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Removal of Cadmium and Zinc by Water Hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes

Article in ScienceAsia · January 2004

DOI: 10.2306/scienceasia1513-1874.2004.30.093

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 ScienceAsia 30 (2004): 93-103

Removal of Cadmium and Zinc by Water Hyacinth,

Eichhornia crassipes
Xiaomei Lu,a Maleeya Kruatrachue,b,* Prayad Pokethitiyookb and Kunaporn Homyokb
a
Department of Biology, Faculty of Life Science, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, P. R. China.
b
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand.

* Corresponding author, E-mail: [email protected]

Received 31 Jul 2003

Accepted 9 Jan 2004

ABSTRACT: Toxic heavy metal pollution of water and soil is a major environmental problem, and most
conventional remediation approaches do not provide acceptable solutions. Wetland plants are being used
successfully for the phytoremediation of trace elements in natural and constructed wetlands. This study
demonstrates the phytoremediation potential of water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes, for the removal of
cadmium (Cd) and zinc (Zn). The phytoaccumulation of heavy metals, Cd and Zn, by water hyacinth E.
crassipes, was studied. Water hyacinths were cultured in tap water, which was supplemented with 0.5, 1, 2
and 4 mg/L of Cd and 5, 10, 20, and 40 mg/L of Zn, and were separately harvested after 0, 4, 8 and 12 days.
The experiment showed that both Cd and Zn had effects on plant relative growth. Removal of metals from
solution was fast especially in the first four days. The accumulation of Cd and Zn in shoots and roots increased
with the initial concentration and also with the passage of time. Plants treated with 4 mg/L of Cd accumulated
the highest concentration of metal in roots (2044 mg/kg) and shoots (113.2 mg/kg) after 8 days; while those
treated with 40 mg/L of Zn accumulated the highest concentration of metal in roots (9652.1 mg/kg) and
shoots (1926.7 mg/kg) after 4 days. The maximum values of bioconcentration factor (BCF) for Cd and Zn
were 622.3 and 788.9, respectively, suggesting that water hyacinth was a moderate accumulator of Cd and
Zn and could be used to treat water contaminated with low Cd and Zn concentrations.

KEYWORDS: water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), accumulation, cadmium, zinc, removal, bioconcentration
factor (BCF).

INTRODUCTION essential microelement on the one hand and a toxic

environmental factor on the other.9 However, Zn can
Rapid industrialization and urbanization have cause nonfatal fume fever, pneumonitis, and is a
resulted in elevated emission of toxic heavy metals potential hazard as an environmental pollutant.10
entering the biosphere.1 Activities such as mining and Recently there is a considerable interest in
agriculture have polluted extensive areas throughout developing cost effective and environmentally friendly
the world.2,3 The release of heavy metals in biologically technologies for the remediation of soil and wastewater
available forms by human activity, may damage or alter polluted with toxic trace elements.11 Plants have the
both natural and man-made ecosystems.4 Heavy metal ability to accumulate nonessential metals such as Cd
ions such as Cu2+, Zn2+, Fe2+, are essential micronutrients and Pb, and this ability could be harnessed to remove
for plant metabolism but when present in excess, can pollutant metals from the environment.12-14 Plants-
become extremely toxic.5 based bioremediation technologies have received
Cadmium (Cd) is one of the most toxic heavy metals recent attention as strategies to clean-up contaminated
and is considered non-essential for living organisms.6 soil and water.15 The submerged macrophytes are
Cd has been recognized for its negative effect on the particularly useful in the abatement and monitoring of
environment where it accumulates throughout the food heavy metals.16
chain posing a serious threat to human health.7 Cd Water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes, is a floating
pollution has induced extremely severe effects on macrophyte whose appetite for nutrients and explosive
plants.8 Unlike Cd, zinc (Zn) is an essential and beneficial growth rate has been put to use in cleaning up municipal
element for human bodies and plants. Complete and agriculture wastewater.17 It has been discovered
exclusion of Zn is not possible due to its dual role, an that water hyacinth’s quest for nutrients can be turned
94 ScienceAsia 30 (2004)

