature well abandonment.
Guidance
• The mechanical well barriers should be designed in accordance with the objectives of the
overall unconventional well barrier plan. The effects of temperature and pressure changes
on the casing string should be considering in the design;
• The pressure isolation of the casing and tubing strings at the surface requires wellheads
to handle the maximum anticipated pressure. The casing hanger load rating should also
be specified to maintain string suspension throughout the fracture process;
• If the wellhead is not sufficiently rated to manage the calculated fracture treating
pressures, then a wellhead-isolation tool should be used to isolate the wellhead from the
pressure applied during hydraulic fracturing. These tools can also prevent erosion of the
valves or the wellhead itself from proppant during hydraulic fracturing;

• Packers to be used as fracture containment, should be able to withstand the fracturing

loads these will be subjected to;
• The fracture loads and temperature range need to also be considered in the selection of
seal materials and production casing hangers;
2.7.3.4 Geological Barriers (Seals)

Description
Seals are geological units that are: a) structurally competent enough to contain adjacent formation
fluid pressures, b) have a matrix permeability low enough to block fluid flow, and c) are devoid of
natural fractures, fissures, and faults. Seals serve to trap hydrocarbons and/or other fluids (i.e.,
CO2, wastewater) within the reservoir formations. In unconventional areas seals should be
competent enough to contain the energy of the hydraulic fracturing and the propagation of
hydraulic fractures thereby preventing the establishment of inter-formation communication. Seals
are of particular importance at critical separation wells (Section 2.6.3). Although seal permeability
is of importance, it is the seal’s mineral composition that ultimately determines the seals quality
with evaporite and clay-rich shale comprising the best seals mainly due to their ability for self-
healing if fractured. In contrast, the brittle nature of limestone and dolomite render those
lithologies less effective at preventing hydraulic fracture propagation. Therefore, the proper
identification and characterization of geological seal is essential for insuring the effective function
of unconventional well protective barrier systems.
Proper identification and characterization of geological seals may prevent environmental
problems ranging from minor gas leaks to catastrophic well bore invasion or the establishment of
unwanted hydraulic communication between the reservoir and adjacent flow zones including
groundwater aquifers and to surface.
Economic Benefit
Avoiding well placement and the hydraulic fracturing in the vicinity of incompetent seals may
prevent the unintended invasion of fluids in the well bore thus maintaining optimal well profitability.
Guidance
Geological seals should be evaluated with all available geophysical and geological tools including
seismic data, geophysical logs, characterization and mechanical testing of cores from offset wells
and etc. in order to establish the seals’ vertical and lateral extent, mineralogical, lithological,
hydrogeological and structural properties and ultimately their competence and ability to effectively
contain the proliferation of hydraulic fractures to adjacent flow zones/aquifers. This information is
essential to the well/field development plans and the hydraulic fracturing design.
2.7.3.5 Drilling Execution

Description
The drilling conventional or unconventional wells alike carry significant environmental risks. The
two principal threats associated with drilling are:
• Surface contamination from accidental spills of chemicals, mixed drilling muds (including
oil based muds) and solid waste;
• Groundwater aquifer contamination with drilling fluids during “loss of circulation” incidents.

The large number of wells needed to develop an unconventional resource increase the probability
of such incidents, hence every effort should be made to prevent or minimize the likelihood of both
surface and groundwater aquifer contamination during unconventional drilling operations.
Measures to prevent risks and mitigate surface contamination are covered in Sections 2.4, 2.5
and 2.6, hence these are not discussed further.
The potential contamination of groundwater aquifers from the uncontrolled loss of drilling mud
also known as loss of circulation carries significant environmental risks for groundwater. Drilling
muds are intended to cool the drilling bit, prevent blowups and build up an impenetrable barrier
(mud cake) separating the borehole from intersected flowzones (aquifers). At the same time muds
should be engineered so that these do not damage reservoir permeability. In order to meet those
requirements, the muds are heavily mixed with additives. Most additives are relatively safe,
however, some could be highly toxic (e.g., biocides, hydrocarbons used in oil based emulsions
and etc.).
The loss of drilling fluids occurs while drilling through highly permeable zones that consist of
unconsolidated sediments (sands), karstic or vuggy carbonates and etc., as well as while
intersecting conductive (open) fractures and faults. The abuse of overbalanced drilling (i.e., to
prevent blow-ups) exacerbates the problem. Drilling fluid selection and instructions are discussed
in detail in the Saudi Aramco Drilling Manual Chapter 3 (A-G). The manual also contains a chapter
on Health Safety and Environment (e.g., 3-G) with guidelines on determining the drilling fluid
toxicity and on protecting the marine environment (while unfortunately missing such information
on groundwater protection). Important information on preventing circulation loss can also be found
in Chapter 2-F of Saudi Aramco’s Workover Manual.
Mud loss is common to Saudi Aramco with many conventional wells suffering significant
circulation losses. Prominent zones for mud loss include all major aquifers such as the Umm Er
Radhuma, Aruma, Wasia, and Biyadh. The use of oil-based (invert) muds to stabilize the wellbore
during drilling through unconsolidated sandstone zones such as the Wasia and Biyadh is of
particular concern. Due to the significant number of wells needed for the unconventional resource
development in Saudi Arabia, great care should be taken to protect groundwater from mud loss,
and in particular from invert mud losses. That can be achieved by applying novel drilling
technologies, by substituting the toxic chemicals with “greener” alternatives, by eliminating the
use of oil-based drilling fluids while drilling through the aquifers and by reducing the excessive
use of overbalanced drilling.
An EPD review of the Saudi Aramco’s Drilling and Workover Department (D&WO) conducted in
2016 demonstrated that the use of invert (oil based) muds is being phased out and these have
been replaced with more environmentally acceptable alternatives such as high density/heavy
bentonite muds. The review also suggests that circulation loss can for the most part be dealt with
by using the Company’s standard drilling procedures (i.e., D&WO).
Environmental Benefit:
The substitution of toxic drilling fluid additives with environmentally friendly alternatives and the
complete cessation of the use of oil-based fluids will insure groundwater aquifer protection from
loss of circulation events;
Economic Benefit:
Cleanup of deep groundwater aquifers is in the best case very expensive and in most cases
impossible. Therefore concerned Saudi Aramco departments and their contractors should make

every effort to prevent groundwater contamination with drilling fluids to avoid high cleanup costs,
heavy Government fines and Company reputation loss;
Guidance:
• Unconventional drilling activities should be conducted according to existing Company
standards and manuals (at the very minimum);
• It is strongly recommended that all toxic drilling fluid additives used when drilling through
the principal and secondary groundwater aquifers are substituted with environmentally
friendly “greener” alternatives;
• It is also recommended that invert or oil based muds are never used while drilling through
groundwater aquifers. Since the company has already developed environmentally
acceptable alternative to invert muds, unconventional drilling contractors should be
encouraged to use these alternatives;
• The excessive/unnecessary use of overbalanced drilling should be discouraged.
2.8 Hydraulic Fracturing

2.8.1 Well Integrity Testing Prior to Hydraulic Fracturing
Description
The protective barriers of the unconventional wells should be tested prior to well stimulation
(hydraulic fracturing). Testing is used not only to ensure that the well casing and primary cement
job was successful and the intended isolation and the mechanical strength was achieved, but to
also establish the presence of a competent geological seal (barrier) capable of arresting the
propagation of hydraulic fractures out of the reservoir. A variety of tests should be run in
combination to provide a better overall picture of the barrier integrity. Tests could be direct (i.e.,
pressure) or indirect, such as using various remote sensing technologies and detectors and/or
reviewing the well drilling and completion logs and records as well as geological, geophysical
(seismic) and geochemical (tracer data) from offset wells and the general area. Some tests are
ran simultaneously with drilling, others at discrete drilling stages, and there are also test
conducted once the final casing string has been set, cemented, and the drilling rig released.
Tests conducted during drilling include various types of logging such as caliper, geophysical
logging, mud logging, mud-gas logging and etc. These tests provide information on the borehole
conditions as well as the local geology and hydrogeology (presence of flow zones) and
geochemistry. Tests conducted at discrete drilling stages include the Formation Integrity Test
(FIT) or the alternative Leak-off-Test (LOT). FIP or LOT are pressure tests typically conducted
prior to drilling out the protective casing shoes in order to confirm that the cement around the shoe
has sufficient strength to protect groundwater and to support the maximum pressures (mud
weights, mud, or cement equivalent circulating density (ECD), kick tolerances, etc.) required for
the drilling of the next borehole section. FIT (or LOT) also test the integrity of the blowout
prevention equipment and results are used to demonstrate whether well control is maintained
through the drilling process. Pressure testing should also take into account all pressure activated
completion hardware such as toe subs, shear, and toe guns. This equipment has a specific
operating envelope and this will need to be aligned with regulatory requirements.
After the well is drilled a final review and confirmation of the well construction and the protective
barriers should be undertaken to ensure that well integrity and fracture containment are within
specifications for the planned fracture stimulation. The levels of acceptance may result in

