WATER TECHNOLOGY

Course: B.Tech
1
Subject: Engineering Chemistry
Unit:2
 Sources of Water
A) Surface Waters
Rain Water - Pure but contaminated with gases
River Water - High dissolved salts moderate
organics
Lake Water - Const. composition but high organics
Sea Water - High salinity, pathogens, organics

B) Underground Waters
Spring/Well Water - Crystal clear but high
dissolved
salts and high purity from organics 2
 MAJOR IMPURITIES OF WATER

Ionic and dissolved

Cationic Anionic Nonionic and undissolved Gases
Alkalinity

Calcium Bicarbonate Turbidity, silt, mud, dirt and CO2

Magnesium Carbonate other suspended matter H2S
Hydroxide NH3
Sodium Color, Plankton CH4
Potassium Sulfate Organic matter, O2
Ammonium ChlorideColloidal silica,
Iron Nitrate Microorganisms,
Manganese Phosphate Bacteria

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 HARD WATER
 Hardness refers to the
presence of calcium and
magnesium ions in water
(and sometimes iron).
 Ions come from dissolved
rock the water has passed
through.
 Affects properties of tap
water

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4
 HARD WATER
 Minerals in hard water
interact with soap.
 Interferes with soap’s
ability to lather.

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5
 SOFT WATER
 Water with very low concentrations of minerals.
 Soap lathers easily and is sometimes difficult to rinse
off.

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 HARDNESS OF WATER
• Hardness in Water is characteristic that prevents the ‘lathering
of soap’ thus water which does not produce lather with soap
solution readily, but forms a white curd is called hard water.

• Type of Hardness

– Temporary or Carbonate Hardness

– Permanent Hardness or non-carbonate Hardness.

7
Temporary Hardness

– Temporary Hardness is caused by the presence of dissolved bicarbonate of

calcium, magnesium and other heavy metals and the carbonate of iron.
It is mostly destroyed by more boiling of water, when bicarbonates are decomposed
yielding insoluble carbonates.

Ca(HCO3)2 Heat CaCO3 + H2O + CO2

Calcium bicarbonate Calcium Carbonate

Mg(HCO3)2 Heat Mg(OH)2 + 2CO2

Magnesium Bicarbonate Magnesium hydroxide

– Calcium/Magnesium Carbonates thus formed being almost insoluble, are

deposited as a scale at the bottom of vessel, while carbon dioxide escapes out.

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 PERMANENT HARDNESS
Non Carbonate Hardness is due to the presence of chlorides, sulfates of
calcium, Magnesium, iron and other heavy metals

2C17H35COONa + CaCl2 (C17H35COO)2Ca + 2NaCl

Sodium stearate Hardness Calcium stearate
(sodium soap) (Insoluble)

2C17H35COONa + MgSO4 (C17H35COO)2Mg + 2Na2SO4

Sodium stearate Hardness Magnesium stearate
(sodium soap) (Insoluble)

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 Draw backs (or) Disadvantages of Hard Water

Domestic Use Industrial Use

1. Washing 1. Textile Industry

2. Bathing 2. Sugar Industry
3. Drinking 3. Dyeing Industry
4. Cooking 4. Paper Industry
5. Pharmaceutical Industry
The sticky precipitate adheres on the
fabric/cloth and gives spots and streaks. Fe 6. In Steam generation in Boilers
salts stain the cloths.

Produces sticky scum on the bath tub and

the body

Bad to the digestive system and calcium

oxalate formation is possible in urinary
tracts

Requires more fuel and time. Certains food

don’t cook soft and also gives unpleasant
taste
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 Boiler troubles due to Hard Water

1. Scale and Sludge 1. Sludge

Slimy loose precipitate called
sludge suspended in water
2. Caustic embitterment

3. Priming and Foaming

4. Boiler corrosion water

4 Boiler wall

Sludge is a soft, loose and slimy precipitate formed within the boiler. It can be easily
scrapped off with a wire brush.
It is formed at comparatively colder portions of the boiler and collects in areas of the
system, where the flow rate is slow or at bends.
It is formed by substances which have greater solubility's in hot water than in cold
water, e.g. MgCO3, MgCl2, CaCl2, MgSO4 etc.,

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Remedy: Sludges can be removed using wire brush or mild acid
DISADVANTAGE OF SLUDGE FORMATION:

-poor conductor of heat

-disturbs the working of boiler.
- If along with scales : both get deposited as scales.

