Amp Gde

1
Amplifier Application Guide
© 2006 by Crown Audio® Inc., 1718 W. Mishawaka Rd., Elkhart, IN 46517-9439 U.S.A.
Telephone: 574-294-8000. Fax: 574-294-8329.
www.crownaudio.com
Trademark Notice: Amcron®, BCA®, and Crown®, Crown Audio, IOC®, IQ System®, ODEP® and
VZ® are registered trademarks and Grounded Bridge™, PIP™ and PIP2™ are trademarks of
Crown Audio, Inc.
Other trademarks are the property of their respective owners.
133472-1A
Amplifier Application Guide 1/06
2
The information furnished in this manual does not include all of the details of design, production, or
variations of the equipment. Nor does it cover every possible situation which may arise during installa-
tion, operation or maintenance. If you need special assistance beyond the scope of this manual, please
contact our Technical Support Group.
Crown Technical Support Group
1718 W. Mishawaka Rd., Elkhart, Indiana 46517 U.S.A.
DANGER: This amplifier can produce lethal levels of output power! Be very
careful when making connections. Do not attempt to change the output
wiring unless AC power has been removed from the amplifier for at least
WARNING:This unit is capable of producing very high sound pressure levels.

Continuous exposure to high sound pressure levels can cause permanent
hearing impairment or loss. Caution is advised and ear protection recom-
mended when playing at high volumes.
Important Safety Instructions

1) Read these instructions.
2) Keep these instructions.
3) Heed all warnings.
TO PREVENT ELECTRIC SHOCK DO
4) Follow all instructions.
NOT REMOVE TOP OR BOTTOM COVERS.
5) Do not use this apparatus near water.
NO USER SERVICEABLE PARTS
6) Clean only with a dry cloth.
INSIDE. REFER SERVICING TO QUALIFIED
7) Do not block any ventilation openings. Install in accor- SERVICE PERSONNEL.
dance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
8) Do not install near any heat sources such as radiators,
heat registers, stoves, or other apparatus that produce
heat.
9) Do not defeat the safety purpose of the polarized or
grounding-type plug. A polarized plug has two blades
with one wider than the other. A grounding-type plug À PRÉVENIR LE CHOC ÉLECTRIQUE
has two blades and a third grounding prong. The wide
N’ENLEVEZ PAS LES COUVERCLES. IL
blade or the third prong is provided for your safety. If the
provided plug does not fit into your outlet, consult an N’Y A PAS DES PARTIES SERVICEABLE
electrician for replacement of the obsolete outlet. À L’INTÉRIEUR. TOUS REPARATIONS
10) Protect the power cord from being walked on or pinched, DOIT ETRE FAIRE PAR PERSONNEL
particularly at plugs, convenience receptacles, and the QUALIFIÉ SEULMENT.
point where they exit from the apparatus.
11) Only use attachments/accessories specified by the
manufacturer.
12) Use only with a cart, stand, bracket, or table specified The lightning bolt
by the manufacturer, or sold with the apparatus. When a triangle is used to alert
cart is used, use caution when moving the cart/appara- the user to the risk of
tus combination to avoid injury from tip-over. electric shock.
13) Unplug this apparatus during lightning storms or
when unused for long periods of time. The exclamation point
triangle is used to alert
14) Refer all servicing to qualified service personnel. Servic-
the user to important
ing is required when the apparatus has been damaged
operating or mainte-
in any way, such as power-supply cord or plug is dam-
aged, liquid has been spilled or objects have fallen into
the apparatus, the apparatus has been exposed to rain
or moisture, does not operate normally, or has been
dropped.

3
Table of Contents
Introduction.................................................................................................. 4
Chapter 1: Crown Amplifiers In-Depth ....................................................... 5
1.1 Rack Cooling ..................................................................................... 5
1.1.1 Fan-Assisted Models ................................................................. 5
1.1.2 Convection-Only Models ........................................................... 6
1.2 System Wiring ................................................................................... 7
1.2.1 Input Wiring ............................................................................... 7
Input Connector Wiring ................................................................. 7
Balanced, Grounded Source ........................................................ 7
Balanced, Floating Source ........................................................... 7
Unbalanced, Grounded Source, Twin-Lead Shielded Cable ......... 8
Unbalanced, Floating Source, Twin-Lead Shielded Cable ............ 8
Unbalanced, Grounded Source, Single-Conductor
Coax or Twisted-Pair Cable ......................................................... 8
Unbalanced, Floating Source, Single-Conductor
Coax or Twisted-Pair Cable ......................................................... 8
1.2.2 Solving Input Problems ............................................................. 9
1.3 Output Wiring .................................................................................. 10
1.3.1 Output Connector Wiring......................................................... 10
5-Way Binding Post ..................................................................... 10
Barrier Block................................................................................ 11
Neutrik® Speakon® ...................................................................... 11
1.3.2 Amplifier Load Impedance ..................................................... 13
1.3.3 Determining Appropriate Speaker Wire Gauge....................... 14
1.3.4 Loudspeaker Protection .......................................................... 15
1.3.5 Solving Output Problems ........................................................ 16
High-Frequency Oscillations ....................................................... 16
Sub-Sonic Currents ..................................................................... 16
1.3.6 Distributed Speaker Systems .................................................. 17
What is Constant Voltage? .......................................................... 17
Transformer Saturation ................................................................ 17
1.4 Multi-way Systems (with Expansion Modules) ................................ 18
1.4.1 Active vs. Passive Crossover Networks .................................. 18
1.5 Fault Monitoring .............................................................................. 20
1.6 Setting System Gain Structure ........................................................ 21
1.6.1 System Levels ......................................................................... 21
1.6.2 Amplifier Level ......................................................................... 21
Chapter 2: Troubleshooting ...................................................................... 23
2.1 No Power ......................................................................................... 24
2.2 No Sound ........................................................................................ 25
2.3 Bad Sound ...................................................................................... 26
2.4 Amp Overheating ............................................................................ 26
Chapter 3: Glossary of Terms ................................................................... 27
Appendix: Suggested Reading ............................................................... 33
4
Introduction
This application guide provides useful information designed to help you best
use your new Crown® amplifier. It is designed to complement your amplifier’s
Operation Manual, which describes the specific features and specifications
of your amplifier. Helpful guides and tips on subjects such as system wiring
and system gain structure, for example, should be helpful to you whether you
are a beginner or a seasoned professional. You can choose to read this guide
from cover to cover, or if you are already familiar with Crown amps, you can
jump to specific sections as needed. A glossary of terms and list of suggested
publications for further reading are also provided for your convenience.
Please be sure to read all instructions, warnings and cautions.
For your protection, please send in the warranty registration card today. And
save your bill of sale—it’s your official proof of purchase.

Chapter 1: Crown Amplifiers In-Depth 5
Chapter 1
Crown Amplifiers In-Depth
In This Chapter
• Rack Cooling
• System Wiring
• Amplifier Load Impedance
• Multi-Way Systems
• Distributed Speaker Systems
• Setting System Gain Structure
T his chapter provides information to help you get optimum performance

from your Crown amplifier. It is a collection of techniques that can help
you avoid many of the common problems that plague sound systems. For
further study on many of these topics, refer to the recommended publications
listed in the Appendix.
1.1 Rack Cooling

When installing your Crown amp in a rack, you should take steps to make
sure that the temperature of the rack stays in a safe range. Crown amps with
fan-assisted cooling and convection-only cooling may require different tech-
niques for best performance.
Figure 1.1 When designing your rack
Top View of Rack-
cooling system, you should
Mounted Amplifier with consider the requirements
Side Vents for all mounted components.
1.1.1 Fan-Assisted
Models
If your Crown amplifier uses
fan-assisted cooling, make
sure that the front vents and/
or filters are never blocked,
and that the exhaust fan
(vented out the back or

6 Chapter 1: Crown Amplifiers In-Depth
sides) is not blocked or covered by cables. Also, if your

Crown amp has foam filters, they can be cleaned with mild Overheating
dish detergent and water when needed.
Because of the wide range of operating
The side walls of the rack should be at least 2 inches (5
conditions your amplifer might be sub-
cm) away from the chassis for amps with side venting as jected to in the field, you should con-
shown in Figure 1.1. sider each installation independently to
Don’t use vented spacer panels between amps in a rack. ensure the best thermal performance.
Because of the airflow technology we use in our amps, If your amp starts to overheat, consider
it is best to stack multiple amplifiers on top of each other the following possible causes:
with no space between. 1. Insufficient air movement.
The amplifier draws fresh air into the front of the amp
and exhausts it either out the sides and into the rack, or 2. Overdriving of the input stage
(severely into clip).
out the back depending on the model. We want the hot
air that’s in the rack to vent out the sides or back—not 3. Very low-impedance loads.
the front. If any of these amplifiers are spaced apart with
4. High ambient temperatures.
vented panels, some of the preheated air will recycle to
the front of the rack and back into the amplifier. The result
is loss of thermal headroom. If you choose to place the amplifiers with space
between them, then use solid panels between them, not vented panels.
You should provide adequate airflow within the rack. Additional air flow may
be required when driving low impedance loads at consistently high output
levels or for higher power models. Refer to your Crown amplifier’s Operation
Manual for detailed information on ther-
mal dissipation.
If your rack has a front door that could Figure 1.2
block air flow to the amplifier’s air Extra Cooling with a
intakes, you must provide adequate air Rack-Mounted Blower
flow by installing a grille in the door or
by pressurizing the air behind the door.
Wire grilles are recommended over
perforated panels because they tend
to cause less air restriction. A good
choice for pressurizing the air behind a
rack cabinet door is to mount a “squirrel
cage” blower inside the rack (Option 1
in Figure 1.2). At the bottom of the rack,
mount the blower so it blows outside air
into the space between the door and in
front of the amplifiers, pressurizing the
“chimney” behind the door. This blower should not blow air into or take air out
of the space behind the amplifiers. For racks without a door, you can evacu-
ate the rack by mounting the blower at the top of the rack so that air inside the
cabinet is drawn out the back (Option 2 in Figure 1.2).
If the air supply is unusually dusty, you might want to pre-filter it using com-
mercial furnace filters to prevent rapid loading of the unit’s own air filter.
1.1.2 Convection-Only Models
When racking convection-cooled amplifiers, it is best to leave one rack-space
between amps because this type of amplifier needs space to radiate the heat.

