ETHICS – MIDTERM REVIEWER

LESSON 1  The term is derived from the Greek word

ethos which can mean custom, habit,
INTRODUCTION
character or outlook.
 Man alone of all earthly creatures is a  From this etymological meaning, ethics
moral being. is taken to mean as a philosophical
 He endowed with the great gift of science that deals with the morality of
freedom of choice in his actions, yet he human conduct or human acts.
is responsible for his own freely chosen  General Ethics is a philosophical inquiry
acts, his conduct. concerning norms of morality, its
 He distinguishes between right and clarification, justification, and application
wrong, good and bad in human in relation to good life.
behavior.
 He can control his own passions. ELEMENTS OF GENERAL ETHICS:
 He is the master of himself, the sculptor  First, general ethics is a philosophical
of his own life and destiny. inquiry. It is based on reason and not on
divine revelation.
 This moral power in man is the most
distinctive features of the human  Second, it is about an inquiry on moral
personality. norms or standard of what is good and
what is evil, what ought to be done and
 For MAN is principally and primarily a
what ought not to be done, and tries to
human person whose highest faculty is
find out the strengths and weaknesses
moral power, his willpower, his freedom.
of moral positions and the arguments of
 Viewed in this perspective, everything
ethical proponents.
Human has naturally a moral bearing,
 Third, it is about the formation of moral
reference and relevance.
character that can promote good life of
Thus, to be truly human, is to be moral
the individual and of the society as
which is the essence of ethics.
whole.
ETHICS  Ethics concerns not only the basis of
 Ethics is the philosophy of life. It delves what is good or bad but also the basis of
into the deepest whys and wherefores of our being as well because our moral
human existence, men’s actions, perspective reflects the kind of character
problems and destiny. we have.
 To live well and happy we must know  The study of ethics aims not only to give
what we are living for. students information but also guide them
 This is taught to us by ethics, that on things they want to change in
investigates the meaning and purpose of themselves.
human life.  It is not merely information but
 According to Socrates the unexamined transformation of one’s character and
life is not worth living for a man. giving individual a moral paradigm in
 Plato proclaimed ethics as the supreme making moral decision. It aims also to
science, the highest in the hierarchy of widen student’s in looking of reality.
human values, as it is Ethics that is
concerned with the attainment of life’s THE IDEA OF GOOD
greatest Good and Goal-- HAPPINESS.
 Deontologist - goodness lies in an
DEFINITION OF ETHICS action itself which is the position of the
 Ethics is concerned with what is good so-called deontologist.
for individuals and society and is  Consequentialist - goodness lies in the
also described as moral philosophy consequences of an action

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 According to Aristotle, the goodness of  On the other hand, the value of

an action lies in the action itself something may not be intrinsic but in the
whatever consequences it may occur. state potentiality which can be
 It is very important to understand this actualized and achieved through
idea of good because there are valuation.
situations where some of our actions
accrued negative consequences even
though we have good intention in
performing an action.
 The human good can be achieved
through and by action, especially when it VIRTUE
is a good action.
 The good for Aristotle is attainable by  Virtue is a disposition or character
action. that enables its possessor to perform
a noble or good action according to
 For Aristotle, however, the good is a
the mean as determined by practical
human act and not an abstract idea.
wisdom.
 Aristotle-“So the goodness and
1. Character is formed through
performance of man would seem to
repeated good actions (eupraxia)
reside in whatever is his function”
or vices (habit), as it is realized in an
(Ostwald, 1962)
action according to the mean.
 Everything in the universe has a function
2. Virtue allows individuals to perform
and because everything has a function,
noble or good actions, requiring a
man has a function as well.
good character to perform them,
 There is purpose in being human.
making it crucial to teach good from
 That’s why it is significant to know childhood.
precisely the proper function of man. 3. Practical wisdom is essential for
VALUE becoming virtuous as it provides a
clear understanding of what is good
 Is the value of something intrinsic or is and enables us to take action..
something valuable because it is  It is a character.
valued?  For even a vicious person may perform
 This is a question regarding values. an action the way it was done by
 According to the voluntarist conception, virtuous person.
valuing is the ground value.  So, an action may vary depending on
 A thing can only be valuable when it is the person’s character performing the
valued; therefore, it has no intrinsic virtuous action.
value.  Therefore, if an action is done by a
 As a consequence, there are no other person of good character, that action
considerations to account on value so can be called virtuous action.
long as something is that being valued is  It is not a capacity because capacity
valuable. For instance, studying has no comes from nature, but virtue is formed
intrinsic value unless it is valued by an through habit.
individual.  If virtue comes from nature, there is no
 Good is everything that is desirable but way to change it.
we know for a fact that there are things  It is not a capacity for even a person
that we do not value but valued by may have the capacity to perform a
others. virtuous action but opt not to do so.
 In other words, not just because a thing It is not a feeling for we cannot be
is not desirable for me, it does not have praised nor blamed for our feelings.
value.