in a more useful direction. The plant has been shown Table 1. Maximum growth response of water hyacinth
to accumulate trace elements such as Ag, Pb, Cd and exposed to Cd and Zn.
Zn.18-21 The focus on water hyacinth as a key step in
wastewater recycling is due to the fact that it forms the Parameter Cd Zn
central unit of a recycling engine driven by
photosynthesis and therefore the process is sustainable, Relative growth 0.85 a 0.89 c
Metal accumulation (mg/kg)
energy efficient and cost efficient under a wide variety
shoot 113.2 a 1926.7 c
of rural and urban conditions.22 The aim of the present root 2044 a 9652.1 c
study was to demonstrate the phytoremediation Residual concentration (mg/L) 0.185 a 6.29 c
potential of water hyacinth, E. crassipes for the removal BCF 622.3 b 788.9 d
of Cd and Zn. a
4 mg/L Cd, b 2 mg/L Cd, c 40 mg/L Zn, d 5 mg/L Zn.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

a volumetric flask. The final volume was made up with
Experimental Procedures deionized water and heavy metals analysis was done
E. crassipes was collected from a ditch in the suburb using a flame atomic absorption spectrophotometer
of Bangkok, Thailand and rinsed with tap water to (FAAS). The results of the accumulation were reported,
remove any epiphytes and insect larvae grown on plants. as concentration (mg) of Cd and Zn in plants (kg). The
The plants were placed in cement tanks with tap water concentration of metals remained in the residual
under natural sunlight for one week to let them adapt solution was measured using FAAS.
to the new environment, then the plants of the same BCF
size were selected for further experiment. A stock The BCF provides an index of the ability of the plant
solution (1000 mg/L) each was prepared in distilled to accumulate the metal with respect to the metal
water with analytical grade CdCl2. 2½ H2O and ZnSO4. concentration in the substrate. The BCF was calculated
7H2O which was later diluted as required. The plants as follows:11
were maintained in tap water supplemented with 0.5,
1, 2, 4 mg/L of Cd and 5, 10, 20, 40 mg/L of Zn. Plants BCF = Concentration of metal in plant tissue
that were not exposed to metals served as controls. All Initial concentration of metal in external solution
experiments were performed in triplicate. The test
durations were 0 (two hours), 4, 8 and 12 days. Tap Statistical Analysis
water was added daily to compensate for water loss The mean numbers of relative growth, metal
through plant transpiration, sampling and evaporation. concentration and BCF were calculated and subjected
After each test duration, plants were harvested. They to Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) using randomized
were separated into shoots and roots, and were analyzed block design and Least Significant Difference method
for relative growth, metals accumulation, and (LSD) on the SPSS for windows program after analysis
bioconcentration factor (BCF). In addition, the metals of the homogeneity of variance according to Cochran’s
remained in the solution were measured to assess the test.23
removal potential of water hyacinth.
RESULTS
Sample Analyses
Relative Growth Relative Growth
Relative growth of control and treated plants was The effects of Cd and Zn on relative growth of E.
calculated as follows: crassipes at different concentrations and exposure times
were shown in Figure 1. The relative growth of control
Final fresh weight (FFW) plants significantly increased (P ≤ 0.05) with the passage
Relative growth =
Initial fresh weight (IFW) of time. In plants treated with Cd, the relative growth
significantly increased (P ≤ 0.05) in 0.5 and 1 mg/L
treatments, but decreased in 2 and 4
Metals Accumulation mg/L treatments. In plants treated with Zn, the relative
Metals accumulation in plant and water samples growth significantly increased (P ≤ 0.05) in 5 and
was measured. Digestion of samples in this study was 10 mg/L treatments, but decreased in 20 and 40 mg/L
performed according to the Standard Methods by treatments. The lowest values of relative growth were
APHA.7 Plant samples were decomposed to dry matter 0.85 and 0.89 for water hyacinth treated with Cd at
by heating at 120°C for 24 hours in a hot air oven and 4 mg/L and Zn at 40 mg/L, respectively. The comparison
the ash was digested with nitric acid and filtered into of maximum relative growth of water hyacinth exposed
ScienceAsia 30 (2004) 95