1.2 System Wiring

The information in this section covers making input and output wiring connec-
tions, as well as troubleshooting problems relating to system wiring.
1.2.1 Input Wiring
Input Connector Wiring
Refer to the following diagrams for input cable wiring for commonly-used con-
nector types.
Note: These diagrams follow the AES wiring convention of Pin 2 = hot for XLR
connectors.
Balanced, Grounded Source Balanced, Floating Source

For use with components equipped with three-wire For use with components equipped with two-wire
grounded AC line cord or other ground connection. AC line cord or battery power.
Note: If two or more channels with the same

input ground reference are driven from the
same floating source, connect only one shield
to the source chassis

Unbalanced, Grounded Source, Unbalanced, Floating Source,

Twin-Lead Shielded Cable Twin-Lead Shielded Cable
Unbalanced, Grounded Source, Single- Unbalanced, Floating Source, Single-

Conductor Coax or Twisted-Pair Cable Conductor Coax or Twisted-Pair Cable

1.2.2 Solving Input

Input Wiring Tips Problems
Infrasonic (Subaudible)
1. For all input connectivity, use to one another. If you must use a
shielded wire only. Cables with a foil common path for all cables, use Frequencies
wrap shield or a high-density braid a star-quad cable for the low-level Sometimes large infrasonic (sub-
are superior. Cables with a stranded signals. audible) frequencies are present in
spiral shield, although very flexible, the input signal. These can damage
will break down over time and cause 4. Before changing input connec- loudspeakers by overloading or
noise problems. tors or wiring, turn the amplifier level overheating them. To attenuate such
controls all the way down (counter- frequencies, place a capacitor in
2. Try to avoid using unbalanced clockwise). series with the input signal line. The
lines with professional equipment. If graph in Figure 1.3 shows some
you have no choice, keep the cables 5. Before changing output connec-
tions, turn the amplifier level down capacitor values and how they affect
as short as possible (see “Balanced the frequency response. Use only
vs. Unbalanced” on the next page). and the AC power off to minimize the
chance of short-circuiting the output. low-leakage paper, mylar or tantalum
3. To minimize hum and crosstalk, capacitors.
avoid running low-level input cables,
Radio Frequencies (RF)
high-level output wires and AC power
feeds in the same path. Try to run Another problem to avoid is the
differing signal-cable paths at 90° presence of large levels of radio
frequencies or RF in the input signal.
Although high RF levels may not
pose a threat to the amplifier, they
Figure 1.3 can burn out tweeters or other loads
that are sensitive to high frequen-
Subsonic Filter Capaci-
cies. Extremely high RF levels can
tor Values also cause your amplifier to prema-
turely activate its protection circuitry,
resulting in inefficient operation. RF
can be introduced into the signal
chain from many sources such as
local radio stations, tape recorder bias and digital signal processors (DSP). To prevent high
levels of input RF, install an appropriate low-pass filter in series with the input signal.
Some examples of unbalanced wiring for low-pass filters are shown in Figure 1.4.
For balanced input wiring use one of the examples in Figure 1.5. Filters A, B and C correspond
to the unbalanced filters above. Filter D also incorporates the infrasonic filter described previ-
ously.
Hum and Buzz
If you have noticeable hum or buzz
Figure 1.4 in your system, you may want to
check your cable connections to
Unbalanced RFI Filters see if the unwanted noise is being
introduced via a ground loop. To
determine the proper wiring, first
check whether the output from
your source is unbalanced or bal-
anced (if you don’t know, refer to
the unit’s back panel or Operation
Manual). Next, determine if the
source’s power cable is floating
(ungrounded, 2-prong) or grounded (3-prong). Finally, if the source in unbalanced, check the
type of wiring: twin-lead or single coax. Once you have determined the wiring scheme and
cable type, refer to the applicable wiring diagram in Section 1.2.1.

Balanced vs. Unbalanced

A balanced audio circuit will have both
positive (+) and negative (–) legs of
the circuit that are isolated from the
ground circuit. These balanced legs
exhibit identical impedance character-
istics with respect to ground, and may
also carry the audio signal at the same
level, but with opposite polarities. This
results in a line that offers excellent
rejection of unwanted noise.
On the other hand, an unbalanced
circuit usually holds one leg at ground
potential, while the second leg is “hot.”
Unbalanced line is less expensive, but
is much more susceptible to noise, and
is not normally used in professional
applications. For the cleanest signal,
with less hum and buzz, a balanced
Figure 1.5 line is always recommended. It is espe-
Balanced RFI Filters cially helpful if you have a long cable
run (over 10 feet (3 m)), since noise is
easily introduced into long, unbalanced
lines.
1.3 Output Wiring
1.3.1 Output Connector Wiring
5-Way Binding Post
Figure 1.6
If the amplifier is set for Stereo
(Dual), connect the positive (+) 5-Way Binding Post
and negative (–) leads of each Wiring for Stereo
loudspeaker to the appropri-
ate Channel 1 and Channel 2
output connectors as shown in
Figure 1.6.
If the amplifier is set for Bridge-Mono (if equipped), con-
Figure 1.7
nect a mono load across the red binding posts of each
channel as shown in Figure 1.7. Do NOT use the black 5-Way Binding Post
binding posts when the amp is set for Bridge Output. Wiring for Bridge-Mono
Notice that the Channel 1 red binding post is positive

(+) and the Channel 2 red binding post is negative (–).
If amp is set for Parallel-Mono (if equipped), connect
a 14-gauge or larger jumper between the Channel 1
and Channel 2 Positive terminals, then connect a mono Figure 1.8
load to the Channel 1 binding posts as shown in Figure 5-Way Binding Post
1.8. Do NOT use the Channel 2 binding posts when the Wiring for Parallel-
amp is set for Parallel Output. Caution: Never short or Mono
parallel the output channels of an amplifier to itself
or to any other amplifier.

Barrier Block
If the amplifier is set for Stereo (Dual), connect the positive (+) and negative (–) leads
of each loudspeaker to the appropriate Channel 1 and Channel 2 output connectors
as shown in Figure 1.9.
Figure 1.9
If the amplifier is set for
Barrier Block Wiring for
Bridge-Mono (if equipped),
Stereo
connect a mono load across
the positive terminals of each
channel as shown in Figure
1.10. Do NOT use the nega-
tive terminals when the amp
Figure 1.10 is set for Bridge Output.
Barrier Block Wiring for If the amplifier is set for Parallel-Mono (if
Bridge-Mono equipped), connect 14-guage or larger
jumper between the Channel 1 and Channel
2 Positive terminals, then connect a mono
load to the Channel 1 positive and negative
terminals as shown in Figure 1.11. Do NOT
use the Channel 2 terminals when the amp
Figure 1.11 is set for Parallel Output. Caution: Never
Barrier Block Wiring for short or parallel the output channels of an
Parallel-Mono amplifier to itself or to any other amplifier.
Neutrik® Speakon®
Output Wiring Tips To assemble the Neutrik Speakon NL4FC connector, complete
the following steps:
1. To prevent possible short circuits, 1. Slide the bushing (E) and chuck (D) onto the end of the cable
wrap or otherwise insulate exposed as shown in Figure 1.12.
loudspeaker cable or cable connectors. Note: Your NL4FC connector kit should contain both a black
2. Do not use connectors that might and a white chuck. Use the white chuck for cable with a diam-
accidentally tie conductors together eter of 0.25 to 0.5 inch (6.35 to 12.7 mm). Use the black chuck
when making or breaking the connec- for cable with a diameter of 0.375 to 0.625 inch (9.525 to
tion (for example, a standard, 1/4-inch 15.875 mm).
stereo phone plug). 2. Strip approximately 3/4-inch (20-mm) of casing from the cable
end. Strip approximately 3/8-inch (8-mm) from the end of each
3. Never use connectors that could of the conductors down to bare wire (C).
be plugged into AC power sockets.
Accidental AC input will be an electri- 3a. Insert each wire into the top of appropriate slot of the connec-
fying experience for your equipment. tor insert (B) as shown in Figure 1.13. Use a (1.5-mm) allen
But you will find out real quick if your wrench or flat blade screwdriver to tighten the side connecting
speakers are any good at 60 Hz! screws.
4. Avoid using connectors with low cur-

rent-carrying capacity, such as XLRs.
5. Do not use connectors that have
any tendency to short.

3b. If the Mode switch is

Figure 1.12
in the “Stereo” posi-
tion (for stereo con- Order of Assembly for
figuration), connect the Neutrik Speakon
the positive (+) and NL4FC Connector
negative (–) leads
of each wire to the
appropriate Chan-
nel 1 and Channel
2 connectors as
shown in Figure
1.14. You may use all 4 poles of the Channel 1 output Figure 1.13
connector to feed both speakers, if you wish. Wiring for the Neutrik
3c. If the Mode switch is in the “Bridge” position (for Speakon NL4FC
mono configuration), connect the load across the Connector
positive (+) terminals of the connector as shown
in Figure 1.15. For Bridge-Mono Mode, non-invert-
ing output, Ch1+ is the positive (+) and Ch2+ is the
negative (–).
3d. Never short or parallel the output channels of
an amplifier to itself or any other amplifier.
4. Slide the connector insert (B) into the connector
hous-
ing (A),
making Figure 1.14
sure that Stereo Output Wiring
the large
notch on
the outer
edge of the
insert lines
up with the
large groove on the inside of the con-
nector housing. The insert should slide Figure 1.15
easily through the housing and out the Bridge-Mono Output
other side until it extends approximately Wiring
3/4-inch (19-mm) from the end of the
housing, as shown in Figure 1.16.
5. Slide the chuck (D) along the cable and
insert into the housing, making sure
that the large notch on the outer edge
of the chuck lines up
Figure 1.16
with the large groove
on the inside of the Connector Assembly:
connector housing. Insert into Connector
The chuck should Housing
slide easily into the insert/hous-
ing combination until only
Figure 1.17
approximately 3/8-inch (9.5-mm)
of the chuck end extends from Connector Assembly:
the back end of the connector Chuck into Connector
Housing
as shown in Figure 1.17.