 Preventation of Sludge formation:

- Well softened water
- Drawing off a portion of concentrated water.

12
 1. Scale
Hard adherent coating on inner
walls of boiler

water

Boiler 6
wall 5

Scales are hard substances which sticks very firmly to the inner
surfaces of the boiler wall.
Scales are difficult to remove even with the help of a hammer and
chisel.
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Examples: CaSO4, CaCO3, Mg(OH)2
 Reasons for formation of scale

1. Presence of Ca(HCO3)2 in low pressure boilers

Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 Low pressure boilers but in high pressure
boilers it is soluble by forming Ca(OH)2
Calcium bicarbonate Calcium Carbonate (scale)

2. Presence of CaSO4 in high pressure boilers

ToC Solubility of CaSO4

4. Presence of SiO2
15 3200 ppm
230 15 ppm
It forms insoluble hard adherent CaSiO3
320 27 ppm and MgSiO3 as scales
Cold water soluble
Super heated water Insoluble (scale)

3. Presence of MgCl2 in high temperature boilers

MgCl2 + 2 H2O Mg (OH)2 + 2HCl

Magnesium chloride scale

Mg(OH)2 can also be generated by thermally decomposing Mg(HCO3)2

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 Disadvantages of scale formation

1. Fuel wastage – scales have low thermal conductivity

2. Degradation of boiler material and increases of risk of accident
3. Reduces the efficiency of the boiler and- deposit on the valves and condensers
4. The boiler may explode – if crack occurs in scale

Remedies: Removal of scale

1. Using scrapper, wire brush often

2. By thermal shock- heating and cooling suddenly with cold water
3. Using chemicals – 5-10% HCl and by adding EDTA

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 Prevention of scale formation

Scale formation can be prevented by two methods

1. Internal conditioning or Internal Treatment
2. External conditioning or External treatment- will be discussed later
1. Internal conditioning methods - of boiler water to prevent scale formation
1. Phosphate conditioning – addition of phosphate compound
2. Carbonate conditioning – addition of carbonate compound
3. Calgon conditioning – addition of sodium hexa meta phosphate
4. Colloidal conditioning – spreading of organic compounds like
tannin, agar gel
5. Sodium Aluminate – removes oil and silica
6. Electrical Conditioning
7. Radioactive Conditioning
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8. Complexometric method – using EDTA
1. Phosphate conditioning

Scale formation can be prevented by adding sodium phosphate to the

boiler water which reacts with the hardness producing ions and forms
easily removable phosphate salts of respective ions

3CaCl2 (Boiler water) + 2 Na3PO4 Ca3(PO4)2 + 6 NaCl

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 Selection of Phosphate compound

Calcium can not be precipitated below a pH = 9.5, hence the selection of

phosphate has to be based on the pH of the boiler feed water.
NaH2PO4 (acidic in nature) ,
Na2HPO4 (weakly alkaline in
nature),
Na3PO4 (Alkaline in nature)
2. Carbonate conditioning
CaSO4 (Boiler water) + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + Na2SO4

Caution: Excess Na2CO3 can result in caustic embrittlement

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 3. Calgon conditioning

Na2[Na4(PO3)6 2Na+ + [Na4P6O18]2-

Calgon –
sodium hexa
meta phosphate
2CaSO4 (Boiler water) + [Na4P6O18]2- [Ca2P6O18]2- + 2Na2SO4
Calcium Soluble complex ion
sulfate of calcium - can be
removed easily

Calgon tablets are used in the cleaning of washing machine drums

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4.Colloidal conditioning:
In low pressure boilers- scale : adding org. substances like kerosine,
agar-agar, tannin,etc.
- Yield non-sticky & loose deposits

