80 Egypt. J. Chem. Vol. 65, No. SI: 13B pp.

835 - 844 (2022)

Egyptian Journal of Chemistry

http://ejchem.journals.ekb.eg/

SMART TECHNIQUES FOR IMPROVING WATER USE UNDER

THE CONDITIONS OF ARID AND SEMI-ARID ENVIRONMENTAL
AREAS: A REVIEW
Abdelraouf, R.E.; Marwa, M. A.; Dewedar, O. M. and El-Shafie, A.F.*
Water Relations and Field Irrigation Department, Agricultural and Biological Institute,
National Research Centre,33 EL Bohouth St., Dokki, Giza, Egypt, Postal Code: 12622 .

Abstract

Climate change will have a negative impact on the elements of agricultural devel-opment, especially in
developing countries. Water plays a role as one of the most im-portant elements of social and agricultural
development, including food security, indus-trial development, housing, urbanization and all other aspects of
human life activities. In light of this, water scarcity appears to be a real big problem for the global economy in the
near future.Egypt is one of those countries that may be exposed to the effects of climate change. Due to the limited
water resources in Egypt, agriculture sector is the main con-sumer of water in Egypt (85%). It is one of the
imperatives that the agricultural policy must adopt in Egypt to work in all directions and by all means to rationalize
the water use and raise the water use efficiency in all aspects of uses, especially agricultural. For these reasons,
there is a possibility to reduce the amount of water used in agri-culture and to maximize the water use to achieve
water security through integrated management, as well as developing irrigation systems and using modern and
smart tech-niques and technologies in agriculture. Therefore, there are some methods and techniques that can be
used to maximize and improve water use in the agricultural sector: 1) Development of surface irrigation using self-
compensating gated pipe irrigation technique for improving water use and yield compared to traditional gated pipe.
2) Using surge flow to increase distribution efficiency and reduce deep percolation compared to continuous
irrigation. 3) The use of on-farm real-time technologies for surface irrigation systems reduces irrigation labor and
plays a role in improving water use. 4) Applying IoT technologies and smart irrigation as a good tool to control
everything in agriculture and make the right decision at the right time, especially irrigation water management. 5)
Using ground image processing to measure the percentage of green cover (PGC) in order to estimate crop water
requirements. 6) Reuse of agricultural drainage water, subsurface irrigation as one of the effective techniques that
can be used in irrigation water management.
Keywords: Water use, Farm real-time, IoT technologies,Smart irrigation, Image processing, Agricultural
drainage.

1. Introduction sustainable development, climatic changes and facing

the increasing population requirements against the
Water is the most important element for social and constant or probable decrease of water resources of
agricultural development including food security, Egypt (Marwa et al., 2017 and Eid and Negm 2019).
industrial development, housing and urban expansion The main goals of irrigation development are
and all other aspects of human life activities. In this optimizing the water use in agriculture and increasing
light, water scarcity appears to be a real big problem the irrigation efficiency. To achieve these goals, ideal
for the global economy in the near future. Therefore, design irrigation systems must be developed (El-
water consumption must be improved, in all life Shafie et al., 2018). El-Shafie et al., (2017) and
activities, and water treated as a rare and important Dewedar et al., (2021 a,b) indicated that, the modified
commodity (Marwa et al., 2018 and Abdelraouf et al., irrigation using a regulated gated outlet as a new
2020 a,b). Saving irrigation water is one of the most technique leads to an increase in soil moisture and thus
important objectives of agricultural policies for