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 Virtue is a character and a person who 4. Legal Ethics - norms of conduct or

has a virtuous character performs a standards that law practitioners, such as
good action and performs for the sake of judges, lawyers, notary public, law
performing good action, not for other makers, must follow in the practice of
reason. the profession.
 For instance, a person may perform a
Relation of Ethics with Other Sciences
generous act but intends other people to
see his action. Ethical science is particularly concerned with the
 However, to a virtuous person, what is study of man and human conduct and is,
significant is the performance of good therefore, especially related to all those sciences
action and not the reaction of other dealing with the study of human nature and
people towards the action. human living.
 Virtue enables its possessor to
determine the end and practical wisdom 1. Ethics and Logic.
guides our character to move towards  Logic is the science of right
the end. thinking.
 Because even if we know that our end  Ethics is the science of right
must be the good, if we are not able to living.
prepare the way towards it we cannot be  But right living presupposes
virtuous. right thinking. Doing follows
 That’s why Aristotle says, “It is thinking. To think right often
impossible to be good in the full sense means to do right, as knowledge
of the word without practical wisdom or of right leads to the doing of
to be a man of practical wisdom without right.
moral excellence or virtue” (Ostwald,
1962). 2. Ethics and Psychology
Practical wisdom is not only a guide to  Psychology is not interested in
our character but it is united with it. the morality of human behavior,
unlike ethics.
DIFFERENT APPLIED FIELDS IN ETHICS

1. Bioethics/Biomedical Ethics -  Psychology - studies how man

concerned with the rightness or behaves
wrongness of procedures that are - Not concerned with moral
performed in the practice of medicine obligation
and the provision of health care
systems.  Ethics - ethics studies how
2. Environmental Ethics - it covers man ought to behave
acceptable or unacceptable actions - oncerned with moral
affecting the environment (De Castro & obligation
De Villa, 2012). As what one of the
green movements’ slogans is saying, 3. Ethics is related to Sociology
“harm to the environment will bring harm  Ethics - deals with the moral order
to the people.” which includes the social order.
3. Business Ethics - concerned with what Whatever does violence to the
is acceptable and unacceptable social order does violence also to
business code of conducts are affecting the natural and the moral order.
the business enterprises. And when  Society - depends on ethics for its
speaking of the business enterprise, it underlying principles:
includes both the owner or investor and Sociology - deals with human
or the consumer. relations in a society, but human
relations are based on proper order

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and proper order comes only with art which is offensive to morals
proper observance of moral laws can ever be considered
and principles which regulate the beautiful.
actions of men in a community.
8. Ethics and Politics
4. Ethics and Economics  Politics - aims at good
 Economics deals with such topics as government for the temporal
wages, labor, production and welfare of the citizens.
distribution of wealth. But will  But between the temporal and
determine the relations between the spiritual and eternal welfare
employer and employee, for there is no conflict. Politics has
instance. often become very dirty and the
 This and all other relations in reason is precisely because it is
business must be based on justice divorced from ethics. Disorder
and charity which, after all are moral and confusion inevitably follow
principles. In order that peace and in a state from such violations of
happiness will prevail in a ethical principles, as: electoral
community, the actions of man must frauds, bribery, graft, blackmail,
be governed by the invariable intrigue, etc.
principles of morality.
5. Ethics and Education 9. Religion and Ethics
 Education develops moral,  The relationship between
intellectual, and physical religion and ethics is the closest
capacities, promoting moral among the phases of human
character and civic activity.
consciousness.  Both of these are based on the
 Ethics provide direction, goal, same postulates:
worth, and meaning in life.  The existence of a Creator,
 Freedom of the will of man
6. Morality and Law  Immortality
 Morality and law are closely  Both have the same end- the
linked, with right and wrong in attainment of man’s supreme
human actions requiring a law. purpose or man’s ultimate end.
 State laws are interpretations of  Both prescribe the same means
natural moral laws, but morality for attaining the goal of man:
governs internal acts like right living.
thoughts and desires, excluding
legal actions. THE IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS

 Ethics means right living and good moral

7. Ethics and Art
character, and it is in good moral
 Ethics stands for moral
character that finds his true worth and
goodness; art, for beauty. But
perfection.
as transcendentals the beautiful
 The primary objective of education is the
and the good are one.
moral development of the will.
 Evil always implies ugliness or
“Knowledge is good, bodily health and
defects and the good is always
strength and strength are good, but first
beautiful since it is the very
and above all- GOOD CHARACTER.
object of desire and therefore,
 Ethics is the investigation of the
like beauty, pleases when
meaning of life.
perceived. The question often
arises as to whether a piece of

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 Ethics is an indispensable knowledge. act to perform, she is called to make a moral

without moral perception, man is only an decision.
animal.
Moral Judgement- When a person is an
 Ethics is LIFE because ethics is the very
observer who makes an assessment on the
science and art of human living, one that
actions or behavior of someone, she is making a
gives life its direction, goal, worth, and
moral judgement.
meaning.
For instance, a friend of mine chooses to steal
LESSON 2 from a store, and I make an assessment that it is
wrong.
THE ETHICAL DIMENSION OF HUMAN
EXISTENCE MORAL ISSUE, DECISION, JUDGMENT, AND
DILEMMA
CLARIFICATIONS AND TERMINOLOGY
MORAL DILEMMA - Finally, going beyond the
KINDS OF VALUATION matter of choosing right over wrong, or good
over bad, and considering instead the more
Our first point of clarification is to recognize complicated situation wherein one is torn
there are instances when we make value between choosing one of two good or choosing
judgments that are not considered to be part of between lesser of two evils:
ethics.
We have a moral dilemma when an individual
ETHICS AND MORALS can choose only one from a number of possible
Our second clarification is on the use of the actions, and there are compelling ethical
word’s “ethics” and “morals”. reasons for the various choices. A mother may
be conflicted between wanting to feed her
DESCRIPTIVE AND NORMATIVE hungry child, but then recognizing that it would
be wrong for her to steal is an example of a
Our third point of clarification is to distinguish
moral dilemma.
between a descriptive and a normative study of
ethics. REASONING
Descriptive study - reports how people,  As Traer (2013) explains, in moral
particularly groups, make their moral valuations philosophy, an argument is not simply
without making any judgment either for or about our beliefs or opinions; instead, it
against these valuations. is about the reasons underlying those
beliefs or opinions.
Normative study - as is often done in
 This means that the real value of
philosophy or moral theology, engages the
discussing and debating ethical
question: What could or should be considered as
questions is not to ‘win the argument’ or
the right way of acting?
to ‘score points’ against the other
In other words, a normative discussion person!
prescribes what we ought to maintain as our  It is more important to provide carefully
standards or bases for moral valuation. considered arguments to support our
ideas, and to allow for rational – and
MORAL ISSUE, DECISION, JUDGMENT, AND deeper – understanding of the reasons
DILEMMA underlying our beliefs, ideas and
Moral Issue - refer to those particular situations attitudes.
that are often the source of considerable and REASONING
inclusive debate
 Crucially, this requires careful listening
Moral Decision - When one is placed in a to, analysis of and learning from the
situation and confronted by the choice of what arguments that others make.

