Accepted Manuscript

Factors Affecting the Bond Strength Between the Fly Ash-based

Geopolymer Concrete and Steel Reinforcement

Mustafa Al-Azzawi, Tao Yu, Muhammad N.S. Hadi

PII: S2352-0124(18)30035-3
DOI: doi:10.1016/j.istruc.2018.03.010
Reference: ISTRUC 266
To appear in: Structures
Received date: 8 January 2018
Revised date: 20 March 2018
Accepted date: 20 March 2018

Please cite this article as: Mustafa Al-Azzawi, Tao Yu, Muhammad N.S. Hadi , Factors
Affecting the Bond Strength Between the Fly Ash-based Geopolymer Concrete and Steel
Reinforcement. The address for the corresponding author was captured as affiliation for all
authors. Please check if appropriate. Istruc(2017), doi:10.1016/j.istruc.2018.03.010

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Factors affecting the bond strength between the fly ash-based geopolymer concrete and

steel reinforcement

Mustafa Al-Azzawi1, Tao Yu2, Muhammad N.S. Hadi3*

1
PhD Candidate, School of Civil, Mining and Environmental Engineering, University of

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Wollongong, Australia
2*

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Associate Professor, School of Civil, Mining and Environmental Engineering, University of

Wollongong, Australia

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3
Associate Professor, School of Civil, Mining and Environmental Engineering, University of
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Wollongong, Australia
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Correspondence:
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Muhammad N. S. Hadi
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School of Civil, Mining & Environmental Engineering

University of Wollongong, Australia

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E-mail: [email protected]
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Telephone: + 61 2 4221 4762

Facsimiles: + 61 2 4221 3238

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* Corresponding author

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Factors affecting the bond strength between the fly ash-based geopolymer concrete and

steel reinforcement

Abstract:

In this study, the effect of fly ash characteristics, the content of the fly ash and mix proportion

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of the Fly Ash-Based Geopolymer Concrete (FBGC) on the bond strength between the FBGC

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and steel reinforcement were examined. Australian fly ashes from five different sources

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(Eraring, Mt-Piper, Bayswater, Gladstone and Collie) were used in producing FBGC. A total

of 45 FBGC mixes with different fly ash content (300, 400 and 500 kg/m 3) and different
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proportions of alkaline activator were prepared. The use of different fly ashes and in different

amounts showed significant differences in the bond strength between the FBGC and steel
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reinforcement. It was found that the fly ash characteristics including particle size distribution

and the content of SiO2 Al2O3 and CaO influenced the bond strength of the FBGC
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significantly. The results showed that the FBGC that was mixed with Gladstone (GL) fly ash
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exhibited the highest average bond strength between the FBGC and steel reinforcement (25

MPa). While the FBGC that was mixed with Bayswater (BW) fly ash showed the lowest
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average bond strength between the FBGC and steel reinforcement (10 MPa). The results also

indicated that the increase in the fly ash content in the FBGC significantly increased the bond
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strength between the FBGC and steel reinforcement. The bond strength of the FBGC

responded differently to changes in the Na2SiO3/NaOH ratio in the alkaline activator

corresponding to the use of different fly ash.

Keywords: Geopolymer concrete; Bond strength; Fly ash; steel reinforcement; Alkaline

activator.

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1. Introduction

Geopolymer concrete is developing as an environmentally friendly alternative to Portland

Cement Concrete (PCC). The geopolymer concrete is synthesised by mixing a geopolymer

binder (aluminosilicate material and alkaline activator) with aggregate. In general, the

geopolymer binder is prepared by mixing an aluminosilicate material (i.e. fly ash and blast

furnace slag) with an alkaline activator, i.e. sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and sodium silicate

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(Na2SiO3). The chemical reaction (geopolymerization) between the aluminosilicate material

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and the alkaline activator forms a three-dimensional inorganic polymer with coherent and

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adhesive properties [1].
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The use of fly ash (by-products of coal combustion in power stations) in producing

geopolymer concrete is gaining more interest by many researchers across the world. This is
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because the fly ash is one of the cheapest aluminosilicate materials which is rich in silica

(SiO2 40%-70% by weight) and alumina (Al2O3 15%-30% by weight) [2, 3]. Moreover, the
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use of fly ash in the geopolymer concrete contributes in reducing the environmental impacts
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due to disposing fly ash in landfills [4]. However, fly ashes produced from different power
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stations have different characteristics because of using different fuel types (bituminous and
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lignite coal) and different techniques in collecting the fly ashes making the fly ash a non-

standard material [5, 6]. As such, fly ashes from different sources will have different extent of
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geopolymerization with alkaline activators that affects the properties of the Fly Ash-Based

Geopolymer Concrete (FBGC). This is due to the differences in the fly ash characteristics in

terms of particle size distribution, amorphous SiO2 and Al2O3 content and CaO content [7-

10]. Consequently, using fly ash from different sources in producing FBGC has different

performance in structural members. Thus, understanding the factors that affect the

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performance of the FBGC with steel reinforcement is necessary to promote the use of FBGC

as a potential alternative to the PCC.

Reinforced concrete members generally rely on the interfacial bond between the reinforcing

bars and the surrounding concrete [11, 12]. Transferring the forces between a steel rebar and

the surrounding concrete depends on chemical adhesion, friction and the mechanical

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interlocking between steel ribs and the concrete [11]. The performance of the concrete to

resist stresses transferred from the reinforcing bars is dominated by the compressive and the

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tensile strengths of the surrounding concrete [11].