6. Slide the bushing along the cable

Figure 1.18
and screw onto the end of the
Connector Assembly: connector combination as shown
Bushing onto Connector
in Figure 1.18. Note that the
Housing Assembly
bushing features a special lock-
ing construction which will prevent
disassembly of the NL4FC con-
nector once this cap is tightened
into place. Before tightening, you
may want to test the connector in
Figure 1.19 a live system to make sure it has
Connecting the been assembled properly.
Speakon plug to the
mating connector
To connect the Speakon plug into the mating connector on the speaker, line
up the notches between the insert and the mating connector, then insert the
plug and turn one quarter-turn clockwise as shown in Figure 1.19. The thumb-
lock on the housing will snap into the locked position when the connector is
properly seated.
1.3.2 Amplifier Load Impedance

A major consideration when matching amplifiers with speakers is the resulting
impedance presented to the amplifier when speakers are connected to the
output. The impedance of the load, in part, determines how much power the
amplifier will produce. Also, too low of impedance can cause the amplifier to
overheat.
Figure 1.20
Impedance is much like resis-
Series Speaker tance, except impedance
Impedances changes with frequency. Imped-
ance and resistance are both
measured in ohms. To under-
stand the effect of impedance
in an electrical circuit, consider
the following analogy: a wire is
much like a water pipe. Elec-
trical current is like the water
flowing through the pipe. Imped-
Figure 1.21 ance’s role is that of the valve.
Parallel Speaker The valve resists or impedes
Impedances (hence the terms) the flow of
water through the pipe. If the
valve is opened (less imped-
ance), water flows freely. As
the valve is turned toward the
closed position (more imped-
ance), the flow of water slows.
As the amplifier drives lower
impedances, it produces more
current, thus more power.

Each speaker has an impedance Parallel Impedances Figure 1.22

rating, typically 4 or 8 ohms. Connect-
ing one 8-ohm speaker to an amplifier 4 Ohm Speakers 8 Ohm Speakers Parallel Impedance
channel presents an 8-ohm impedance 1 Speaker 4 Ohm 8 Ohm
Chart
to the channel. 2 Speakers 2 Ohm 4 Ohm
If two or more speakers are wired to 3 Speakers 1.3 Ohm 2.7 Ohm
the same channel, the net impedance
4 Speakers 1 Ohm 2 Ohm
presented to the channel will be either
more or less than one of the speakers alone, depending on whether they
were wired in series or in paral-
lel (see Figures 1.20 and 1.21). Figure 1.23
When speakers are wired in Wire Size Nomograph.
series, the net impedance pre-
sented to the amp is the sum
of the individual impedances.
When wired in parallel, the net
impedance becomes less than
the impedance of one of the
speakers, as calculated with the
following formula:
You can use the table in Figure

1.22 to find the net impedance
for many common speaker
combinations.
Note: for best results, do
not wire speakers of differ-
ing impedances (one 4 ohm
and one 8 ohm for example)
together.
If two 8-ohm speakers are wired
in series, they form one 16-ohm
load for the amplifier, since
impedances add when speak-
ers are wired in series. If, on the
other hand, the same 8-ohm
speakers are wired in paral-
lel, they form one 4-ohm load
for the amplifier. The 4-ohm
load will cause the amplifier to
produce much more power than
the 16-ohm load, and much
more waste heat as well.

1.3.3 Determining Appropriate Speaker Wire Gauge

You should choose loudspeaker cables with sufficient gauge (thickness)
for the length being used. The resistance introduced by inadequate loud-
speaker cables will reduce both the output power and the motion control of
the loudspeakers. The latter problem occurs because the damping factor
decreases as the cable resistance increases. This is very important because
the amplifier’s excellent damping factor can easily be negated by insufficient
loudspeaker cables.
Use the nomograph in Figure 1.23 and the procedure that follows to find the
recommended wire gauge (AWG or American Wire Gauge) for your system.
1. Note the load impedance of the loudspeakers connected to each channel
of the amplifier. Mark this value on the “Load Impedance” (A) line of the
nomograph.
2. Select an acceptable damping factor and mark it on the “Damping Factor”
(B) line. Higher damping factors yield greater motion control over the
loudspeakers, and therefore lower distortion. A common damping factor for
commercial applications is between 50 and 100. Higher damping factors
may be desirable for live sound, but long cable lengths often limit the high-
est damping factor that can be achieved practically. In recording studios
and home hi-fi, a damping factor of 500 or more is very desirable.
3. Draw a line through the two points with a pencil, and continue until it inter-
sects the “Source Resistance” (C) line.
4. On the “2-Cond. Cable” (D) line, mark the required length of the cable run.
5. Draw a pencil line from the mark on the “Source Resistance” line through
the mark on the “2-Cond. Cable” line, and on to intersect the “Copper Wire”
(E) line.
6. The required wire gauge for the selected wire length and damping factor is
the value on the “Copper Wire” line. Note: Wire size increases as the AWG
gets smaller.
7. If the size of the cable exceeds what you want to use, (1) find a way to use
shorter cables, (2) settle for a lower damping factor, or (3) use more than
one cable for each line. Options 1 and 2 will require the substitution of new
values for cable length or damping factor in the nomograph. For option
3, estimate the effective wire gauge by subtracting 3 from the apparent
wire gauge every time the number of conductors of equal
gauge is doubled. So, if #10 wire is too large, two #13
PIPs for Speaker Protection wires can be substituted, or four #16 wires can be used for
the same effect.
Depending on the application, you may
want to use a PIP™ module to protect
your loudspeakers (for PIP-compatible 1.3.4 Loudspeaker Protection
amps only). When properly configured, all
Crown amplifiers generate enormous power. If your loud-
PIP modules with signal-driven compres-
sion can provide loudspeaker protection.
speakers don’t have built-in protection from excessive
For more information on available PIP power, it’s a good idea to protect them. Loudspeakers are
modules with signal-driven compression, subject to thermal damage from sustained overpowering
contact your Crown dealer or check the and mechanical damage from large transient voltages.
current selection of PIP modules at www. Special fuses can be used to protect your loudspeakers in
both cases.

Two different types of fuses are

Figure 1.24
required for thermal protection
and voltage protection. Slow-blow Loudspeaker Fuse
Nomograph
fuses are usually selected to
protect loudspeakers from thermal
damage because they are similar
to loudspeakers in the way they
respond to thermal conditions
over time. In contrast, high-speed
instrument fuses like the Littlefuse
361000 series are used to protect
loudspeakers from large transient
voltages. The nomograph in Figure
1.24 can be used to select the
properly rated fuse for either type
of loudspeaker protection.
There are basically two
approaches that can be taken
when installing fuses for loud-
speaker protection. A common
approach is to put a single fuse
in series with the output of each
channel. This makes installa-
tion convenient because there is only one fuse protecting the loads on each
output. The main disadvantage of this approach becomes obvious if the fuse
blows because none of the loads will receive any power.
A better approach is to fuse each driver independently. This allows you to
apply the most appropriate protection for the type of driver being used. In
general, low-frequency drivers (woofers) are most susceptible to thermal
damage and high-frequency drivers (tweeters) are usually damaged by large
transient voltages. This means that your loudspeakers will tend to have better
protection when the woofers are protected by slow-blow fuses and high-fre-
quency drivers are protected by high-speed instrument fuses.
1.3.5 Solving Output
Problems
High-Frequency Oscillations
Sometimes high-frequency oscillations occur which can cause your amplifier
to prematurely activate its protection circuitry and result in inefficient opera-
tion. The effects of this problem are similar to the effects of the RF problem
described in Section 1.2.2. To prevent high-frequency oscillations:
1. Lace together the loudspeaker conductors for each channel; do not lace
together the conductors from different channels. This minimizes the
chance that cables will act like antennas and transmit or receive high fre-
quencies that can cause oscillation.
2. Avoid using shielded loudspeaker cable.
3. Avoid long cable runs where the loudspeaker cables from different ampli-
fiers share a common cable tray or cable jacket.

4. Never connect the amplifier’s

Figure 1.25
input and output grounds together.
Inductive Load (Trans-
former) Network 5. Never tie the outputs of multiple
amplifiers together.
6. Keep loudspeaker cables well
separated from input cables.
7. Install a low-pass filter on each
input line (similar to the RF filters described in Section 1.2.2).
8. Install input wiring according to the instructions in your amplifier’s Opera-
tion Manual.
Sub-Sonic Currents
Another problem to avoid is the
presence of large sub-sonic currents
when primarily inductive loads are
used. Examples of inductive loads
are 70-volt transformers and electro-
static loudspeakers.
Inductive loads can appear as a
short circuit at low frequencies. This
can cause the amplifier to pro-
duce large low-frequency currents
and activate its protection circuitry.
Always take the precaution of install-
ing a high-pass filter in series with
the amplifier’s input when inductive
loads are used. A 3-pole, 18-dB-
per-octave filter with a –3 dB fre-
quency of 50 Hz is recommended
(depending on the application, an
even higher –3 dB frequency may be
desirable).
Another way to prevent the amplifier
from prematurely activating its protection systems and to protect inductive
Figure 1.26
loads from large low-frequency currents is to connect a 590 to 708 µF nono-
Typical Distributed larized capacitor and 4-ohm, 20-watt resistor in series with the amplifier’s
Speaker System
output and the positive (+) lead of the transformer. The circuit shown in Figure
1.25 uses components that are available from most electronic supply stores.
1.3.6 Distributed Speaker Systems
Multiple-speaker systems for paging and background music systems are
common in such facilities as schools, restaurants, industrial facilities offices
and retail. In these systems, many speakers are distributed throughout the
facility, often across long distances, making them difficult and expensive to
implement with traditional, direct low-impedance amplifiers. A less expensive
and more reliable method is the distributed speaker system.
A distributed speaker system consists of an amplifier or amplifier channel
driving one or more speakers with transformers connected to a pair of wires
called a “home run.” The transformers step the line voltage down to a lower

level to drive the speaker, and are connected across the

wires (see Figure 1.26). The combination of transformer Using Low-Impedance
and speaker line presents a much higher impedance to the
amplifier than would the speaker itself, making it possible to You can use amps without constant-volt-
add many speakers to a single home run. age settings on distributed speaker sys-
In distributed speaker systems, as the ratio of voltage to tems if the power output is high enough.
current become greater, less power is lost on the home run. For example, an amplifier rated for 78
This makes it possible to use much smaller gauge wire for watts output into 8 ohms will directly drive
home runs than would otherwise be possible. a 25-volt line. To calculate the necessary
power for driving a specific voltage line
What is Constant Voltage? use the following formula:
“Constant-voltage” amplifiers do not, in fact, supply a con-
stant output voltage. The audio is represented with varying
voltage just as with a low-impedance amplifier. The term
“constant-voltage” was arrived at for two reasons. First, con-
stant-voltage amplifiers produce their maximum power when where P equals the necessary power
the output voltage reaches the specified value. For example, output,
an amplifier rated at 200 watts, when set to 70V output, will V equals the voltage of the distributed
produce 200 watts when the output voltage reaches 70V. speaker system, and R equals the imped-
Second, the output voltage of an amplifier driving a con- ance of the amplifier for the power specifi-
stant-voltage (distributed) speaker run remains constant
across a wide range of impedances.
Transformer Saturation
It’s important to know that transformers can easily become “saturated” at low-frequencies. Transformer saturation
occurs when the magnetic field created by the signal content becomes too much for the core of the transformer to
handle. This condition can be dangerous to the amplifier, and can also cause distortion.
An effective way to prevent step-down transformer saturation is to filter the very low-frequency content from the
audio. Your amplifier may provide high-pass filters for this purpose (see your Operation Manual). If not, see Sec-
tion 1.2.2 for filter suggestions.
1.4 Multi-way Systems