1.4
1.2
1
Relative growth

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.5 1 2 4

Cadmium concentration (mg/L)

Day 0 Day 4 Day 8 Day 12

1.4

1.2

1
Relative growth

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 5 10 20 40

Zinc concentration (mg/L)

Fig 1.The effects of Cd (A) and Zn (B) on relative growth of E. crassipes at different metal concentrations and exposure times.
96 ScienceAsia 30 (2004)

to Cd (4 mg/L) and Zn (40 mg/L) is shown in Table 1. general, there were increases in metal accumulation in
shoots and roots when metal concentration and
Metals Accumulation exposure times were increased (P ≤ 0.05). For Cd,
Cd and Zn accumulations by water hyacinth at control and plants treated with 2 and 4 mg/L showed
different concentrations and exposure times were a significant difference (P ≤0.05) in metal accumulation
separately shown in Fig 2 and Fig 3, respectively. In (Fig 2). There was a significant difference (P ≤ 0.05) in

160

140
Cadmium accumulation (mg/kg)

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 0.5 1 2 4
Cadmium concentration (mg/L)

Day 0 Day 4 Day 8 Day 12

A
2500
Cadmium accumulation (mg/kg)

2000

1500

1000

500

0
0 0.5 1 2 4
Cadmium concentration (mg/L)

Fig 2.The accumulation of Cd in shoots (A) and roots (B) of E. crassipes.

ScienceAsia 30 (2004) 97

Cd accumulation with the passage of time at all concentrations. Plants treated with 4 mg/L of Cd on
concentrations except for 0 and 0.5 mg/L. For Zn, day 8 accumulated the highest level of metal in shoots
significant differences (P ≤ 0.05) between control and (113.2 mg/kg; Fig 2A) and in roots (2044 mg/kg; Fig
treated plants were found at all metal concentrations 2B); while plants treated with 40 mg/L of Zn on day 4
(Fig 3). There was a significant difference (P ≤ 0.05) in accumulated the highest level of metal in shoots (1926.7
accumulation with the passage of time at all mg/kg; Fig 3A), and in roots (9652.1 mg/kg; Fig 3B).

2500
Zinc accumulation (mg/kg)

2000

1500

1000

500

0
0 5 10 20 40
Zinc concentration (mg/L)

Day 0 Day4 Day 8 Day 12

14000

12000
Zinc accumulation (mg/kg)

10000

8000

6000

4000

2000

0
0 5 10 20 40

Zinc concentration (mg/L)

B
Fig 3. The accumulation of Zn in shoots (A) and roots (B) of E. crassipes.
98 ScienceAsia 30 (2004)

The comparison of maximum accumulation of Cd and in the residual solutions were shown in Fig 4. They were
Zn in water hyacinth exposed to Cd (4 mg/L) and Zn (40 significantly decreased (P ≤ 0.05) when the exposure
mg/L) is shown in Table 1. times were increased. The concentrations of dissolved
Cd in the solutions at 0.5, 1, 2 and 4 mg/L were 0.003,
Metals Remained in the Residual Solution 0.005, 0.088 and 0.185 mg/L, respectively on day 12
The concentrations of dissolved metals remained (Fig 4A). The concentrations of dissolved Zn in the

5
4.5
Cadmium remained in the solution

4
3.5
3
(mg/L)

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 2 4
Cadmium concentration (mg/L)

Day 0 Day 4 Day 8 Day 12

A
35

30

25
Zinc remained in the solution

20
(mg/L)

15

10

0
0 5 10 20 40

Zinc concentration (mg/L)

