Table of Contents

Unit 1:
 Physical Quantities ……………………..……4
 Measurements…………………………….….....7
 Kinematics (Motion) ……………………...… 21
 Analyzing Motion using Graphs (Speed-
Time and Distance-Time) ………………..…26
 Forces…………………………………………….…..33
 Free Fall ……………………………………………..40
 Centripetal Force………………………………..45
 Springs and Deformation (Hooke’s Law)..47
 Moment …………………………………………......52
 Center of Mass and Stability………..………59
 Momentum ………………………………………….63
 Energy and Power…………………………………67
 Generating Electricity……………………………77
 Work Done ……………………………………….....81
 Power …………………………………………………..82
 Efficiency………………………………………………85
 Pressure (Solids, Liquids, and Gases) …..86
 Pressure Measuring Devices …………….….92

List of Rules: Page 275

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Everything started with the study of nature (Natural philosophy). Natural
Philosophy is the study of the unanswered questions about nature. As more and
more questions appeared, natural philosophy turned to be a science.

Living things
Science

Non-living things
The physical sciences deal with the Non-living things and is branched into
Geology, Astronomy, Chemistry and Physics.

Physics comes from the ancient Greek world “Phusike” which means “The
Knowledge of Nature”. It is the natural science that involves the study of matter
and its motion through space and time, along with related concepts such as
energy and force. Physics applies on all our daily life aspects.

The concept of physics appears nearly in any kind of activity that we do; for
example walking, eating, writing, swimming or driving any kind of exercising.

Moreover, any kind of equipment that we use relies on physics as the car, the
bicycle, the watch, the plane….etc.

Without studying physics, there wouldn’t have been new inventions, for example
exploring the outer space. Our lives would be boring without some inventions
like televisions or cell phones.

The main topics that we are going to study in our syllabus are:

1. General Mechanics and Physical Quantities

2. Thermal Physics and States of Matter (solid, liquid, and gas)
3. Electricity and Magnetism
4. Waves (sound and light waves)
5. Radioactivity

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 Unit 1
Physical Quantities

Any factor that can be measured is called Physical Quantity, Ex: Length, Area,
Volume, Mass, Density, Temperature, Time, Speed … etc.

To study any process, we have to make some measurements to be able to study

the effect of a certain parameter on another, for example: if we would like to
measure the change in temperature of water while being heated and how this
temperature changes by time, so we have two parameters to be measured which
are “Time” and “Temperature” so, these are called physical quantities. The unit of
time is seconds, while the units of temperature are oC.

 Sometimes the physical quantity is a factor of two or more other physical

quantities for example; speed is defined as the distance move per “time”

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Speed=
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
 Units of Speed= m/ sec

Experimentation:
During any experiment, we have to be cautious of what Physical Quantities we
want to measure, and we have to control any external factors to be able to get
accurate results and draw a precise conclusion.

We can measure our target physical quantity more than once to take the average
for more accuracy.

𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠
Average =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠

Then we can analyze the result by drawing a graph and plotting our points.

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 Example: Design an experiment to show how temperature changes with time
during heating water.

The experiment will be designed as shown:

1- The first step is to define your physical quantities that will be measured
during the experiment.
2- Then decide the apparatus (equipment) you will need.
3- Procedures/ Steps of the experiment:
- Bring a beaker with some water.
- Put a thermometer in it.
- Start the stop watch at the same time with starting the Bunsen burner.
- Record the time each 30 sec.
4- Results:
- Record the data in a table.
- Plot a graph.

Temp/°C

Time/sec

5- Finally we can draw a conclusion of our experiment or define a relationship

between our physical quantities (time, temperature) based on the graph.

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 We have two famous types of relationships:

 Direct Proportion  Inverse Proportion

Y Y

 As X increase, Y increase X  As X increase, Y decrease X

 When X=0, Y=0 (with the same rate)
 X/Y or Y/X = Constant at any  (X)*(Y) = Constant
point.
 Graph is straight line, passing
through origin.

Significant Figures:

Trailing Zeros (on the right) are only counted if there is a decimal point.
Leading Zeros (on the left) are not counted.
Captive Zeros (at the middle) are counted.
1534 ……. 4 sig. fig 1500.0 …….. 5 sig. fig
1530 ……..3 sig. fig 0.205 ………. 3 sig. fig
1500 ……..2 sig. fig 0.2050 ……. 4 sig. fig
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 Measurements
1. Length:
Length can be expressed in different terms as distance, height, width, thickness,
radius or diameter. Length can be measured using different instruments:

 Meter Rule
 Tape meter
 Micrometer

Meter Rule: can measure to the nearest 1mm, can be used to measure lengths up
to 100cm (1m).

- Ruler has to be parallel and close to the object you are

measuring
- Start reading from the zero mark on the ruler.
- Precision = 1mm.

Tape meter/ Measuring Tape: used for large distance (ex:

playground length)

Micrometer (Screw Gauge): it is more accurate than meter rule, it can measure to
the nearest 0.01 mm, but used for small lengths (no more than 25 mm). Ex: can
be used for measuring the thickness of a paper. It has two readings:

1- Primary (Main) Reading on the Sleeve (P).

2- Secondary Reading on the Rotating Barrel (S).

𝑺
Reading = P+ mm
𝟏𝟎𝟎
 Don’t over tighten the jaws on the object.

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 Rotating Barrel

Ex: What is the reading shown on the Screw Gauge?

 You have to check zero error
of the micrometer before
using it.
Reading = 2.88 mm

Some measurement techniques:

a) To measure the thickness of a paper in a 1000 pages
book, we can measure the thickness of the 1000 pages at
one time, the divide by 1000 to get more accurate
results.
- You can repeat by measuring from different points, in case
the thickness is not constant.

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 b) Try to take any reading perpendicular by to avoid parallax error.

c) To measure circumference of a cylinder or a cup.

Get a string and wrap it around the cup several turns, then straighten it
on a ruler and divide its length by the number of turns.

𝑳
Circumference =
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔
Important Hints:

 Don’t leave gaps between turns.

 The string should be inextensible
 As the number of turns increase  you can get more accuracy.

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 d) To measure the thickness or the diameter of a wire, wrap it around the
pen while leaving no gaps, then use a ruler

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Diameter of a wire =
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠

e) Diameter of a ball: use 2 wooden blocks and put the ball between them

 If it is a small ball, we can use many balls and divide the length by
their number to get more accurate results

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Units of Length:

2. Area: S

Square: S
The area is the shaded part

Area of square= S x S= S2
L
Rectangle:
W
Area= L x W

Triangle:

Area= ½ x b x h h

To measure any area we need to measure the length of the sides of the area, and
this is done by one of the length instruments discussed in the previous part

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Units of Area:

3. Volume:
It is the space occupied by the body.

a) Regular body: we can calculate its volume by using the following:

S
 Cube
S V=s x s x s= s3

L
 Cuboid W
h V= L x w x h

V=π r2 h
r
 Cylinder
= Area of cross-section X Height (h)
h

Regarding the measuring instruments of the Volume, we need a meter rule to

measure the dimensions of the sides then apply the equations above.

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 b) Irregular body:

Ex: Rock or a statue we use a measuring cylinder

Displacement Method:

V1=30cm3 V2=40cm3 Or: using Overflow

Rock volume= V2-V1=40-30=10cm3 vessel to measure the
 Try to put the stone carefully volume of the rock.
 Avoid spillages
 Avoid parallax error

If we have 2 boxes, one is empty and the other contains books. As long as they
have the same dimensions, so they will have the same volume regardless what do
they contain inside.