(with Expansion Modules)
This section shows how multi-way systems can be effectively designed using optional expansion modules that
feature active crossover networks. Example systems are shown for single and multiple amp two-way systems and
three-way systems.
The range of frequencies present in full-range music is wider than most any single speaker component can accu-
rately reproduce. Because of this, most professional speaker systems employ two or more speaker components
to do the job. Crossover networks (or crossovers) are electrical circuits that divide an incoming signal into two
or more separate frequency bands. The separate bands are then routed to speakers designed to reproduce the
range of frequencies they are being fed.
1.4.1 Active vs. Passive Crossover Networks

There are two types of crossovers: active and passive. Passive crossover networks are located in the signal chain
between the amplifier and speakers. The networks built into speaker cabinets are typically passive. The primary
advantage to passive crossovers is that they use fewer amplified channels. The primary disadvantage is that they
work with amplified or high-voltage signals because of being located after the amplifier in the signal chain,
causing them to waste much of the power before it gets to the speakers. They also have lower dynamic
range.
Active crossovers are typically located before the amplifier in the signal chain. They work with lower “line-level”
signals, meaning they waste much less power.

Figure 1.27
Typical Single-Amp,
Stereo, Two-Way
Hookup
Figure 1.28
Typical Two-Amp,
Bridge-Mono, Two-Way
Hookup

Figure 1.29
Typical Three-Amp,
Bridge-Mono,
Three-Way Hookup
When you use an active crossover to split the power drive to the loudspeaker
components, you gain a wide range of advantages, including:
1. Increased gain because the insertion loss of passive crossover networks is
eliminated.
2. Consistent power bandwidth: power bandwidth is changed in multi-way pas-
sive systems if transducers change impedance or vaporize (blow up).
3. Levels can be matched
more accurately to the Figure 1.30
components. Fault Status External
Circuit Design
4. Improved dynamic
range.
Active crossovers for
Crown amps are available
in both PIP and SST mod-
ules (see your Operation
Manual for details about
available options for your amplifier).
Figures 1.27 through 1.29 illustrate typical systems using active crossover
modules.

Figure 1.31 1.5 Fault Monitoring

RJ Jack Wiring and The Fault (RJ-11) jack, which looks
Pin Assignments like a telephone plug, is located
on the back of your amplifier (if
equipped). It gives you an easy way
to remotely monitor the amplifier’s fault status. To set up a circuit that will
cause an LED to light whenever a fault status occurs, you can simply use the
suggested circuit shown in Figure 1.30.
When using this circuit, the LED will glow whenever the amplifier is in one of
four states: a channel’s heatsink has reached its temperature limit, the trans-
former has reached its temperature limit, the amplifier has just been turned
on and is in its turn-on-delay mode, or the amplifier is turned off.
If you choose to design your own circuit to interface this signal to your system,
note that this RJ jack is polarity sensitive. Pin 2 must be grounded, and Pin
5 must be supplied with a positive voltage pull up (positive with respect to
ground). Refer to Figure 1.31 for RJ jack pin assignments. Note: the mating
connector for the RJ-11 jack contains 4 contact pins in a six-slot case, as
shown in Figure 1.31. The maximum signal that can be exposed to the fault
jack is 35 VDC and 10 mA. Best results are obtained with 10 mA LEDs.
Figure 1.32 Available

1.6 Setting
Optimal System Headroom
Amplifier
System Gain
Headrom. Gain
Headroom
Potential
Structure
To get the best performance
from your sound system, you
should carefully set up your
system’s gain structure. Gain
structure is a term that refers
Amplifier to the way the various levels
are set at each stage of your
sound system. Good gain
structure lets you get your
Outboard
Processing intended signal out with the
Mixer most available headroom, and
Output the least amount of noise.
Mixer This section provides a basic
Input
procedure to use to set up you
system’s gain structure, designed to get you up and running as quickly as
possible. We could go into much more detail on this subject, but that would
be beyond the scope of this manual. If you have questions about system gain
structure, refer to the Appendix for a list of recommended publications for
further reading.

1.6.1 System Levels

When setting system gain, start at the front of the system and work your way toward the
amplifier. A system with the lowest noise floor and maximum overall gain will have most
of its gain early in the signal chain.
Start out by setting your mixer’s individual channels to 0 dB. The individual channels will
vary somewhat from this in the course of setting the mix, but it is a good target position.
Also, if your mixer has a +4/–10 dB switch on the output, set it to the +4 dB position.
Next, if your mixer has input trim controls for the mic channels, set them for the highest
possible gain (but short of clipping) by having someone speak or sing into the mic while
monitoring the mixer’s metering.
Set up your mix for the balance of signals as you want them, keeping the input faders
somewhere around the 0 dB point. If necessary, turn down the trim on a channel if
you’re not able to keep the fader near the 0 dB point.
After the mix is set, adjust the master levels on the mixer to 0 dB. Any signal processing
equipment should generally be set to 0 dB as well, with some exceptions (refer to each
component’s documentation for details).
1.6.2 Amplifier Level
Before you can know how to set your amps level controls, you need to understand how
they work. Amplifier level controls are typically not “gain” controls. They do not control
the amount of gain the amplifier produces. You may be tempted to immediately turn your
amps level control all the way up (after all, you do want all the Crown power you can get,
don’t you?). While that approach could work sometimes, usually it will yield more noise
and less overall system gain than would otherwise be possible.
Power amplifiers are designed to produce a set amount of gain. The function of the level
control knob typically is to adjust the signal level coming into the amplifier’s input stage.
Where to set the level controls on the amp depends on the system and how much gain
you have available prior to the amplifier. With the level controls turned down the ampli-
fier can still reach full rated output power, it just takes more drive level from your mixer to
achieve it.
First, check to make sure your mixer or console is being operated at optimum signal-to
-noise, without clipping the output. Then—with your amplifier’s input sensitivity set to
the 26 dB position (if equipped)—turn up your amp’s level controls until you achieve the
desired level (loudness). If you turn the level controls all the way up, and it’s still not loud
enough, turn the amplifier level controls all the way down (counter-clockwise). Then,
change the sensitivity switch to the 1.4V position (if equipped). This will increase the
gain of the amplifier. Now carefully turn the amplifier level controls up (clockwise) to the
desired level (loudness). If its still not loud enough, and your amplifier has a 0.775V sen-
sitivity setting, turn the amplifier level controls all the way down (counter-clockwise), then
change the sensitivity switch to the 0.775V position. Take care when you are adjusting
the level controls at this input sensitivity setting. Increasing the input sensitivity of the
amplifier may cause the input stage of the amp to overload, so be prepared to back
down the output of the mixer by 1 or 2 dB if you notice the amplifier’s warning indicators
beginning to flash.
Note: depending upon your model of Crown amplifier, sensitivity settings are internal
and NOT user-selectable. Internal sensitivity settings may only be adjusted by qualified
service personnel. Refer to your amplifier’s Operation Manual for specifics about sensi-
tivity settings on your amplifier.

Chapter 2: Troubleshooting 23
Chapter 2
Troubleshooting
In This Chapter
• Troubleshooting Flowcharts
T his section provides flowcharts to assist you in troubleshooting problems

with your amplifier. In some situations the problem may not be with the
amplifier, but rather may be caused by a system condition.
The flowcharts do not cover every possible scenario you may encounter.
Figure 2.1 provides a key to help you interpret the flowcharts.
Figure 2.1 Start and

Flowchart Key Finish Points
Question
Comment
Action Step

24 Chapter 2: Troubleshooting
2.1 No Power Figure 2.2

No Power
No Power
Is amp plugged
Plug amp in to the
in to the AC No
AC source.
source?
Yes
Is the Power
Turn the Power
(Enable) No
(Enable) switch on.
switch on?
Yes
Is the Power Is AC source

(Enable) Restore AC power
No supplying power No
indicator lit? to outlet.
to outlet?
Yes
Yes
Does amp have
Circuit Reset circuit
a fuse or circuit
Breaker breaker.
breaker?
Is an
Verify power to Fuse Amp o.k. to
IQ System Did it trip
Yes amp is turned on No
controlling again? operate.
in IQ System.
amp?
Is fuse Yes
internal or
external?
Replace fuse
No with new fuse
Internal External
of identical
rating.
Internal Fuses
NOT
user-replaceable.
Refer amp to
service center.

Chapter 2: Troubleshooting 25
Figure 2.3 2.2 No Sound

No Sound
No Sound
Is Power or Check AC Power to

Enable No amp. See "No Power"
indicator on? flowchart.
Yes
Are signal Does amp have

Check signal source IQ PIP model Check settings on
indicators No Yes
for adequate output. installed? IQ PIP module.
blinking?
No
Yes
Are the level

Turn up level controls Are speakers'
controls No
until you hear output. protection
turned up? Repair or reset
systems tripped, Yes
speaker.
or speakers
damaged?
Yes
No
Are speakers Connect Speakers

No
connected? to Amp.
Does amp have

Fault, TLC or
ODEP
indicators?
Yes
Neither Fault,
Is there a Fault or TLC ODEP
TLC or ODEP
short-circuit on Remove the
Yes
the speaker short-circuit.
line?
Is indicator
Is indicator Yes
No off?
on?
Yes No
Amp overheated or in
other standby condition.
No See "Amp Overheating"
flowchart and/or refer to
Operation Manual.
Refer amp to
service center.