Fig 4.Cd (A) and Zn (B) remained in the residual solution after 12 days.
ScienceAsia 30 (2004) 99

solutions at 5, 10, 20 and 40 mg/L were 0.82, 2.42, 5.06 concentrations and exposure times were shown in Fig
and 6.29 mg/L, respectively on day 12 (Fig 4B). The 5. In general, the BCF values for Cd and Zn increased
comparison of maximum residual concentration of Cd with the passage of time (P ≤ 0.05). The BCF values for
and Zn is shown in Table 1. Cd significantly increased (P ≤ 0.05) with Cd
concentration in the feed solution at each exposure
BCF time and then decreased when the Cd concentration
The BCF values for Cd and Zn at different was over 2 mg/L (Fig 5A). The maximum BCF of 622.3

800

700

600

500
BCF

400

300

200

100

0
0.5 1 2 4
Cadmium concentration (mg/L)

Day 0 Day 4 Day 8 Day12

1100
1000
900
800
700
600
BCF

500
400
300
200
100
0
5 10 20 40
Zinc concentration (mg/L)

Fig 5.The bioconcentration factor (BCF) values of Cd (A) and Zn (B) in E. crassipes at different metal concentrations and
exposure times.
100 ScienceAsia 30 (2004)

was obtained in plants treated with 2 mg/L of Cd on day sativa and Triticum aestivum.
8. The BCF values for Zn significantly decreased (P ≤ In the present study, water hyacinth accumulated
0.05) with Zn concentrations in the feed solution at the highest concentration of metals in roots
each exposure time and the maximum BCF of 788.9 (2044 mg/kg for Cd and 9652.1 mg/kg for Zn). However,
was found in plants treated with 5 mg/L of Zn on day relatively little Cd (113.2 mg/kg) was translocated to
12 (Fig 5B). The comparison of maximum BCF of water the shoot, while Zn was translocated at a much higher
hyacinth exposed to Cd (2 mg/L) and Zn (5 mg/L) is concentration (1926.7 mg/kg). This result
shown in Table 1. demonstrated that Zn was much more mobile than Cd.
The accumulation of metals in the roots and shoots of
DISCUSSION water hyacinth has been shown in field studies in which
water hyacinth was used as a biological monitor in
Growth changes are often the first and most obvious metal pollution.32 Greger33 reported that the uptake of
reactions of plants under heavy metal stress.24 In the Cd, both by roots and shoots, increased with increasing
present study, the relative growth increased in plants metal concentration in the external medium but the
treated with low concentration of Cd (0.5 and 1 mg/L), uptake was not linear in correlation to the concentration
but decreased with high concentration (2 and 4 mg/L). increase. Stratford et al. 27 found that the metals’
It appeared that low Cd concentration could stimulate accumulations in water hyacinth increased linearly with
plants’ growth. Dou25 found that although Cd is not the solution concentration in the order of
generally considered an essential element, yet it may leaves<stems<roots in water hyacinth. This study
stimulate growth of some plants in small amounts. It is demonstrated a pattern of metal uptake similar to that
known that Cd is a non-essential heavy metal, and has of Stratford et al.27 and we found that both Cd and Zn
inhibitory effects on plant growth.26 Stratford et al.27 accumulated more in roots than in shoots. Qian et al.34