Units of Volume:

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Example: If we have 10 sheets of straight cardboard and 10 sheets of corrugated
cardboard, which one of the two sets will have larger volume?

Measuring Cylinders:
 Unit Cm3
 Can’t measure volume of very large objects (as buildings).

Bottom of Top of
meniscus meniscus

In case of Water and most types of In case of Mercury Top of the

liquids Bottom meniscus meniscus

 Take care of the marks on the cylinder, each mark can represent 0.5 cm3 or
1 cm3 or 2 cm3 or more. This depends on the scale.

 The narrower the measuring cylinder the more accurate it is, as it gives
larger change in height of water, but choose its volume ≅ 3-4 times the
volume of the object.

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  If the object is floating, we can use a metal sinker with a known volume.

Volume of target object = Final volume-[initial volume + volume of metal sinker]

Hint: You can get an object that sinks in fresh water, but
it floats in salty water ……. As Salty water is more dense.
4. Mass

Mass is defined as the amount of matter in the body Or it can be

defined as the property that resists the change in speed and direction.
Units of Mass:

 Mass Also can be defined as

the property that resists the
change in motion.

 Mass (kg) ≠ Weight (N)

 Mass is measured by a balance.

a) Spring Balance (Newton meter):

 The object is hanged by a hook.

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  To get the mass in Kg, divide the reading by 10, as it is measured in Newton
(N)

1 Kg = 10 N (on Earth)

 It measures weight
 Weight = mass x acceleration due to gravity
 W=mxg on Earth g= 10 m/sec2 or 10 N/Kg

Hint: Any object will have the same mass on any planet; however its weight will
change from one planet to another depending on the gravitational acceleration (g).
So a spring carrying the same object on different planet will give different extension.

b) Digital balance/ Top Pan balance:

 For Solids:

 For Liquids: use a cylinder, but find its mass while being empty first.

20 g 30 g

Mass of liquid= 30g-20g =10g

c) Pivot balance (Beam Balance):

Relies on the concept of comparing masses.

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 5. Density
It is defined as the mass per unit volume of the object.

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐾𝑔 𝑔
Density= ( 𝑜𝑟 )
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑚3 𝑐𝑚3

 Density is directly proportional to mass and inversely proportional to

volume.
As Mass Density
As Volume Density

 The Density is comparing the mass of the body by its volume.

 If we have 2 liquids mixed together, the liquid with higher density will move
downwards and the one with less density will move upwards, and the same
applies for gases.
 Density of water = 1000kg/m3, regardless of its container (in a cup or a
cylinder or a bottle). Density of Air = 1.2 kg/m3.

Hint: The Density of any material doesn’t change, unless it is heated, cooled or
pressurized. When a substance is heated, the kinetic energy of its molecules
increases, so the intermolecular spacing increases (Volume increases) so density
decreases.

Volume increases

Mass same

Density decreases

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  Changing the state between solid, liquid and gases also affects the density.

Volume increases

Density decreases

How to measure the Density (ρ)?

𝑀 Balance
a. Regular shape: Density (ρ) =
𝑉 Dimensions

𝑀 Balance
b. Irregular shapes: : Density (ρ) =
𝑉 Measuring cylinder

6. Time

 When we need to get the Rate of anything so, we need to measure Time.
Example: If we need to measure the rate of cooling of a cup of tea, we will need a
thermometer to record the temperature and stopwatch to record the time.

Another Example: If we need to measure the Speed, (which is the rate of change
in distance)  so we need to record the Time and the Distance.

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  Time is measured by stopwatch.
 There are analogue and digital time devices, as
shown in figure.
 Light gate connected to electronic timer is used for rapidly moving objects.

How to measure the time of a swing of pendulum [Periodic time (T)]:

Steps:

 Hang the Bob at a certain starting position, then let it start

swinging and Start stopwatch at the same time.
 Let the Pendulum swing for 50 times (50 complete oscillations).
 Stop the Stopwatch when it returns back to the same original
position… (Make a Fiducial mark)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
T = 50

 Units of Time :

7. Temperature
The most common measuring device of temperature is the
Thermometer (Liquid in glass Thermometer):

- The Units of temperature: °C

- You have to look perpendicular to the reading of the Thermometer to avoid
Parallax error.
- Wait until the temperature stops changing. – Apply gentle stirring.

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SI system of units:
 We can express any physical quantity in terms of its basic unit.

Base units:

Length Meters (m)

Mass Kilograms (Kg)
Time Seconds (s)
Electric Current Ampere (A)
Temperature Degrees Celsius (°C) or Kelvin

Derived units:
Speed Distance/time m/s
Acceleration Speed/ time m/s2
Volume (length)3 m3
Density Mass/volume Kg/m3

Prefixes:
Giga G 109
Mega M 106
Kilo K 103
Centi c 10-2
Milli m 10-3
Micro µ 10-6

Giga Mega Kilo Centi Milli Micro

Example: 4 milliseconds (ms) = 4x10-3 sec

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 Vectors and scalars (Extended)

Any physical quantity can be a vector or a scalar.

Vectors: quantities with both magnitude and direction.

 Ex: Force, velocity, acceleration, moment, displacement,

acceleration, Momentum.

Scalars: quantities with magnitude only (no direction).

 Ex: Mass, volume, distance, speed, time, temperature, energy

o Weight is a Vector, while Mass is Scalar

o Velocity is a Vector while Speed is a Scalar

Kinematics (Motion)
 It is a study of a body in motion, which can be Linear motion or
Non-linear motion.
Linear motion: the motion along a straight line.

 Ex: Free ball, or a box sliding over an inclination

Non-linear motion: like Rotary or Circular motion as shown.

Direction: ACW

 The object can move Clockwise or counter-Clockwise

(Anti-clockwise).
 The object facing a continuous changing in direction
of motion.

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Speed - Velocity:
 Speed= Distance/ time (Scalar, without direction)
 Velocity= Distance/time (Vector, with direction)

 Two cars can have the same speed but different velocities if they are
moving in different directions.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Average speed =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Example:

30 km

50 Km 10 km
Total time = 3 hours
50+20+30+40+10
 Average speed= = 50 Km/hr
3

How to change the units from (Km/hr) to (m/s) ?

Convert Km to m = 150 X 1000 = 150000m

Convert Hours to seconds = 3 x 60x 60 = 10800 sec
150000
= = 13.9 m/s
10800

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 Acceleration
 It is defined as the change in velocity per unit time.

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑣−𝑢)

Acceleration= (m/sec2)
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
 Change in velocity = final velocity (v) – initial velocity (u)

Example:
If a car increases its velocity from 10m/sec to 30m/sec in 10 sec

𝑣−𝑢 30−10
Acc. = = = 2 m/sec2
𝑡 10
 As acceleration is positive number, so the speed is increasing.

Example:
If a car decreases its velocity from 30m/sec to 10m/sec in 10 sec

𝑣−𝑢 10−30
Acc. = = = -2 m/sec2
𝑡 10
 As acceleration is a negative number, so the speed is decreasing or it is
called “Deceleration”.

Hint: Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity and NOT SPEED!!!

 If there is change in Magnitude or Direction of the velocity, so

there is acceleration.

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 Acceleration

+ve value -ve value Zero

velocity increases velocity decreases velocityis constant

The acceleration can be constant during the whole journey, or it can

change from time to another, as shown in the following example.

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

Example:
Speed 0 20 50 60
Time 0 10 20 30

20−0
Acc. 1= = 2 m/s2
10−0

50−20
Acc. 2= = 3 m/s2
20−10

60−50
Acc. 3= = 1 m/s2
30−20

 We might have a decreasing acceleration, but still the velocity is

increasing (but at a lower rate) as shown between stages 2 and 3.