26 Chapter 2: Troubleshooting
2.3 Bad Sound

Figure 2.4
Are ODEP Amp overheating.
Bad Sound
indicators (if See "Amp
Yes
equipped) dim or Overheating"
Bad Sound
off? flowchart.
No
Is source signal Check levels and/or

clean and No indicators at source
undistorted? level for clipping.
Are the IOC or
Clip indicators (if Check amp
Yes Possible Causes
equipped) for clipping.
flashing or on?
Yes
No System Gain Amp not adequately

Is there a See "Hum and Structure. See cooled. See "Amp
Hum or Buzz Yes Buzz" in "Setting System Overheating"
sound? Section 1.2.2. Gain Structure in flowchart.
Section 1.6.
Are input and
output No
No
connections o.k.?
Secure input and

output connections.
Yes
Refer amp to
service center.
2.4 Amp Amp

Overheating
Figure 2.5
Amp Overheating
Overheating
Are the filters Clean or replace
(if equipped) Yes
filters.
clogged?
No
See "Rack Cooling" in

Is the amp
Section 1.1, and info
getting enough No
on amp cooling in
cool air?
Operation Manual.
Yes
Is the amp Lower impedances cause

operating within amps to dissipate more
Yes
its rated heat. See "Amplifier Load
impedance? Impedance" in Section 1.3.2.
No
Refer amp to
service center.

Chapter 3: Glossary of Terms 27
Chapter 3
Glossary of Terms
English
In This Chapter
• Glossary of Terms
T his section provides a handy glossary of terms used in the discussion of profes-
sional audio amplifiers. Some terms are unique to Crown amplifiers. Most of the
terms provided do not directly relate to amplifiers, but as amplifiers are but one piece
of a larger audio system, are often used when discussing amp usage.
Amperage Band-Pass Filter

A measure of electrical current flow, also called “amps” for In a crossover, a filter that passes a band or range of frequen-
short. It literally equates to the number of electrons in a cies but sharply attenuates or rejects frequencies outside the
conductor flowing past a certain point in a given amount of band.
time. Ohms law defines current (I) as voltage (V) divided by Barrier Block/Barrier Strip
resistance (R) with the following expression: I=V/R. A series of connections, usually screw terminals, arranged
Amplifier (Amp) in a line to permanently connect multiple audio lines to such
A device that increases signal. Many types of amplifiers are devices as recording equipment, mixers, or outboard gear.
used in audio systems. Amplifiers typically increase voltage, Also called terminal strip.
current, or both. BCA®
Amplifier Class BCA (Balanced Current Amplifier) is Crown’s patented PWM
Audio power amplifiers are classified primarily by the design (Pulse-Width Modulation) amplifier output stage topology.
of the output stage. Classification is based on the amount Also referred to as “class-I,” Crown’s BCA “switching” technol-
of time the output devices are made to operate during each ogy provides for high output, exceptional reliability and nearly
cycle of swing. Amplifiers are also defined in terms of output twice the efficiency of typical amplifier designs. To learn more
bias current (the amount of current flowing in the output about BCA, download and read the BCA white paper at www.
devices with no signal present). Common amplifier classes crownaudio.com.
used in professional audio amplifiers include AB, AB+B, D, G Binding Post (5-Way, Banana)
and H. A type of electrical terminal, a binding post is most commonly
Attenuation found as the output connector on a power amplifier, or as the
A decrease in the level of a signal is referred to as attenua- connectors on a speaker cabinet. A binding post can accept
tion. In some cases this is unintentional, as in the attenuation banana plugs, spade lugs, bare wire and others. Generally,
caused by using wire for signal transmission. Attenuators binding posts are color coded, with the black connection
(circuits which attenuate a signal) may also be used to lower going to ground, and the red connecting to hot.
the level of a signal in an audio system to prevent overload Bridge-Mono
and distortion. An operating mode of an amplifier that allows a single input
Balanced Line to feed two combined output channels in order to provide a
A cable with two conductors surrounded by a shield, in which single output with twice the voltage of an individual channel in
each conductor is at equal impedance to ground. With respect Stereo or Dual mode.
to ground, the conductors are at equal potential but opposite
polarity; the signal flows through both conductors.

28 Chapter 3: Glossary of Terms
Bus rent is measured in Amperes (or Amps), abbreviated I. Ohms

In audio terms, a Bus is a point in a circuit where many sig- law defines current as voltage (V) divided by resistance (R)
nals are brought together. For example: Most electronic items with the following expression: I=V/R.
have a Ground Bus where all of a device’s individual ground Damping Factor
paths are tied together. In mixers, we have Mix Busses, where Though technically more complex than this, damping factor
multiple channels’ signals are brought (or blended) together, is usually thought of as an indicator of how tight an amplifier
and Aux Busses, where feeds from channels are brought will sound when powering bass speakers. A speaker’s driving
together to be routed to an external processor or monitor motor is a coil of wire (called a voice coil) mounted within a
send, etc. In general, the more busses a mixer has, the more magnetic field. As this coil of wire moves within the field a
flexible the routing capabilities of that mixer will be. voltage will be induced in the voice coil. If resonant motions of
Capacitor the speaker are not sufficiently short-circuited by the ampli-
An electronic component that stores an electric charge. It is fier, the speaker output can have an over accentuated or
formed of two conductive plates separated by an insulator “boomy” bass sound.
called a dielectric. A capacitor passes AC but blocks DC. From a technical measurement stand point, damping factor
Channel Separation is the ratio of the rated speaker impedance to the amplifier’s
Relates to crosstalk, or bleed of audio signals from one chan- output impedance. Low output impedance is the consequence
nel to another. The amount of channel separation is inversely of the amplifier having substantial negative voltage feedback
related to the item’s crosstalk spec; i.e. a low crosstalk spec taken from its output terminals. Properly designed negative
indicates high channel separation. feed back not only corrects for output voltage errors induced
Circuit Breaker by the speaker but also produces other benefits, including low
A resettable device intended to provide protection to electrical distortion, low noise (hiss), and flat frequency response.
circuits. It opens when current flows though it that exceeds its DC Output Offset
current rating. The presence of DC (Direct Current) at the output of the
Clipping amplifier. Any more than approximately 10 millivolts (positive
A specific type of distortion. If a signal is passed through an or negative) could be an indication of a problem within the
electronic device which cannot accommodate its maximum amplifier.
voltage or current requirements, the waveform of the signal Decibel
is sometimes said to be clipped, because it looks on a scope A decibel, a tenth of a bel, is used as an expression of the
like its peaks have been clipped off by a pair of scissors. A ratio between signal levels.
clipped waveform contains a great deal of harmonic distortion One decibel is commonly taken as the smallest volume
and often sounds very rough and harsh. Clipping is what typi- change the human ear can reasonably detect. Doubling the
cally happens when an audio amplifier output is overloaded POWER of an amplifier results in a 3 dB increase, which is
or its input over driven. a “noticeable” volume increase. Doubling the VOLUME of a
A Clip Indicator on an amplifier indicates the presence of clip- sound is a 10 dB increase.
ping distortion. dBV is decibels relative to 1 volt. dBu is decibels relative to
Compressor 0.775 volt. dBm is decibels relative to 1 milliwatt.
A compressor is a device that reduces the dynamic range of Distributed Speaker System (Constant Voltage System)
an audio signal. First a threshold is established. When the A type of speaker system where transformers typically are
audio signal is louder than this threshold, its gain is reduced. used at the output of an amplifier and at each speaker in
Crossover Network (Crossover) order to provide a constant voltage (most commonly 70V or
An electronic network that divides an incoming signal into two 100V) that can be tapped by multiple speakers. These lines
or more frequency bands. can be run great distances with less loss and can have many
Crossover Slope more speakers on them than typical high current speaker
High- and low-pass filters used for speakers do not cut off fre- lines. These types of systems are generally employed in
quencies like brick walls. The roll-off occurs over a number of situations where an amplified signal must be distributed over
octaves. Common filter slopes for speakers are 1st- through vast areas without a need for very high sound level in any
4th-order corresponding to 6 dB per octave to 24 dB per one area. This type of P.A. system is typically used in schools,
octave. For example, a 1st-order, 6 dB per octave high-pass churches, business offices, and other commercial facilities.
filter at 100 Hz will pass 6 dB less energy at 50 Hz, and 12 Dynamic Range
dB less energy at 25 Hz. Within the common 1st through 4th The dynamic range of a sound is the ratio of the strongest or
filters there is an endless variety of crossover types including loudest part, to the weakest or softest part; it is measured in
Butterworth, Linkwitz-Riley, Bessel, Chebychev and others. dB. An orchestra may have a dynamic range of 90 dB, mean-
Crosstalk ing the softest passages have 90 dB less energy than the
Signal bleeding or leaking from one channel of a multi-chan- loudest ones.
nel device to another. EMI
Current EMI (Electro Magnetic Interference) refers to interference in
Literally, the rate of electron flow in an electrical circuit. Cur- audio equipment produced by the equipment or cabling pick-
ing up stray electromagnetic fields. This interference usually