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The bond strength between the FBGC and steel reinforcement has been investigated in
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different studies [13-18]. The effects of the bar size of steel reinforcement, the embedded
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length of the steel bar, the thickness of the concrete cover and curing conditions of FBGC on

the bond strength between the FBGC and steel reinforcement were investigated by several
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studies. However, the existing studies did not investigate the effect of using different fly ash
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sources (different characteristics) and different mix proportion on the bond strength between
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the FBGC and steel reinforcement. The present study examines the effect of different fly ash

sources (five different Australian fly ash sources) and different mix proportion of the FBGC
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(three different fly ash contents and three different weight ratios of Na2SiO3/NaOH) on the
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bond strength between the FBGC and steel reinforcement.

2. Experimental work

2.1 Materials

2.1.1 Fly ash

Fly ashes (Type F) from Eraring (ER), Mt Piper (MP), Bayswater (BW), Gladstone (GL), and

Collie (CL) power stations were used in this study. The X-Ray Fluorescent (XRF) was

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carried out on samples of fly ash in the laboratories of the School of Earth & Environmental

Sciences, University of Wollongong, Australia. The particle size distribution analysis for the

fly ash samples were carried out using laser diffraction particle size analyser. The results of

the XRD and XRF analysis of the fly ash are summarised in Table 1, respectively. The

particle size distribution of the fly ash samples is illustrated in Figure 1.

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The analysis of the XRF showed that all fly ash samples were Type F based on the definition

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of ASTM-C618 (2015). The amount of SiO2, Al2O and Fe2O3 content for all fly ashes were

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higher than 70%. The CaO content in all fly ash samples were less than 8%. The percentages

of the Loss on Ignition (LOI) for the unburned particles in all fly ashes ranged from 0.7% to
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1.7%. The median particle size (d50) of the fly ashes Eraring, Mt Piper, Bayswater,

Gladstone, and Collie were 24.8, 20.5, 17.0, 3.5 and 9.0 µm, respectively.
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2.1.2 Alkaline activator

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The alkaline activator utilised in this study was composed of different proportions of NaOH
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and Na2SiO3. The NaOH solution was prepared by diluting caustic soda, which contained

about 98% by weight Na2O in water. The Na2SiO3 composed of 29.4% SiO2, 14.7% Na2O
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and 55.9% water by wieght.

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The optimum concentration of the NaOH and the weight ratio of the alkaline activator to the

fly ash content (AL/FA) for each fly ash source were determined by conducting sets of

geopolymer trial mixes. For this aim, five sets of fly ash-based geopolymer mortar (FGBM)

mixes were prepared and tested for compressive strength. The details of the mix proportion of

the geopolymer mortar are summarised in Table 2. The weight ratio of fly ash to sand was

fixed at 1:2.75 according to [19]. The results of the compressive strength of the FBGM show

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that the optimum concentration of NaOH and the optimum AL/FA for ER, MP and BW fly

ashes were 16 mole/L and 0.6, respectively. While the optimum NaOH concentration and the

optimum AL/FA for GL and CL fly ashes were 12 mole/L and 0.5, respectively. The results

showed that fly ash with a high percentage of fine particles and amorphous components (SiO2

and Al2O3) such as GL and CL fly ashes required a low dosage of alkaline activator to

achieve the highest compressive strength. While ER, MP and BW fly ashes required a high

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concentration of the NaOH and AL/FA to achieve the highest compressive strength.

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The effect of using an alkaline activator with different content of Na2SiO3 and NaOH on the

bond strength between the FBGC and steel reinforcement was investigated. For this aim, the
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Na2SiO3 and the NaOH were blended into three Na2SiO3/NaOH weight ratios which are 1.5,

2.0 and 2.5. These ranges of the Na2SiO3/NaOH ratios were used previously in several
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studies [20-22].
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2.1.3 Aggregate
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Coarse aggregate with a maximum size of 14 mm and specific gravity of 2.6 was utilised in

the geopolymer concrete mixes. The coarse aggregate used in this study was crushed basalt
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aggregate with water absorption of 0.77%. Fine aggregate (< 4.75 mm) with a specific
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gravity of 2.5 and a fineness modulus of 3.2 was also used in the geopolymer concrete mixes.

Both coarse and fine aggregates were used in the saturated surface-dry (SSD) condition.

2.1.4 Steel bar

To investigate the bond behaviour between the geopolymer concrete and steel reinforcement,

deformed steel bars with a nominal diameter of 16 mm were used in this study. The nominal

tensile strength of the deformed steel bar was 500 MPa.

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2.2 Mixing, casting and curing of the FBGC

In this study, mixes of the FBGC were prepared by mixing fly ashes (Type F), alkaline

activators (mix of NaOH and Na2SiO3), water, fine aggregate and coarse aggregate in

different mix proportions. These mixes were divided into five groups according to the source

of fly ash, which are ER, MP, BW, GL and CL. Nine mixes of FBGC were prepared for each

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group. Fly ash in the FBGC groups was blended with Na2SiO3/NaOH ratios of 1.5, 2.0, and

2.5; the mixes of the FBGC in each group were mixed with 300, 400, and 500 kg/m3 of fly

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ash. The maximum reduction in the total volume of aggregate due to increasing the fly ash

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content from 300 to 500 kg/m3 was 24%. Water was used to control the slump of the FBGC.