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Experiment:
Using a ticker tape-timer to check the acceleration of the moving object

The moving trolley makes dots on the ground. It has a pen that moves up and
down to draw the dots each one second while moving. As the dots become
wider, this means that the moving object is accelerating.

1 cm 5 cm

Here the car moves Here it moves

1 cm in 1 sec. 5 cm in 1 sec.

Hint: The table is slightly inclined to overcome friction between the trolley and
the table.

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 Analyzing Motion using Graphs

y
General Hints:
B C
Slope is a measure of the steepness 30

or inclination of a line. 20

𝑦2−𝑦1 10
Slope = (Gradient)
𝑥2−𝑥1

A x
1 2 3 4
Slope AB ?
𝑦2−𝑦1 30−0 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑌
If A (0,0), B(2,30)  slope=
𝑥2−𝑥1
= 2−0
= 15 ( 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑋 )

 Any straight line has constant slope.

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 We have 5 Common shapes of slopes:
1- Any straight line parallel to x-axis  slope=0
y

x
2- Positive Constant slope

y Hint:

Any parallel lines have the

same slope!

3- Negative Constant slope

4- A curve becoming steeper to y-axis Slope is increasing

y

5- A curve becoming steeper to x-axis Slope is decreasing

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 Distance – Time graphs
There are two main types of graphs :
Speed (or Velocity) – Time graphs

Distance-time graphs:
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
Slope = = Speed
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆

Constant slope Slope= 0

Constant speed Speed=0

Slope decreasing Slope increasing

Speed decreasing Speed increasing

“Deceleration” “Acceleration”

o In distance-time graphs, the slope represents the speed of the

body.

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 Speed-time graph:
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅
Slope = = Acceleration
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆

speed

- Constant slope
- Constant acceleration
- Speed increasing at constant rate.

time

speed

- Slope constant but negative.

- Acceleration (-ve) constant
- Constant Deceleration
- Speed decreasing at constant rate.

time

speed
- Slope =0
- Acceleration =0
- Constant speed

time
speed

- Slope decreasing (steeper towards x-axis)

- Acceleration decreasing
- Speed increasing (with lower rate)
time Not a decreasing Speed !!

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speed
- Slope increasing (steeper toward y-axis)
- Acceleration increasing
- Speed increasing (with higher rate)

time

Out of Scope:

speed - Slope increasing (in negative

direction)
- Increasing deceleration

time

speed
- Slope decreasing (from negative
toward zero)
- Decreasing deceleration

time

There is a difference between speed-time graph and velocity-time

graph, as the speed is a scalar quantity that neglects direction, while
velocity is considering (speed + direction).

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 So if the object changes direction, the V-T graph will jump to the
opposite side of the graph.

Example:

The car starts moving towards the V

right
+ve

Then it reverses direction to move

to the left. T
-ve

Hint: If we have two speed time graphs, which one has the higher value of
acceleration?
speed speed

time time
(1) (2)

(1) Has higher acceleration than (2) as it is more steep (higher slope).

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Example: Analyze all the stages of the graph shown below
Motion:
speed
D This is a speed- time graph  Slope = Acceleration.
80

60
AB  constant positive acceleration, speed
B
C
40 BC  zero acceleration, speed constant
20 CD  constant positive acceleration, speed
A
0 𝑦2−𝑦1 40−20
0 10 20 30 40 Acceleration at AB= slope = =
𝑥2−𝑥1 10−0
= 2 m/𝑠 2
time
𝑦2−𝑦1 80−40
Acceleration at CD = slope = =
𝑥2−𝑥1 40−30
= 4 m/𝑠 2

Hint: Stage CD has higher acceleration than AB…

because CD is steeper !

How to calculate distance from speed-time graph?

Distance = Area under the graph

1
Distance from point A B= 20x10 + x 10 x 20 = 300 m
2

Rectangle Triangle

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 Forces
A force is any push or pull. It can cause changes in distance, speed, and shape of a
body.

 It cannot affect mass or density (of a solid object).

 It comes in different forms as: weight, friction, Tension, Air resistance or
Up-thrust.
 It’s a Vector quantity, measured in Newtons (N).

What if we have more than one force acting on the body?

 We have to calculate the Resultant Force: It is a single force that has the
effect of all the forces acting on the body together.
 If the forces are parallel, we can add them or subtract them:

F2 F1 F resultant = F1+ F2

F resultant = F1- F2
F2 F1

 What if the forces are not parallel and make an angle.

F2 We can get its value by

drawing F1 and F2 to Scale.
F1

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Example: Get the Resultant force of the two forces A and B.
Method 1: Parallelogram method (using Compass)

Close a Step 5: Measure the

Parallelogram
Resultant force, then
multiply it by the scale
and measure its angle.

Close a
Parallelogram

Method 2: Head to Tail method

Draw the first force to scale with its

corresponding angle, then draw each force
from the end of the previous force.

Then connect the starting point to the final

point of all forces… This line is the Resultant force.

Measure the Resultant force, then multiply it by the scale and measure
its angle.
Hint: Vector Diagrams can
- Head to Tail Method should be a closed diagram.
be used to get the
- The Resultant Force should be in opposite
Resultant Force, Resultant
direction to the main forces (A and B). Velocity or Resultant
Momentum.

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 Newton’s First Law:
A body stays in rest or uniform motion unless it is acted upon by Resultant Force.

Resultant Force (Fr) =0 in 2 cases

Body at rest/ Stationary Body moving in a

straight line with
N= 100N
constant speed

acc=0, Fr =0

W= 100N

These two cases are called Equilibrium as “F” resultant =zero

Newton’s Second Law:

F= m x a

Resultant force (N) Mass (Kg) Acceleration (m/s2)

(Fr)
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Resultant force (Fr) = Driving force – Resisting Force
o if Fr (+ve) acc (+ve)
o if Fr (-ve) acc (-ve) Constant speed
o if Fr (zero) acc (zero) Equilibrium
Zero speed

Examples:
F: Resultant force
1)
D: Driving force
R= 200N D=1000N
R: Resisting force

F = D-R= 1000-200 = 800N

F (+ve), Acc (+ve), Speed increases

2) R=800 N D =800N

Direction of motion
F = D-R= 800-800 = 0 N

F=0, Acc = 0, constant Speed

3)

R=800 N D= 500 N

F= D-R= 500-800 = -300 N

F (-ve), Acc (-ve), Speed decreases

It will eventually stop !
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  Equilibrium means zero Resultant Force and zero
Turning Effect (Moment).
 If a force is applied Perpendicular to the direction of motion, the
object will move in a curve.

Newton’s Third Law: For Every action there is a reaction equal in

magnitude but opposite in direction.

Types of Forces:
 Weight :
 Or so called gravitational force.
 It is different from the “mass”.
 It describes how the earth attracts the body.

Weight = Mass x gravitational acceleration

W = m x g

N Kg m/s2 (or N/Kg) (g =10 on Earth)

 g is different on other planets, but constant on Earth.

 g is always directed downwards vertically.
 Mass is measured in Kg. It is a Scalar quantity, has same value anywhere.
 While the weight of an object is a Vector that can have different values in
different places.

During Free-Fall (ignoring air resistance), the acceleration = g = 10 m/s2

(Downwards), so if a part is thrown down its speed increases.
If it is thrown upwards its speed decreases until it reaches zero, then it accelerates
down and its velocity increases (as the acceleration due to gravity is downwards).
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  Normal Contact Force:

 The object must be on a surface.

 This normal force is always perpendicular to the surface.

 Frictional Force:
This is the resistance force between two contacting surfaces moving against each
other.