manifests itself as some type of hum, static, or buzz. Such plug, the ground connection on the plug is wired to the
electromagnetic fields are produced by fluorescent lights, component’s chassis. This wire conducts electricity to power
power lines, computers, automobile ignition systems, televi- ground if the chassis becomes electrically “hot,” preventing
sion monitors, solid state lighting dimmers, AM and FM radio electrical shock.
transmitters, and TV transmitters. Methods for controlling In audio, ground usually refers to either the electrical ground
EMI include shielding of audio wiring and devices, ground- mentioned above, or to an audio shield. An audio shield is
ing, elimination of ground loops, balancing of audio circuits, not always a ground and should never be used as a safety
twisting of wires in balanced transmission lines, and isolation ground. That they are often at ground potential is a function
transformers among others. Completely eliminating EMI in of how they may be connected to other equipment. Many
a system ranges from easy to nearly impossible depending audio devices have the ability to disconnect their signal paths
upon the equipment and the environment in question. entirely from electrical ground as a way to prevent hum or
Equalization (EQ) ground loop problems.
The adjustment of frequency response to alter tonal balance Verb - to “ground” something means connecting it electrically
or to attenuate unwanted frequencies. to ground.
Fader Ground Lift
Another name for variable attenuator, volume control, or Ground lift is a switch found on many pieces of audio equip-
potentiometer. A fader works like a standard potentiometer, ment which disconnects audio signal ground from earth or
only instead of rotating, it slides along a straight path. Faders chassis ground.
English
are commonly found on mixers.
Using ground lift switches is considered to be far safer than
Fault the “3-to-2 prong AC adapter” solution.
A term used to describe any condition that could cause an
amplifier or amplifier channel to place itself in “standby” or Ground Loop
offline mode for protection. A loop or circuit formed from ground leads.
An indicator on some Crown amplifiers that blinks to show The loop formed when unbalanced components are con-
that the amplifier is in “Fault,” or a standby or offline condition. nected together via two or more ground paths–typically the
connecting-cable shield and the power ground. Ground loops
Frequency cause hum and should be avoided.
In audio, the number of cycles per second of a sound wave
of an audio signal, measured in hertz (Hz). A low frequency Grounded Bridge™
(for example 100 Hz) has a low pitch; a high frequency (for Grounded Bridge is the name of an amplifier output topology
example 10,000 Hz) has a high pitch. developed by Crown in the 1980’s, and used in many Crown
amplifier models. The patented Grounded Bridge design
Frequency Range/Frequency Response consists of four quadrants and an ungrounded power supply.
Frequency Range is the actual span of frequencies that a While two of the output quadrants operate much like a con-
device can reproduce, for example from 5 Hz to 22 kHz. ventional (AB+B push-pull) linear amplifier, the other two work
Frequency Response is the Frequency Range versus Ampli- in a push-pull configuration to control ground reference for the
tude. In other words, at 20 Hz, a certain input signal level may supply rails.
produce 100 dB of output. At 1 kHz, that same input level may To learn more about Grounded Bridge, download and read
produce 102 dB of output. At 10 kHz, 95 dB, and so on. the Grounded Bridge white paper at www.crownaudio.com.
Fuse Headroom
A device intended to provide protection to electrical circuits. The difference between the normal operating level of a
It burns open when current flows though it that exceeds its device, and the maximum level that device can pass without
current rating. distortion. In general the more headroom the better.
Gain Hertz
How much an electronic circuit amplifies a signal is called The inverse of the time required for one complete cycle of
its “gain.” In most specs or references gain is expressed as a wave. Thus, a 10 Hz sine wave takes 1/10 of a second to
a decibel value. Occasionally gain may be expressed as a complete a full cycle. In practice, it is the frequency or number
straight numeric ratio (a voltage gain of 4 or a power gain of of wave cycles occurring per second. In the audio range this
2). equates to what we perceive as pitch. Abbreviated Hz.
Ground High-Pass Filter
In electricity, a large conducting body, such as the earth or an A filter that passes frequencies above a certain frequency
electric circuit connected to the earth, used as a reference and attenuates frequencies below that same frequency. It can
zero of electrical potential. also be called a low-cut filter.
A conducting object, such as a wire, that is connected to a Hum
position of zero potential for the purpose of “grounding” an An unwanted low-pitched tone (60 Hz and its harmonics)
electronic device. heard in the speakers. The sound of interference generated
A power ground or safety ground is a connection to the power in audio circuits and cables by AC power wiring. Hum pickup
company’s earth ground through the power outlet. In the is caused by such things as faulty grounding, poor shielding,
power ground of an electronic component with a grounded and ground loops.

ILoad/ILimit Indicator 50 to 60 Hz).

An indicator of some Crown amplifiers that shows current flow Loudspeaker
to the loudspeakers (“current load”) and the maximum cur- A transducer that converts electrical energy (the signal) into
rent available from the amplifier (“current limit”). Typically, the acoustical energy (sound waves).
indicator will glow one color to indicate that current is flowing
to the loads connected to the amplifier output channel, and Loudspeaker Offset Integration
change to another color to show that the amplifier channel is A feature on some Crown amplifiers that helps reduce output
delivering its maximum output current. clipping and off-center woofer cone movement caused by the
presence of large infrasonic (subaudible) frequencies. The
Impedance circuit adds a third order high-pass Butterworth filter with a –3
Impedance refers to the resistance of a circuit or device to AC dB frequency of 35 Hz.
(alternating current). Most modern electronic audio devices
have extremely high input impedances so they can be driven Low-Pass Filter
by very low power outputs. Impedance is measured in ohms. A filter that passes frequencies below a certain frequency and
The symbol Ω (omega) is often used to represent resistance. attenuates frequencies above that same frequency. It can
also be called a high-cut filter.
Input
The connection going into an audio device. In a mixer or Mic Level
mixing-console, a connector for a microphone, line-level The level (or voltage) of signal generated by a microphone.
device, or other signal source. Typically around 2 millivolts.
Intermodulation Distortion (IMD) Negative Feedback
Nonlinear distortion that occurs when different frequencies If some of the output of an amplifier is made to be out of
pass through an amplifier at the same time and interact to phase, and mixed back with the amp’s input signal, it will
create combinations of tones unrelated to the original sounds. partially cancel the input, reducing the gain of the amplifier;
IMD specifications are usually expressed as a percentage of this is called negative feedback. But, because it contains and
the amplifier’s output, and the lower the percentage the better. therefore cancels any distortion introduced by the amplifier,
negative feedback also has the effect of improving the linear-
IOC® ity of the amplifier. Negative feedback can also lower output
The IOC (Input Output Comparator) circuit compares the impedance, increasing damping factor, and can sometimes
output signal of the amplifier with the input signal. If there is be made to flatten frequency response. The key to negative
any difference other than gain, then it is considered distor- feedback amplifiers is careful design. Too much phase shift
tion and the indicator comes on. The LED indicator will come and the amp will be unstable, and too much feedback will
on whenever there is distortion of 0.05% or more. This is a cause Transient Intermodulation Distortion.
dynamic Proof of Performance of the amplifiers functionality.
Anytime you experience distortion in your system you can Noise
view the IOC indicators. If they are not lit then you know that Unwanted sound, such as hiss from electronics or tape. An
the amplifier is not at fault. If the IOC indicators are on, then audio signal with an irregular, non-periodic waveform.
the amplifier is in distortion. Noise Floor
To learn more about IOC, download and read the IOC white The noise floor of a device or system is the amount of noise
paper at www.crownaudio.com. generated by the device itself with no signal present, it is
measured in decibels. All electronic devices will generate a
Limiter certain amount of noise, even a piece of wire! Minimizing the
A limiter is a dynamics processor very similar to a compres- noise floor leads to expanded dynamic range, and cleaner
sor. In fact, many compressors are capable of acting as limit- recordings or sound production.
ers when set up properly. The primary difference is the ratio
used in reducing gain. In a limiter, this ratio is set up to be as ODEP®
close to infinity:1 as possible (no matter how much the input ODEP (Output Device Emulator Protection) is an analog
signal changes, the output level should remain pretty much computer simulation of the output device thermal imped-
constant). The idea is that a limiter establishes a maximum ance. In layman’s terms ODEP stores how much power the
gain setting, and prevents signals from getting any louder amplifier delivers to its load and its heatsink temperature. If
than that setting. the protection circuit determines that the output stage is being
overstressed or cannot dissipate any further heat, then output
Line Level stage drive is limited.
Generally defined in the audio industry as +4 dBu (1.23 volts)
for balanced “pro” gear, and .316 volts (–10 dBV) for unbal- To learn more about ODEP, download and read the ODEP
anced “semi-pro” gear. “ It is best to match the levels of the white paper at www.crownaudio.com.
gear you are using so that –10 dBV equipment isn’t directly Output
feeding +4 dBu equipment, and vice versa. If you use gear of A connector in an audio device from which the signal comes
both levels, there are various level matching devices on the and then feeds successive devices.
market to properly interface the items. Overload
Linear Power Supply The distortion that occurs when an applied signal exceeds a
A power supply that converts AC mains power for use by the system’s maximum input level.
amplifier by means of a conventional transformer operating at Parallel-Mono
the same frequency as that of the AC mains supply (usually As implemented in Crown amplifiers, an operating mode of