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One common fault with many arguments about Laws are “ordinance of reason” because they
what is ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ – and one that Traer are rational deliberations intended to guide men
(2013) highlights – involves what is known as a towards what is good for them and for society.
rationalization. They direct men to perform certain activities as
good for them and for society. The main
A rationalization occurs when we use what at objective or purpose of the laws is the
first glance seem to be rational or credible attainment of the common good.
motives to cover up our true (and perhaps
unconscious) motives. Laws are “promulgated” – that they are made
known to the people who are bound to observe
THREE FORMS OF CRITICAL REASONING: them.
1. Reasoning by analogy - explains one thing Laws are passed by “one who has charge of
by comparing it to something else that is society” – because they can only be valid if
similar, although also different. In a good they are only be valid if they are the legitimate
analogy, the similarity outweighs the exercise of authority. Accordingly, only those
dissimilarity and is clarifying. who have the power and responsibility to govern
For instance, animals are like and have the power to enact the law.
unlike humans, as humans are also Laws are necessary to man. They regulate
animals. human activity. Without laws, there will be
2. Deductive reasoning - Reasoning from the anarchy and chaos, because each one will act
big argument to a small argument. according to his wishes without regard for the
common good. Without laws, Man will not realize
For instance, if every person has human his ultimate purpose in life.
rights, and you are a person, then you
have human rights like every person. CLASSIFICATION OF LAW

3. Inductive reasoning – Reasoning from the 1. Eternal Law

small argument to a big argument. It involves
 Are those promulgated, or made known
providing evidence to support a hypothesis.
to us, by special command of God/
THREE FORMS OF CRITICAL REASONING: Instituted by the will of God.
 Is the design of God, as a Supreme
Principles- are rationally established grounds Creator, to direct all created things to
by which one justifies and maintains moral their respective proper ends.
decisions and judgments.  God’s eternal plan and providence for
SOURCES OF AUTHORITY the universe. Example: The Decalogue
of Moses- Ten Commandments
Several common ways of thinking about ethics
are based on the idea that the standards of Classification of Law
valuation are imposed by a higher authority that 2. Natural Law/Moral Law (God as the author -
commands our obedience. In the following THE ALL- WISE)
section, we will explore three of such ideas: the
authority of laws, the authority of one’s religion,  Is the Eternal law as known to man by
and the authority of one’s own culture. his reason.
 Is recognized by all men regardless of
LAW creed, race, culture or historical
Law is an ordinance of reason promulgated for circumstances.
the common good by one who has charge of  Man’s reason shows him the natural
society (St. Thomas Aquinas). It is supposed order as a thing to be conserved and not
that law is one’s guide to ethical behavior. disturbed. By his rational nature, man is
aware of a general law: “Conserve the
natural order”, or in other words, “Do

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good and avoid evil”. This is the  An ordinance of reason, derived from
fundamental expression of the Natural the natural law, or making a concrete
Law. and determinate application of the
natural law, promulgated for the
Natural Law is a unchanging and unchanging
common good by human agency in
law that guides individuals towards their ultimate
charge of a society.
end. It is derived from the nature of man and is
 These laws are intended to preserve
not communicated supernaturally. For example,
peace and harmony within a society and
not obeying elders is against natural law, as it is
to direct each member of that society to
a direction towards a constant and unchanging
work towards the common good.
end.
Examples of Positive Law are:
PROPERTIES OF THE NATURAL LAW
1. The Laws of the State - embodied in
1. It is universal- it is true wherever human the Constitution. Example: Everyone
nature manifest itself. must pay his due taxes, obey traffic
rules.
2. It is obligatory- it is imperative because it is a
duty that ought to be fulfilled. 2. The Laws of the Catholic Church -
embodied in the Canon Law. Example:
3. It is recognizable – it enables man to Attend mass every Sunday, love God
recognize self- evident principles, such as: “Do above all. Etc.
good and avoid evil”.
PROPERTIES OF HUMAN POSITIVE LAWS:
4. It is immutable or unchangeable – it is
immutable because man’s essential nature can 1. Human laws must conform to divine
never be lost as long as man is man. laws. This is because all legitimate
authority emanates from God. No
5. Indispensable - The natural law, originating human authority may willfully
from God, is identical to God's will, and man has contradict God’s will.
no authority over it. It is essential for sane adults
to recognize good as good and evil as evil, 2. Human laws must promote the
avoiding both. common good. This common good
is spelled out in terms of prosperity,
Properties of the Natural Law
health, peace and order, intellectual
 In the Philippine, Filipinos are and moral growth- for the whole
constrained to obey the laws of the land society.
as stated in the country’s criminal and
civil codes. 3. Human law must be just and not
 Making this even more particular, in discriminatory of certain individuals
Cebu, residents are constrained to or groups. All laws must be applied
follow any provincial laws or city proportionately to all members of
ordinances. society so that the needs and
 One can easily imagine this becoming requirements of each are served.
even more localized to the barangay or
village level, where local or municipal Human Positive Law, when it is truly
layers of obligation are there for law, binds the conscience of its subjects,
residents to follow. for it is rooted in the natural law, and
 The term positive law or human remotely in the Eternal Law of God
positive law refers to the different rules Himself.
and regulations that are posited or put
forward by an authority figure that RELIGION
require compliance.
 It is law enacted by church or state.