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*Corresponding author e-mail: [email protected] (Ahmed Faris El-Shafie).
Receive Date: 20 July 2022, Revise Date: 07 September 2022, Accept Date: 25 September 2022
DOI: 10.21608/EJCHEM.2022.151308.6554
©2022 National Information and Documentation Center (NIDOC)
836 Abdelraouf, R.E et.al.
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an increase in the yield compared to traditional 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝐴𝐸 = (1)
irrigation. Therefore, the use of most effective 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑒
methods to maximize the irrigation water use 𝑅𝐸 = (2)
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
efficiency is one of the most important goals today, so
Where: AE is application efficiency and RE is
there are many smart irrigation techniques that are
requirement efficiency.
used in farms today for this purpose (Dieter et al.,
While, water use performance analysis, AE and RE are
2018). Also, In the Egyptian agricultural sector,
only applicable in the field case and this definition is
according to the strategy for sustainable agricultural
used on-farm irrigation management. Moreover, there
development until 2030, there are six main strategic
are water losses through the water conveyance and
goals (MALR, 2014): 1) Using natural resources in a
delivery channels before reaching the field. Further
more sustainable way by enhancing irrigation water
losses may occur due to evaporation and leakage from
use in the agricultural sector. 2) Increasing and
the canals sides. Performance measures used in these
improving water productivity and land units. 3)
cases include transport, distribution, and storage
Increasing the degree of awareness and food security
efficiency. So, the assessment can be done at the level
for strategic commodities. 4) Supporting the
of a catchment or a basin (Koech and Langat, 2018).
competitiveness of agricultural products. 5) Increase
and support agricultural investments by providing a
good economic climate. 6) Providing job
opportunities, especially for rural youth, in order to
help them overcome poverty. Increasing and
maximizing water use is one of the priorities of
agricultural strategies. Koech and Langat, (2018),
Marwa et al., (2020) and Abdelraouf et al., (2012).
mentioned that, a major goal in many countries is to
improve water use for integrated water and land
management. This can be achieved through a lot of
procedures that can all lead to lessen water
consumption by plant and improve irrigation water
use. In other words, obtain the best productivity from
a water unit.
Therefore, the main goal of this review article is to
present some smart techniques for improving water
use in the agricultural sector under arid regions
conditions.