the amplifier that allows a single input to feed two combined power level fed into it to a level sufficient to drive a loud-
output channels in order to provide a single output with twice speaker.
the current of an individual channel in Stereo or Dual mode. Radio Frequency Interference (RFI)
Peak Radio-frequency electromagnetic waves induced in audio
On a graph of a sound wave or signal, the highest point in the cables or equipment, causing various noises in the audio
waveform. The point of greatest voltage or sound pressure in signal.
a cycle. Removable Terminal Block (Buchanan®, Phoenix)
Phase Response A series of screw terminal connections arranged in a line on a
The measure of displacement of a time-varying waveform removable connector. Often found in three-terminal and four-
between an amplifier’s input and output. Expressed in terminal versions in audio applications. Often referred to by
degrees. their brand name, such as “Buchanan®” and “Phoenix.”
Phone Plug Resistance
A cylindrical plug, usually 1/4-inch (6.35-mm) in diameter. An The opposition of a circuit to a flow of direct current. Resis-
unbalanced phone plug typically has a tip for the hot signal tance is measured in ohms. The symbol Ω (omega) is often
and a sleeve for the shield or ground. A balanced phone used to represent resistance. Ohms law defines resistance as
plug typically has a tip for the hot signal, a ring for the return voltage (V) divided by current (I) with the following expression:
signal, and a sleeve for the shield or ground. R=V/I.
English
Phono Plug Resistor
A coaxial plug with a central pin for the hot signal and a ring An electronic component that opposes current flow.
of pressure-fit tabs for the shield or ground. Phono plugs are Sensitivity
used for unbalanced signals only. Also called an RCA plug or In audio terms, sensitivity is the minimum amount of input
pin jack. signal required to drive a device to its rated output level.
PIP™ Normally, this specification is associated with amplifiers and
PIP stands for Programmable Input Processor. These are microphones, but FM tuners, phono cartridges, and most
optional modules that can be plugged into any PIP-compat- other types of gear have a sensitivity rating as well.
ible amplifier. There are a variety of PIP modules with varying Shield
functions. Since first introducing PIP-compatible amplifiers In electronic terms, a shield is a conductive enclosure,
and PIP modules, Crown has updated the PIP standard. This protecting its contents from magnetic and electrostatic fields.
affects which PIP-compatible amplifiers can host certain PIP Since audio conductors and circuits tend to be extremely
modules. Following are descriptions of the two PIP standards. sensitive to such fields, shields are very important. In cabling,
Crown’s original PIP module was designed with a 22-pin edge shields often consist of braided copper strands wrapped
connector, which mated with a slide-in card rail on PIP-com- around the signal conductors. The amount of coverage the
patible amplifiers. shield provides is directly related to the noise and hum per-
PIP2™ formance of the cable. Some cables offer a shield consisting
The PIP2 standard, announced in 1998, upgraded the PIP of a thin wrap of metallic sheeting, which can offer complete
feature set and requires both 18- and 20-pin ribbon cables coverage of the encased signal conductors.
which mate with a PIP2-compatible amplifier using standard Signal-To-Noise Ratio (S/N)
ribbon connectors. The ratio in decibels between signal voltage and noise volt-
Polarity age. An audio component with a high S/N has little back-
In electronics, the relationship between two points that have ground noise accompanying the signal; a component with a
opposite electric potentials (one is positive, the other nega- low S/N is noisy.
tive) irrespective of time. This is not the same as being 180 Sine Wave
degrees out of phase (although the results can be similar). A wave following the equation y = sin x, where x is degrees
Phase implies a relationship with time, polarity does not. and y is voltage or sound pressure level. The waveform of
Potentiometer (Pot) a single frequency. The waveform of a pure tone without
An electronic component that is used to provide variable harmonics.
control over an electronic circuit. It is usually controlled by a Single-Ended
rotary knob which can be turned by hand; a volume control is An unbalanced line (see Unbalanced).
a good example of this.
Slew Rate
Power Slew rate is the ability of a piece of audio equipment to
Literally, the rate at which energy is consumed. Power is reproduce fast changes in amplitude. Measured in volts per
expressed in Watts, abbreviated W. In electrical circuits, microsecond, this spec is most commonly associated with
power is determined by the amount of resistance (R) times amplifiers, but in fact applies to most types of gear. Since high
the amount of current squared with the following expression: frequencies change in amplitude the fastest, this is where
P=I2R. slew rate is most critical. An amp with a higher slew rate will
Power Amplifier sound “tighter” and more dynamic to our ears. Slew rates in
In audio, an electronic device that amplifies or increases the amplifiers are often limited to useful levels to provide protec-
tion to the amplifier from Radio-Frequency Interference (RFI).

Sound Pressure Level (SPL) although over-compression will result in a dull, squashed, flat sound
The acoustic volume or perceived loudness of sound, measured in to the signal.
decibels. SPL is a function of a signal’s amplitude. Trim
Speakon® Found on most mixers, trim controls provide the initial level setting
A type (and brand) of multi-pin connector developed by Neutrik® for each channel’s input gain. In most cases, trim adjusts gain of the
which is now commonly found on speakers and amplifiers intended microphone preamp, but it may also apply to line level signals.
to be used in high power mobile applications. They have become Unbalanced
popular because they offer a very high quality reliable connection, In electronics, a condition where the two legs of the circuit are not
can handle extremely high power, are very durable, and are relatively equal or opposite with respect to ground, usually because one leg
low in cost compared to other similar connectors. Standard Speakon is kept at ground potential. In other words: An audio signal requires
connectors come in four or eight conductor versions (though other two wires or conductors to function. In an unbalanced situation, one
configurations are available). The Speakon 8 has the same footprint of those conductors is used to carry both signal and ground (shield).
as the EP8 connector and the Speakon 4 has the same footprint as Unbalanced circuits are much more susceptible to induced noise
XLR “D” type connectors. problems than their balanced counterparts. Because of this, unbal-
Stereo (Dual) anced lines should be kept as short as possible (under 10-15 inches
An operating mode of an amplifier that allows channels of the (25- to 38-cm)) to minimize potential noise problems.
amplifier to function independently. Unity Gain
Switching Power Supply A device or setting which does not change signal level (does not
A power supply that first converts AC mains power to a much higher amplify or attenuate a signal) is said to be at “unity gain.” Many
frequency by means of a switching circuit before making the power processors are set up for unity gain; that is, they can be plugged into
available for use within the amplifier. The primary benefits of a switch- a system without changing its overall levels. In practice, unity gain is
ing power supply are decreased overall unit weight and decreased often a desired setting for maintaining gain staging, and for optimizing
electro-mechanical emissions. operating levels and signal to noise ratios.
THD (Total Harmonic Distortion) Voltage
The ratio of the power of the fundamental frequency at the output of The electrical potential between two relative points in a circuit.
a device versus the total power of all the harmonics in the frequency Voltage is measured in volts (V). Ohms law defines voltage as the
band at the output of the device. All electronic audio devices intro- product of current (I) and Resistance (R) with the following expres-
duce some distortion to audio passed through them. The simplest sion: V=I*R.
form of this distortion is the addition of harmonics to the output signal. VZ®
THD represents the sum of all the harmonics added by a device as a VZ (Variable Impedance) is the name of Crown’s patented articulated
percentage of the level of the signal being measured. power supply technology. VZ technology enables Crown to pack
Thermal Dissipation tremendous power into few rack spaces.
Energy not converted to the output of an amplifier is instead dis- The VZ supply is divided into two parts. When the voltage demands
sipated by the amplifier as heat. are not high, it operates in a parallel mode to supply less voltage and
THX® more current. The power transistors stay cooler because they are
Refers to a series of specifications for surround sound systems. Pro- not forced to needlessly dissipate heat. This is the normal operating
fessional THX is used in commercial movie theaters. mode of the VZ power supply. When the voltage requirements are
TLC high VZ switches to a series mode to produce higher voltage and less
TLC (Thermal Limit Control) is a circuit developed by Crown which current. The amplified output signal never misses a beat and gets full
provides amplifier thermal protection. When a predetermined temper- voltage only when it requires it. Sensing circuitry observes the voltage
ature threshold is reached, the TLC indicator begins to glow to show of the signal to determine when to switch VZ modes. The switching
that the temperature sensing circuitry is starting to engage the input circuitry is designed to prevent audible switching distortion to yield
compressor. By compressing the input, the amplifier will not gener- the highest dynamic transfer function.
ate as much heat and will have a chance to cool down. The degree To learn more about VZ, download and read the VZ white paper at
of compression is directly proportional to the amount of overheating www.crownaudio.com.
experienced by the amplifier. Watt
Transformer Power equates to the rate of energy transfer, or the rate of doing
A transformer is a device consisting of two or more coils of wire work. Power is measured in Watts, and the watt has become a
wound on a common core of magnetically permeable material. The common term in audio to describe the power handling capabilities
number of turns in one coil divided by the number of turns in the and/or requirements of speakers, and the power delivery capabilities
other is called the turns ratio. An alternating voltage appearing across of amplifiers. Watts law defines power (P) as voltage (V) times current
one coil will be inducted into the other coil multiplied by the turns (I) with the following expression: P=V*I.
ratio. XLR (Cannon or Three-Pin Connector)
Transformers are used in power supplies, distributed speaker sys- A three-pin professional audio connector used for balanced mic and
tems, and are often used to provide electrical isolation in circuits to line level signals. The AES standard for wiring of XLR connectors
prevent ground loops because they pass AC voltages and block DC dictates that Pin 1 be soldered to the cable shield, pin 2 be soldered
voltages. to the signal hot lead, and pin 3 be soldered to the signal return lead.
Transient The name XLR was trademarked by Cannon (now owned by ITT).
A non-repeating waveform, usually of much higher level than the XLR has since evolved into a generic industry term, and many manu-
surrounding sounds or average level. Good examples of transients facturers now make this style connector.
include the attack of many percussion instruments, the “pluck” or Y-Adapter
attack part of a guitar note, consonants in human speech (i.e. “T”), A single cable that divides into two cables in parallel to feed one
and so on. Due to their higher-than-average level and fleeting nature, signal to two destinations.
transients are difficult to record and reproduce, eating up precious Z
headroom, and often resulting in overload distortion. Careful use
The abbreviation for impedance.
of compression can help tame transients and raise average level,

Appendix: Suggested Reading 33
Appendix
Suggested Reading
English
T his Appendix provides a a list of suggested publications for further reading
about professional audio.
Audio Systems Design and Installation JBL Audio Enginering for Sound Reinforcement
by Philip Giddings, Phillip Giddings by John Eargle and Chris Foreman
Paperback - 574 pages (1990) Paperback - 452 pages 1st edition (May 2002)
Sams; ISBN: 0240802861 Hal Leonard Publishing Corporation; ISBN 0-634-04355-2
Audio Systems Technology, Level I Sound Check : The Basics of Sound and Sound Systems
by James S. Brawley (Editor), Larry W. Garter, National Sys- by Tony Moscal
tems contractor, R. David Reed, National Sound Contractors Paperback - 104 pages (July 1994)
Association Hal Leonard Publishing Corporation; ISBN: 079353559X
Paperback - 295 pages (September 1, 1998)
PROMPT Publications; ISBN: 0790611627
Sound Reinforcement Engineering
by Wolfgang Ahnert, Frank Steffen
Audio Systems Technology #2 - Handbook For Installers Hardcover - 424 pages (March 2000)
And Engineers Routledge; ISBN: 0415238706
by James S. Brawley (Editor), Ray Alden, National Systems
Contractors asso, Bob Bushnell, Matt Marth, NSCA
Paperback - 415 pages (October 1, 1998) Sound System Engineering
PROMPT Publications; ISBN: 0790611635 by Don Davis, Carolyn Davis (Contributor)
Hardcover - 665 pages 2nd edition (May 1997)
Sams; ISBN: 0240803051
Audio Systems Technology Level III: Handbook For
Installers and Engineers
by Bob Bushnell, Melvin J. Wierenga, Melvin J. Wierenga Wire, Cable, and Fiber Optics for Video and Audio Engi-
Paperback - 289 pages 1st edition (May 15, 2000) neers (McGraw-Hill’s Video-Audio Engineering Series)
Howard W Sams & Co; ISBN: 0790611783 by Stephen H. Lampen
Paperback - 350 pages 3rd edition (September 1997)
McGraw-Hill; ISBN: 0070381348
Handbook for Sound Engineers: The New Audio Cyclope-
dia
by Glen M. Ballou (Editor). Hardcover - 1506 pages 2nd edi-
tion (January 1, 1991)
Focal Press; ISBN: 0240803310