The fine and coarse aggregates were selected based on the method prescribed in ACI-211.1
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[23] for normal concrete. The details of the geopolymer concrete mixes are listed in Table 3.
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The fly ash and aggregate were dry mixed for three minutes, then the pre-mixed alkaline

activator was added and blended for another four minutes. Water was added to the

geopolymer concrete mixes to maintain a slump between 80 to 100 mm, after which the
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mixes were poured into moulds and compacted by a vibrating table. These specimens were
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kept at ambient temperature for 24 hours as proposed by Vora and Dave [24], then cured in

an oven at 70o C for 24 hours as recommended by Gunasekara et al. [25] and Soutsos et al.
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[26]. During heat curing, the specimens were covered with plastic sheets to prevent loss of
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moisture. The specimens were then taken out of the moulds and kept at room temperature

before being tested.

The mixes of the FBGC were identified according to the fly ash source, fly ash content and

Na2SiO3/NaOH ratio. The sources of fly ash were labelled ER, MP, BW, GL, and CL, which

denotes the Eraring, Mt-Piper, Bayswater, Gladstone and Collie, respectively; while the

amount of fly ash was denoted by values of 300, 400 and 500 kg/m3. The ratio of

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Na2SiO3/NaOH was expressed by the letter R, followed by the ratios (1.5, 2.0, and 2.5). For

example, Mix ER500R2.5 refers to geopolymer concrete that was mixed with fly ash from

Eraring power station, with 500 kg/m3 fly ash and Na2SiO3/NaOH in the ratio of 2.5.

2.3 Test procedure

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2.3.1 Bond strength test

Direct pull-out tests were carried out according to European Standard EN-10080 [27] to

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determine the bond strength between FBGC and steel reinforcement. The bond test was

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carried out on cubic specimens 160 mm sides in accordance to the EN-10080 [22]. A 16 mm
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diameter deformed steel bar was embedded in the middle of the cubic specimens to a length

of five times its diameter, as recommended by EN-10080 [22]; details of the test specimens
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are shown in Figure 2. Three specimens from each mix were tested at the age of 7 days. In

total, 45 mixes of the FBGC were examined for the bond strength test. These bond tests were
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carried out in the Highbay laboratory, School of Civil, Mining and Environmental
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Engineering, University of Wollongong, Australia.

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The type of failure was identified, and the bond stress-slip relationship was recorded by a

computer mounted onto the testing machine (Instron 8033 testing machine). According to
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EN-10080 [22], the bond strength was calculated using the following formula:

𝐹𝑈 (1)
𝜏=
5𝑑 2 𝜋

where 𝜏 is the bond strength, FU is the ultimate pull out force, and d is the bar diameter.

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2.3.2 Compressive strength tests

The 100 mm diameter by 200 mm high cylinders were tested for compressive strength of

concrete according to AS1012.9 [28] at the age of 7 days. The average compressive strength

of three specimens was reported for each mix. The compressive strength and was obtained

using a W&T Avery Testing Machine with a loading capacity of 1800 kN. The test was

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carried out in the Highbay laboratory, School of Civil, Mining and Environmental

Engineering, University of Wollongong, Australia.

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2.3.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analysis
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The Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) was performed on the crushed FBGC. Neoscope

SEM-JSM 6000 at the Nanotechnology laboratory at the School of Mechanical, Materials,

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Mechatronic and Biomedical Engineering, University of Wollongong, Australia was used for

the SEM analysis. The SEM was conducted to investigate the effect of different fly ashes on
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the microstructure of the FBGC. Also, the SEM was used to examine the effect of increasing
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the fly ash content in the FBGC on the microstructure.

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3. Results and discussion

3.1 Bond strength

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The failure mode of pull-out specimens of the FBGC and the effects of test parameters (fly

ash type, fly ash content and Na2SiO3/NaOH ratio) on the bond strength were evaluated. The

results of the pull-out test of the FBGC are summarised in Table 3.

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3.1.1 Failure mode of the pull-out specimens

All FBGC pull-out specimens failed when the concrete cover split along the steel bar

referring to the brittle nature of the FBGC as shown in Figure 3. The splitting failure occurs

when the forces induced between the steel ribs and the surrounding concrete exceeds the

maximum tensile strength of the FBGC. The splitting failure of the FBGC in the pull-out test

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was also reported by Sofi et al. [13], Sarker [14] and Topark-Ngarm et al. [17].

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It was observed that the mode of splitting failure was significantly influenced by the fly ash

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content in FBGC mixes. Typically, the propagation of cracks in the FBGC with high fly ash

content (500 kg/m3) occurred suddenly through the geopolymer paste and resulted in splitting
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the specimens, as shown in Figure 3a. On the other hand, the propagation of cracks in the

FBGC with low fly ash content (300 kg/m3) took a time before splitting the FBGC, as shown
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in Figure 3b. The effect of the fly ash content in the FBGC on the failure mode may be

attributed to the variance in the total volume of the aggregate that was replaced by the fly ash
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in the FBGC mixes. Increasing the fly ash content in the FBGC from 300 to 500 kg/m3
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reduced the total volume of aggregate by about 24%. The aggregate, especially the coarse

aggregate, works on delaying the crack propagation that initially occurred at the interfacial
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transition zone (ITZ) between the aggregate and the geopolymer paste [11].
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The mode of the splitting failure of the FBGC in the pull-out test was influenced by the

compressive strength of the FBGC. It was found that increasing the fly ash content in the

FBGC promoted the compressive strength of the produced FBGC (see Table 3). The increase

in the compressive strength of the concrete correlates to the increase of the brittleness of the

concrete [11]. As a result, increasing the fly ash content in the FBGC results in increasing the

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brittleness of the FBGC, which in turn affects the mode of failure of the FBGC during the

pull-out test.