1- Definition of water use

Water use can be defined as total water that is applied
Fig. 1. Flowchart of water use definition.
by irrigation systems to preservation of plant growth
2- How to improve water use?
in agricultural procedures. In order the water that is
It is important to know that global freshwater
used for initial -irrigation, rime protection,
resources are finite and non-renewable. So, it is very
chemigation, weed control, field organization, crop
important to approach water management for
cooling, harvesting and leaching requirements (Dieter
sustainable agriculture in a more meaningful way
et al., 2018). Estimates of irrigation withdrawals are
(Nair, 2019 and Abdelraouf et al., 2021).
generally calculated from the difference between the
Whereas if runoff and evaporation are controlled from
point of water supply (wells, springs, streams, and
free direct water surfaces, if evaporation losses from
ponds) and on field water application point as shown
the soil surface are reduced and effective weed control
in Fig. 1 the flowchart of water use definition. It
is carried out. Moreover, using irrigation scheduling in
includes water that was lost in conveyance prior to
quantities that suit crop requirements to avoid deep
application on fields, as well as water that may return
percolation, all losses can be reduced to less than 20%
to the surface of as runoff after application, also, water
of the water used. Then the irrigation water use
is consumed through evapotranspiration (ET) from
efficiency can reach 80% or more (El-Naggar, 2020;
plants and evaporated from the soil, or water that
Sakthivadivel, 2017).
recharges aquifers as it leaks through the root zone
Nair, (2019) and Hozayn et al., (2016) recommended
(Templin et al., 2016). From an engineering point of
some points to improve water use. 1) Reducing
view, water use is defined simply, that it is the ratio
conveyance losses and evaporation from free surfaces
between the water that is provided through irrigation
by using large water conveyance pipes. 2) Irrigation in
and that is used dynamically for growth by the plant;
the early morning or at night to reduce evaporation
it can be measured by application Eq. (1 and 2),
during irrigation. 3) Reducing excessive irrigation of
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 SMART TECHNIQUES FOR IMPROVING WATER USE UNDER THE CONDITIONS OF ARID AND SEMI-ARID…. 837
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plants to control losses by runoff and deep percolation. increases, the gate partially closes. This leads to reduce
4) Use of various methods to cover the soil surface to the outflow and this will increase the uniformity of
reduce evaporation from the soil surface. 5) Integrated distribution along the pipeline.
weed control to reduce water consumption from
weeds. 6) Use zero or minimum tillage, the use of
effective organic and biological fertilization and the
use of fertilizer injection methods during the irrigation
system. 7) Periodically measure soil salinity, monitor
the water table, design and choose the optimal
drainage system. 8) Carrying out irrigation operations
in accurate and appropriate amounts without reaching
water shortages, taking into account climate changes
and the of crop growth stages. Also, there are matters,
as it is no less important than the above, as water use
can be improved through the selection of crops and Fig.2.Gate outlet operation mechanism with side view.
varieties that consume lesswater, fertilization 3.2. Automatic surge flow
methods, agricultural operations, and the appropriate Due to the runoff losses in continuous
timing for planting and harvesting. Novel irrigation irrigation under surface irrigation methods, surge flow
methods and applications can improve water use, irrigation is preferable to reduce these losses. In surge
while achieving economic expansion while also flow irrigation, the water is opened and closed at
reducing environmental impacts (Levidow, 2014 and intervals, and the soil surface is significantly saturated,
Youssef et al., 2017). so the soil becomes smooth for the flow of water to the
From the above, the importance of improving water end of the field compared to continuous irrigation.