Ex: pushing a box on the floor

Friction force acting on the moving object is in opposite direction to the

motion and parallel to the floor.

Motion

As the roughness of the floor or the object increase, the Friction Force increases.

Friction force depends on the roughness of the surfaces and the weight of the object.

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  Up-thrust Force (u):
It is a vertically upwards force acts on a body when it is fully or partially
submerged in a liquid.
u
u

As the liquid becomes denser, it

creates larger up-thrust force (u)

 Air Resistance Force:

It is the force resisting the motion of body through fluids (can be Air or Liquids).

It is also called Drag Force.

Drag Force Motion

Motion
Drag Force
As speed , Drag force
As surface area , Drag force

 Tension Force:
It is the pulling force exerted by ropes or
strings.

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Free fall:
When an object falls freely without any external constraints

o The weight remains constant and directed vertically downwards.

o The air resistance acting upwards and increases as speed increases.
o The object is exposed to gravitational acceleration (g) =10 m/sec2 on
Earth directed downwards.

We have 2 cases:

a) Ignoring Air Resistance:

g= 10 m/sec2

 So if we through a steel ball, a piece of paper or a man from the same

height, they will reach the ground at the same moment.

F= m x a ……….. (a = g = 10 m/sec2)

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  Acceleration is Constant through the entire journey.
 However, this is not realistic as we should have air
resistance on Earth.

If there is No Air resistance

Acceleration = = 10 m/sec2

b) With Air Resistance:

We have 6 stages:
If a person with mass 70 kg jumps from a plane:

 weight= mxg = 70 kg x 10 m/sec2 = 700 N  this is the driving Force

 The Air resistance increases as the speed increases  this is the resisting force.

1)
R= 0N  At time = 0 , there is ni air resistance as
there is no motion.
 Fr = W - R = 700N
 Fr = ma  700 =70 x a  (a= 10 m/ sec2)
 So the parachutist here is accelerating and
his speed is increasing.

W= 700N

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 2)
R= 200N  As speed increases, air resistance increases, so
resultant force decreases.
 Fr =700-200= 500 N
 Fr = ma 500 = 70 x a  a = 7.1 m/sec2
So the Parachutist here is accelerating but with

lower acceleration.
W= 700N

3) R= 600N  As speed increases, air resistance increases, so

resultant force decreases.
 Fr = W-R = 700-600 =100 N
 Fr = mxa  100= 70xa  a=1.4 m/sec2
 The parachutist still accelerating at lower rate.

W= 700N

4) R= 700N  As speed increases, air resistance increases

until it’s equal to the weight.
 Fr = W-R = 0
 Fr = mxa  a = 0 m/sec2
 Constant speed (Terminal Velocity 1)

W= 700N

Now the Parachute opens.

R= 1000N
 Air resistance increases, so it becomes
5) larger than the weight.
 Fr =W-R= 700-1000= -300N
 Fr = mxa  a = - 4.2 m/sec2
 So, we have deceleration and the speed
is decreasing

W= 700N
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 6) As speed decreased in step (5), the Air resistance
decreases to be equal to the Weight.
So the Resultant Force = Zero and Acceleration = Zero
This is called  Terminal Velocity 2 (Constant Speed).

To Sum up:

If Driving force > Resisting Speed increases

If Driving force < Resisting Speed decreases

If Driving force = Resisting Speed constant

Speed-Time graph for a skydiver

Speed

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 But anyways, I forgot the
Parachute that shall slow
me down.

Hint: if we throw two bodies with different masses and different materials from
the same height they will reach the ground at the same speed and at the same
time… in case there is no air resistance (in Vacuum).

But if there is air resistance, we have to consider the surface area of the object,
as the surface area increases, air resistance increases, so it will fall slower.

What if the object is falling in liquid?

Describe the motion of this metal ball released in liquid.

- At the beginning it has maximum acceleration.

- As its speed increases Drag force (water resistance)
increases.
- Resultant Force decreases.
- Acceleration decreases.
- Until it reaches terminal Velocity (Weight = Drag Force)

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Centripetal force:
Any object that is moving in a circular or curved path has a force directed towards
the center of this path. This force is called Centripetal Force.

 This force helps the body to keep moving in circular path. The body must have
a force directed towards the center of this path; which is the Centripetal
Force.

Ex: Satellites and Moon rotating around the Earth.

The direction of motion in case the object leaves the circular track is always
straight line tangent to the circle!!

The direction of the velocity at any instant is tangent to the circle, so if the object
leaves this circular track it will move in a straight line tangent to the circle.

Ex: Here the centripetal force is the gravity and directed toward the center (Earth)

Centripetal Force (this is also the direction of acceleration)

The Moon would

move in this
direction if it left
the track.

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Ex: A car or bike taking a round.

o The centripetal force here is the friction force

Ex: Swinging pendulum

o The centripetal force here is the tension in the string

o It is directed towards the center

Centripetal
Force

Larger Centripetal force is needed in

the following cases:
o Increasing speed (Faster car needs
larger force)
o Increasing mass (Heavier car needs
larger force)
o Decreasing radius of path (Smaller
rounds needs larger force).

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 Hint:

 Centripetal force causes change in direction (which means

changing in velocity) but not speed !!!!
 As the velocity changes, this means that there is acceleration
(Although the speed is constant).

Springs and Deformation

Deformation: it is the change in shape or length of an object due to applied
force. It can be stretched, compressed, bent, or twisted.

Deformation

“Plastic Deformation”
“Elastic Deformation”
It will not return to its original
The object will return to its original shape when the shape. It is permanently deformed.
force is removed.

Extension (x) = Final length(Lf) - Original length(Lo)

Directly Force
Proportional

Extension

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Elastic Deformation:
Calculate the extension of the two loaded springs?
Example:

F=0

x=0

L0 = 10cm F=100N

Lf = 15cm

x = Lf – Lo F=200N

=15-10= 5cm Lf = 20 cm,  x =10 cm

Find the Extension for load 300N ?

So we can make a table:

Force (N) Measured length (Lf) Extension (x) (cm)

(cm)
0 10 0
100 15 5
200 20 10
300 A? B?

 Now we can get the final length (Lf) and extension (x) due to 300N
 We can get (x) using cross-multiplication between F and x.
 But we can’t get (Lf) using cross-multiplication.
 This is because F and x are directly proportional while F and Lf are not.

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 Then we can get “B?” by adding the initial length (10cm) to the extension at
300N 15 cm … So Total Length= 10+15=25cm. F x
200 10
300 ? (y)

Important Hint: We make Cross-multiplication between Force and Extension,

But Not between Force and Length!!

Hooke’s Law:
Force and extension are directly proportional up to Elastic limit or Limit of
proportionality. After this limit, the object experience plastic deformation.

Hooke’s law is obeyed

from A to B only !

 From A to B:
 Elastic deformation
 Directly proportional
 Straight line
 At F=0, x =0
 Form B to C:
 Plastic deformation
 Not Directly proportional relationship
 Curve
 The part doesn’t return to its original shape
 Doesn’t obey Hooke’s Law. (and the spring is easier to extend)

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Stiffness:

Spring (1) Spring (2)

F=100N F=100N
x= 10cm x= 20cm

 Spring (2) experiences more extension than spring (1), for the same load.
 So spring (1) is stronger (more stiff).

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Spring constant (k): it is property of the spring that defines its stiffness (strength)
of a spring. It is the slope of the Force- extension graph.

Spring (1)
Force (N)

Spring (2)

100N

10cm 20cm Extension (cm)

 Spring (1) has less extension than spring (2) at same force (F=100N).
so k1>k2 (also as the slope of spring (1) is higher).
 We can have the graph inverted (y-axis is the extension and x-axis is the force)
1
in this case  k=
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒

So the spring with higher stiffness (K) is the one that is closer to the Force
axis.