reported that Cd was toxic and caused substantial treated 12 plant species (fuzzy water clover, iris-leaved
reduction in water hyacinth growth mainly by rush, mare’s tail, monkeyflower, parrot’s feather, sedge,
suppressing development of new roots, and reducing smart weed, smooth cordgrass, striped rush, umbrella
relative growth rates to about 10% of those of controls. plant, water lettuce and water zinnia) with 10 trace
In plants treated with Zn, the relative growth increased elements (As, B, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Mn, Hg, Ni and Se) and
in 5 and 10 mg/L treatments but decreased in 20 and reported that with the exception of B, all trace elements
40 mg/L treatments. The addition of Zn at low studied accumulated to substantially higher
concentration had a favorable effect on the growth of concentrations (from 5 to 60 folds) in roots than in
water hyacinth, which may be attributed to the fact that shoots of all plant species. In general, most studies
the plants utilize Zn as a micronutrient for their growth.28 reported the higher concentration of metals in roots
Delgado et al.29 found that in long term experiment (24 than in shoots. Cd concentrations were reported to be
days), water hyacinth exposed to 9 mg/L of Zn resulted higher in the roots in most studies.35,36 Normally Zn, Cd
in 30% reduction in weight. Schat et al.30 reported that or Ni concentrations are 10 (or more) times higher in
Zn toxicity was first expressed in reduced root growth. root than in shoot.37 Soltan and Rashed38 treated water
It has been proved by EI-Ghamery et al.31 who reported hyacinth with several heavy metals (Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn,
that the non-lethal concentration of Zn2+ showed an Ni, Pb and Zn) and concluded that water hyacinth
inhibitory effect on cell division in root tips of Nigella accumulated higher concentrations of heavy metals in
the roots than in the aerial parts. However, there are a
Table 2. Bioconcentration factors (BCF) for Cd and Zn in few studies that showed the higher accumulation of Cd
various plants. in shoots than in roots.39,40
Matagi et al.41 have extensively reviewed on the
Plant species BCF Reference heavy metal removal mechanisms in wetlands.
Cd Zn Denny42,43 noted that the main route of heavy metal
uptake in wetland plants was through the roots in the
Eichhornia crassipes 622.3 788.9 Present study
Lemna polyrrhiza 650 44 28, 60 case of emergent and surface-floating plants like water
Elodea nuttalli 1,700 3,000 55 hyacinth. In locating the sites of mineral uptake in
Azolla pinnata (root) 24,000 12,000 56 plants, Arisz44 found that ions penetrated plants by
Eriocaulon aquaticum passive process, mostly by exchange of cations which
(root) 2.7 39 57
occurred in the cell wall. Denny42 concluded that heavy
Myriophyllum exalbescens6 1,640 59
Bacopa monnieri 400 - 61 metals were taken up by plants by absorption and
Ricciocarpus natans - 3,700-8,800 62 translocation, and released by excretion. Sharpe and
Zostera marina Denny45 and Welsh46 showed, however, that much of
(aboveground) 0.62 78 58 the metal uptake by plant tissue is by absorption to
ScienceAsia 30 (2004) 101