use for integrated water management was defined. This reduces losses due to runoff and deep percolation
Therefore, in the following, some methods and (Mostafazadeh-fard et al., 2006).
techniques used to maximize and improve water use in Surge flow irrigation is a discontinuous
the agricultural sector will be presented. application of water and is thorough by on and off the
3- Development of surface irrigation water between two irrigation sets. The use of surge
3.1. Self- compensating gated pipe irrigation flow increased distribution efficiency and reduced
technique deep percolation compared to continuous irrigation
Surface irrigation is one of the major methods of (Bayush, 2020).
irrigation in Egypt (El-Shafie et al., 2018). In Amer and Attafy, (2017) studied two methods of
Australia, surface irrigation is accounts for 59% of the irrigation, surge flow irrigation, continuous irrigation,
total irrigated land (ABS, 2018). Ali and Mohammed, and two different discharges. The highest values of
(2015) noted that waterlogging and low application water saving were obtained under the surge flow
efficiency are the main problems inherent with surface irrigation treatment and on and off cycles.
irrigation in the Nile Delta. So, surface irrigation Performance technology of surge flow indicators have
development using gated pipes (GP) provides an been improved such as, water required for each
important new tool to improve its performance irrigation, seasonal irrigation water requirement,
according to agricultural policies. Also, mentioned runoff, application efficiency, storage efficiency, and
that, the improving Surface Irrigation Efficiency in uniformity of distribution. The surge flow method is
Maize Hybrids used gated pipe irrigation. Use of gated better compared to continuous irrigation.
pipes technique as compared to traditional irrigation Mostafazadeh-fard et al., (2006) made an
reduced water use by 5.7% and increases in yields by automatic valve to control the operation of the surge
3.4%. It is concluded that the gated pipes technique is flow with gated pipe irrigation Fig. 3. The system
better than traditional irrigation for improving water includes an automatic valve that the farmer can easily
and maize productivity under Nile Delta conditions. adjust according to field conditions such as changing
El-Shafie et al., (2017) designed a self-compensating soil infiltration characteristics during the irrigation
gated outlet to improve water use under a surface season. The system was a furrow irrigation that was
irrigation system. The field results concluded that, irrigated by automatic surge flow with an irrigation
there are homogeneity in soil moisture distribution and cycle of 10 min on and 10 min off. The results
improvement of water use, due to the regularity of indicated that the system is easy to accurately irrigate
water distribution under surface irrigation system use by automatic surge under furrow irrigation. There is a
of pressure compensating gated pipe, thus an increase better advance time with surge flow compared to the
in water use and yield compared to traditional gated continuous flow with used the same discharge of
pipe. The increase in the uniformity of distribution applied water.
along the pipeline is due to the gated outlet is designed Abdullah and Abdullah, (2017) designed and
and supplied with silicone rubber in the direction of evaluated a simple Automatic surge flow for
the water outlet as shown in Fig. 2. When the pressure improving water use under furrow irrigation system
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838 Abdelraouf, R.E et.al.
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using solar energy as shown in Fig. 3. The data appropriate solutions and various treatments (Saha et
indicated that that the innovative technology is able to al., 2021).
give high efficiency with a coefficient of variation
(CV) less than 10%. Also the results showed that the
system could generate enough power to control of
opening and closing on the perforator outside the
machine and open a lot of time and synchronize the
closing time. Finally, the new automatic surge flow
irrigation is economical and easy to move. Finally, the
automatic surge flow system can reduce water loss and
improve irrigation performance and easy to use.