Hint:
 To check that the spring is obeying Hooke’s law calculate the value of K for
different values.

 If the value of K is constant  Obeying Hooke’s Law.

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 Moment
It is a measure of the turning effect of the force around a point (pivot).

Moment of the force = Force x perpendicular distance from the

force to the pivot
 The moment is a Vector quantity, its direction can be clockwise or
anticlockwise.
 Unit if Moment is N.m. or N.cm

Example:

2m 3m
2m 3m

4 N4 N
5N
5N Pivot
Pivot Pivot
Moment= 5x2= 10 N.m Moment= 4x3= 12 N.m

(Anti clockwise) (Clockwise)

Moments can be added or subtracted:

2m
3m

4N
5N
Pivot
 Anticlockwise moment = 5x2=10 N.m
 Clockwise moment= 3x4= 12 N.m
 Resultant moment = 12-10= 2 N.m (clockwise)

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 Example:
4m

2m
3m

3N
5N 6N

 Clockwise moment= 6x2= 12 N.m

 Anticlockwise moment= 3x3 + 5x4= 29 N.m
 Resultant moment= 29-12 = 17 N.m (Anti-clockwise)

Hints:

 Moment is dependent on both force and perpendicular distance.

 If the force is passing through the pivot, this means that perpendicular
distance = 0, so Moment = 0.

Example:

1)
10 N
- This force will not make a
turning effect (moment) as the
perpendicular distance =zero

2)
10 N
- Same here, perpendicular
distance equals to zero.
Because if we extend the
force line, it will pass through
the pivot.

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 3)

- M = 0, For same reason

10 N

What is meant by perpendicular distance ?

Here we have two forces acting
on the rod shown. One is 5N
and the other is 7N. What is the
Resultant Moment on the rod?
5m
F1=5 N
Rod 3m

F2=7 N
2m

6m

 The Perpendicular distance to the 5N is 2m and the perpendicular

distance to the 7N is the 3m.

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Example:
F= 5 N F= 2 N
3m

F= 10 N

10 m
10 m

 Moment due to F=10 N M=0

 Moment due to F= 5 N M= 5x3= 15 N.m ACW
 Moment due to F= 2N M= 2x10= 20 N.m CW
 Resultant= 0 + 15 ACW + 20 CW = 5 N.m CW

Example: Can we get larger moment by the same weight (force)?

Yes, by increasing the perpendicular distance from the pivot.

1 Moment 1< Moment 2 2

Example: The principle of moments can be experimented using weights, meter

rule and pivot, as shown. d1 d2

W1 W2

To achieve equilibrium (moment = zero)

Moment 1 = Moment 2

W1 x d1 = W2 x d2

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 Equilibrium
Equilibrium has two conditions:

o Resultant Moment = Zero

Clockwise moment = Anticlockwise moment

o Resultant Force = Zero

Upwards = Downwards and Right = Left
8 cm

2 cm 2 cm 5 cm

2N
5N 5N

10 N
F
(Force exerted by the pivot or the rod)

Is this rod stable (in equilibrium) ?? Then find the Upwards force (F).

Moments:

 Anticlockwise moment= (5x2) + (10x4) = 50 N.cm

 Clockwise moment = (2x5) + (5x8) = 50 N.cm
 Resultant moment = 0, (So this rod is in Equilibrium)

Forces:

 Downwards force = 10+5+2+5= 22 N

 Upwards force has to be the same as downwards force as we are in
equilibrium F = 22 N (at the pivot )

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Example: A 70 Kg man standing on the floor, what is the value of the force
exerted by the floor on him? 700 N This man is in equilibrium.

Force (F) = Weight = mg

= 70 x 10= 700 N

This force is called the Normal

Contact Force.

Equilibrium

Example: If this rod is in equilibrium, Find (W) and (F pivot).

60 cm

20 cm 20 cm

4N

15 N W

F pivot = ?
Calculate moment about pivot:

o Clockwise moment = ( 4x 60) + (W x 20)

o Anticlockwise moment = 15x20 = 300 N.cm
 As we are in equilibrium  (4 x 60) + (W x 20) = 300 N.cm
W= 3 N

F pivot = 15 N + W + 4 N (as upwards forces = downwards forces) “Equilibrium”

F pivot =15 +3 +4 = 22 N upwards

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Example:

 Find (F) and (F pivot)

F
2 cm

4N
10 N
5 cm

8 cm

o Clockwise moment= (10 x 5)+ (4x8)= 82 N.cm

o Anticlockwise moment= Fx2  F = 41 N
o Resultant of forces= 41- (10+4) = 27 N up ∴ F pivot =27 N down

Example: If this rod is in Equilibrium, Find d? and F pivot?

2 cm d

4N
10 N

o Clockwise moment = (4xd)

o Anticlockwise moment= (10x2)= 20 N.cm
∴ 4xd = 20  d = 5 cm
o Force on the pivot = 10+4 = 14 N upwards

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Applications on Moments:

1- See-saw

We can achieve equilibrium using different weights by considering Moments.

2- Scissors, 3- Wrench 4- Opening Doors

Centre of Mass or Gravity:

It is the point where the whole body weight may be considered to act.

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Centre of mass/gravity of lamina (piece of paper or card) with regular shape.

Intersection of Intersection of Centre of circle

diagonals medians

If it is irregular card (Lamina), we can make an experiment using a pendulum and

pin.

 The center of mass always aligns itself below the hanging point (the pin)
 Intersection of the 2 lines is the center of gravity (center of mass).
 You can repeat it more than two times; all the lines will intersect in one
point.

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Stability:

The center goes outside the

The center is still inside the base, so the box will topple.
base, so the box is stable
(the box will not topple)

How to increase stability?

1) Make the center of mass near to the base

2) Wider base

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Examples:

 Passengers are not allowed to stand up in the bus while moving, as this
action reduces the stability of the bus.

 If we have two lorries as shown:

*Why does the object fall over if the center of mass comes outside the base?
As the weight acting at the center of mass will make a moment, that will rotate the object to
topple it.

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 Momentum
It is defined as the product of mass and velocity of an object. It is an indicator of
the effort you will need to change the speed of an object.

Example: A truck with large mass moving at high speed has large momentum.

o This means that it needs large force to bring it to that speed and it will
need large force to stop it afterwards. But, if the truck was of less mass
or moving at lower speed, it would have less momentum.

 Momentum is a Vector quantity with both magnitude and direction.

𝑲𝒈 𝒎 𝑲𝒈.𝒎
 Momentum units can be or N.s { as we know N = }
𝒔 𝒔𝟐

Example: a plane of mass 1x 106 Kg moving south at speed 5 x 105 m/s

𝑲𝒈 𝒎
o Momentum = m x v= 1x106 x 5x105 = 5x1011 “South”
𝒔

What if we have more than one body:

o If we have 2 objects m1 & m2 with velocity v1 & v2 respectively
 Total momentum = p1+ p2 = m1v1 + m2v2

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Relation between momentum and force:
If a force is applied to an object it will cause change in its velocity from initial
velocity (u) to final velocity (v) and this will cause change in its momentum (∆p) or
so called “Impulse” (J), there are two equations that can be applied:

Equation 1: ∆p = mv – mu

𝑲𝒈.𝒎
∆p: change in momentum or N.s
𝒔
v: Final velocity (m/s)
u: Initial velocity (m/s) Proof:

1) ∆p = F x T
Equation 2: ∆p = F x T 𝑣−𝑢
2) F = m x a = m x 𝑡

𝑲𝒈.𝒎 Substitute 2) in 1):

∆p: change in momentum or N.s
𝒔 𝑣−𝑢
F: Force (N) ∆p = F x T = (m x ) x T = m(v-u)
𝑡

T: Time (s) = mv-mu

Example: A force of 10 N is applied on an object of mass 2 Kg for 5 sec, if initial

velocity of the object is 5 m/s. what is the final velocity?