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 The idea that one is obliged to obey her  Using the perspective of cultural
God in all things, expresses a claim that relativism leads to the view that
many people of a religious sensibility no one culture is superior than
find appealing and immediately valid. another culture when compared
 As a foundation to ethical values, this is to systems of morality, law,
referred to as the divine command politics, etc.
theory.
 It is a concept that cultural norms and
 The divinity called God or Supreme
values derive their meaning within a
Being commands and one is obliged to
specific social context.
obey her/his Creator.
 Many people are influenced by their  This is also based on the idea that there
religious upbringing, leading to a strong is no absolute standard of good or evil,
inclination to use it to justify moral therefore every decision and judgment
values. However, the diversity of of what is right and wrong is individually
religions in society can lead to decided in each society.
conflicting ethical standards, such as
food restrictions.  The concept of cultural relativism also
means that any opinion on ethics is
CULTURE subject to the perspective of each
person within their particular culture.
 Exposure to diverse societies and
cultures exposes us to diverse ways of  Overall, there is no right or wrong
thinking and valuing, leading to cultural ethical system. In a holistic
relativism. This perspective suggests understanding of the term cultural
that ethically acceptable actions are relativism, it tries to promote the
dependent on one's culture, which is understanding of cultural practices that
appealing as it aligns with reality. are unfamiliar to other cultures such as
eating insects, genocides or genital
 Second, by taking one’s culture as the
cutting.
standard, we are provided for the basis
of our valuations. 
 Third, this teaches us to be tolerant of THERE ARE TWO DIFFERENT CATEGORIES
others from different cultures, as we OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM:
realize that we are in no position to
judge whether the ethical thought or Absolute: Everything that happens within a
practice of another culture is acceptable culture must and should not be questioned by
or unacceptable. outsiders. The extreme example of absolute
cultural relativism would be the Nazi party’s point
 Our culture's moral code is neither of view justifying the Holocaust.
superior nor inferior, but it provides us
with appropriate and applicable Critical: Creates questions about cultural
standards. practices in terms of who is accepting them and
why. Critical cultural relativism also recognizes
CULTURAL RELATIVISM - is the ability to power relationships.
understand a culture on its own terms and not to
make judgments using the standards of one’s SENSES OF THE SELF
own culture.
 It is sometimes thought that one
 The goal of this is promote should not rely on any external
understanding of cultural authority to tell oneself what the
practices that are not typically standards of moral valuation are, but
part of one’s own culture. should instead turn inwards.