3.1.2 Bond strength of the FBGC

3.1.2.1 Effect of fly ash type on the bond strength of the FBGC

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The effect of using different fly ash sources on the bond strength between the FBGC and steel

reinforcement is shown in Figure 4. The bond strength between the FBGC and steel

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reinforcement was significantly influenced by the source of fly ash. The FBGC that was

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mixed with GL fly ash exhibited the highest bond strength between the FBGC and steel
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reinforcement where the average bond strength was 25 MPa. On the other hand, The FBGC

that was mixed with BW fly ash showed the lowest bond strength between the FBGC and
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steel reinforcement where the average bond strength was 10.3 MPa. The high average bond

strength of the FBGC that were mixed with GL fly ash may be attributed to the lowest
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median particle size, the high content of amorphous component (SiO2 and Al2O3) and the
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highest CaO content. The different characteristics of different fly ashes lead to different
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extent of geopolymerization between the fly ash and the alkaline activator, which in turn
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influences properties of the produced FBGC.

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The different extent of the geopolymerization affects the microstructure of the FBGC that

consequently affects the bond with a steel bar. This is true when comparing the

microstructure of the FBGC that were mixed with different fly ashes. Figure 5 a-e show the

SEM images of the microstructure of Mixes ER500R2.5, MP500R2.5, BW500R2.5,

GL500R1.5 and CL500R1.5 that achieved the highest bond strength of the FBGC that were

mixed with ER, MP, BW, GL and CL fly ashes, respectively. The results show that using

different fly ashes exhibited different microstructure of the FBGC. The microstructures of

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Mixes ER500R2.5, MP500R2.5 and BW500R2.5 (Figures 5 a-c) were less homogeneous and

contained a higher amount of unreacted particles, voids and cracks between the aggregate

particles than those observed in Mixes GL500R1.5, CL500R1.5 (Figure 5 d and e). The

weakest microstructure was observed in FBGC that was mixed with BW fly ash (Figure 5 c)

where the highest amount of unreacted fly ash particles, a large amount of irregular voids and

cracks were found, which is consistent with the lower average bond strength.

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The presence of unreacted particles, voids and crakes in the microstructure of the FBGC

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represent weak points that failure may start and/or pass through it [29]. Because of this, the

bond performance between the FBGC and steel reinforcement declines significantly. These
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results suggested that the bond strength is essentially dependent on the fly ash characteristics.
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3.1.2.2 Effect of fly ash content on the bond strength of the FBGC

The effect of the fly ash content in the FBGC on the bond strength between the FBGC and
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the steel reinforcement is illustrated in Figure 4. An increase in the amount of fly ash from
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300 to 500 kg/m3 in the FBGC mixes increased the bond between the FBGC and steel

reinforcement. The maximum increase in the bond strength of the FBGC that were mixed
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with ER, MP, BW, GL and CL fly ashes were 36%, 16%, 29%, 26% and 29%, respectively.
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This improvement in the bond between the FBGC and the steel reinforcement may be

attributed to the improvement in the microstructure of the FBGC that is associated with

increasing the fly ash content in the FBGC as shown in Figure 6 a-d. Using a lower content of

fly ash (300 kg/m3) in the FBGC resulted in forming a non-homogeneous and loosely

structured matrix. Unreacted particles and large irregular voids are likely to be found, as

shown in Figure 6 a and c. As discussed above, the presence of unreacted fly ash particles,

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voids, and crakes in the microstructure of the FBGC reduces the bond between the FBGC and

steel bar.

The poor microstructure of the FBGC that used the lower content of fly ash (300 kg/m 3) may

be attributed to the poor consolidation of FBGC components. Fly ash particles facilitate flow

between the aggregate particles owing to the spherical shape and smooth surface of the fly

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ash particles [8]. Thus, lowering the fly ash content (300 kg/m3) reduces the ability of the

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FBGC components to consolidate properly around the steel bar which in turn leads to less

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integration between the FBGC and the steel bar.
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The use of high fly ash content (500 kg/m3) in the FBGC resulted in a dense and compacted

microstructure, as shown in Figure 6 b and d. This improvement in the microstructure of the

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FBGC that was mixed with high fly ash content (500 kg/m3) may be attributed to the increase

in the packing density (the ratio of volume fraction occupied by the solids to the volume of
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the surrounding container) of the FBGC matrix. Increasing the fly ash content increases the
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volume of the fine fraction particles in the FBGC matrix which in turn fill the voids between
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the aggregate particles and the steel bar. As a result, increasing the fly ash content in the
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FBGC improves the microstructure of the FBGC which in turn improves the bond between

the FBGC and the steel reinforcement.

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3.1.2.3 Effect of Na2SiO3/NaOH ratio on the bond strength of the FBGC

The increase of the Na2SiO3/NaOH ratio in the alkaline activator from 1.5 to 2.5 in the FBGC

that were mixed with ER, MP and BW fly ashes fly ashes increased the bond strength

between the FBGC and steel reinforcement, as shown in Figure 4. The increase in the bond

strength between the FBGC and steel reinforcement reached 36%, 29%, and 16% for FBGC

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that were mixed with ER, MP and BW fly ashes, respectively, which is in line with the

findings of Sarker [14]. However, Figure 4 shows that an increase in the Na2SiO3/NaOH ratio

from 1.5 to 2.5 caused a considerable reduction in the bond between FBGC and steel

reinforcement by 19% and 13% for the FBGC that were mixed with GL and CL fly ashes,

respectively. As a result, increasing the Na2SiO3/NaOH ratio in the FBGC does not show a

clear effect on the bond strength of the FBGC due to using different fly ashes that required

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different optimum Na2SiO3/NaOH ratios to achieve the highest bond strength of the FBGC.