classifying the barrier as being verified, either as a tested or a confirmed barrier. Barrier reliability
is best verified if its sealing integrity is tested to expected loads in the direction of potential flow.
However, since not all potential load directions in the well can be simulated, and also since
geological barriers cannot be pressure tested, other indirect evaluation methods are used. For
example, the production casing integrity (or that of the string to be used to is verified for the most
part by conducting direct pressure testing such as Mechanical Integrity Tests (MIT). The MIT
emulates the pressure conditions in the annulus between the production casing and the last
protective or intermediate casing that would be seen during hydraulic fracturing to ensure that
equipment can handle the pressure loads. The production casing string is also be pressure tested
to the maximum anticipated pressure to which it will be exposed. In contrast, the cement barrier
is verified by a combination of direct and indirect methods the latter including a review of the
cement operation records, the use of specialized tools and logs amongst others, while the
effectiveness of geological barriers can only be confirmed by indirect methods (e.g., core testing,
geophysical, geological and geochemical).
Ensuring the integrity of unconventional wells prior to hydraulic fracturing, which arguably is the
most dangerous stage of well construction, is essential for protecting human health, life and the
environment.
Economic Benefit
Loss of integrity during hydraulic fracturing could lead to injuries, loss of life and irreversible
damages to the environment. The associated direct and indirect costs of such an event could
therefore be significant. Hence, it is of utmost importance that the BMP’s outlined in this section
are followed in order to minimize the risks of such events.
Guidelines
Production casing/string verification
• The integrity of the production casing (or the string that will conduct the hydraulic fracturing
fluid – see below) of every unconventional well should be determined via a mechanical
integrity test (MIT) conducted prior to the hydraulic fracturing operations;
• The integrity of the production casing/string should also be verified by running a casing
evaluation log to establish whether the impact of drilling may have reduced the casings’
ability to withstand treatment loads;
• If the production casing integrity is not sufficient to withstand the required hydraulic
fracturing pressure, additional remedial operations or approaches such as isolating the
casing with a designated fracturing string or applying backup pressure in the annular
space during fracturing should be considered in order to deliver the hydraulic fracture
treatment and retain well integrity;
• The integrity of the protective casings and cement should be verified by FIT or LOT tests;
Cement and protective casing verification

The cement barrier integrity should be confirmed by the following combination of direct methods
and indirect operational/design indicators:
• Laboratory test results with field-blended cement, additives and water conducted at
downhole temperature and pressure confirm that performance design targets were met;
• Records show that planned pumping parameters were maintained during cement
placement, cement returns to surface were clear (uncontaminated) and there are no
indications of fluid influx occurring prior to, during, or after cementing;

• FIT or LOT test results are within the expected range;

• Results from cement evaluation logs and tools such as: the Radial Cement Bond Log
(RCBL), Variable Density Log (VDL) and Segmented Bond Tool (SBT), Cement
Evaluation Tool (CET), as well as the Ultrasonic Imaging Tool (USIT) and Circumferential
Acoustic Scanning Tool - Visualization (CAST-V) confirm cement integrity;
• Caution should be exercised when using cement evaluation logs as the primary means
of establishing the hydraulic competency of a cement barrier, however. The
interpretations of cement evaluation logs are based on inferences from downhole
measurements, and as such the interpretation of cement evaluation logs can be
subjective.
If deficiencies are identified by any of the above methods, remedial work should be conducted to
establish the required seal and pressure integrity,
Mechanical Barrier Verification

If a mechanical well barrier cannot be verified by pressure testing in the direction of potential flow
and to its full range of anticipated loads, one of the following alternative verification methods
should be considered:
• Confirm the barrier’s placement in the proper position in the well;

• Collect data or observations during installation of the physical barrier to confirm effective
execution of the installation;
• If feasible, perform post-installation inspection of the mechanical barrier such as wellhead
and liner-tops;
• If placement of a physical barrier cannot be confirmed, additional processes or procedures
such as a monitoring plan may be used to enhance the well system barrier reliability;
If a mechanical barrier is found to be deficient and it cannot be repaired the barrier should be
replaced or additional mechanical barriers installed.
Geological Barrier Verification

The geologic barrier verification is subject to interpretation and cannot be directly confirmed.
Listed below are some typical confirmation methods:
• Mechanical testing of cores including that from offset wells;

• Offset well pressure testing data;
• Geophysical verification: Review of regional and local geophysical (seismic) data and
well logs;
• Geochemical verification: Review of the analytical results including advanced
geochemical testing (Section 2.2.3) from water and gas samples collected from offset
wells;
• Analysis of all other (mechanical, geochemical) well logs;
• Microseismic imaging;
• Artificial tracer injection data.
2.8.1.1 Confirming Well Integrity in Case of Well Re-Entry

Description

Well integrity is critical when re-entering a mature well to hydraulically fracture new or previously
completed zones. A lack of structural integrity, within the casing and/or cement, could result in
uncontrolled flow of formation or completion fluids outside of the target zone and/or to surface.
Therefore, it is essential that any mature wells intended to be re-entered and fractured/re-
fractured are tested prior to stimulation.
Guidelines
Prior to re-entry, the integrity of the casing should be verified. The accepted method of
establishing integrity is a pressure test conducted to the highest anticipated surface pressure
(please, see above). In some circumstances (e.g. short time frame since previous test) other
methods, such as reviewing the well history and records may be acceptable. If the well history
indicates potential well integrity concerns then additional well data should be obtained by running
casing and cement inspection logs (i.e., Electromagnetic, Cement Bond and etc.).
2.8.2 Hydraulic Fracturing Design and Execution

Description
Fracture stimulation is intended to enhance well performance and to achieve economic success
from improved production rates and better reserves recovery. Fracturing is an industrial activity,
which involves the pumping of multiple pulses of incompressible hydraulic fracturing fluids/slurry
into the production casing/string of the well at rates and pressures that approach equipment limits.
Consequently, the hydraulic fracturing stimulation of unconventional wells carry potential risks of
major safety and environmental accidents including:
• Surface contamination due to stimulation equipment failure;

• Surface or groundwater contamination due to the unwanted communication or
communication with legacy wells;
• Groundwater contamination due to loss of well integrity (i.e., casing, cement);
• Establishment of unwanted connectivity between the reservoir and groundwater aquifers
or other flow zones due to out-of-zone fracture propagation (i.e., geological protection
barrier breach);
To prevent integrity loss, fracturing designs must consider a significant number of variables
including: the limitations of the unconventional wells and fracturing equipment, the estimated
hydraulic fracturing loads, the local geology as well as the presence of legacy wells in the near
subsurface. Fracturing design must also consider measures to protect human health and the
environment, location size, on-site storage capability, and perforating plans.
Knowledge of the geomechanical properties of the reservoir is essential to maintaining zonal

isolation. Proper characterization of the natural barriers (seals) needed to confine hydraulic
fracturing is also of prime concern. The strength of a seal is dependent on its stress in contrast to
adjacent layers and specifically to that of the potential reservoir. The seal thickness and rock
properties, such as Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio will determine fracture depth penetration
and will define the barrier that will contain the fractures. Understanding the regional stress field
and the location of local faults and other geological structures is also important to prevented
unwanted fracture propagation. Additional subsurface information needed to complete the
fracturing design include:
• Depth to the tops of the groundwater aquifers;

• Pore pressure and fracture gradient plots;

• Problem zones such as injection, loss, corrosion, and flow;

