Nervous System

Cells in the body are diverse in structure and function, with specialized cells for different body
systems. Parietal cells in the stomach produce stomach acid, and mast cells in the immune
system release histamine for inflammation. Skeletal muscle cells have a unique structure
essential for muscle contraction.
The nervous system, consisting of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous
system (PNS), plays a crucial role in coordinating body functions. The CNS includes the brain
and spinal cord, while the PNS comprises nerves throughout the body, providing sensory
information to the CNS and executing motor responses.
The brain is divided into three regions: hindbrain (medulla, pons, cerebellum), midbrain, and
forebrain (cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus). Each region has specific functions, such as
regulating vital functions, alertness, and higher cognitive functions.
The PNS further divides into the somatic nervous system (SNS) and autonomic nervous system
(ANS). The SNS controls voluntary skeletal muscle actions, while the ANS regulates internal
processes. The ANS has sympathetic (fight or flight) and parasympathetic (rest and digest)
divisions.
Neurons and glial cells are the major cell types in the nervous system. Neurons transmit signals
using action potentials, and glial cells play essential roles in supporting neurons, maintaining
chemical balance, forming myelin, and more.
The action potential is a rapid change in charge along a neuron's axon, allowing communication
between neurons. Neurons have a resting potential, and when a signal is received,
depolarization occurs as Na+ floods into the axon. The action potential is an "all or none"
phenomenon.
Myelinated neurons allow the action potential to jump between nodes. Neurotransmitters are
released at synapses, allowing communication between neurons. The synaptic vesicles release
neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft, where they bind to receptors on the next neuron,
facilitating signal transmission.
In summary, the discussion covered various aspects of the nervous system, including the
peripheral nervous system (PNS) and central nervous system (CNS). Key topics included major
areas of the brain, the division of the PNS into the somatic nervous system (SNS) and autonomic
nervous system (ANS), and further subdivision of the ANS into the sympathetic and
parasympathetic systems. The exploration also delved into major cell types in the nervous
system, namely glial cells and neurons. The communication between neurons using an action
potential was briefly explained, along with the release of neurotransmitters in the synapse
between neurons. Ongoing research in neurology provides career opportunities for those
interested in addressing diseases and conditions related to the complex nervous system.

Central Nervous System

The nervous system is responsible for sending, receiving, and interpreting information from all
parts of the body. It responds to external stimuli and also monitors and coordinates the
functions of internal organs.

Central Nervous System

The central nervous system is composed of the brain and spinal cord. Both are enclosed in
protective layers called meninges. The outer layer is called the dura mater, the middle layer is
called the arachnoid mater, and the inner layer is called the PIA mater. The subarachnoid space
or the space between the arachnoid and the PIA mater is filled with cerebrospinal fluid.

The Brain
The brain is located in the cranium of the skull and is made of three main parts: the cerebrum,
cerebellum, and medulla oblongata. The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and is divided
into left and right hemispheres. Each is composed of a frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital
lobe. The two hemispheres are connected by a nerve tract called the corpus callosum.
The surface of the cerebral hemisphere is folded, which increases the surface area. The
cerebrum is concerned with learning, memory interpretation, and personality.
The cerebellum is located in the back of the brain just below the cerebrum. It controls balanced
movement and coordination. The brain stem, located beneath the cerebrum and in front of the
cerebellum, connects the brain with the spinal cord. It is composed of the midbrain, pons, and
medulla oblongata. The brain stem controls a number of autonomic functions, including
respiration and blood pressure.

The Spinal Cord

The spinal cord extends from the medulla oblongata down the back and is protected by the
vertebral column. It is a hollow tube containing cerebrospinal fluid. Thirty-one pairs of spinal
nerves arise from the spinal cord, transmitting information from body organs to the brain and
from the brain to the organs.
In Summary, the brain and the spinal cord comprise the central nervous system. The brain is
located in the cranium, and the spinal cord is located in the vertebral column.
 Basic Parts of the Brain
The brain stem comprises three parts: the medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain. The medulla
oblongata extends from the end of the pons to the beginning of the spinal cord, starting at the
foramen magnum. Above it are the pons and midbrain. The midbrain includes cerebral
peduncles at the front and corpora quadrigemina at the back, consisting of superior and inferior
colliculi. These colliculi sit on the tectum, the midbrain's roof. Many nuclei in the midbrain
control functions like heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, consciousness, and arousal.