∆p = mv – mu= F x T
= (2 x v) – (2 x 5) = 10 x 5  v= 30 m/s

Hint: If the force is in the opposite direction put it with a –ve sign

Important Note: Before starting any Momentum question we have to

consider the direction  +ve -ve 

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 Conservation of Momentum:
Momentum is a conserved quantity (like energy).

 In a closed system the total momentum is constant as long as no external

forces are applied.

Example: If we have 2 objects m1& m2 with velocity u1&u2  after some

collisions their velocities become v1& v2

P1 = P2
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

Initial Momentum Final Momentum

 Hint: Direction of motion is very important to consider

 Assume  -ve and  +ve.

u1 u2 Collision v1 v2

Implse (J): is the change in momentum of an object.

J = ∆p = p2- p1 = F x t
P2: mv (final momentum)
P1: mu (initial momentum)
F: Force (N)
T: Time (s)
 Impulse has the same units as Momentum.

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 Example: Find the Final Speed of vehicle B after collision, its Impulse and the
force applied on it if the collision lasts for 0.5 sec.

P1 = P2

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

v2 = 4.5 m/s
𝑲𝒈 𝒎
Impulse J = ∆p = m2v2- m2u2 = 1000 or 1000 N.s
𝒔

Impulse J= F x T = F x 0.5  F = 2000 N

Hint: we can draw vector diagram for

Momentum.
Example: The yellow sphere shown in figure is moving to
the right with Momentum (P1). Then it is being kicked at
angle 60⁰ to the horizontal to gain momentum (∆P).

Solution: To get the resultant Momentum (P2) we have

to draw a vector Diagram as shown.

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Example: The boy and the girl are initially at rest. Then they push each other
apart with the same force in opposite directions. Find the Final Velocity (v2) of the
girl, if the velocity of the boy would become 5 m/s.

Solution: before starting set directions  +ve -ve 

Energy and power:

Energy is a measure of the ability of a body, a machine or a system to do any
activity. No activity is possible without energy.

o The Unit of Energy is Joules.

The Common forms of energy:

1) Gravitational Potential Energy: If a body is raised through a vertical distance in
a gravitational field, it will gain gravitational potential energy.
G.P.E= m x g x h

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G.P.E: Gravitational Potential Energy in Joules (J)

m: mass (Kg)

g: gravitational acc. (g=10 m/s2)

h: vertical height (m)

 G.P.E. can be defined as the energy stored due to the position of the body.
 As object goes up, G.P.E. increases.
 As object goes down, G.P.E. decreases.
 If object moves horizontally, no change in G.P.E.
 G.P.E. is dependent on height (h) and mass (m)
 G.P.E. can be defined as Weight x Height … (Weight = m x g)
 The lowest position where h=0, is called “Reference level”

2) Chemical Energy: It is the energy stored inside the body due to a chemical
reaction.
o Chemical energy in fossil fuels is
converted to heat and light when fuel is
burned.
o Chemical energy in battery is converted
to electrical energy.

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 o Chemical energy inside the muscles of a person is converted to
gravitational potential energy or kinetic energy.
o Chemical Energy is also found in food, in candles, or box of matches.

Hint:

 Energy released from the Sun by Nuclear Fusion (we call it Nuclear Energy).
o Two energetic hydrogen atoms collide and Fuse together to form
Helium and release energy.
 Energy released from Radioactive materials (like Uranium) in Power
stations by Nuclear Fission (we call it Nuclear Energy too).
o A large nucleus absorbs a neutron to split to smaller nuclei and
releases energy.

3) Elastic (strain) Energy: It is the energy gained by a body when it experiences

Stretching, Compression, Bending or Twisting.

o Ex: Rubber band or spring.

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4) Electric Energy: It is the energy gained by charges when they flow through an
electric supply (Ex: Battery).

o A battery converts chemical energy to electrical energy.

o A lamp converts electrical energy into light and heat.

5) Heat Energy (Thermal Energy): It is the energy that flows from one body to
another due to difference in temperatures…. Or the energy produced due to
contact between two objects.
o As temperature increases, heat energy increases

Examples:

o When you push a box against the floor the chemical energy in your
muscles is converted to Kinetic and Heat energy due to friction.
o Rubbing your hands convert kinetic energy to heat energy.
o Any moving body is losing heat energy due to friction with the ground
and Air resistance.

6) Internal Energy: It is the sum of internal kinetic energies and the energy stored
in the bonds of all particles (potential energy).
o Heat energy or Chemical Energy can be expressed in terms of Internal
energy.

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7) Light Energy:

8) Sound Energy:

Microphones: Sound Energy to Electric Energy.

Speakers: Electric Energy to Sound Energy

9) Kinetic Energy: It is the energy stored in the body due to its motion.

𝟏
K.E. = x m x v2
𝟐

K.E.: Kinetic energy (Joules)

m: Maas (Kg)
v: Velocity (m/s)
o K.E. depends on the velocity and mass of the body.
o K.E. increases if the body accelerates (velocity increases).
o K.E. decreases if the body decelerates (velocity decreases).
o K.E. is constant if acceleration = 0 (no change in velocity).

Conservation of Energy
Law of conservation of Energy:
Energy cannot be created nor destroyed. It can only be converted from one form
to another.

 The Total amount of energy is always constant.

 This means that a decrease in one form of energy is
converted to an equal increase in another form and vice
versa.

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Example: When a ball is dropped, it loses some gravitational potential
energy as G.P.E. = m x g x h and “h” is decreasing.
 But where does this G.P.E go?
o If we neglected the air resistance, all this G.P.E. is converted to K.E.
(kinetic energy). Because the speed is increasing as the ball moves
down.

o But what if we consider air resistance?

1) If weight > air resistance  the object will accelerate  so part
of the lost G.P.E. is converted to K.E. and the rest will be
converted to heat due to air resistance.

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 2) If weight = air resistance  All G.P.E. will be converted to heat
due to air resistance and no gain in K.E. as acceleration = zero.

3) If weight < air resistance  as in the case of opening a

parachute  the speed will decrease, so K.E. decreases, also
G.P.E. decreases as height decreases  All this lost energy will
be converted to heat due to air resistance.

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Example: If we throw a ball with mass 3 Kg from 5 m height, ignoring air
resistance.

K.E= 0 P.E=mgh=

P.E= mgh= 3x10x3= 90 J

5m
K.E=150-90 G.P.E=0
3x10x5=150 J 3m
=60 J K.E=150 J

The total energy is always constant (Conservation of Energy):

 If the ball doesn’t rebound once it hits the ground, this means that all the
G.P.E. and K.E. are converted to heat and sound energy.
𝟏
 To get the Velocity at any height, use K.E = m v2 (we know the mass “m =
𝟐
3kg”, so we can calculate the velocity “v”).
Change in G.P.E = Change in K.E
 If the ball rebounds, it will go up again but not to the initial position, as
some energy is lost in the form of heat and sound as it hits the ground. It
will continue rebounding until it stops.