34 Appendix: Suggested Reading
3
YEAR NORTH AMERICA
SUMMARY OF WARRANTY
The Crown Audio Division of Crown International, Inc., 1718 West Mishawaka Road, Elkhart,
Indiana 46517-4095 U.S.A. warrants to you, the ORIGINAL PURCHASER and ANY SUBSE-
QUENT OWNER of each NEW Crown product, for a period of three (3) years from the date of
purchase by the original purchaser (the “warranty period”) that the new Crown product is free of
defects in materials and workmanship. We further warrant the new Crown product regardless of
the reason for failure, except as excluded in this Warranty.
ITEMS EXCLUDED FROM THIS CROWN WARRANTY
This Crown Warranty is in effect only for failure of a new Crown product which occurred within
the Warranty Period. It does not cover any product which has been damaged because of any
intentional misuse, accident, negligence, or loss which is covered under any of your insurance
contracts. This Crown Warranty also does not extend to the new Crown product if the serial
number has been defaced, altered, or removed.
WHAT THE WARRANTOR WILL DO
We will remedy any defect, regardless of the reason for failure (except as excluded), by repair,
replacement, or refund. We may not elect refund unless you agree, or unless we are unable to
provide replacement, and repair is not practical or cannot be timely made. If a refund is elected,
then you must make the defective or malfunctioning product available to us free and clear of all
liens or other encumbrances. The refund will be equal to the actual purchase price, not includ-
ing interest, insurance, closing costs, and other finance charges less a reasonable depreciation
FULL WARRANTY
on the product from the date of original purchase. Warranty work can only be performed at our
authorized service centers or at the factory. We will remedy the defect and ship the product from
THREE YEAR
the service center or our factory within a reasonable time after receipt of the defective product
at our authorized service center or our factory. All expenses in remedying the defect, including
surface shipping costs in the United States, will be borne by us. (You must bear the expense of
shipping the product between any foreign country and the port of entry in the United States and
all taxes, duties, and other customs fees for such foreign shipments.)
HOW TO OBTAIN WARRANTY SERVICE
You must notify us of your need for warranty service not later than ninety (90) days after expira-
tion of the warranty period. All components must be shipped in a factory pack, which, if needed,
may be obtained from us free of charge. Corrective action will be taken within a reasonable time
of the date of receipt of the defective product by us or our authorized service center. If the repairs
made by us or our authorized service center are not satisfactory, notify us or our authorized
service center immediately.
DISCLAIMER OF CONSEQUENTIAL & INCIDENTAL DAMAGES
YOU ARE NOT ENTITLED TO RECOVER FROM US ANY INCIDENTAL DAMAGES RESULT-
ING FROM ANY DEFECT IN THE NEW CROWN PRODUCT. THIS INCLUDES ANY DAMAGE
TO ANOTHER PRODUCT OR PRODUCTS RESULTING FROM SUCH A DEFECT. SOME
STATES DO NOT ALLOW THE EXCLUSION OR LIMITATIONS OF INCIDENTAL OR CON-
SEQUENTIAL DAMAGES, SO THE ABOVE LIMITATION OR EXCLUSION MAY NOT APPLY
TO YOU.
WARRANTY ALTERATIONS
No person has the authority to enlarge, amend, or modify this Crown Warranty. This Crown War-
ranty is not extended by the length of time which you are deprived of the use of the new Crown
product. Repairs and replacement parts provided under the terms of this Crown Warranty shall
carry only the unexpired portion of this Crown Warranty.
DESIGN CHANGES
We reserve the right to change the design of any product from time to time without notice and
with no obligation to make corresponding changes in products previously manufactured.
LEGAL REMEDIES OF PURCHASER
THIS CROWN WARRANTY GIVES YOU SPECIFIC LEGAL RIGHTS, YOU MAY ALSO HAVE
OTHER RIGHTS WHICH VARY FROM STATE TO STATE. No action to enforce this Crown War-
ranty shall be commenced later than ninety (90) days after expiration of the warranty period.
THIS STATEMENT OF WARRANTY SUPERSEDES ANY OTHERS CONTAINED IN THIS
MANUAL FOR CROWN PRODUCTS.
9/90

Appendix: Suggested Reading 35
WORLDWIDE 3
YEAR
SUMMARY OF WARRANTY
The Crown Audio Division of Crown International, Inc., 1718 West Mishawaka Road, Elkhart,
Indiana 46517-4095 U.S.A. warrants to you, the ORIGINAL PURCHASER and ANY SUBSE-
QUENT OWNER of each NEW Crown1 product, for a period of three (3) years from the date of
purchase by the original purchaser (the “warranty period”) that the new Crown product is free of
defects in materials and workmanship, and we further warrant the new Crown product regardless
of the reason for failure, except as excluded in this Crown Warranty.
1 Note: If your unit bears the name “Amcron,” please substitute it for the name “Crown” in this
warranty.
ITEMS EXCLUDED FROM THIS CROWN WARRANTY
This Crown Warranty is in effect only for failure of a new Crown product which occurred within
the Warranty Period. It does not cover any product which has been damaged because of any
intentional misuse, accident, negligence, or loss which is covered under any of your insurance
contracts. This Crown Warranty also does not extend to the new Crown product if the serial
number has been defaced, altered, or removed.
WHAT THE WARRANTOR WILL DO
We will remedy any defect, regardless of the reason for failure (except as excluded), by repair,
replacement, or refund. We may not elect refund unless you agree, or unless we are unable to
provide replacement, and repair is not practical or cannot be timely made. If a refund is elected,
then you must make the defective or malfunctioning product available to us free and clear of all
FULL WARRANTY
liens or other encumbrances. The refund will be equal to the actual purchase price, not includ-
ing interest, insurance, closing costs, and other finance charges less a reasonable depreciation
THREE YEAR
on the product from the date of original purchase. Warranty work can only be performed at our
authorized service centers. We will remedy the defect and ship the product from the service
center within a reasonable time after receipt of the defective product at our authorized service
center.
HOW TO OBTAIN WARRANTY SERVICE
You must notify us of your need for warranty service not later than ninety (90) days after expira-
tion of the warranty period. All components must be shipped in a factory pack. Corrective action
will be taken within a reasonable time of the date of receipt of the defective product by our autho-
rized service center. If the repairs made by our authorized service center are not satisfactory,
notify our authorized service center immediately.
DISCLAIMER OF CONSEQUENTIAL & INCIDENTAL DAMAGES
YOU ARE NOT ENTITLED TO RECOVER FROM US ANY INCIDENTAL DAMAGES RESULT-
ING FROM ANY DEFECT IN THE NEW CROWN PRODUCT. THIS INCLUDES ANY DAMAGE
TO ANOTHER PRODUCT OR PRODUCTS RESULTING FROM SUCH A DEFECT.
WARRANTY ALTERATIONS
No person has the authority to enlarge, amend, or modify this Crown Warranty. This Crown War-
ranty is not extended by the length of time which you are deprived of the use of the new Crown
product. Repairs and replacement parts provided under the terms of this Crown Warranty shall
carry only the unexpired portion of this Crown Warranty.
DESIGN CHANGES
We reserve the right to change the design of any product from time to time without notice and
with no obligation to make corresponding changes in products previously manufactured.
LEGAL REMEDIES OF PURCHASER
No action to enforce this Crown Warranty shall be commenced later than ninety (90) days after
expiration of the warranty period.
THIS STATEMENT OF WARRANTY SUPERSEDES ANY OTHERS
CONTAINED IN THIS MANUAL FOR CROWN PRODUCTS.
9/90

Amp Gde

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Amp Gde

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Amp Gde

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1

Amplifier Application Guide

WARNING:This unit is capable of producing very high sound pressure levels.

Important Safety Instructions

Amplifier Application Guide

Amplifier Application Guide

T his chapter provides information to help you get optimum performance

1.1 Rack Cooling

Amplifier Application Guide

sides) is not blocked or covered by cables. Also, if your

Amplifier Application Guide

1.2 System Wiring

Balanced, Grounded Source Balanced, Floating Source

Note: If two or more channels with the same

Amplifier Application Guide

Unbalanced, Grounded Source, Unbalanced, Floating Source,

Unbalanced, Grounded Source, Single- Unbalanced, Floating Source, Single-

Amplifier Application Guide

1.2.2 Solving Input

Amplifier Application Guide

Balanced vs. Unbalanced

Notice that the Channel 1 red binding post is positive

Amplifier Application Guide

4. Avoid using connectors with low cur-

Amplifier Application Guide

3b. If the Mode switch is

Amplifier Application Guide

6. Slide the bushing along the cable

1.3.2 Amplifier Load Impedance

Amplifier Application Guide

Each speaker has an impedance Parallel Impedances Figure 1.22

You can use the table in Figure

Amplifier Application Guide

1.3.3 Determining Appropriate Speaker Wire Gauge

Amplifier Application Guide

Two different types of fuses are

Amplifier Application Guide

4. Never connect the amplifier’s

Amplifier Application Guide

level to drive the speaker, and are connected across the

1.4 Multi-way Systems

1.4.1 Active vs. Passive Crossover Networks

Amplifier Application Guide

Amplifier Application Guide

Amplifier Application Guide

Figure 1.31 1.5 Fault Monitoring

Figure 1.32 Available

Amplifier Application Guide

1.6.1 System Levels

Amplifier Application Guide

T his section provides flowcharts to assist you in troubleshooting problems

Figure 2.1 Start and

Amplifier Application Guide

2.1 No Power Figure 2.2

Is the Power Is AC source

Amplifier Application Guide

Figure 2.3 2.2 No Sound

Is Power or Check AC Power to

Are signal Does amp have