• Other relevant information specific to the area;
Presence of corrosive substances such as H2S or CO2, either in the reservoir or in adjacent
formations, also require additional design considerations.
The acquisition of good subsurface information is a difficult tasks and it carries the highest
uncertainly. Therefore, early fracturing designs must be conservative, as these are based on
limited data. Data on the rock properties (i.e. permeability, porosity) and/or diagnostic fracture
injection testing data acquired from early project wells (i.e., pressure data, various logs as well as
microseismic imaging, tracers and etc.) help refining the design and reducing the risks related to
well integrity and fracture propagation. Pressure data acquired during stimulation are also
important as that could indicate the presence or absence of an effective confining barrier, as well
as whether or not that barrier is being breached. Intersection of natural fractures and faults is also
detectable with pressure data.
To better understand the potential injection pressure behavior of the desired fracture geometry
fracturing operations are stimulated with computer modelling. The model design can be as simple
as a three-layer model (reservoir layer with upper and lower barriers) or as complex as a multi-
layered model with well-defined layer properties. The input data to the model will affect directly
the expected behavior of fracture initiation, extension pressures, and estimate of geometry. Thus,
defining the uncertainty ranges of influential parameters is essential to more robust estimates of
the treating pressures and fracture geometry. While it is impractical to model every individual well,
modelling could be performed for a group of wells, as long as these are completed in similar
lithologies and have similar treatment schedules, and wellbore properties (i.e. a baseline generic
model). To improve the accuracy of the hydraulic fracturing modeling, a data calibration test (mini-
frac or DFIT) may be conducted. This test can provide useful information such as the closure
pressure, fracture extension pressure, and leak-off coefficient. Data from the calibration test will
help to refine the fracture design and reduce the risk of fracturing out of zone.
Another key fracturing design consideration is the composition of the fracturing fluid. Different
fracturing fluids have different rheological properties, hence, these will generate different fracture
geometries and surface pressures. Fluid viscosity affects surface pumping pressure due to friction
in the well and the fracture. The effect of any restriction in the flow path on the maximum required
wellhead pressure, can be significant. Therefore, choosing proper fracturing fluid viscosity is
essential to achieving the desired fracture geometry.
To protect personnel and equipment on the site, a job safety analysis of all potential risks is
conducted prior to the fracturing treatment. The risk assessment includes the development and
communication of a process to manage variations in operational risk. Proper selection, inspection
and testing of the fracturing equipment and the integrity of the production string will ensure that
fracturing operations are performed in a safe and environmentally acceptable manner. Quality
assurance and quality control conducted before and during the treatment is also important as is
the proper calibration and testing the QA/QC equipment used.
The execution of hydraulic fracturing is a complex task that carries operational, safety and
environmental risks. Therefore, protecting the health and safety of the staff and the environment
is of primary importance during the execution of hydraulic fracturing. The goals of the treatment
execution are:

• To perform operations safely;

• To retain the stimulation treatment fluids within the wellbore and intended formation;
• To retain the produced fluids (flowback) within the wellbore;
• To achieve optimal well performance and deliver the projected production rate and
reserves;
To ensure that those goals are met, fracturing execution must be performed within the limits of
the well design. Real time monitoring of parameters such as surface injection pressure, annular
pressure, slurry rate, proppant concentration, fluid rate, chemical additive rates and etc. will
ensure that operations are properly conducted. Any significant deviations of those parameters
may indicate problems with the well integrity, equipment performance or reservoir geology, any
of which may pose a risk to personnel safety, equipment integrity, and/or the environment. The
unwanted propagation of hydraulic fractures outside of the reservoir may not only result in
irreparable damage of proximal groundwater aquifers, (especially at critical separation wells), but
in most cases is detrimental to well economics. Natural or artificial tracers as well as microseismic
imaging are commonly used to ensure that hydraulic fractures are not propagating outside of the
target zone. Special consideration should also be given to monitoring the equipment for corrosion
and erosion, since both processes may result in equipment and/or environmental damages.
Environmental Benefit:
Proper design and execution of hydraulic fracturing are of utmost importance to protecting the soil
and groundwater as well as the safety of the personnel involved and/or that working in close
proximity to the well/wells that are being stimulated.
Economic Benefit:
Hydraulic fracturing is a technically complicated undertaking with the inherent danger of
equipment failures with significant safety and environmental consequences. The failure to
properly stimulate a well could be costly not only from an operational standpoint (i.e., in diminished
well profitability) but in the case of loss of fluid containment may also result in significant
environmental damages and the related remedial or compensation costs, not to mention damage
to the Company’s reputation. Therefore, it is in Saudi Aramco’s best interest that hydraulic
fracturing is conservatively designed and all operations closely monitored.
Guidance
Hydraulic fracturing designs should consider the following:
• The parameters and limitations of the unconventional well and the fracturing equipment;
• The estimated loads during treatment and flowback and the hydraulic fluid compositions
and properties (e.g., rheology);
• The local pore pressure and fracture gradients;
• The properties of the reservoir and the geological barrier/barriers;
• Depths to the groundwater aquifers;
• Presence of potential problem zones (injection, loss, corrosion, and flow)
• The chemical compositions of fluids in the reservoir and other flow zones with emphasis
on the presence of potential corrosive components such as H2S or CO2;
• The presence of legacy wells within the AOI of the well to be fractured.

Early fracturing designs (at the exploration stage) should be particularly conservative as these
will be based on limited geological and geophysical data (i.e., seismic) and/or log data. Fracturing
design should be refined when data from geophysical logs, cores, and fracture monitoring runs
on exploration/wildcat wells become available. The following methods provide important refining
information:
• Well testing data;

• Temperature logs or Distributed Temperature Sensing (DTS);
• Natural (geochemical) and artificial tracers logs;
• Microseismic measurements;
• Tiltmeters measurements;
• Production logs.
The data acquired from these methods should be used to refine further parameters such as the
stress field profile and to calibrate and validate the fracture treatment model. Pressure data
acquired during stimulation may also help evaluating the effectiveness of the confining geological
barrier/barriers as well as the intersection of natural fractures and faults;
Fracturing operations should be stimulated using numerical modelling in order to better

understand the potential injection pressure behavior and fracture geometry. If modelled pressures
or fracture growth are of concern, then mitigations measures should be considered by altering
fracture design parameters. When a fracture treatment is not reasonably represented by a
preexisting model, then design should be based on available data and/or conservative estimates;
Mixing and pumping equipment should be selected on the basis of the primary job parameters
(fluid and proppant type and volumes, maximum expected pumping rate and pressure).
Equipment should be configured to reduce the potential for spillage of proppant or leaks of fracture
fluids or additives. Equipment should also be tested for leaks prior to the treatment and be
monitored throughout the treatment for proper operation, leaks, and loss of integrity;
The high-pressure pumps should be equipped with protective systems activated by overpressure
measuring devices that compare the actual pump pressure to the set pressure limitation for the
pump, its discharge line to the wellhead, or the well itself. These systems are designed to provide
for operating personnel safety and to prevent damage to equipment during fracturing operations.
A suitable safety factor should be used in setting the maximum allowable treating pressure to
protect people, equipment, and the environment. Additional steps to reduce the potential of
surface spills include the following:
• Verification that pressure rating for all high-pressure piping and equipment exceeds that
of the anticipated loads by a safe margin;
• Removal of piping equipment exposed to pressures exceeding its rated limit;
• Removal of dead-end, unused piping and temporary connections that are no longer
needed;
• Immobilizing piping subject to vibration to avoid fatigue failures.
Fracturing execution should be performed within the limits of the well construction basis of design.
The well operator should be on site at all times in order to verify that the fracture execution takes
place in accordance with the program design and expectations. Well site personnel should also

have the responsibility and authority to cease work until a review is concluded and it is deemed
safe to resume activity;
On well pads where several wells are either completed simultaneously, or in relatively quick
succession, proper communication between the different teams should be established. This will
enhance not only the operational safety but also the subsurface efficiency of well completion and
will also reduce the potential for environmental incidents;
During the hydraulic fracture treatment, a number of parameters should be continuously

monitored (in real time). These include, but are not limited to: surface injection pressure, annular
pressure (between intermediate casing and the production string), slurry rate, proppant
concentration, fluid rate, chemical additive rates and etc. If the treating (production string)
pressure and/or annular pressure/pressures deviate significantly from the anticipated pressures
it is likely that the mechanical integrity of the well or that of the geological protective barrier have
been compromised. In such cases hydraulic fracturing operations should be suspended
immediately and not resumed until the cause of the pressure deviation/deviations is determined
and a remediation plan is developed;
A pressure-relief system should be installed to protect the production casing from excessive
loads. The relief valve should be set so that the pressure exerted on the casing does not exceed
the burst limit of the external casing and the collapse limit of the internal casing cause failure of
the casing shoe. Should a casing breach occur, the casing must to be properly repaired and tested
prior to resuming hydraulic fracturing;
Erosion, corrosion, and stress-corrosion cracking of the downhole equipment should also be
considered and appropriate mitigation measures implemented in order to prevent potential
equipment failures at load conditions less than those designed. Monitoring, corrosion abatement,
or corrosion-resistant equipment should be considered if injected fluids are suspected of being
corrosive or abrasive (including proppant). Operating procedures should provide for early
identification of potential corrosion problems in failure-prone equipment;
Methods such as microseismic imaging as well as the applications of natural (isotope) and
artificial tracers should be used either during or after the treatment to ensure that hydraulic
fracturing is contained within the intended target zone (reservoir) and not allowed to propagate
into nearby flow zones and/or groundwater aquifers;
2.8.3 Alternative Fracturing Technologies