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 In this section, we will look into three  This theory acknowledges that it is
theories about ethics that center on dog-eat-dog world out there and
the self: subjectivism, psychological given that, everyone ought to put
egoism and ethical egoism. herself at the center.
 One should consider herself as the
SUBJECTIVISM
priority and not allow any other
 The starting point of subjectivism is concerns, such as the welfare of
the recognition that the individual other people, to detract from this
thinking person (subject) is at the pursuit.
heart of all moral valuations. LESSON 3: UTILITARIANISM
 She/He is the one who is confronted
with the situation and is burdened  Is an ethical theory that argues for the
with the need to make a decision of goodness of pleasure and the
judgment. determination of right behavior based on
 From this point, subjectivism leaps the usefulness of the action’s
to more radical claim that the consequences.
individual is the sole determinant of  This means that pleasure is good and
what is morally good or bad, right or that the goodness of an action is
wrong. determined by its usefulness.
 We often encounter these  Its root word is “utility”, which refers to
statements: “No one can tell me the usefulness of the consequences of
what is right and wrong.” “I am one’s action and behavior.
entitled to my own opinion.”  Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and John
Stuart Mill (1806-1873) are the two
PSYCHOLOGICAL EGOISM
foremost utilitarian thinkers.
 is a theory that describes the underlying  Their system of ethics emphasizes the
dynamic behind all human actions. As a consequences of actions.
descriptive theory, it does not direct one  This means that the goodness or the
to act in a particular way. Instead, it badness of an action is based on
points out that there is already an whether it is useful in contributing to a
underlying basis for how one acts. The specific purpose for the greatest number
ego itself has its desires and of people.
interests, and all our actions are  Utilitarianism is consequentialist.
geared toward satisfying these  This means that the moral value of
interests. actions and decisions is based solely or
greatly on the usefulness of their
ETHICAL EGOISM consequences; it is the usefulness of
 differs from psychological egoism in that results that determines whether the
it does not support all our actions are action or behavior is good or bad.
already inevitably self-serving. While this is the case, not all
consequentialist theories are utilitarian.
 Instead, ethical egoism prescribes that  For Bentham and Mill, utility refers to a
we should make our own ends, our own way of understanding the results of
interests, as the single overriding people’s actions.
concern.  Specifically, they are interested on
whether these actions contribute or not
 We may act in a way that is beneficial to to the total amount of resulting
others, but we should do that only if it happiness in the world.
ultimately benefits us.  The utilitarian value pleasure and
ETHICAL EGOISM happiness; this means that the

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usefulness of actions is based on its  Mill argues that we act and do things
promotion of happiness. because we find them pleasurable and
 Bentham and Mill understand happiness we avoid doing things because they are
as the experience of pleasure for the painful.
greatest number of persons, even at the  If we find our actions pleasurable, Mill
expense of some individual’s rights. explains, it is because they are
inherently pleasurable in themselves or
The Principle of Utility they eventually lead to the promotion of
pleasure and the avoidance of pain.
 Jeremy Bentham begins by arguing that  Bentham and Mill moral value as utility
our actions are governed by two and understood it as whatever produced
“sovereign masters” -- which he calls happiness or pleasure and the
pleasure and pain. avoidance of pain.
 These “masters” are given to us by  The next step is to understand the
nature to help us determine what is nature of pleasure and pain to identify a
good or bad and what ought to be done criterion for distinguishing pleasures and
and not; they fasten our choices to their to calculate the resultant pleasure or
throne. pain.
 The principle of utility is about our  What Bentham identified as the natural
subjection to these sovereign masters: moral preferability of pleasure, Mill
pleasure and pain. refers to as a theory of life.
 This principle refers to the motivation of  If we consider, for example, what moral
our actions as guided by our avoidance agents do and how they assess their
of pain and our desire for pleasure. actions, then it is hard to deny the
 It is like saying that in our everyday pursuit for happiness and the avoidance
actions, we do what is pleasurable and of pain.
we do not do what is painful.  For Bentham and Mill, the pursuit for
 On the other hand, the principles also pleasure and the avoidance of pain are
refer to pleasure as good if, and only if, not only important principles--- they are
they produce more happiness than in fact the only principle in assessing an
unhappiness. action’s morality.
 This means that it is not enough to Four Theses of Utilitarianism
experience pleasure, but to also inquire
whether the things we do make us Consequentialism
happier.
 The rightness of actions is determined
 Having identified the tendency for
solely by their consequences.
pleasure and the avoidance of pain as
the principle of utility, Bentham equates Hedonism
happiness with pleasure.
 Mill supports Bentham’s principle of  Utility is the degree to which an act
utility. produces pleasure.
 He reiterates moral good as happiness  Hedonism is the thesis that pleasure or
and, consequently, happiness as happiness is the good that we seek and
pleasure. that we should seek.
 Mill clarifies that what makes people Maximalism
happy is intended pleasure and what
makes us happy is the privation of  A right action produces the greatest
pleasure. good consequences and the least bad.
 The things that produce happiness and
pleasure are good; whereas, those that Universalism
produce unhappiness and pain are bad.