Example:

o if a car is accelerating up a hill

K.E. increasing

G.P.E. increasing

Chemical Energy in Fuel is decreasing

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 o If a Ball is kicked up a hill.
K.E. decreasing

G.P.E. increasing

Heat energy increasing

o If a sky diver is falling with constant speed

K.E. constant This means that the lost

G.P.E. is converted to heat
G.P.E. decreasing
due to air resistance

o If a bike is accelerating on a straight (Level)(Horizontal) road

K.E. increasing

G.P.E. constant

Chemical Energy is decreasing (in the

biker’s muscles)

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Motor:
 It is a device that converts electric energy to kinetic energy.
 Car Engine: converts from Chemical energy  K.E.

Generator:
 It is a device that converts kinetic energy to electric energy (electricity)
using a turbine.
 Some Generators work with fuel:
Chemical Energy (Fuel)  Electric Energy

Example: A boy falling from a cliff as shown.

a- Complete the missing numbers. (Ignore Air

Resistance).

b- If the mass of the boy is 60kg, find his speed just

before reaching the sea level?
Solution: G.P.E at the top = K.E. at the sea level

1
m. g. h = m v2
2
Substitute and get v.

c- If we need to double this final speed, by how many

times should the height of the cliff increase?

Solution: 4 times

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 Generating electricity
 Non-renewable sources
 Renewable sources

1) Non-renewable:

This is the kind of energy that has a limit.

- Fossil fuels (ex: coal or oil)

- Nuclear fuels (Nuclear Fission) ex: Uranium.

Advantages:

 Produces large amounts of energy. – Reliable (Always available).

 High efficiency.
 Low initial cost relative to renewable sources, but high running cost
(Although the nuclear power stations can be considered relatively expensive).
 Scale: Fossil Fuels and Nuclear Fuels Power stations can be compact and
supply a large population (Concentrated sources of Energy).

Disadvantages:

 Polluting to the environment (Fossil fuels produce greenhouse gases as CO2,

while nuclear materials produces radioactive emissions that causes cancer).
 Has a limit, and may vanish one day.

How does it work?

The fuel is burned to heat water  producing steam to rotate turbines
 Generate electricity

Internal energy (or chemical energy) 

Heat energy  K.E  Electric Energy.

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 2) Renewable sources:

These are the sources of energy that doesn’t vanish (end). Like Biomass
fuel (like Wood, animal dung and Biogas), Solar energy, Wind or Water.

Advantages:

 Non-polluting to the environment (Environmental Friendly)

 Has no limits (Doesn’t end).

Disadvantages:

 Produces less amounts of energy. – Not reliable (Not always available).

 Low efficiency.
 High initial cost relative to non-renewable sources, but low running costs.
 Scale: Solar Cells and Wind turbines need large space to supply a large
population (Dilute sources of Energy).

a) Using water
i. Tidal Energy (Dam):

The flowing water is stored behind the Dam, then the Lock Door opens and the
water flows and rotates the turbine that drives the Generator.

(G.P.E  K.E  E.E)

The Tidal uses the same idea but depending
on the flow of water due to the Tide
Mr. Hussein Khaled
because of the
78 Moon (mainly) and the Sun.
 ii. Hydroelectric power station:
Disadvantages of
Hydoelectric and Dams:

Creating reservoirs can

flood useful lands

Destroys ecosystems

- Water is falling down to rotate the turbine

(G.P.E  K.E  E.E.)

iii. Waves:

Waves moving have Kinetic energy that is used to rotate the turbines and
generate Electricity.

b) Using Air /Wind energy:

 The Winds are used in rotating the blades of the
turbine to generate electricity

As velocity of blade increases  K.E increases E.E increases

As surface area of the blades increasesE.E increases

 However, it’s noisy, needs large space and it has high

initial cost.

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 c) Geothermal :

Using the energy stored in Hot Rocks underground, that changes water to steam
to be used to rotate turbines then generate electricity through the Generator.

Heat Energy  Kinetic Energy  Electric Energy.

d) Solar energy:
 Solar cells are used to convert light energy from the sun into
electric energy.
 This amount of the energy is dependent on the surface area of
Solar cells. Ex: if the rate of absorption = 10 J/m2 and we
60
need 60J  so we need = 6 m2 Solar Cells (Solar Panels).
10

Hint: The sun is the source for most of the electric energy resources,
either renewable or non-renewable, as it is the source of Wind, Solar,
Water sources, Fossil Fuels and Biomass Fuels. (Except Nuclear, Geothermal and
Tidal)

Q: How the Sun is the reason for hydro-electric power generation?

 The answer is in describing the Water Cycle.

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 Work Done
When a force (N) is exerted on a body to move it a distance (d), so the value of
work done on this body is calculated using:

WD= Force x Distance (parallel)

WD: work done (joules)

Force: (N) Distance: (m)

 Work done can be added to or subtracted from any type of energy have
same unit (Joules).
Work Done can be represented as the change in energy
(gained or lost) from the body.

Example 1:

Calculate the work done in this case.

Solution:

WD= Force x Distance

= 10 X 2 = 20 J

Example 2:

Calculate the work done by this athlete in lifting 50 kg weight at

a height of 2 m.

Solution:

W= Force x Distance , Force = Weight = mxg = 50X10 = 500N

W= 500 X 2 = 1000 J

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Example 3:

A man needs to push s box with mass 4kg up a ramp to a height of 10 m. Force
F =200N. Calculate a) Work done against gravity, b) Work done by Force (F) and
c)Energy Lost.

a) Work done in raising the box (against gravity) = Force X Distance

Force = 4kgX10 = 40 N The force is multiplied by
its Parallel distance !!
Work Done = 40 X 10 = 400J

b) Work done by force (F)  Work Done = F x D = 200 x 8 = 1600 J

c) Lost energy = 1600 – 400 = 1200 J

Hint: Not all the forces can do work. Some forces are doing no
work if there is no distance moved.

Power
It is the rate at which energy is transferred. [As we say “rate” this means that it is
divided by Time].

𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲
Power = (J/s=Watt)
𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞
OR Power = Force X Velocity (Watt)

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 𝐣𝐨𝐮𝐥𝐞
 Watt = , so if we have kJ, multiply it by 1000 to convert it to
𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝
joules and the same for seconds. If we have the time in minutes,
multiply by 60 to convert to seconds.

Example: If a man holds a 10 Kg box up vertical distance of 5 m in 10sec. Calculate

the Work Done and the Power used.

 Force= weight = mg= 10Kg x 10 m/s = 100 N

 WD= F x d= 100 x 5= 500J
𝑊𝐷 500
 Power = = = 50 watt
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 10

OR:

 G. Potential Energy= mgh= 10x10x5= 500J

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 500
 Power= = = 50 watt
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 10

Example: A car exerts a force 5000 N, moves a track of length 100 m in 20 sec.
calculate the Power exerted by the car in the track.

o WD=F x d= 5000 x 100= 5 x 105 joules

𝑊𝐷 5 𝑥 105
o Power= = = 25000 watt
𝑇 20

Power, Energy & Time relations:

𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲
Power =
𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞
 Power and energy are directly proportional
 Power and time are inversely proportional

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Example: Two persons A and B with the same weights
climbed to the same height. Person A reached in shorter
time than B. Which one of them exerted larger work and
which one exerted higher power than the other?

Solution:

 Both of them did the same work as they have the same force (Weight)
and same distance.
 Person A exerted larger power as he took shorter time. Because Power
and Time are inversely proportional.

Hint: when the energy increases, the power does not necessarily have to increase
as it is also affected by time.

Example:

Calculate the Power in the following cases:

Work (J) Time (s) Power (Watt)

a- 500 10 P = 500/10 = 50
b- 800 10 P = 800/10 = 80
c- 500 20 P = 500/20 = 25

From case a and b it is clear that as the work increase the power increase

From case a and c it is clear that as the time increase the power decrease

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 Efficiency
It is a measure of how much of the total energy input
is converted to useful energy output.