Description
In most oil and gas developments, proppant-carrying fracturing fluids are water-based due to the
relatively low cost and availability of water. Water provides adequate carrying capacity to transport
proppants into the formation. However, alternative proppant-carrying fluids are being used in oil
and gas developments where fresh water is not readily available in order to reduce the volume of
water used or to eliminate the use of water for fracturing. Well stimulation technologies can use
various alternative materials to achieve the properties necessary to initiate and propagate
fractures, carry proppant into fractures and provide high flow rates back to the well.
Studies have shown that alternative fracturing technologies can significantly increase production,
offsetting the increased cost of the alternative technology. Because some formations are water
sensitive and water quality issues can cause swelling of clays, the use of alternative fracturing

fluids may be beneficial. Additionally, alternative proppant-carrying fluids are being used in oil and
gas developments where fresh water is not readily available or the use of water is not economical.
Because alternative fracturing fluids may have beneficial chemical compatibility with rock
formations, as well as the oil and gas resources, the economics of the process may be improved.
Alternative fluids include but are not limited to:
• Pure gases such as N2 and CO2;

• Natural Gas Liquids (NGL);
• Water with foaming agents blended with N2 and CO2 or NGL;
• Cross-linked gel energized with either CO2 or nitrogen;
• Fiber augmented fluids.
Alternative fracturing technologies reduce demand on important clean water sources. Fracturing
systems designed with N2, CO2, and natural gas liquids used as alternative fracturing fluids,
versus the traditional water-based systems, will reduce the risk of spills during the handling of
flowback waters.
Economic Benefit
The use of alternative fracturing fluids reduces the demand for the development of freshwater
sources and the need for the construction of water treatment facilities. In a country like Saudi
Arabia where freshwater is at such a premium, it is advantageous to save as much freshwater as
possible for domestic consumption, livestock and agricultural uses.
Guidance
A study to determine the feasibility and desirability of using alternative fracturing technologies
should be conducted. That study should determine the following:
• Minimum water quality requirements for hydraulic fracturing in each unconventional play;
• Effects of temperature and pressure on the stability of the various foamed proppant-
carrying media;
• Effects of temperature and pressure on the rheology of various alternative proppant-
carrying fluids;
• The economics of material requirements and infrastructure to transport and use nitrogen,
CO2, NGL, and LPG, as well other stimulation fluids (if mixing needed);
• Technology and methods required to safely transport and handle cryogenic gasses and
other materials during well stimulation operations;
• Emergency response plans and hazard communication programs should be modified to
consider the handling of cryogenic fluids, explosive gases or asphyxiating gases are
selected for use as alternative fracturing fluids;
If the alternative technologies are determined to be feasible, Saudi Aramco should conduct field
tests to determine the costs and effectiveness of the various alternative well stimulation media.
Finally, the separation and handling of alternative well stimulation fluids during flow back should
be evaluated: this includes technology and methods required to separate and safely handle CO2
during flow back operations.

2.9 Well Integrity Management

Description
Maintaining the integrity of unconventional wells during the production stage of the well life is not
only important to human health and safety and the environment but also to the well economics.
Deviated/horizontal wells have higher rates of integrity failures and the failure rates at those
increase significantly with well age. The extreme pressure loads, temperature swings and the
enhanced corrosion and erosion related to hydraulic fracturing endanger further the integrity of
the casings of wells subjected to hydraulic fracturing. Cement failures could be related to bad
cement jobs and the development of weak zones (annuli) in the cement, or could be related to
mineralogical changes related to exposure to corrosive fluids (i.e., CO2 related cement
carbonization) or cement aging. Cement weakening caused by the significant pressure and
temperature fluctuations associated with hydraulic fracturing and/or re-fracturing is also a serious
issue for unconventional wells.
The principal safety and environmental concerns with the loss of well integrity include the
establishment of unwanted hydraulic communication between different permeable (flow) zones
including the reservoir, deep saline aquifers, groundwater aquifers and the surface. The most
common manifestations of well integrity loss is the detection of sustained Tubing/Casing Annular
(TCA) pressure and the unwanted migration (leakage) of natural gas along the borehole (behind
pipe) to shallow groundwater zones and to surface. Migration of liquid hydrocarbons and/or
formation fluids (brine and etc.) to surface is less common due to their higher density and lower
buoyancy. The occurrence of TCA pressure and gas migration is a clear indicator that the integrity
of the well has been compromised. While detecting and fixing TCA pressure problems is relatively
straightforward, that is less often the case with behind pipe gas or liquid migration issues, mostly
due to the failure to correctly establish the source of the leaking gases/liquids. As noted, it is a
common (and costly) misconception that leaking gases (and fluids) originate from the reservoir.
In fact, those originate predominantly from overlying flow zones. Hence, the failure to correctly
identify (and remediate) the leaking zone(s) may significantly increase workover costs. Leak
detection methods such as temperature, sonic logging and etc. are commonly used to direct
workover activities to zones suspected to be the sources of leaking fluids. Those methods,
however could carry significant uncertainty. Advanced geochemical methods are not only
effective in pinpointing the sources of leaking gases and liquids but are also inexpensive and do
not require well down time (see Section 2.2.3).
Well integrity problems are common to all oil and gas producing companies including Saudi
Aramco, where significant resources are spent on detecting and repairing compromised wells.
The addition of great many new unconventional wells in a short period of time will exacerbate the
schedule of the Drilling and Workover departments. Hence, the unconventional development
programs should develop and implement additional measures to reduce the incidence of well
integrity issues. The loss of well integrity is minimized by proper well design as well as by properly
designing and conducting the drilling, casing placement, cementing and hydraulic fracturing of
the wells (Sections 2.7 and 2.8). Preventative measures during the production stage include the
application of corrosion prevention methods such as cathodic protection and filling the annular
space with inhibited hydrocarbon liquid (diesel). Those measures also include the implementation
of a comprehensive testing and monitoring program that involves pressure monitoring/testing,
various logging methods, the application of advanced geochemical tracing methods as well as
equipping the wells with advanced, real time downhole monitoring systems.

The timely detection and proper mitigation of unconventional well integrity failures will minimize
the adverse impacts of leaking gases and fluids on the groundwater aquifers and/or the surface
environments. Advanced geochemical methods provide superior contaminant source
identification and their wider application will help to better protect the environment.
Economic Benefit
Proper identification of the leaks by methods that require less or no downhole intervention such
as a combination of downhole monitoring tools and advanced geochemical methods will not only
reduce well down time but will also provide an identification of source of leaking fluids, which may
significantly minimize well repair and workover costs.
Guidance
An effective and comprehensive well integrity preservation strategy should be developed and
implemented for the Saudi Aramco’s unconventional wells. This strategy should include (but not
be limited to):
• A review of the design and choice of materials for the unconventional wells (Section 2.7);
• A review of the design and conducting of the unconventional wells well drilling, casing
placement, cementing and stimulation (hydraulic fracturing, Sections 2.7 and 2.8);
• A review of all well testing results prior to and after stimulation (but before production),
and taking corrective actions to rectify any deficiencies (Section 2.8);
• The implementation of a comprehensive anticorrosion strategy involving proper cathodic
protection as well as filling the wells’ annular space with inhibited hydrocarbon liquids
(diesel);
• The development and implementation of a comprehensive and regular maintenance and
monitoring schedule to include:
o Well surface equipment testing and maintenance;

o Monitoring of annular and production pressures;
o Casing pressure testing;
o Cement integrity logging (i.e., Cement Bond Logs CBL);
o Casing integrity logging (i.e., temperature logging, corrosion EMF logging and
etc.);
o Equipping all unconventional wells with Distributed Temperature Systems (DTS)
and the Permanent Downhole Monitoring Systems (PDMS) to monitor parameters
such as temperature and pressure in real time;
o Wide implementation of advanced geochemical methods (Section 2.2.3);
2.10 Well Abandonment

Description
The proper plugging and abandonment of unconventional resource wells after the end of their
economic life is essential to protecting the groundwater and surface environments. Since wells
intersect many flow zones containing fluids of different properties and pressures, if not properly
abandoned the wells could become conduits for unwanted gas and fluid communication. Failure
to properly plug and abandon the wells may also result in wastewater, left over chemicals and
hydrocarbons (e.g., methane) reach surface and adversely affect local vegetation, air quality as
well as greenhouse gas emission levels. Hence, wells should be abandoned with an eternal
perspective taking into account the effects of all foreseeable chemical and geological processes.