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The alkaline activator components (Na2SiO3 and NaOH) are mainly composed of the

molecules including SiO2 and Na2O in different ratios. In order to understand the effect of the
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Na2SiO3/NaOH ratio on the bond strength of the FBGC, relationships between bond strength

of the FBGC and the liquid SiO2 as well as with Na2O in the alkaline activator were
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performed. The relationship between the content of the liquid SiO2 in the Na2SiO3, which

represents 29.4% by weight, and the bond strength of the FBGC were conducted as shown in
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Figure 7. The results show that the bond strength of the FBGC increased significantly with
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increasing the amount of the liquid SiO2 in the FGBC. The increase of the liquid SiO2 content
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results in increasing the reactive silica in geopolymer matrix forming a silicon-rich gel which
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has compacted and higher mechanical properties [30]. As a result, the higher bond strength of

the geopolymer is associated with the higher liquid SiO2 in the FBGC matrix.
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In addition, the effect of the total Na2O content in alkaline activator components (14% by

weight of Na2SiO3 and 28%-35% by weight of NaOH) on the bond strength between the

FBGC and steel reinforcement was evaluated. Figure 8 shows the relationship between the

total Na2O of the alkaline activator on the bond strength of the FBGC. The results show that

increasing the Na2O in the alkaline activator reduced the bond strength of the FBGC,

irrespective of the type and content of the fly ash. In fact, the Na2O content controls the

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extent of leaching the fly ash components (SiO2 and Al2O3) in the geopolymer mix while the

fly ash is being geopolymerised [31, 32]. Consequently, the Na2O content affects the

cohesion of geopolymer structure, which in turn affects the bond strength of the FBGC with

steel reinforcement.

3.1.2.4 Effect of the water content in the FBGC on the bond strength with steel reinforcement

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The increase of water content in the normal concrete reduces the bond strength with steel

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reinforcement; increasing the water content in concrete increases the bleed of water that

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occurs due to concrete consolidation resulting in forming open pores between concrete and

steel [33]. In the FBGC, the alkaline activator is the main source of water (55.9% by weight
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of the Na2SiO3 and about 60% by weight of the NaOH) in the mix. Also, water is added to
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the geopolymer mix to control the slump of the geopolymer concrete mix. In this study, the

effect of added water on the bond strength of the FBGC was evaluated.
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The effect of the added water on the bond strength of the FBGC is illustrated in Figure 9. For
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all FBGC specimens, increasing the added water in the FBGC resulted in a significant

decrease in the bond strength. The amount of reduction in the bond strength between the
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FBGC and steel reinforcement was significantly influenced by the fly ash source. The
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maximum reduction was observed in the FBGC that was mixed with CL fly ash where the

reduction in the bond strength between the FBGC and steel reinforcement reached 38% due

increasing the amount of the added water from 7 to 15 kg/m3. While the maximum reduction

in the bond strength of the FBGC that was mixed with ER fly ash was 25% when the added

water increased from 5 to 14 kg/m3.

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This reduction in the bond strength of the FBGC due to increasing the amount of the added

water in the mixes may be attributed to evaporation of the water from the concrete, when

curing at high temperature, leaving pores and cavities within geopolymer matrix. In addition,

the added water may affect the alkalinity (pH value) of the geopolymer matrix that could lead

to reducing the rate of the geopolymerization between fly ash and alkaline activator.

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3.2 Compressive strength

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The results of the compressive strength of the FBGC are summarised in Table 3. The

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compressive strength of the FBGC at the age of 7 days was in the range between 16 MPa to

64 MPa. The results show a substantial difference in the compressive strength of the FBGC
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due to effects of the tested parameters including the type and content of fly ashes, the dosage
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of the alkaline activator in terms of liquid SiO2 and Na2O and the added water. The results

showed that the tested parameters influenced the compressive strength of the FBGC similarly

to that was observed in the bond strength between FBGC and steel reinforcement. The
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compressive strength of the FBGC that was mixed with GL fly ash was in the range of 34.4
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MPa to 64 MPa, whereas the compressive strength of FBGC that was mixed with BW fly ash

was from 16 MPa to 23.2 MPa.

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3.3 Relationship between the bond strength and the compressive strength of the FBGC

The bond strength between the FBGC and the steel reinforcement and the corresponding

compressive strength are plotted in Figure 10. The results show that the bond strength

between the FBGC and the steel reinforcement increases significantly with increasing the

corresponding compressive strength. Different models were proposed to estimate the bond

strength between the PCC and the steel reinforcement in terms of the compressive strength. A

comparison was carried out with the models proposed for the bond strength of the PCC by

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Orangun et al. [34], Hadi [35] and CEB-FIP [36] in Eqs 2, 3 and 4, respectively. These

models were plotted along with the experimental results of the bond strength between the

FBGC and steel reinforcement in this study as shown in Figure 10. It can be seen that the

experimental results of the bond strength between the FBGC and the steel reinforcement in

this study were generally higher than those calculated by Eqs 2, 3 and 4. However, models of

Orangun et al. [34] and CEB-FIP [36] in Eqs 2 and 3, respectively gave comparable values of

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the bond strength at a range of compressive strength lower than 25 MPa. While, the bond

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strength values that were estimated by the model of Hadi [35] in Eq 4 were 37% to 66%

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lower than the experimental results in this study. These results imply that the bond strength of

the FBGC is significantly higher than the bond strength of the PCC in the range of
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compressive strength higher than 25 MPa.
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0.5
𝜏 = 2.18𝑓𝑐′ (2)

0.5
𝜏 = 1.33𝑓𝑐′ (3)
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0.5
𝜏 = 2.51𝑓𝑐′ (4)
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where τ is the bond strength (MPa), 𝑓𝑐′ is the compressive strength of the FBGC (MPa).
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As a result, a model was derived based on the results of the bond strength of 45 FBGC mixes.
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For this aim, power regression law was used in fitting the relevant best fit line. The model

parameters (intercept and power values) were determined using logarithm method [37]. As a

result, a model with a correlation factor (R2) of 0.84 was developed as shown in Eq 5.