5. Treatment withNaAlO2:

NaAlO2 + 2H2O NaOH + Al(OH)3(gelatinous ppt)

MgCl2 + 2NaOH Mg(OH)2 + 2NaCl

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6.Electrical conditioning:
Sealed glass bulbs-mercury: battery
Water boils- mercury bulb - emit electrical discharged

7. Radioactive conditioning:
Tablets - radioactive salts

8. Complexometric method:
- 1.5% alk. Soln of EDTA
- EDTA : cation & form stable & soluble complex. 21
 Other treatment:
1. Prevent : iron oxide
2. Protects boiler unit from corrosion by wet steam.
3. Reduces the carry over of oxides with steam

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CAUSTIC EMBRITTLEMENT:

 Is a type of boiler corrosion.

 Caused : highly alkaline Water.

Na2CO3 + H2O → 2 NaOH + CO2

 Boiler water – becomes ‘caustic’

Water evaporates – caustic soda concentration increase.
which attacks surrounding area of boiler machine.
Iron converted in to sodium ferroate.
Causes embrittlement of boiler parts, strssed parts( bends, joints, etc.)
Iron : in dilute NaOH – cathodic side
Iron : in concentrated NaOH – anodic side. 23
 Preventation of caustic Embrittlements:
 Sodium phosphate – sodium carbonates
 Adding lignin : preventing infilteration of caustic soda solution
 Sodium sulphate: Na2SO4 concentration
NaOH concentration
 Kept 1:1, 2:1 & 3:1,
 Pressure : 10,20 & above 20.

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IV. Boiler corrosion

Degradation or destruction of boiler materials (Fe) due to the chemical or

electrochemical attack of dissolved gases or salts is called boiler corrosion

Boiler corrosion is of three types

1. Corrosion due to dissolved O2

2. Corrosion due to dissolved CO2
3. Corrosion due to acids formed by dissolved salts

1. Corrosion due to dissolved oxygen (DO)

2 Fe + 2 H2O + O2 2 Fe(OH)2

4 Fe(OH)2 + O 2 2 [Fe2O3.2H2O]
Ferrous Rust
hydroxide
 Removal of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
1. By the addition of chemicals
The dissolved oxygen present in the boiler feed water can be removed by the
addition of sodium sulphite or hydrazine and the reactions can be written as
below 2 Na2SO3 + O2 2 Na2SO4
Sodium DO Sodium sulphate
sulphite
Na2S + 2O2 Na2SO4

N2H4 + O2 N2 + 2H2O
Hydrazine Nitrogen
2. Corrosion due to dissolved CO2
Presence of bicarbonate salts of either magnesium or calcium also causes the release
of CO2 inside the boiler apart from the dissolved CO2
Mg(HCO3)2 MgCO3 + H2O + CO2

CO2 + H2O H2CO3 (causes slow corrosion)

3. Corrosion due to dissolved salts

MgCl2 + 2 H2O Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl

Fe + 2 HCl FeCl2 + H2

FeCl2 + 2 H2O Fe(OH)2 + 2HCl

 Prevention :
 (1) Corrosion can be prevented by adding alkali to neutralize acidity
& anti-oxidant to remove oxygen
 (2) By keeping pH value 8 to 9.
 (3) Oxygen is removed from boiler feed-water by adding Na2SO3.
 (4) Oxygen can also removed by treating it with hydrazine hydrate
NH2–NH2
NH2-NH2 + O2 → 2N2 + 2H2O

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III. Priming and foaming

Foaming
It is the production of continuous foam
or hard bubblers in boilers. Foaming is
due to the presence of substance like
oil in boiling water.

Foaming
Priming
Normal bubble
It is the process in which some
particles in water are carried along
with the steam. The resulting
process is called as wet steam or
carry over. The process of formation
of wet steam in boilers is called as
Priming priming.
Carry over bubble

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 Causes of Priming
 (1) the presence of large amount of dissolved solids
 (2) high steam velocities.
 (3) sudden boiling
 (4) improper boiler design
 (5) sudden increase in steam-production rate.