Current Saudi Aramco’s conventional well abandonment practices and instructions are covered
in detail Chapter 2-F of the Drilling Manual and also in the Aramco Workover Manual, Chapter 2-
G. However, the heavy pressure loads and steep temperature gradients related to multiple stages
of hydraulic fracturing and/or re-fracturing increase the risks of well integrity failures over time.
Proper plugging of the inclined sections of the unconventional wells is also challenging due to
gravity separation and the associated creation of annuli in the cement. The problem is
exacerbated by the high density of unconventional wells. Therefore, the integrity of the
unconventional wells’ protective barriers should be thoroughly tested prior to abandonment and
plugging should be conducted according to the latest best industry practices. The tests should
examine the wells mechanical integrity as well as potential unwanted fluid migration outside the
casing. If any issues are discovered, the wells should be rectified before abandonment.
Well abandonment involves the removal of as much well equipment as possible (i.e., packers,
casing strings and etc.) and the filling the annular space with cement. To ensure superior plug
quality, cement should be run from reservoir to surface. Recent international regulations strongly
recommend that cement plugs are also placed in what is called rock-to-rock configuration. That
is done by milling a “window” through all casing strings and pumping cement to fill in the annuli.
For proper cement hardening and bonding the hole is cleaned from residual drilling mud and
debris. Varieties such as the Perforate Wash and Cement (PWC) method can also be used. It is
recommended that the application of rock-to-rock cementing becomes mandatory for wells with
poor casing cement, no access to the last open hole section, and for the proper sealing of all high
pressure and/or corrosive fluid zones (i.e., H2S, CO2 and etc.).
Testing soil and groundwater aquifers after the well has been plugged, will ensure the plug
integrity. Post abandonment monitoring for unwanted leakages of natural gas and/or liquids is
another important step for protecting human life and the environment and should therefore be
considered especially when abandoning wells in close proximity to populated areas.
Environmental benefit
Abandoning wells with an eternal perspective taking into account the effects of any foreseeable
chemical and geological processes will ensure that potential environmental treats to human health
and safety and to the groundwater, soil, and air are effectively eliminated in the foreseeable future.
Economic benefit
The economic benefits of well abandonment are realized mostly through cost avoidance. For
example, costly overruns and also backlogs may be avoided by properly plugging wells as soon
as the end of their economic lifecycle. Properly plugged and abandoned wells will also ensure
there will be no pressure loss and subsurface contamination that may result from plugging
failures.
Guidance
• Wells to be abandoned should be plugged with an eternal perspective taking into account
the effects of any foreseeable chemical and geological processes. A proper permanent
well barrier should:
o Provide long term integrity;

o Be impermeable;
o Be non-shrinking;
o Be able to withstand high mechanical loads/impact;

o Be resistant to chemicals/substances (e.g., H2S, CO2 and hydrocarbons);

o Ensure superior bonding to casing steel/rock;
o Be non-corrosive to the integrity of the tubular steel;
• The integrity of the well protection barrier (i.e., casing and cement) should be thoroughly
evaluated/tested prior to well abandonment;
• If the wells exhibit sustained Tubing/Casing Annular (TCA) pressure, production casing
pressure, or behind pipe gas or liquid migration the reasons behind those should be
identified. The integrity of the casing/casings should be verified by running casing logs
(Section 2.8);
• The integrity of the cement should be verified by using appropriate cement bond logging
techniques to ensure the presence of a continuous vertical and horizontal seal over the
interval to be plugged. The entire interval should have formation integrity.
• Wells must be tested for natural gas and/or liquid migration outside the casing by using
the appropriate logging techniques, advanced geochemical methods or if equipped with,
by using their Permanent Downhole Monitoring Systems (PDMS).
• No well having up or downhole problems should be abandoned before it is ensured that it
is properly worked over and repaired. Damaged, poorly constructed or dilapidated wells
or sections thereof should be re-drilled in order to be properly abandoned;
• To facilitate cement plugging all well equipment and tubing should be removed from the
hole. Inner strings should be removed if removal will not jeopardize the abandonment of
the well. If the inner strings cannot be removed these should be cut at intervals necessary
to insure complete filling of the annular space with cement;
• To protect groundwater and to prevent communication between deeper flow zones and/or
the reservoir, one continuous (staged) cement plug should be ran from the reservoir to
surface. Plugging should be conducted at discrete stages to avoid suck pipe and/or other
cement placement problems;
• To improve cement plugging quality and longevity it is strongly recommended that “rock-
to-rock” plugging methods or varieties thereof (such as Perforate, Wash and Cement, or
PWC) are used at all Aramco unconventional wells. Such methods should be mandatory
through all high pressure zones and/or zones containing H2S and/or other corrosive
constituents;
• Post plugging monitoring should be conducted at abandoned well sites by using existing
or installing new probes and groundwater aquifer monitoring wells. Such monitoring is
highly recommended when wells are in the vicinity of municipal centres or industrial areas;
• If migration of gas or liquids is detected in the soil or in groundwater aquifers near plugged
wells, the source should be properly identified by using advanced tracing methods and
appropriate corrective measures taken re drilling and properly re-cementing either
sections of or the entire hole;
2.11 Air Emissions Management

Unconventional gas development generates air emissions from a variety of operations and
processes. These emissions should be monitored to assure compliance with air quality standards
and should be controlled or reduced to minimize impacts on air quality. Emissions from flares are
of particular concern since flare events can represent unplanned or emergency situations. Well
completions and workovers represent an important opportunity for reducing hydrocarbon

emissions. The following set of practices represents a broad-based approach for the reduction,
monitoring, and assessment of air emissions.
2.11.1 Reduced Emissions Completions

Description
Reduced emissions completions (RECs), also known as reduced flaring completions or “green
completions,” is a term used to describe an engineering method that captures hydrocarbons, in
particular the natural gas produced during well completions or well workovers. During the final
completion process, there are potential significant releases of hydrocarbons, mostly natural gas
in the form of methane (CH4) that can contribute to Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) in the
atmosphere.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) now requires the use of RECs for all
hydraulically fractured gas wells in the United States (starting in January 15, 2015). The state of
Colorado requires REC completions to the best extent practicable and further encourages that “All
salable quality gas shall be directed to the sales line as soon as practicable or shut in and
conserved.”
RECs will have greater potential during the field development phase than during the exploration
phase, since it may not be feasible to recover all of the gases or the liquids due to lack of
infrastructure during the exploration phase. However, as described below, the REC should, at a
minimum, consider separation and recovery of the liquids to better attain complete flare
combustion of the separated gases.
To implement a REC, 4 phase separator is brought on-site to separate the gas from the solids
and liquids produced during the high rate of flow from the well, so that the liquids are recovered
in storage tanks and that the gas can be delivered into a production or sales pipeline. A schematic
of the REC process is provided in Figure 2.24.
RECs help to reduce CH4, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), hazardous air pollutants (HAPs)
such as BTEX, and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) emissions during well completion. VOCs contribute
to the formation of ozone and H2S is a toxic gas that, when combusted, is converted to sulfur
dioxide (SO2). H2S, ozone, and SO2 are all listed as having stringent ambient air quality limits
pursuant to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Ambient Air Quality Limits. Furthermore, VOCs and the
associated compounds such as HAPs and BTEX are deemed harmful to human health and can
contribute to the potential exceedance of local air pollution rules.
Economic Benefit
In some locations, the costs associated with the use of REC equipment could be offset by the
additional revenue from either the sale or the re-use of gas and condensate separated on-site
during REC. The equipment used during RECs is only necessary for the time it takes to complete
the well; therefore, this equipment can be readily transported from site to site to be used during
completions at multiple well sites.