0.75
𝜏 = 1.35 𝑓𝑐′ (5)

The ±95% confidence intervals were calculated by using Eq 6 while ±95% prediction

intervals were determined by using Eq 7 [38]. The confidence and prediction intervals at a

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probability level of ±95% for the power regression line were calculated and plotted along

with the relevant best fit line.

∑(𝜏 − 𝜏𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 )2 1 (𝑓𝑐′ − 𝑓𝑐′𝑎𝑣𝑒 )2

(6)
𝜏 95% 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝜏 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 ± 𝑡0.05 (√ ∗√ + )
𝑖−2 𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑥

∑(𝜏 − 𝜏𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 )2 1 (𝑓𝑐′ − 𝑓𝑐′𝑎𝑣𝑒 )2

(7)

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𝜏 95% 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝜏 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 ± 𝑡0.05 (√1 + ∗ √1 + + )
𝑖−2 𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑥

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where τ 95% confidence is the 95% confidence interval value of the predicted bond strength, τ 95%

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prediction is the 95% prediction interval of the predicted bond strength, τ predicted is the predicted
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bond strength using the developed model in Eq 5, 𝑓𝑐′𝑎𝑣𝑒 is the average of the compressive

strength. The t0.05 is the t-test critical value for 95% interval, and ssx is the sum of the squares
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of the standard error of input values.

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The model in Eq 5 was evaluated using the available experimental data from studies were
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conducted on the bond strength of the FBGC by Sofi et al. [13] Topark-Ngarm et al. [17] and
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Dahou et al. [18]. The data were plotted along with the results of the bond strength between
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the FBGC and the steel reinforcement of this study as shown in Figure 10. It can be seen that

the experimental data of Sofi et al. [13] and Topark-Ngarm et al. [17] were significantly
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lower than that estimated by developed model in Eq 5. This is because of the low curing

temperature (< 60oC) that was used by Sofi et al. [13] and Topark-Ngarm et al. [17] in their

experimental which in turns affecting the developing of the bond strength between the FBGC

and steel reinforcement bar. In contrast, the experimental data of Dahou et al. [18] shows a

good consistency with the model in Eq 5 where the data were between the ±95 prediction

intervals as shown in Figure 10.

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4. Conclusion

This study investigated the effects that the fly ash characteristics, amount of fly ash and

different Na2SiO3/NaOH had on the bond between FBGC and steel reinforcement. The

following conclusions can be drawn as based on the analysis of the results:

1. The bond strength between FBGC and steel reinforcement was from 7.5 to 30 MPa, and

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the source of fly ash affects the strength of the bond between the FBGC and the steel

reinforcement quite considerably. The fly ash characteristics including particle size

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distribution, the content of the amorphous components (SiO2 and Al2O3) and the CaO

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have a significant effect on the bond strength of the FBGC. The FBGC that was mixed

with GL fly ash exhibited the highest average bond strength between the FBGC and steel
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reinforcement (25 MPa), while the FBGC that was mixed with BW fly ash showed the
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lowest average bond strength between the FBGC and steel reinforcement 10 MPa.

2. An increase in the amount of ash content from 300 to 500 kg/m3 increased the brittleness

of the FBGC that affects the mode of failure of the FBGC due to pull-out of the steel bar.
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3. An increase in the amount of ash content from 300 to 500 kg/m3 increased the bond
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between FBGC and steel reinforcement in the range between 16% to 36%.

4. The strength of the bond between FBGC and steel reinforcement differed according to the
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increase in the Na2SiO3/NaOH ratio in the alkaline activator. An increase in the

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Na2SiO3/NaOH ratio in the FBGC that were mixed with GL and CL fly ashes reduced the

strength of the bond between FBGC and steel reinforcement by 13% to 19%,

respectively. Increasing the Na2SiO3/NaOH ratio in the alkaline activators of the FBGC

that were mixed with ER, MP, and BW fly ashes increased the strength of the bond

between the FBGC and steel reinforcement up to 36%.

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5. The bond strength of the FBGC increased with increasing the SiO2 used in the alkaline

activator. While it decreases significantly with increasing the total content of the Na2O in

the NaOH and the Na2SiO3.

6. The increase of the amount of added water in the FBGC reduced the bond strength

between the FBGC and steel reinforcement.

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Acknowledgements

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The authors would like to thank the University of Wollongong, Australia for providing

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technical support and facilities to implement the experimental work of this study. The authors

acknowledge the Ash Development Association Australia for providing the fly ashes that
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were used in this study. The first author would like to thank the Iraqi government for funding
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his scholarship.

References
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[14] Sarker PK. Bond strength of reinforcing steel embedded in fly ash-based geopolymer

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Materials, United States, American Standard for Testing Materials; 2016.

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hardened geopolymer concrete mixed with class-F fly ash. KSCE Journal of Civil

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[23] ACI-211.1. Standard practice for selection proportions for normal, heavy-weight, and

mass concrete: ACI manual of concrete practice, Part 1: Materials and general properties of

concrete, Detroit, USA, American Concrete Institute; 2009.