 Disadvantages of Priming
 (1) Dissolved salt in boiler water are carried out by the wet steam to turbine
blades - which reduces their efficiency.
 (2) Dissolved salts may enter the parts of other machinery may decrease the
life of the machinery.
 (3) Actual height of the water column cannot be judge properly, Thereby
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making the maintenance of the boiler pressure becomes difficult.
 Prevention of Priming
 (1) By improving boiler design.
 (2) By fitting mechanical steam purifiers.
 (3) By maintaining low water level in boilers
 (4) By using soft water.
 (5) By decreasing the amount of dissolved salts.

 ( B) FOAMING :
 It is the production of foam or bubbles in boiler which do not break easily.
 Causes of Foaming :
 It is due to the presence of oily substances in water.
 (1) Low level of water in boiler.
 (2) The presence of dissolved salts in water. 31
 (3) Sudden increase in steam production rate.
 Disadvantages of foaming :
 (1) Actual height of the water column cannot be judge.
 (2) Dissolved salts in water carried by the wet steam may damage
turbine blads or machinery parts.
 (3) Boiler pressure cannot be maintained.

 Prevention of Foaming :
 (1) By the addition of anti-foaming chemicals like castor oil, Gallic
acid, tennic acid etc.
 (2) removing oil from boiler water by adding compounds like
sodium aluminate.

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II . Softening of water/ External treatment of water – External
Conditioning of water
Softening of hard water can be done by the following
methods
1. Lime soda process
2. Zeolite methods
3. Ion exchange resin method
4. Mixed bed deionizer method

1. Lime soda process

It is a process in which Lime (Ca(OH)2) and soda (Na2CO3) are added to
the hard water to convert the soluble calcium and magnesium salts to
insoluble compounds by a chemical reaction. The CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2 so
precipitated are filtered off and removed easily.
It is further divided in to two types
1. Cold lime soda process
2. Hot lime soda process
 1. Cold lime soda process

Step 1
In this process a calculated quantity of Ca(OH)2 (lime) and Na2CO3 (soda)
are mixed with water at room temperature and added to the hard water. The
following reactions takes place depending on the nature of hardness
Chemical reactions
If it is permanent hardness and due to calcium salt
Ca2+ + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + 2Na+ (soda)
slimy suspended precipitate

If it is due to Magnesium salt

Mg2+ + Ca(OH)2 Mg(OH)2 + Ca2+ (lime)
slimy suspended precipitate
Ca2+ + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + 2Na+ (soda)
slimy suspended precipitate
 Chemical reactions contd..
If it is Temporary hardness and due to calcium salt
Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 2CaCO3 + 2H2O
slimy suspended precipitate

If it is due to Magnesium salt

Mg(HCO3)2 + 2Ca(OH)2 2CaCO3 + Mg(OH)2 + 2H2O

Step 2 slimy suspended precipitates

The precipitates CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2 are very fine and forms sludge like
precipitates in the boiler water and are difficult to remove because it does
not settle easily making it difficult to filter and the removal process. Finally
reduces the efficiency of the boiler.

Therefore, it is essential to add small amount of coagulant (such as Alum,

Aluminium sulfate, sodium aluminate etc) which hydrolyses to flocculent
precipitate of Al(OH)3 which entraps the fine precipitates.
35
 36

8
When coagulants are added flocculation takes place followed by the formation of
flocculants.
Flocculent- Gelatinous
NaAlO2 + 2H2O NaOH + Al(OH)3
precipitate which
Coagulant entraps the fine
precipitates of CaCO3
and Mg(OH)2

Al2(SO4)3 + 3 Ca(HCO3)2 2Al(OH)3 + CaSO4 + CO2

Aluminium Hard water
Flocculent- Gelatinous
sulfate sample
precipitate which
entraps the fine
precipitates of CaCO3
and Mg(OH)2

The Al(OH)3 formed by the addition of coagulants initiates the process of flocculation and
entraps the fine precipitates and becomes heavy. The heavier flocs then settles at the bottom
and filtered off easily.
Method :
• Raw water & calculated quantities of chemicals: from the top
in to the inner vertical circular chamber.
• There is a vigorous stirring & continuous mixing : softening
of water take place.
• Softened water comes into the outer co-axial chamber, it rises
upwards.
• Heavy sludge settles down & softened water reaches up.
• Softened water : passes through a filtering media to ensure
complete removal of sludge.
• Filtered soft water finally flows out continuously through the
outlet at the top.
• Sludge settling at the bottom of the outer chamber is drawn 38
off occasionally.
(ii) Hot lime-soda process:

Treating water with softening chemicals at a temp. of 80 to 150˚c.