The useful output and the

𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒇𝒖𝒍 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 total input should be both
Efficiency = x100 with the same Units !!
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
 The output and input can be both in terms of Power or both in terms of
Energy.

Example: If we have two machines (A&B)

input output input output

A B
5000 W 2000 W 5000 W 3000 W
2000
 (A) efficiency = x100 = 40%
5000
3000
 (B) efficiency = x100 = 60%
5000
 Machine (B) is better than machine (A) as it has higher efficiency and it
can give 60% useful output from thr total input.
Hint: If we have two machines in sequence, the total efficiency of the
system will be the final Output of the second machine divided by the
initial input of the first machine.

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 Pressure
Pressure is defined as the force exerted per unit area.
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
Pressure = (N/m2) (Pascal)
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂

 Pressure is directly proportional to the force (as F P )

 Pressure is inversely proportional to the area (as A P )

Example: You can push a pin against a wooden piece, such

that it will penetrate the wooden piece, but if you
pushyour finger with the same force against the wooden
piece, your finger will not penetrate.

 This is because your finger has larger area, so

less pressure.

Relation Between Area and Pressure: As A P

F= 100 N F= 100 N

Contact Area = 1 m2 Contact Area= 5 m2

100 100
P= = 100 pa P= = 20 pa
1 5

More pressure Less pressure

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Example: Why do we use the sharp edge of the knife in cutting?

o Less area  higher pressure, so it is easy to cut.

Relation Between Force and Pressure: As F P

Hint: Pressure is exerted using Matter (Molecules) either solid, liquid,

or gas. But in vacuum there is no pressure as there are no molecules.

Examples on pressure:
 If you are standing on thin ice, you have to lie down to spread your
weight over large area to reduce the pressure on the ice, so reduce the
risk of breaking the ice and falling down.

 Crawler boards used for glass or wooden roofs to

increase surface area, thus reducing pressure.

 Desert trucks have wide tyres to spread the weight

over large surface area to avoid sinking in the sand.

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 Pressure in liquids and gases
Liquids and Gases exert pressure on the sides and base of the container and on
any object that is submerged or fully immersed in the liquid, as their molecules
are moving around causing pressure on every surface they collide with.

P = ρ . g. h
P: pressure (Pa) ρ: density (Kg/m3) g: gravitational acc. (10 m/s2)

h: depth from the surface of the liquid (m)

Example: If you immerse a box in water, what is the

pressure exerted by water on the box in case of 1 m
depth, 3m & 5m depth.

P = ρ . g. h

o ρ water = 1000 kg/m3

o P1 = 1000 x 10 x 1 = 1 x 104 Pa
o P2 = 1000 x 10 x 3 = 3 x 104 Pa
o P3 = 1000 x 10 x 5 = 5 x 104 Pa
(It is clear that as the Depth increase, the Pressure increase)

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The previous example is the pressure due to water only.

What is the total pressure? (if we know that atmospheric pressure = 100000 pa)

Total pressure = liquid pressure (P1 or P2 or P3) + atmospheric pressure

Hint: if you have another gas above the surface of the liquid other than the
Atmosphere:

Ptotal = ρ . g. h + Pgas

 The size or the shape of the container does not affect the pressure exerted by
the liquid. Only Depth and Density of liquid affect the Pressure !!

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Example:

Pressure at point A is higher than B as mercury has higher density than water,
although they have the same depth.

Example:
If we have a box with base Area = 4 m2 and height= 5 m that is filled with water.
(a) What is the value of the pressure due to water at the base of the box?
(b)what is the value of force exerted by the water on the base of the box?
(c) what is the total pressure on the base if the P atm. = 100,000Pa.?

F
5

A= 4 m2

(a) P = ρ. g. h = 1000 x 10 x 5 = 50,000 Pa

𝐹 𝐹
(b) P = = 50000 =  F = 50000 x 4= 200,000 N = 2x105 N
𝐴 4
(c) Total Pressure = 100,000+50,000 = 150,000 Pa.

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Why object experiences up-thrust force in a liquid?

 Pressure increases as we go down so the

pressure at the bottom of the object is higher
than the top.

Example: Justify the phenomenon shown in the following figure:

As we move down the pressure

increases, so the water has larger
force exerted on it, so it travels
larger distance than the upside
holes.

Example:
If we have two window Panes in the same room
as shown in the figure, Window A has 4 times
the area of Window B. Which window has larger
Pressure, and which window has larger force?

Solution:

 Both windows have same pressure, as they are in the same atmosphere.
 Window A has Four times the force of Window B

Hint: As the altitude increases the atmospheric pressure decreases. Because:

- Gas at high elevations is less dense (less molecules) so less collisions occur.
- Also as gas temperature at high levels is less so lower K.E. of molecules so less
collisions too.
Mr.OR:
Hussein Khaled
at high altitude there is less height of air column so less pressure.
91
 Pressure measuring devices

1) Barometer: It is a simple instrument that

measures Atmospheric pressure by measuring
the length of the liquid inside the tube. It uses
mercury or water.

Atmospheric pressure = ρ . g. h
 As h increases, atmospheric pressure increases.
 The height is measured from the surface of the
liquid in the container to the top of the liquid in
the tube.
 We use vacuum pump to release air at the top.
 If there is air instead of Vacuum at the top of the tube, the liquid in the
tube will move down.
 We can express the pressure in mm of mercury or in Pascal.

Hint: If we use water instead of Mercury, we will get larger height as water has
lower density than mercury. (So we will need longer tube)

Mercury
Water

P = ρ . g. h P = ρ . g. h

13600 Kg/m3 1000 Kg/m3

Higher ρ Higher h
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Lower h Lower ρ
92
Hint: The diameter of the test tube does not affect the height of the liquid.

As the three tubes experience the same atmospheric pressure = ρ . g. h and

density is same, g is same

∴ That’s why the “h” is same.

2) Manometers: It is a U-tube shape instrument that is used to compare the

pressures of two gases.
- It shows us which gas has higher pressure and the value of the difference.

Example: Gas (A) as higher pressure than gas (B)

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Example:

A B

h =5 cm

Water

ρ= 1000 Kg/m3

5
The difference is 5 cm of water  P= ρ . g. h = 1000 x 10 x = 500 Pa
100

 The height “h” has to be in meters.

The 500 Pa is not the pressure of A or B but it is the difference between their
pressures

 The result shows that PA is larger than PB by 500 Pa or by

5cm of water.

If we need to calculate the value of PA or PB so we should have the value of

pressure of one of the 2 gases (for example use Atmosphere at one of the two
sides as we know its value).

Example :
Air
A
Patm= 100000 Pa A

Air
h = 10 cm.

Find PA=? Water

ρ= 1000 Kg/m3

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Solution:
10
 Difference in pressure = ρ . g. h = 1000x 10 x = 1000 Pa
100
 PA= Patm + 1000 = 101000 Pa

Hint: If the difference between the pressures of the 2 gases is very

small, so we have to use a liquid with lower density (ex: water) as it will
give larger “h” to make it clear and easy to measure!!

A B A B

Mercury Water

ρ increases ρ decreases

h decreases h increases

 As pressure difference between A and B is constant, so increasing

density will lead to decreasing height and vice versa

P= ρ . g. h

Ex: if we have a sealed plastic bag on a plane, it will increase in volume and may
explode as the plane takes off to a high altitude.

As we move upwards (Altitude increases) the atmospheric pressure

decreases, pressure inside the bag becomes higher than atmospheric pressure.

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