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strength of fly, in: S. Smith (Ed.) 23rd Australasian Conference on the Mechanics of

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Structures and Materials, Southern Cross University, Byron Bay, NSW, 2014, pp. 113-118.

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2016; 110: 355-368.

[27] EN-10080. Bond test for ribbed and indented reinforcing steel – Pull-out test: European
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Standard, Brussels, Belgium, European Committee for Standardisation; 2005.

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and grout specimens: Australian Standard, Australia, Standards Australia International Ltd;
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2014.
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[29] Zhu W, Sonebi M, Bartos PJM. Bond and interfacial properties of reinforcement in self-
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compacting concrete. Materials and Structures 2004; 37: 442-448.

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solution/binder ratio as a determining factor in the alkaline activation of aluminosilicates.

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Na2SiO3/NaOH ratios and NaOH molarities on compressive strength of fly-ash-based

geopolymer. ACI Materials Journal 2013; 109(5): 503-508.

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[32] Leong HY, Ong DEL, Sanjayan JG, Nazari A. The effect of different Na2O and K2O

ratios of alkali activator on compressive strength of fly ash based geopolymer. Construction

and Building Materials 2016; 106: 500-511.

[33] Zhang HY, Kodur V, Qi SL, Wu B. Characterizing the bond strength of geopolymers at

ambient and elevated temperatures. Cement and Concrete Composites 2015; 58: 40-49.

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and splices. ACI Journal 1977; 74(3): 114-122.

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[35] Hadi MNS. Bond of high strength concrete with high strength reinforcing steel. The

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Open Civil Engineering Journal 2008; 2: 143-147.

[36] CEB-FIB. Fib model code for concrete structures 2010: Document Competence Center
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Siegmar Kästl eK, Germany, 2010.

[37] Blaesser RJ, Couls LM, Lee CF, Zuniga JM, Malek MH. Comparing EMG amplitude
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patterns of responses during dynamic exercise: Polynomial vs log-transformed regression.

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[38] Altman DG, Gardner MJ. Calculating confidence intervals for regression and
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correlation. British medical journal 1988; 296 1238-1247.

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List of Tables

Table 1 Chemical composition of the fly ash samples.

Table 2 Details of the mix proportion of the geopolymer mortar.

Table 3 Details of mix proportion and results of the fly ash based geopolymer concrete.

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List of Figures

Figure 1 Particle size distribution of the fly ash samples.

Figure 2 Details of the bond strength test specimen.

Figure 3 Splitting failure of the pull-out test specimens; (a) Mix GL500R2.0, (b) Mix

GL300R2.0.

Figure 4 Variation of the bond strength with fly ash content of the FBGC mixes at different

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Na2SiO3/NaOH ratios.

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Figure 5 SEM images of FBGC for Mixes; (a) ER500R2.5, (b) MP500R2.5, (c) BW500R2.5,

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(d) GL500R1.5, (e) CL500R1.5.

Figure 6 The SEM images for Mixes; (a) ER300R2.5, (b) ER 500R2.5, (c) GL300R1.5 and
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(d) GL500R1.5.

Figure 7 Relationship between the liquid SiO2 and the bond strength of the FBGC.
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Figure 8 Relationship between the total Na2O and the bond strength of the FBGC.

Figure 9 Relationship between the added water and the bond strength of the FBGC.
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Figure 10 Bond strength of the FBGC versus the compressive strength.

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Table 1 Chemical composition of the fly ash samples

Eraring Mt-Piper Bayswater Gladstone Collie

Composition
(ER) (MP) (BW) (GL) (CL)

SiO2 (%) 62.9 66.6 77.2 43.4 52.7

Al2O3 (%) 25.8 25.9 15.2 26.2 33.4

CaO (%) 2.3 0.4 0.6 5.4 1.0

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Fe2O3 (%) 3.1 0.9 2.5 17.4 9.0

K2O (%) 1.2 2.7 1.5 0.5 0.3

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MgO (%) 0.3 0.1 0.3 1.4 0.6

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LOI (%) 1.7 1.3 NU 0.7 0.7 0.4
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Table 2 Details of the mix proportion of the geopolymer mortar

Average
Na2SiO3/ Alkaline
Fly ash Mix Compressive
NaOH activator/ fly
Source No. Strength
wt. ratio ash wt. ratio
(MPa)
1 14
2 0.5 16
3 21

Eraring 4 26
(ER) 5 2.0 0.6 28
6 32

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7 13
8 0.7 18
9 24

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1 15
2 0.5 20

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3 25
4 27
Mt-Piper 5 30
2.0 0.6
(MP) 33
6
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7 19
8 0.7 23
9 29
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1 12
2 0.5 18
3 16
4 20
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Bayswater 5 24
2.0 0.6
(BW) 25
6
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7 14
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8 0.7 17
9 21
1 62
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2 0.5 58
3 56
4 59
Gladstone 5 56
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2.0 0.6
(GL) 54
6
7 45
8 0.7 43
9 38
1 46
2 0.5 43
3 40
4 45
Collie 5 40
2.0 0.6
(CL) 37
6
7 34
8 0.7 31
9 30

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Table 3 Details of mix proportion and results of the fly ash based geopolymer concrete
Alkaline
Fly ash Aggregate Average
activator Water Bond
Slump Compressive
Mix ID Fly ash Na2SiO3/ strength
Fly ash Fine Coarse (mm) strength
content NaOH (kg/m3) (MPa)
type (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (MPa)
(kg/m3) wt. ratio
ER300R1.5 1.5 627 1333 14.5 92 17 9.5
ER300R2.0 300 2.0 628 1335 14.0 91 18 10.2
ER300R2.5 2.5 629 1336 14.0 91 21 10.4