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 The consequences to be considered or good action according to the mean as

are those of everyone affected, and determined by practical wisdom.
everyone equally. Virtue

6. It is formed through action, by

Principle of the Greatest Number performing an action.
Virtue
 Equating happiness with pleasure does
not aim to describe the utilitarian moral 7. It is concerned with the rightness or
agent alone and independently from wrongness of procedures that are
performed in the practice of medicine
others.
and the provision of health care
 This is not only about our individual
systems.
pleasures, regardless of how high,
intellectual, or in other ways noble it is, Bioethics/Biomedical Ethics
but it is also about the pleasure of the
greatest number affected by the 8. It covers acceptable or unacceptable
consequences of our actions. actions affecting the environment.
Environmental Ethics

9. It focuses on establishing acceptable

business codes of conduct, affecting
enterprises, owners, investors, and
consumers, influencing economic
dynamics, moral aspects, benefits-cost-
profit ratio, competition rules, and
consumer opportunities.
Business Ethics

10. Norms of conduct or standards that law

practitioners, such as judges, lawyers,
1. It is concerned with what is good for notary public, law makers, must follow in
individuals and society and is also the practice of the profession.
described as moral philosophy. Legal Ethics
Ethics
11. Both deal with the study of man, human
2. A philosophical inquiry concerning nature, and human behavior. ________
norms of morality, its clarification, studies how man behaves; ethics
justification, and application in relation to studies how man ought to behave.
good life. Psychology
General Ethics
12. To think right often means to do right, as
3. _______ believe goodness lies in the knowledge of right leads to the doing of
action itself. right.
Deontologists Ethics and Logic

4. ___________ believe goodness lies in 13. Ethics deals with the moral order which
the consequences of the action. includes the social order. Whatever does
Consequentialists violence to the social order does
violence also to the natural and the
5. It is a disposition or character that moral order.
enables its possessor to perform a noble Ethics is related to Sociology

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14. Education develops moral, intellectual, only with proper observance of moral
and physical capacities, promoting laws and principles which regulate the
moral character and civic actions of men in a community.
consciousness. Ethics provide direction, - Sociology
goal, worth, and meaning in life.
Ethics and Education 26. ___ studies how man ought to behave
and is concerned with moral obligation.
15. Man is also an economic being because - Ethics
he has to support himself by earning a
living. 27. ________ develops moral, intellectual,
Ethics and Economic and physical capacities, promoting
moral character and civic consciousness
16. ________ and ____ are closely linked, - Education
with right and wrong in human actions
requiring a law. 28. Ethics stands for moral goodness; ____,
Morality and Law for beauty.
- Art
17. _____ and ____ are both about moral
goodness and beauty, but they are 29. _________ aims at good government for
interconnected. Evil implies defects, the temporal welfare of the citizens.
while good is beautiful. - Politics
Ethics and Art
30. A ______ study of ethics reports how
18. Man owes allegiance to the State. people, particularly groups, make their
Ethics and Politics moral valuations without making any
judgment either for or against these
19. The relationship between valuations.
_______________ is the closest among - Descriptive
the phases of human activity.
Religion and Ethics 31. A _______ study of ethics, as is often
done in philosophy or moral theology,
engages the question: What could or
20. _____ alone of all earthly creatures is a should be considered as the right way of
moral being. acting?
- Man - Normative

21. For ___ is principally and primarily a 32. It refers to those particular situations
human person whose highest faculty is that are often the source of considerable
moral power, his willpower, his freedom. and inclusive debate.
- Man - Moral Issue

22. _____ is the science of right thinking. 33. When one is placed in a situation and
- Logic confronted by the choice of what act to
23. _____ is the science of right living. perform, she is called to make a moral
- Ethics decision.
- Moral Decision
24. ______ studies how man behaves
- Psychology 34. When a person is an observer who
makes an assessment on the actions or
behavior of someone, she is making a
25. _____ deals with human relations in a
_________.
society, but human relations are based
- Moral Judgement
on proper order and proper order comes