Process : operated close to the boiling point.

consists three parts:

(a)reaction tank: in which raw water, chemicals & steam are mixed,
(b)Conical sedimentation vessel : sludge settles down.
(c)Sand filter : complete removal of sludge from softened water.

39
 40

9
 Advantages of hot lime-soda process:
 The precipitation reaction is almost complete,

 Reaction takes place faster,

 Sludge settles down rapidly;

 No coagulant is needed,

 Dissolved gases (which may cause corrosion) are

removed,
 Viscosity of soft water is lower, hence filtered easily,

 Residual hardness is low compared to cold lime-soda

process.
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 Advantages of Lime – soda process:
 1.Economical
 2.Process increses pH value of the treated water, thereby corrosion
of the distribution pipes is reduced.
 3.Mineral content of water is reduced
 4.pH of water raises thus reducing content of pathogenic bacteria
 5. iron & Mn: removed.

 Disadvantages of Lime – soda process:

 1.Huge amount of sludge is formed and its disposal is difficult
 2.Due to residual hardness, water is not suitable for high pressure
boilers
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 2. ZEOLITE OR PERMUTIT PROCESS:

Zeolite - hydrated sodium alumino silicate, capable of

exchanging reversibly its sodium ions for hardness-
producing ions in water.
The general chemical structure of Zeolite:
Na2O.Al2O3.xSiO2.yH2O
(x = 2-10 and y = 2-6)

Micro pores of Zeolite

43
10
Porous structure of Zeolite
Two types:
(i) Natural Zeolite: non-porous.
e.g., Natrolite
(ii) Synthetic zeolite: porous & possess gel structure.

They are prepared by heating together china clay, feldspar and

soda ash.

Zeolites possess higher exchange capacity per unit weight than

natural zeolite.

44
Process:
Hard water is percolated at a specified rate through a bed of zeolite,
kept in a cylinder.
The hardness-causing ions are retained by the zeolite as CaZe and
MgZe; while the outgoing water contains sodium salts.
To remove temporary hardness

Na2Ze + Ca(HCO3)2 CaZe + 2NaHCO3

Na2Ze + Mg(HCO3)2 MgZe + 2NaHCO3
To remove permanent hardness

Na2Ze + CaCl2 CaZe + 2NaCl

Na2Ze + MgCl2 MgZe + 2NaCl
45
46 11
 REGENERATION OF ZEOLITE:

At this stage, the supply of hard water is stopped and exhausted zeolite is
reclaimed by treating the bed with concentrated NaCl solution.

CaZe or MgZe + 2NaCl Na2Ze + CaCl2

(exhausted zeolite) (Brine) (Reclaimed zeolite) (washings)

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LIMITATIONS OF ZEOLITE PROCESS:

1. If the water is turbid ---- then the turbidity causing particles

clogs the pores of the Zeolite and making it inactive
2. The ions such as Mn2+ and Fe2+ forms stable complex Zeolite
which can not be regenerated that easily as both metal ions
bind strongly and irreversibly to the zeolite structure.
3. Any acid present in water (acidic water) should be neutralized
with soda before admitting the water to the plant, since acid
will hydrolyze SiO2 forming silicic acid

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 ADVANTAGES:
 Residual hardness of water is about 10 ppm only
 Equipment is small and easy to handle

 Time required for softening of water is small

 No sludge formation and the process is clean

 Zeolite can be regenerated easily using brine solution

 Any type of hardness can be removed without any modifications to the process.