Figure 3.24 Schematic of the REC process.
Guidance
The potential for reduced emissions comes from proper combustion of CH4, BTEX, VOCs, HAPs
and H2S and serves to lower overall pollution emissions. The following are best practices that
should be used as part of the reduced emissions completion process:
• Portable vertical flares: Portable or stationary vertical flares are used to provide more
complete combustion and pollutant dispersion to reduce ambient air quality impact.
• Portable enclosed tanks: The use of portable enclosed tanks enhances product recovery
and can help eliminate the need for liquid hydrocarbon flaring.
• Portable Line Heater or Heater Treater: A heater unit utilizes field gas to heat production
fluids and gases to obtain better phase separation of liquid and gas hydrocarbon products.
• Portable 4 Phase Separator: The use of a phase separator to removed solids (sand)
and enable product recovery and separation of liquids and gases reduces the need for
liquid hydrocarbon flaring.
• Vapor Recovery Tower (VRT): The purpose of the vapor recovery tower is to recover gas
vapors for fuel or allow for the proper combustion of gases to reduce H2S and GHG
emissions.

• Glycol dehydration: This process dehydrates the produced gas so it can be moved into
the mid-stream production pipeline.
• Fugitive dust control: it is recommended to pave major roads to the field to be developed
in order to reduce any dust generations due to traffic
All aspects of the production process should be evaluated for potential emission of regulated air
pollutants and a detailed emissions inventory should be developed and maintained by the
proponents.
2.11.2 Ambient Air Quality and Fugitive Sources Monitoring

Description
The development of an air quality ambient surveillance network for new oil and gas sources needs
to be based on carefully chosen locations as well as the type of pollutant and monitoring
parameters that will be assessed. Air dispersion modeling should be used to assess the best
location along with local and national demographic trends, current air quality emissions data, and
specific pollutant loading.
Best management practice includes monitoring of fugitives emissions for VOC, CH4, HAPs, and
H2S. This program would consist of direct inspection and monitoring of leaking sources, more
commonly known as Leak Detection and Repair (LDAR), as well as a contingency plan to monitor
H2S. KSA government and Saudi Aramco regulate fugitive emission in their environmental
standards, moreover, Saudi Aramco has developed LDAR protocol to assist in implementing the
fugitive emission monitoring following US EPA method 21. The U.S. EPA now requires that
upstream oil and gas production and processing facilities be inspected and that the operator
conduct LDAR for fugitive equipment leaks.
Furthermore, since there is the potential for H2S gas present in the exploration phase, there is
also a need to conduct fugitive monitoring for H2S. Operations such as drilling and completions;
well workovers; opening of equipment (separators, pumps, and tanks); and fugitive leaks could
lead to exposures of workers to H2S or HAPs. BMPs require that a H2S safety protocol that
includes ambient monitoring during well drilling and completion through production be prepared
and followed.
The implementation of a leak inspection program would provide an opportunity to reduce fugitive
emission leaks with an overall net reduction in the amount of CH4 being vented to the atmosphere.
A reduction of fugitive leaks using a preventive LDAR program is a mitigating measure in the effort
to limit climate change due to the GWP of emissions from CH4.
Guidance
The best practice would be to use one or both of the below dispersion models, along with the
most recent Saudi Aramco AMMNET network data, to determine the need for additional AMMNET
stations while the unconventional plays are being developed. The U.S. EPA suggests the
following short- and long-range air quality dispersion models for determining ambient air quality
impacts:
• AERMOD – This model is useful for modeling industrial source complexes and air
dispersion transport distances of less than 50 kilometers (km).

• CALPUFF – This model is recommended for long-range transport of emissions greater

than 50 km.
o A complete evaluation of any ambient air quality monitoring network be conducted

every five years;
o For fugitive emissions, portable hand-held instruments used to detect CH4 are
utilized in accordance with U.S. EPA Method 21 test procedures. These units do
require frequent calibration and time must be taken to measure each individual
potential leaking component in order to determine compliance;
o The IR camera can be used to visualize gas by looking at the absorption of
electromagnetic radiation in the infrared length and can be used to detect CH4 and
HAPs such as benzene, butane, ethylbenzene, toluene and xylene. The IR
camera can also be used to monitor other well field or maintenance operations
such as vent blow-down or annular pressure testing.
2.11.3 Emissions Measurement – Routine and Emergency Flares

Description
The primary objective of this BMP is to provide methods or elements that would enable the
tracking of flare events as part of the overall Flare Minimization Plan (FMP) that is required for all
Aramco operations. All regulated emissions from for gases with H2S content above 20
ppm, SO2 emissions should be quantified and proponent should seek EPD guidance on
potential further requirements.
In accordance with Saudi Aramco Engineering Standard SAES-A-10, Scope of Flaring

Minimization Plan, all plants shall categorize the cause of flaring events based on current
categorizations in the Corporate Flare MONITORING System (CFMS). The following are example
of flaring events categories:
• “Safety: Minimum purge gas (fuel gas or sales gas) to keep air out the flare headers. “
• “Leakages: Leakages from control valves and Safety Valves.”
• “Upset: Flaring attributed to process upsets.”
• “Mechanical Failure: Flaring attributed to mechanical equipment or instrumentation
failures.”
• “Startup/Shutdown: Flaring attributed to startup and shutdown.”
• “Process/Fuel Imbalance: Flaring resulting from temporary fuel imbalance in the fuel
system or inadequate gas processing capacity. “
Reducing flaring emissions will protect the environment from harmful air pollution.
Economic Benefit
Flaring reduction will recover tremendous amount of valuable energy and effectively save
potential cost. Other potential benefits include proper decisions for the regulatory administration
based on accurate flare event measuring and reporting.
Guidance
A recommended method to better classify flaring events would be to use the current KSA flare
category requirements (Safety, Leakage, Upset, Mechanical Failure, Startup/Shutdown, and

Process Fuel Balance) along with classification of each flaring event as Routine or Non-Routine.
Non-Routine events would be further classified as Planned, Unplanned, or Emergency, followed
by a descriptor of the actual event. The following are examples of flaring classifications:
• Process Fuel Balance – Routine – Pilot fuel supply

• Safety – Non Routine Emergency – Overpressure of valve
• Mechanical Failure – Non Routine Unplanned – Overpressure of valve
• Startup/Shutdown – Non Routine Planned – Pipeline Blow down
The following is a suggested data collection list to further clarify and provide a more uniform flare
event data reporting:
• Date and Time
• Duration of the flaring: Minutes, Hours
• Flare Stack Dimension Parameters: Height or Length and Diameter (in meters)
• Flare Type: Ground, Elevated. Horizontal, Vertical
• Stack Diameter (in meters)
• Type of Fuels Combusted: Gas, Liquid, or both
• Condensate and/or gas analysis sample – Including British thermal unit (BTU) value and
H2S content
• Volume of gas generated and flared (in millions of standard cubic feet [MMSCF])
• Volume of Water generated per day (in barrels [bbl])
• Barrels of condensate generated per day (in bbl)
• Barrels of condensate sent to flare per day (in bbl)
• Estimated Stack Exit Temperature (in Kelvins [K])
• Estimated Stack Exit Velocity (in meters per second [m/s])
• Measurements in Standard Temperature and Pressure Conditions
2.11.4 Emissions Measurement – Root Cause Analysis – Emergency Flares

Description
The current Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards require the development of an FMP for all
facilities with flares or burn pits. The policy requires that the FMP include procedures and
preventive measures to minimize flaring. Preventative measures include understanding the
nature and processes by which the upset flaring and the related emissions from those events
occur. This type of preventative measure or procedure requires a systematic review of the basic
elements related to the flare events and is generally known as a Root Cause Analysis (RCA).
Determining the root cause of the emergency flaring can significantly reduce the amount of flaring
due to identification of similar conditions and taking corrective action to prevent their recurrence.
Economic Benefit
A greater understanding of the nature and type of upstream emissions from flaring will help to
prioritize and optimize efforts, both regulatory and from industry, to reduce the occurrence of future
flaring events.
Guidance
The RCA investigation for emergency flaring and reporting typically should include five steps:

1. Data Collection:
The data collection process of flare RCA should begin as soon as possible after the flaring event
to ensure information that can help identify system upsets is not lost. Data collection should occur
during each flaring event to the extent safety is not compromised. The information that should be
collected includes conditions before, during, and after the flaring event; the personnel involved
(including any actions taken); and specific process rate and equipment information. Process rate
data includes production flow volumes, gas pressures and temperatures and should include, at a
minimum, the reporting requirements established by Aramco Engineering Standards FMP 167
along with the ambient environmental conditions (temperature, moisture, wind) at the time of the
event.
2. Assessment of Flaring:
• Identify the exact nature of the emergency flaring event and categorize the cause of flaring
in accordance with Aramco requirements;
• Determine the level or magnitude of the flaring that has occurred. This includes: How long
the flaring took place and the volume of gas or liquids flared. This would also include the
extent of any damage to equipment or injury to personnel.
• Assemble an independent staff (technical team) that will then identify the causes
(conditions or actions) immediately preceding and after the flare event.
• Identify the specific reasons as to why the identified condition, actions or malfunction
occurred. This is accomplished by looking back to the root-cause and the fundamental
reason which, if fixed, repaired or changed, will prevent a recurrence of the flaring
event.
3. Corrective Measures:
In this step, a thorough review using one or more of the RCA methods in Step 2 is conducted.
Corrective measures involve identifying, developing and putting into effect corrective actions or
processes for each type of flaring event to reduce the probability that a problem causing a flaring
event will recur again.
4. Report:
In this step of the RCA, the technical team reports to the appropriate management level or
agency as to the current status of process. The report information stage requires an explanation
of the results of any and all analysis, including corrective measures, and a demonstration of
lessons learned with the management and personnel involved in the flaring event. The
frequency of the RCA flare report should align with the monthly report that is required under the
Aramco Engineering standards 170
5. Re-evaluate and Review:

This step includes the technical team determining if the corrective measures have been effective
in resolving the nature the flaring issue. A follow-up review by management is essential to ensure
that the corrective measures were carried out and are preventing a recurrence of flaring under
similar circumstances. We recommend this review step of the RCA process be incorporated into
the annual FMP revisions and reporting as required by Aramco Engineering standards.

2.12 Radiation Protection

Naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM) is an unwanted by-product of oil and gas
production. NORM is ubiquitous throughout the oil & gas industry, and unconventional gas
production is known to be impacted by NORM. In addition, unconventional gas operations use
proppants which may contain elevated levels of natural radioactivity, and short lived radioactive
tracers to determine operational performance.
Saudi Aramco General Instruction (GI 150.003 Ionizing Radiation Protection) is the principal
corporate control document for radiation protection. The use of man-made sources, including
radioactive tracers will require to comply with KSA government regulations and may require a
government issued radiation practice license to be issued with operations supervised by a KSA
government certified Radiation Protection Officer (RPO). In addition there are documents which
provide requirements for the management of operations involving NORM and the transportation
of radioactive material, namely;
• SAEP-0358 Management of Technologically Enhanced Naturally Occurring Radioactive

Material (NORM)
• SAEP-0370 Transportation of Radioactive Material
• SAEP-0390 Radiation Protection Assessment
The practical components of the NORM strategy which must be implemented are:
• NORM Surveillance
• Control of NORM contaminated equipment
• Control of NORM waste
• Workers Protection & Training
2.12.1 NORM Monitoring

Description
Direct monitoring or sampling of equipment and waste material is required to determine the
presence of NORM. A monitoring program requires to be developed. This also needs the
availability of personnel trained to carry out the monitoring activities and equipment capable of
making the measurements.
NORM monitoring is important to determine the nature and levels of radiation, and risks to human
health and safety, including the public and workers.
Economic Benefit
Establishing and implementing NORM protection standards will ensure that the environment does
not become inadvertently contaminated with enhanced levels of NORM, which may increase
radiation exposure to workers and the public, thus protecting against detrimental effects of
radiation and potential litigation.
Guidance
Instrumentation used should be intrinsically safe and capable of detecting the principle
radionuclides present in the process. For gamma detection a sodium iodide (NaI) probe is
recommended, and for alpha/beta an uncompensated Geiger-Muller probe. Some radionuclides

present in gas processing (namely Lead-210 and Polonium-210) are difficult to detect by direct
monitoring and therefore representative samples may need to be collected and analyzed in a
laboratory. Similarly for large volumes of waste, representative samples shall be collected.
2.12.2 NORM – Worker Protection

Description
Work with NORM must be controlled to ensure that radiation exposure is as low as reasonably
achievable (ALARA). Generally external radiation exposure from NORM is easily managed, the
principle concern is internal exposure, therefore personnel required to work with NORM must be
trained in the associated hazards and appropriate control measures.
Following defined procedures for work with NORM will prevent the spread of radioactive
contamination and limit the potential for legacy contamination of the environment.
Economic Benefit
Establishing and implementing NORM protection standards will ensure the safety of the public
and workers, thus providing the economic benefit of ensuring a healthy workforce, and minimizing
areas of enhanced NORM contamination.
Guidance:
• All NORM operations shall be covered by a safe system of work which should identify
the hazards and highlight the precautions to be taken;
• Any item or area with detectable levels of loose NORM contamination should be subject
to radiological controls;
• Appropriate PPE should be worn (which may include but not be restricted to:
o ‘Tyvek’ style coveralls;
o Neoprene, PVC, or NBR gloves;
o Half-face respirators with HEPA cartridges; these should be tested for fit
o Quarter-face HEPA disposable respirators;
• Eating, drinking, smoking and chewing are not allowed in work areas where there is
potential NORM contamination;
• Only essential personnel should be allowed in the work areas of potential NORM
contamination;
• Personnel should wash up thoroughly with copious quantities of soap and water, after
working with contaminated equipment, and before eating, drinking, or smoking, and at the
end of the workday;
• Use systems of work that minimize the generation of waste PPE (i.e. use PPE that can be
cleaned, inspected and re-used);
• Training and awareness on the hazards of NORM is a requirement of all workers
potentially exposed to NORM or directly involved in work with NORM;
2.12.3 Control of NORM contaminated Equipment

Description
NORM-contaminated equipment should be handled, transported, stored, maintained and
disposed of in a manner that ensures worker protection and prevents contamination of the
environment. If equipment is being removed from operation, either to go for maintenance,

replacement, repair, sale or disposal its NORM status must be verified. Equipment with enhanced
levels of NORM cannot be released without being decontaminated.
In the absence of suitable radiation protection measures, NORM in the oil and gas industry could
result in exposure to workers and the public. Without proper surface decontamination protocols,
for example, drilling pipe that contains low-level NORM scale can be unrecognized and
transported to a variety of secondary pipe reprocessing facilities, which can result in the spread
of NORM and also worker exposure.
Economic Benefit
NORM contaminated equipment will be identified and decontaminated, failure to do this would
result in components contaminated with NORM being released without control potentially
exposing members of the public and contaminating areas.
Guidance
NORM-contaminated equipment should be managed/controlled by being:
• Tagged or clearly marked as NORM-contaminated;
• Handled only by employees trained in NORM hazards and using the proper personal
protective equipment (PPE);
• Sent out for maintenance/repair with prior notification to the service persons that the
equipment is NORM contaminated;
• Stored in areas which are exclusively used for the storage of NORM-contaminated
equipment.
• Covered adequately by heavy-gauge UV-stabilized plastic or other suitable materials to
ensure that NORM material does not leak from the item (e.g., flange or pipe ends);
• Checked at least quarterly to ensure that the integrity of protective measures is
adequate;
• Decontaminated prior to release for unrestricted use. Decontamination should only be
performed at a Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) Environmental Protection Department-
approved NORM decontamination facility or according to an approved decontamination
protocol;
• Detailed and recorded properly on verifiable records;
2.12.4 NORM – Waste Control

Description
Before NORM can be managed effectively, it is necessary to know how and where it is being
produced. This requires an assessment of processes to identify where NORM may exist.
Similarly all process wastes must be sampled for NORM activity concentrations. The exemption
levels for NORM are detailed in SAEP-0358. NORM concentrations below these limits are exempt
and do not require radiological control. Concentrations above these levels require controls to be
established for the management and control of the waste.
Failure to assess waste streams for NORM may result in contamination of the environment and
enhanced radiation exposure of workers and the public.
Economic Benefit