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35. When an individual can choose only one 45. Refers to the different rules and
from a number of possible actions, and regulations that are posited or put
there are compelling ethical reasons for forward by an authority figure that
the various choices. require compliance. It is law enacted by
- Moral Dilemma church or state.
- Human Positive Law
36. Occurs when we use what at first glance
seem to be rational or credible motives 46. The idea that one is obliged to obey her
to cover up our true (and perhaps God in all things, expresses a claim that
unconscious) motives. many people of a religious sensibility
- Rationalization find appealing and immediately valid.
- Religion
37. It explains one thing by comparing it to
something else that is similar, although 47. Is the ability to understand a culture on
also different. its own terms and not to make
- Reasoning by analogy judgments using the standards of one’s
own culture.
38. Reasoning from the big argument to a - Cultural Relativism
small argument.
- Deductive Reasoning 48. Everything that happens within a culture
must and should not be questioned by
39. Reasoning from the small argument to a outsiders. (Category of Cultural
big argument. It involves providing Relativism)
evidence to support a hypothesis. - Absolute
- Inductive Reasoning
49. Creates questions about cultural
40. It is an ordinance of reason promulgated practices in terms of who is accepting
for the common good by one who has them and why. (Category of Cultural
charge of society (St. Thomas Aquinas). Relativism)
- Law - Critical
41. Are those promulgated, or made known
to us, by special command of God 50. Is the recognition that the individual
Instituted by the will of God. thinking person (subject) is at the heart
- Eternal Law of all moral valuations. She/He is the
one who is confronted with the situation
42. It is an unchanging law that guides and is burdened with the need to make
individuals towards their ultimate end. It a decision of judgment.
is derived from the nature of man and is - Subjectivism
not communicated supernaturally. “Do
good and avoid evil.” 51. Is a theory that describes the underlying
- Natural Law/Moral Law dynamic behind all human actions.
- Psychological Egoism
43. Properties of Natural Law
- Universal, Obligatory, 52. It prescribes that we should make our
Recognizable, Immutable, own ends, our own interests, as the
Indispensable single overriding concern.
- Ethical Egoism
44. Are rationally established grounds by
which one justifies and maintains moral 53. Is an ethical theory that argues for the
decisions and judgements. goodness of pleasure and the
- Principles determination of right behavior based on

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the usefulness of the action’s 64. A right action produces the greatest
consequences. good consequences and the least bad.
- Utilitarianism - Maximalism

54. Utilitarianism is ________ 65. This is not only about our individual
- Consequentialist. pleasures, regardless of how high,
intellectual, or in other ways noble it is,
55. For Bentham and Mill, _____ refers to a but it is also about the pleasure of the
way of understanding the results of greatest number affected by the
people’s actions. consequences of our actions.
- Utility - The Principle of Greatest Number

56. The utilitarian value ______ 66. What are the 4 Theses of Utilitarianism?
and_______; this means that the - Consequentialism
usefulness of actions is based on its - Hedonism
promotion of happiness. - Maximalism
- Pleasure and happiness - Universalism

57. The ___________ is about our 67. The two foremost utilitarian thinkers
subjection to these sovereign masters: - Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)
pleasure and pain. - John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)
- Principle of Utility
68. __________ begins by arguing that our
58. This principle refers to the motivation of actions are governed by two “sovereign
our actions as guided by our avoidance masters” -- which he calls pleasure and
of pain and our desire for pleasure. pain.
- Principle of Utility - Jeremy Bentham

59. The principle of utility is about our 69. ________ argues that we act and do
subjection to these sovereign masters: things because we find them
______ and ______ pleasurable and we avoid doing things
- Pleasure and pain because they are painful.
- John Stuart Mill
60. The rightness of actions is determined
solely by their consequences.
- Consequentialism

61. _______ is the degree to which an act

produces pleasure.
- Utility

62. _______ is the thesis that pleasure or

happiness is the good that we seek and
that we should seek.
- Hedonism

63. The consequences to be considered are

those of everyone affected, and
everyone equally.
- Universalism

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