DISADVANTAGES :
1. Soft water contains more sodium salts than in lime soda process
2. It replaces only Ca2+ and Mg2+ with Na+ but leaves all the other ions like HCO3- and
CO32- in the softened water (then it may form NaHCO3 and Na2CO3 which releases CO2
when the water is boiled and causes corrosion)
3. It also causes caustic embitterment when sodium carbonate hydrolyses to give NaOH
49
ION EXCHANGE PROCESS:

 Ion exchange resins are insoluble, cross linked, long chain organic
polymers with a microporous structure, and the functional groups
attached to the chain is responsible for the “ion-exchange” properties.

 Acidic functional groups (-COOH, -SO3H, etc.) exchange H+ with other

cations.

 Basic functional groups (-NH2=NH etc.) exchange OH- with other

anions.

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Classification of Resins
 A. Cation-exchange Resins(RH+) : Strongly acidic
(SO3-H+) and weakly acidic (COO-H+) cation exchange
resins

51
12
2. Anion Exchange resin (ROH-) – Strongly basic (R4N+OH-)
and weakly basic (RNH2+OH-) anion exchange resins

52
13
 53
14
 Process or Ion-exchange mechanism involved in water softening

Reactions occurring at Cation exchange resin

2 RH+ + Ca2+ (hard water) R2Ca2+ + 2 H+

2 RH+ + Mg2+ (hard water) R2Mg2+ + 2 H+

Reactions occurring at Anion exchange resin

2 ROH- + SO42- (hard water) R2SO42+ + 2 OH-

2 ROH- + Cl- (hard water) R2Cl- + 2 OH-
At the end of the process
H+ + OH- H2 O

54
 Regeneration of ion exchange resins

Regeneration of Cation exchange resin

R2Ca2+ + 2H+ (dil. HCl (or) H2SO4) 2 RH+ + Ca2+ (CaCl2, washings)

Regeneration of Anion exchange resin

R2SO42- + 2OH- (dil. NaOH) 2 ROH- + SO42- (Na2SO4, washings)

Advantages
1. The process can be used to soften highly acidic or alkaline waters
2. It produces water of very low hardness of 1-2ppm. So the treated waters
by this method can be used in high pressure boilers

Disadvantages
1. The setup is costly and it uses costly chemicals
55
2. The water should not be turbid and the turbidity level should not be more
than 10ppm
 IV. Softening of water by Mixed Bed deioniser
Description and process of mixed bed deionizer

1. It is a single cylindrical chamber containing a mixture of anion and cation exchange

resins bed
2. When the hard water is passed through this bed slowly the cations and anioins of the
hard water comes in to contact with the two kind of resins many number of times
3. Hence, it is equivalent to passing the hard water many number of times through a
series of cation and anion exchange resins.
4. The soft water from this method contains less than 1ppm of dissolved salts and hence
more suitable for boilers
Hard water

c a c a Anion exchange
resin
c Mixed bed Mixed resin
a deionizer a bed
a
c a cc Cation exchange
resin

Demineralised
56
water 15
Regeneration of mixed bed deionizer
1. When the bed (resins) are exhausted or cease to soften the water, the mixed bed is back
washed by forcing the water from the bottom in the upward direction
2. Then the light weight anion exchanger move to the top and forms a upper layer above the
heavier cation exchanger
3. Then the anion exchanger is regenerated by passing caustic soda solution (NaOH) from the
top and then rinsed with pure water
4. The lower cation exchanger bed is then washed with dil.H2SO4 solution and then rinsed.
5. The two beds are then mixed again by forcing compressed air to mix both and the resins are
now ready for use
Low
NaOH
density
resin

c a c a c a c a c aa c a
aa a a a a cRegenerated
c Mixed bed c Exhausted Back washed a
a deionizer a a Mixed bed a
Mixed bed

a a ccccc c
deionizer
a
c a cc c a cc c a c c

57
Back Compressed
wash High air
water density
resin 16
DESALINATION OF BRACKISH WATER
 Process of removing common salt from water.
 Brackish water: water containing dissolved salts with a
peculiar salty taste
 Sea water : 3.5% salts.

1.Electrodialysis, 2.Reverse osmosis.