Fig. 4. Install the FloodTech control system in the

field.
On the other hand precision agriculture using the
Internet of Things is a broad class of related
technologies that will maintain precise control over
farm decisions. This method of planting decisions is
intended for specific crops and not for an entire region.
Fig. 3.Automatic surge flow. Precision farming combines agricultural machinery
3.2. Real time management systems for surface and efficient agricultural operations to meet the
irrigation specific needs of farmers. For example, making the
Real time farm technologies for surface irrigation best decision to manage irrigation systems by
systems are focused on reducing irrigation labor and automatic scheduling irrigation, and knowing the
play a role in improving water use. Due to this, water plants' need for water in actual amount and in real time
losses are less under automatic surface irrigation (Mentsiev et al., 2020). Nawandar and Satpute, (2019)
systems due to less human intervention. Smith et al., developed a low cost system used IoT technology for
(2016) developed an automatic system for surface irrigation management. The Internet of Things has
irrigation that based on moisture sensors to determine been used to make devices used to communicate on
the advanced and recession time. The results showed their own. An irrigation scheduling system was also
that the application efficiencies were improved in the put in place to improve water use efficiency, as this
fields in which the system was applied. The irrigation resulted in smart support and remote data monitoring.
system was working well in northern Victoria . Through the results, it became clear that the system has
At the same trend (Koech et al., 2014) used the same a great benefit as it is characterized by its intelligence,
technology and recommended that this system be used low cost and easy transport, which makes it suitable
as it led to an improvement in water use efficiency on for different crops under of climatic changes
the farm and to save labor. Also, recommended that conditions .
this system be used as it led to an improvement in IoT technology is a good tool for tracking and
water use efficiency on the farm and to save labor Fig. observing all around conditions of crops such as
4 shows the FloodTech sensor diagram. climate data, ambient humidity, temperature and soil
moisture. Also, the monitoring and observation of
4. IoT and smart irrigation crops using IoT technology gives the right decision at
The Internet of Things (IoT) is a good tool for the right time, such as scheduling and managing
controlling everything in agriculture, especially irrigation water (Balakrishna and Rao, 2019).
irrigation water management. Several researchers Balamurali and Kathiravan, (2015) recommended a
have studied the role of the Internet of Things in design for a remote sensor system for water control
improving water use (Ramachandran et al., 2018). Ryu and monitoring that is made up of various sensor hubs
et al., (2015) mentioned that, the Internet of Things with a systems administration capability that is
(IoT) uses new technologies, for example, sensor, delivered on the fly for the purpose of continuous
network, and computing technologies to enable new testing. Sensor data will be transmitted to the base
applications and services. Smart farming technologies station. In light of the results, the future system
using Internet of Things (IoT) have enabled farmers to provides a lower amount of power consumption with
solve their big problems. The system taking the right high unwavering efficiency. The use of high-power
decision at the right time, the system also gave those wireless sensor networks is suitable for tasks in
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industries such as manufacturing, irrigation Asadullah and Ullah, (2017); Đuzić and Đumić,
technology growth, and so on . (2017); Taneja and Bhatia, (2017) and Nandhini et al.,
Nigussie et al., (2020) developed An IoT platform for (2017).
smallholders that monitor soil, climate and water The concept of using the ARDUINO microcontroller
parameters for good irrigation system management. It to control automatic irrigation can be illustrated in the
provided information on local agriculture, expert block flow chart, Fig. 6.ARDUINO system uses soil
knowledge, region's climate information, crop moisture sensors to record the decrease of soil
characteristics, and soil and water analyses. This is so moisture to the critical limit for the plant growth. Then
that the system can make accurate decisions to manage it alerts an electronic board based on, pre-programmed
irrigation systems in order to maximize water use. to pass the appropriate quantity of water to reach the
Moreover, the use of renewable energy sources and the field capacity or to the saturation capacity of the soil
intelligent data analysis algorithm for the various with automatic on/off the valves (Wahba, 2019).
elements are investigated. The study recommended
that IoT platforms are a smart framework for
processing data that can be used to make appropriate
decisions and help more agricultural knowledge.
Increased crop production is supported by the IoT
irrigation management system, which maximises the
use of available resources while minimising
environmental effects Fig. 5 shows irrigation control
system building style at the system level.
Smart irrigation based on ARDUINO controller is the
process of taking the easy appropriate decisions and
that is the answers to two key questions: When to
irrigate? What is the amount of water needed for
irrigation? The main goal of smart irrigation is to Fig.
codify and rationalize the use of water for irrigation to 6. Flowchart of automatic irrigation operating system
ensure reducing losses to a minimum and raise the with an ARDUINO system
efficiency of its use to the maximum, and get the Wahba, (2019) concluded that the control system
highest return of production (Nandhini et al., 2017). consists of the following: (Fig. 7). 1) Main control
unit: It is a microcontroller part which can read the soil
moisture content by mean of the soil moisture sensors.
The sensors give order to the automatic water valves
to open to pass the required water to the crop area. The
valve will be closed according to the moisture sensor
reading sent to the micro controller. 2) Moisture
sensors: This can read the moisture contents in the soil
during the irrigation cycle and send it to the
microcontroller. 3) Solenoid valves: to pass the
required water to each crop. 4) Communication unit
Fig. 5.Irrigation control system building style at the (SIM 900): This unit communicates with the
system level microcontroller by mobile ships. It can send the soil
The modern advances in the fields of “automatic moisture data to a certain mobile number on calling. 5)
control and modern communication technologies as Intermediate unit: Relays circuit that transmits the
well as computer applications” made it possible to signal from the microcontroller to the automatic
compose a low cost electronic system to control the solenoid valves to be able to open or close safely
irrigation process from A-Z. Recently, during the last without impairing the control unit. 6) Power supply
three years, some scientific articles concerning unit: to provide the microcontroller, moisture sensors,
automatic control systems or smart system for electric valves with electricity, necessary for running.
irrigation, started to be shown up in some electronic Also, reported that with respect to the ARDUINO
engineering journals and conferences. Most of these approach, which depends mainly on recording soil
papers based on using ARDUINO micro-controller moisture sensors connected to ARDUINO control
system and moisture sensors to carry out their system, the system was configured, modified,
proposals. Nearly, all their findings came to the same calibrated and primary tested in the lab and the field to
conclusion that, the micro-irrigation ARDUINO determine the opening and closing points of the
implemented system was found to be feasible and cost irrigation system.
effective for optimizing water resources for
agricultural production, Parameswaran and
Sivaprasath, (2016); Abhishek and Magesh, (2017);