ER400R1.5 1.5 554 1177 10.0 93 19 10.0

Eraring
ER400R2.0 400 2.0 555 1179 10.0 93 20 12.0
(ER)
ER400R2.5 2.5 556 1181 9.5 92 22 14.0

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ER500R1.5 1.5 480 1020 6.5 94 22 10.4
ER500R2.0 500 2.0 482 1023 6.0 95 25 12.0
ER500R2.5 2.5 483 1026 5.7 94 26 14.0
MP300R1.5 1.5 622 1321 12.7 93 19 8.6

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MP300R2.0 300 2.0 623 1323 12.2 89 20 10.0
MP300R2.5 2.5 623 1324 12.0 91 20 11.7

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MP400R1.5 1.5 546 1161 9.5 95 20 9.2
MP400R2.0 Mt-Piper 400 2.0 548 1164 9.5 96 21 10.6
(MP)
MP400R2.5 2.5 548 1165 9.2 94 22 12.6

MP500R1.5 1.5 471 1000 7.0 95 21 13.7

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MP500R2.0 500 2.0 475 1005 6.7 92 25 14.0
MP500R2.5 2.5 475 1005 6.7 93 26 15.0

BW300R1.5 1.5 627 1333 16.5 88 16 7.5

BW300R2.0 300 2.0 628 1335 16.2 89 18 8.3
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BW300R2.5 2.5 629 1336 16.2 88 19 9.8

BW400R1.5 Bayswater 1.5 554 1177 13.7 90 18 9.5
BW400R2.0 400 2.0 555 1179 13.0 91 19 10.5
(BW)
BW400R2.5 2.5 556 1181 13.0 91 20 11.2
BW500R1.5 1.5 480 1020 10.0 93 21 10.5
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BW500R2.0 500 2.0 482 1023 9.5 92 21 11.8

BW500R2.5 2.5 483 1026 9.2 92 23 13.0
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GL300R1.5 1.5 622 1321 11.0 95 45 24.0

GL300R2.0 300 2.0 623 1323 10.5 94 39 22.0
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GL300R2.5 2.5 623 1324 10.2 94 34 20.0

GL400R1.5 1.5 546 1161 9.5 98 58 26.0

Gladstone
GL400R2.0 400 2.0 548 1164 8.0 96 47 25.0
(GL)
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GL400R2.5 2.5 548 1165 7.7 97 42 24.0

GL500R1.5 1.5 471 1000 6.5 100 64 30.0

GL500R2.0 500 2.0 475 1005 5.7 99 62 29.6
GL500R2.5 2.5 475 1005 4.8 97 53 27.9
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CL300R1.5 1.5 663 1408 12.3 91 30 17.0

CL300R2.0 300 2.0 663 1410 11.5 89 28 16.0
CL300R2.5 2.5 664 1411 11.5 92 27 14.0

CL400R1.5 1.5 601 1277 9.0 92 35 21.0

CL400R2.0 Collie (CL) 400 2.0 602 1279 9.0 93 30 19.6
CL400R2.5 2.5 602 1280 9.0 92 28 18.3

CL500R1.5 1.5 539 1145 7.0 98 43 25.8

CL500R2.0 500 2.0 540 1148 7.0 98 41 25.1
CL500R2.5 2.5 541 1150 7.0 98 36 22.7

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100
90
Eraring
80
Mt Piper
Percentage passing (%)

70
BaysWater
60
Gladstone
50
Collie
40
30

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20
10

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0
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Particle diameter (µm)

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Figure 1 Particle size distribution of the fly ash samples
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Figure 2 Details of the bond strength test specimen
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(All dimensions are in mm)

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a b

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Figure 3 Typical splitting failure of the pull-out test specimens (a) Mix GL500R2.0, (b) Mix
GL300R2.0

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Figure 4 Variation of the bond strength with fly ash content of the FBGC mixes at
different Na2SiO3/NaOH ratios
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Aggregate
particle

Voids

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b

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Unreacted
fly ash
parties
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c d

e
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Figure 5 SEM images of FBGC for Mixes (a) ER500R2.5, (b) MP500R2.5,
(c) BW500R2.5, (d) GL500R1.5, (e) CL500R1.5

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a Unreacted b
fly ash
parties

Voids

Aggregate
particle

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c d
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Figure 6 The SEM images for Mixes; (a) ER300R2.5, (b) ER 500R2.5, (c)
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GL300R1.5 and (d) GL 500R1.5

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Figure 7 Relationship between the liquid SiO2 and the bond strength of the FBGC
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Figure 8 Relationship between the total Na2O and the bond strength of the FBGC
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Figure 9 Relationship between the added water and the bond strength of the FBGC
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40 Experimental
Sofi et al. [9]
Topark-Ngarm et al. [13]
35 Dahou et al. [14]
Orangun et al. [30]
Hadi [31] τ= 1.35f'c0.75
30 FIB [32] R² = 0.84
Experimental
± 95% confidence interval
Bond strength (MPa)

25 ±95% Prediction interval

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15

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10

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5
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0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Compressive strength (MPa)
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Figure 10 Bond strength of the FBGC versus the compressive strength

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Highlights

 Geopolymer concrete mixes were prepared using fly ashes from five different sources.

 Characteristics of the fly ash govern the mix proportion of the alkaline activator.

 Increasing fly ash content increases the brittelness of the geopolymer cocncrete.

 Increasing fly ash content increases the bond strength of the geopolymer concrete.

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