The cerebellum, located behind the brain stem, aids in motor control, coordination, balance,
and muscle tone. The diencephalon, above the midbrain, involves the thalamus, hypothalamus,
and pineal gland. The thalamus acts as a switchboard, relaying connections to the cerebral
cortex. The cerebral hemispheres, responsible for higher functions, have an outer cortex with
six layers of gray matter and an inner white matter portion. The neocortex, with six layers, is
crucial for language and conscious thought. The brain lobes (frontal, parietal, temporal, and
occipital) are separated by sulci, with specific functions associated with each lobe. The frontal
lobe involves decision-making, problem-solving, and planning; the temporal lobe is crucial for
memory, language, emotion, and hearing; the parietal lobe integrates sensory information,
while the occipital lobe is responsible for vision.
 Spinal Cord: Anatomy, Spinal Tracts & Pathways, Somatic Reflexes
The spinal cord is the communication gateway between the brain and spinal nerves, which
innervate the trunk and limbs. The cord is a long, thin tube of nervous tissue, enclosed in 3
membranes of the meninges which, in turn, are protected within the bones of the vertebral
column. The 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the cord and emerge from the vertebrae. The
spinal cord extends from the brainstem to the level of upper lumbar vertebrae. In the lower
lumbar and sacral regions, nerve roots descend within the spinal canal before exiting, forming
the cauda equina.
In cross section, two types of nervous tissue can be seen in the cord: a butterfly-shaped central
core of gray matter, and a surrounding white matter. The gray matter contains cell bodies and
dendrites of neurons. This is where neurons synapse and transmit information to each other.
The white matter, on the other hand, is made of bundles of axons and serves to conduct
information up and down the cord. These bundles are organized into specific groups with
specific functions, forming the so-called spinal tracts.
Spinal tracts are essentially high-speed cables, each carries a certain type of information, in a
one-way traffic, between the spinal cord and a certain area in the brain. All tracts occur on both
sides, left and right, of the cord. Ascending tracts conduct sensory information up to the brain,
while descending tracts convey motor instructions down the cord. Some tracts cross over to the
other side of the cord before they reach the brain. They convey sensory information from one
side of the body to the other side of the brain. When this happens, the information is said to be
transmitted contralaterally. Tracts that stay on the same side all the way are said to conduct
information ipsilaterally.
Spinal nerves are mixed nerves; they contain both sensory and motor fibers. These fibers are
separated shortly before they reach the spinal cord. Sensory fibers enter the cord via the dorsal
root, while motor fibers exit via the ventral root. A sensory pathway typically involves 3
neurons: - First-order neurons detect stimuli and transmit signals to the spinal cord. The axons
of these neurons form sensory fibers that enter the cord via the dorsal root of the spinal nerve.
- Inside the cord, first-order neurons synapse with second-order neurons, which ascend a
specific tract to the brainstem, or further up to the thalamus. In some pathways, first-order
neurons ascend the tract to the brainstem, where they synapse with second-order neurons,
which continue to the thalamus. - Third-order neurons conduct the information the rest of the
way to the sensory cortex.
A motor pathway usually involves 2 neurons: an upper motor neuron starts in the motor cortex
or brainstem, and a lower motor neuron continues from the brainstem or spinal cord. They
conduct motor instructions down, along a specific descending tract. The axons of lower motor
neurons exit the cord via the ventral root of the spinal nerve, where they continue as motor
fibers to effector organs.
The spinal cord is also responsible for fast, involuntary responses of skeletal muscles, called
somatic reflexes. Reflexes are essentially automatic and do not require input from the brain,
although the brain is informed and aware, usually after-the-fact. A somatic reflex involves a
reflex arc composed of a somatic receptor, a sensory neuron, an interneuron, a motor neuron,
and an effector muscle. Some reflexes are, however, more complex and require multiple
pathways, as well as central coordination from the brain. For example, when someone steps on
something sharp and lifts their injured leg, the other leg also must react to keep balance or the
person would fall over. This involves multiple muscles and requires contralateral pathways at
several levels of the cord, as well as movement coordination from the brain.
I was intrigued by the Coordination and Complexity exhibited in the interplay between the
brain and the spinal cord. Particularly noteworthy is the discussion on complex reflexes,
portrayed by the scenario of stepping on something sharp. This example highlights the complex
coordination demanded across multiple levels of the spinal cord and the brain, adding so much
to our understanding of neural functioning.