anionic sites in the cell walls and the metals do not enter metal concentration in feed solution. Zhu et al.50 found
the living plant. This explains why wetland plants can that the BCFs of water hyacinth were very high for Cd,
have very high magnitude of heavy metal concentration Cu, Cr and Se at low external concentration, and they
in their tissues compared to their surrounding were decreasing as the external concentration
environment.47,48 increased. In the present study, for plants treated with
Movement of metal-containing sap from the root to Zn, the BCF values decreased when Zn concentration
the shoot, termed translocation, is primarily controlled was increased. For plants treated with Cd, the BCF
by two processes: root pressure and leaf transpiration.49 values first increased with the increase of Cd
Some metals are accumulated in roots, probably due to concentration, and then decreased when Cd
some physiological barriers against metal transport to concentration was over 2 mg/L. It can be concluded
the aerial parts, while others are easily transported in that the best BCF value was obtained when the external
plants. In the present study, although Cd and Zn solution concentrations were 2 mg/L for Cd and
translocation to the plant aerial parts occurred and 5 mg/L for Zn.
continued to go on during the whole experiment, it was In the present study. The BCF values for Zn were a
slower than sorption by roots. Translocation of trace little higher than those of Cd at the same duration in
elements from roots to shoots could be a limiting factor most cases, indicating that the accumulation potential
for the bioconcentration of elements in shoots. 50 of Zn by water hyacinth was slightly higher than that of
Additionally, Cd accumulation in 4 mg/L treated plants Cd. The maximum BCF values for Cd and Zn were
reached the highest level in roots and then decreased; 622.3 and 788.9, respectively, indicating that E. crassipes
while for Zn accumulation, 40 mg/L treated plants is a moderate accumulator of Cd and Zn based on the
reached the highest level in shoots and roots, and also arbitary criteria by Zayed et al.11 and Zhu et al.50 Metal
decreased. It can be proposed that the roots reached accumulation potential and BCF values can vary among
saturation during the period and there exists mechanism submerged species of macrophytes (Table 2). Some
in roots that could detoxify heavy metals or transfer other aquatic plant species have been shown to exhibit
them to aerial parts. higher accumulation of Cd or Zn and therefore are
Water hyacinth effectively removes appreciable considered excellent Cd or Zn accumulators. Nakada
quantity of heavy metals (Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb and et al.55 found high BCF values for Cd (1,700) and Zn
Zn) from freshwater especially at low concentrations.38 (3,000) in Elodea nuttallii. Sela et al.56 reported the very
Maine et al.21 reported that remaining Cd concentration high BCF values for Cd (24,000) and Zn (12,000) in the
in water was inversely related with time and depended roots of water fern, Azolla filiculoides. In comparison,
on the initial Cd concentration. In the present study, other aquatic plant species were proven to be poor
Cd and Zn were efficiently depleted from the solution accumulators of Cd or Zn, and very low Cd or Zn BCF
with the greatest decrease observed during the first values were observed. For example, Miller et al.57
four days. The sharp decrease in Cd and Zn reported that the BCF values for Cd and Zn in soft-
concentration remaining in the residual solutions is water pipewort were only 2.7 and 39, respectively;
indicative of the fast attainment of a saturation state. while Brix et al.58 found that the BCF values for Cd and
As soon as the saturation state was reached, it seemed Zn in the aboveground parts of eelgrass (Zostera marina)
a little difficult for plants to further absorb Cd or Zn. were only 0.62 and 78, respectively. Franzin and
Still the concentration decreased with the passage of McFarlane59 reported the BCF value for Cd of only 6 in
time. Myriophyllum exalbescens in contaminated sites; while
Bioconcentration factor (BCF) is a useful parameter Jain et al.28 reported the BCF value for Zn in Azolla
to evaluate the potential of the plants in accumulating pinnata of only 44.
metals and this value was calculated on a dry weight The appropriateness of a plant for phytoremediation
basis. Metal accumulations by macrophytes can be potential is often judged by its BCF. BCF values over
affected by metal concentrations in water and 1000 are generally considered evidence of a useful
sediments.51 The ambient metal concentration in water plant for phytoremediation.11 However, in this study,
was the major factor influencing the metal uptake with the BCF values of water hyacinth a little under
efficiency.52 In general, when the metal concentration 1000, this plant can be considered as a moderate
in water increases, the amount of metal accumulation accumulator for Cd and Zn. Further studies are needed
in plants increases, whereas the BCF values decrease.53 to extend the growth season of the plant for utilizing
It was also reported that in most cases, BCF values in Cd and Zn treatment in effluents. Effluents containing
decreased with increasing metal concentrations in the these metals at low concentration may be treated by
soil.54 Jain et al.28 found the BCF values for water velvet continuously passing them through a bed of water
(Azolla pinnata) and duckweed (Lemna minor) treated hyacinth growing in ponds. The harvestable parts, rich
with Pb and Zn gradually decreased with increasing in accumulated metals, can be easily and safely
102 ScienceAsia 30 (2004)

processed by drying, ashing or composting for Duckweed. Environ Qual 27 27, 715-21.
recycling.40 It represents a cost-effective plant-based 12. Salt DE, Blaylock M, Kumar PBAN, Dushenkov V, Ensley
BD, Chet I and Raskin I (1995) Phytoremediation: a new
technology for the removal of metals from the strategy for the removal of toxic metals from the environment
environment and has great potential for future using plants. Biotechnology 13 13, 468-74.
applications. 13. Das P, Summary S and Route GR (1997) Studies on cadmium
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aquatic environment. High metal removal rates of close future practices. In: Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium
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