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840 Abdelraouf, R.E et.al.
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Mateo-Aroca et al., (2019) created a remote image
capture device for a lettuce crop application. The
device is made up of several capture nodes and a local
processing base station that uses image processing
algorithms to extract key features for irrigation and
harvesting strategy decision-making Fig. 8.
Using multiple image capture nodes, various
observation zones indicative of the entire crop can be
obtained. This station makes irrigation and harvesting
decisions based on the effects of image processing by
the nodes and information from other nearby sensors.
The system's ultimate goal is to measure the
percentage of green cover (PGC) in order to estimate
the crop's water requirements.
Fig. 7.The components of automatic irrigation with an
2- Riser board for drainage water
ARDUINO system.
management
Due to high water table levels and seasonal water
1- Image processing for irrigation saturation conditions, some soils can hinder crop
management production due to irregular land or heavy clay soil
Due to a scarcity of water supplies, a framework for types, as well as increased salinity (Jia et al., 2017).
evaluating systems and the implementation of One of the most important methods used to manage
requirements to reduce water use have been irrigation water is the reuse of agricultural drainage
established. Information technology integration in water below the soil surface as one of the effective
sensor networks and field stations (Bogena et al., techniques used in irrigation. The reuse of subsurface
2007, Díaz et al., 2011), Water management is made wastewater is done by using buried perforated tubes to
much easier with this tool, which allows for precise drain the excess water and lowering the water table
control and tracking of water use. (Coates et al., 2013, through the soil layers (Wang et al., 2004).
Hernández-Hernández et al., 2016).The use of
photographs is a specific technique for controlling
water in crops and soils. (Segovia-Cardozo et al.,
2019). The crop green or canopy cover photos provide
an indication of how much water the crop is lost due
to evapotranspiration (Li et al., 2018).
One of the most important technologies used in
irrigation management applications and measuring
crop water requirements is satellite image or aerial
photography analysis. Due to the limitations of drones
and satellites in obtaining real-time aerial images of
crops, flight delay time, problems caused by adverse
weather conditions, and other issues, fixed cameras
installed in areas of interest are required to capture
close-ups and choppy images, and photos upon
Fig. 8. Remote image capture system.
request. One of the most important uses of these
images is water management in agriculture (Molina- Developing groundwater management systems for on
Martínez and García-Mateos, 2020). Images may farms water level control systems by adding structures
that can control agricultural drainage water and
provide useful information on the percentage of
groundwater level. This may also include an aspect of
ground cover, which is essential for assessing crop
sub-irrigation. Through a barrier to control the water
irrigation requirements. Color analysis techniques
allow for accurate and efficient classification of outlet, in terms of time and the amount of drainage
soil/plant regions in photographs (García-Mateos et flow, as it maintains the depths of the groundwater at
the required level. Therefore, the subsurface irrigation
al., 2015).
system is defined here as “the use of wastewater under
Fernández-Pacheco et al. (2014) in the southeast of
the soil surface for irrigation by raising the level of the
Spain, researchers investigated a new approach based
groundwater within the root zone or near of which
on computer vision for estimating the crop coefficient
(Kc) of lettuce crops from the percentage of ground (ASABE Standards, 2015).
cover (PGC) derived from digital images . The USDA has developed a technique to
control the volume and timing of water discharges
from agricultural drainage systems known as drainage
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water management. This approach is based on the idea irrigation systems reduces irrigation labor and plays a
that drainage rate does not have to be constant role in improving water use. 4) Applying IoT
throughout the year. Under this technique, water technologies and smart irrigation as a good tool to
quality and development benefits can be improved. control everything in agriculture and make the right
The high water quality is obtained by reducing the decision at the right time, especially irrigation water
amount of nitrate that leaves farm fields by eliminating management. 5) Using ground image processing to
excessive tile drainage. This technique can also be measure the percentage of green cover (PGC) in order
used to keep water in fields that will be used for crop to estimate crop water requirements. 6) Reuse of
production later in the season (Schott et al., 2017). Fig. agricultural drainage water, subsurface irrigation as
9 shows the riser board and how to work for drainage one of the effective techniques that can be used in
water management? irrigation water management.
On the other hand Kolars et al., (2019) Finally, these previous approaches and techniques will
modified the method for managing agricultural save a significant amount of irrigation water, as well
drainage water. This method uses a model to calculate as have other practical and economic benefits.
irrigation scheduling for drainage water, using the
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