Failure to control NORM waste will result in contamination of the environment and enhanced
radiation exposure of the public, exposing the company to potential litigation.
Guidance
NORM waste disposal should follow applicable regulations pertaining to the disposal of
radioactive waste. In many cases short-term or interim storage may be required before final
disposal of NORM waste. Where NORM waste is required to be stored, it should be kept in a
suitable container which should comply with the following requirements. The container should be:
• In good condition with no visible indications of internal or external corrosion, and be made
of a durable material;
• Lined with or made of materials that will not react with or be incompatible with the NORM
waste.
• Resistant to UV degradation;
• Closed and sealed during storage, and practical to open and re-seal when it is necessary
to add or remove waste;
• Handled, opened, and controlled in a manner so as not to rupture the container or cause
it to leak;
• Labeled with the radiation symbol clearly indicating that it contains NORM-contaminated
waste;
• Labeled and constructed properly to handle the constituents in the waste matrix;
• Resistant to normally expected range of temperatures;
• Resistant to water ingress and stored in a dry environment;
• Physically robust to prevent damage during transport;
NORM waste must only be disposed of in an approved Saudi Aramco NORM disposal facility.
2.12.5 Radioactive Tracers

Description
Radioactive tracers are radioactive materials that are used to detect the presence and /or track
the movement of the material the tracer is added to in a natural medium such as a hydrocarbon
reservoir rock. Special precautions need to be taken with these materials to ensure that releases
to the environment that could threaten human health and safety do not occur.
Radioactive tracers may be applied in unconventional oil and gas production during drilling,
cementing, hydraulic fracturing and enhanced recovery. Radioactive tracers are also commonly
used in downstream operations to measure flow rate or detect leaks in pipelines.
Particular importance should be placed on the proper management of unsealed radioactive
sources such as radioactive tracer isotopes. If not controlled, the material and associated waste
has the potential to contaminate the work area and the nearby surrounding areas and present
serious risks to human health and the environment.
Economic Benefit
Establishing and implementing radioactive tracer protocols to protect the safety of the public and
workers provides the economic benefit of a healthy workforce, reducing costly cleanups, and
protecting groundwater resources.

Guidance
Radioactive tracers should be carefully selected to suit the application and to minimize the
potential for residual contamination. Important physical properties in the selection of a radiotracer
include:
• Ability to be mobile in the material of interest, while not reacting with other system
elements;
• Stability in the environment into which it is injected (e.g., high temperature, pressure);
• Minimal impacts to health (radiotoxicity) with factors such as absorption, residence time in
the body, and energy type;
• Minimal potential for residual contamination due to a half-life which is appropriate for the
investigation time frame;
• Easily detectable due to the radiation type and energy;
• Activity that is as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA) and still achieves the goals of
the investigation;
• Cementing – Scandium oxide is added as a powdered glass to a batch of cement just prior
to being pumped downhole. With the use of a logging tool downhole, the progress of the
radiotracer can be monitored as the cement travels up the annulus of the well;
• Hydraulic Fracturing – The silver isotope, 110mAg, is normally added to the proppant prior
to fracturing.
• The flow back solid waste needs to be contained and monitored for radiation. Hot material
needs to be properly disposed of at a low level radioactive waste disposal facility.
3.0 CONCLUSIONS
The BMPs presented above are intended to assist Saudi Aramco operations in conducting
exploration and development of the Kingdom’s unconventional gas resources. These practices,
if followed, will ensure the preservation of Saudi Arabia’s environment and its precious
groundwater resources.
Early adoption of the BMPs for the various aspects of unconventional development delineated in
this document will assist Saudi Aramco in meeting its goals of environmental stewardship,
conservation of resources. It will also reduce the risk of adverse impacts on Company personnel
and the communities in close proximity to the unconventional development facilities. Developing
drilling, completion and production practices consistent with those BMPs will also have a positive
impact on the operational outcome.
BMPs are continuously changing, as the industry works to advance and improve the technologies
and techniques that enhance operational and environmental performance. Hence, it is vital that
Saudi Aramco organizations adopt a robust process to capture the incremental improvements
that will occur and adjust current BMPs accordingly. To be effective, this process should involve
all levels of the enterprise and a companywide engagement will serve to accelerate the
implementation of the changes as they occur.
The information contained in this document should be viewed as foundational guidance for the
development of Aramco’s unconventional drilling, completion and production plans. Additional
work will be needed to develop internal programs to effectively monitor and manage the various
elements of unconventional gas development recommended in this document.

These BMPs are intended to serve as a blueprint of future Saudi Aramco environmental standards
and/or other documents dedicated to upstream unconventional (and conventional) operations.
The concerned departments and their contractors should follow those BMPs during the
transitional period in which those new Company standards and regulations are prepared.
Revision Summary
19 May 2022 Editorial revision as per EPD 000046.2022 to transfer ownership of the document
to the Environmental Protection Standards Committee. Align the document styling
with standards format.
10 June 2018 Editorial revision to change standards committee from Environmental to Water
Treatment & Conservation
2 August 2017 New Saudi Aramco Best Practice.


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Best Practice 19 May 2022

Previous Revision: 10 June 2018 Next Revision:02 August 2027

1.2.3 Integrity of the Unconventional Wells ..................................................................................... 9

2.1 Environmental Evaluation of Unconventional Operations ................................................. 12

2.2.3 Advanced Geochemical Tracing Methods........................................................................... 16

2.3.5 Water Measurement ............................................................................................................... 25

© Saudi Arabian Oil Company, 2022 Page 2 of 86

2.5 Solid Waste Management............................................................................................................ 38

2.5.3 Drilling Waste Segregation .................................................................................................... 41

2.6 Fluid/Spill Containment and Chemical Handling .................................................................. 45

2.11.4 Emissions Measurement – Root Cause Analysis – Emergency Flares.......................... 79

© Saudi Arabian Oil Company, 2022 Page 3 of 86

2.12.4 NORM – Waste Control ......................................................................................................... 83

© Saudi Arabian Oil Company, 2022 Page 4 of 86

• Volume 1: Background, Literature Review, References and BMP Summaries

BOTH REPORTS ARE PLACED IN EPD SHARED FOLDER

This summary report was reviewed and edited by:

• Mansor Kashir (EPD, Groundwater Protection and all other sections)

© Saudi Arabian Oil Company, 2022 Page 5 of 86

© Saudi Arabian Oil Company, 2022 Page 6 of 86

1.1 Principal Reference Sources

• The General Authority of Meteorology and Environmental Protection (GAMEP)

© Saudi Arabian Oil Company, 2022 Page 7 of 86

• American National Standards Institute/American Petroleum Institute:

1.2 Environmental Challenges of Unconventional Gas Development

1.2.1 High Water Consumption

1.2.2 Toxicity of Chemical Additives

© Saudi Arabian Oil Company, 2022 Page 8 of 86

groundwater aquifers. This underscores the importance of proper chemical management in

1.2.3 Integrity of the Unconventional Wells

© Saudi Arabian Oil Company, 2022 Page 9 of 86

• Well integrity failures and the resulting leakage/migration of hydrocarbons or formation

1.2.4 Waste Management Issues

1.2.5 Wastewater Management Issues

1.2.6 Air quality impacts

• Gas Flaring and burning of liquid hydrocarbons in burn pits;

© Saudi Arabian Oil Company, 2022 Page 10 of 86

© Saudi Arabian Oil Company, 2022 Page 11 of 86

2.0 BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

2.1 Environmental Evaluation of Unconventional Operations

2.1.1 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

© Saudi Arabian Oil Company, 2022 Page 12 of 86

2.2 Baseline Survey and Environmental Monitoring

2.2.1 Baseline Environmental Survey

© Saudi Arabian Oil Company, 2022 Page 13 of 86

Where unconventional development is to take place in areas already under conventional

© Saudi Arabian Oil Company, 2022 Page 14 of 86

2.2.2 Environmental Monitoring

© Saudi Arabian Oil Company, 2022 Page 15 of 86

2.2.3 Advanced Geochemical Tracing Methods

© Saudi Arabian Oil Company, 2022 Page 16 of 86

2.3 Water Resources Management

2.3.1 Water Sourcing

© Saudi Arabian Oil Company, 2022 Page 17 of 86

2.3.1.1 Alternative Water Sourcing Decision Tree

© Saudi Arabian Oil Company, 2022 Page 18 of 86

Figure 2.1 Alternative water source decision tree.

© Saudi Arabian Oil Company, 2022 Page 19 of 86

2.3.2 Groundwater Management