58
ELECTRO DIALYSIS

Principle:
Electrodialysis is an electrochemical process whereby
electrically charged particles, ions, are transported from a
raw solution (retentate, diluate) into a more concentrated
solution (permeate, concentrate) through ion-selective
membranes by applying an electric field.

59
 60
17
 THEORY OF ELECTRODIALYSIS
 Electro dialysis chamber comprises of sheet like barriers made out of high-capacity,
highly cross-linked ion exchange resins that allow passage of ions but not of water.

 There are two types : (a) Cation exchange and (b) Anion exchange membranes

 Cation exchange membranes consists of an insoluble matrix and mobile cation

reside in the pore space that allows the pass through of only cations.

 Anion exchange membranes consists of an insoluble matrix and mobile anion

reside in the pore space that allows the pass through of only anions.

 Cation- and Anion- exchange membranes are installed alternatively in the tank.

 By impressing electricity on the electrodes, the positive anode attracts negative ions
in solution, while the negative cathode attracts positive ions in the solution.
61
 Na+ : negative pole,
 Cl- : positive pole.
 Concentration of brine decreases : central compartment.
 It increases: two side compartment.
 Desalinated brine : removed
 Concentrated brine : replaced by fresh water.
 Electrodialysis cell : consists of a large no. of rigid plastic
membrane.
• Saline water is passed & electric field is applied.
• Positive charges : repel positive ions & permit negative ion.
• Negative charges.
• Water: deprived of its salts,
• Salt concentration : increases in adjacent compartment. 62
 Advantage:
1. Most compact unit,
2. Economical,
3. If electricity is easily available, it is best suited

63
REVERSE OSMOSIS:
 When two solutions of unequal concentration are separated by a
semi-permeable membrane, flow of solvent takes place from dilute
to concentration side, due to increase in osmostic pressure, which is
termed as osmosis.

 However, when a hydrostatic pressure in excess of osmotic pressure

is applied on the concentrated side, the solvent flow is reversed from
concentrated side to dilute side, across the membrane. This principle
is termed as reverse osmosis.

64
Reverse Osmosis

65

18
The semi-permeable membrane (in reverse osmosis) is
selective in not permitting the passage of dissolved solute
particles such as molecules, ions, etc.) It permits only the flow
of water molecules (solvent) from the concentrated to dilute
side.

Cellulose acetate, polyamide, etc., are used as membrane

Reverse osmosis process requires only mechanical force to

generate the required hydrostatic pressure.

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POTABLE WATER
 Water : safe to drink,
 Fit for human consumption, should satisfy the following
requirements:
1. Clear & odourless,
2. Pleasant in taste,
3. Perfectly cool,
4. Turbidity should not exceed 10ppm,
5. Free from objectionable dissolved gases
6. Objectionable minerals: lead,arsenic, Mn, Cr
7. pH:8.0
67
8. Reasonably soft,
9. Free from disease-producing microorganisms.
BREAK-POINT CHLORINATION
 Involves in addition of sufficient amt. of chlorine to
oxidise :organic matter, reducing substances.
 Dosage of applied chlorine to water rich in organic
compound or ammonia is gradually increased.
 Four stages:
• The addition of chlorine at the dip or break :
’ breakpoint’ chlorination.
• This indicates the point at which free residual
chlorine begins to appear.
• All tastes, odour disappear at break point : water free
from bad tastes and odours. 68
 Persistent & powerful disinfection possessed by
available free chlorine, any type of pathogenic organisms
present : destroyed.
Advantages:
1. Oxidises completely organic compound, ammonia &
other reducing compound.
2. Removes colour
3. Removes disease producing bacteria
4. Removes odour & taste.

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DE-CHLORINATION
 Over-chlorination after the break point : produces unpleasant taste &
odour
 Removed by filtering the over-chlorinated water through a bed of
molecular carbon.
 Activated C : added directly & after a short reaction period :
removed by filteration.
 SO2 / sodium sulphite / sodium thiosulphate.
 SO2 + Cl2 + 2H2O H2SO4 + 2HCl
 Na2SO3 + Cl2 + H2O Na2SO4 + 2HCl

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REFERENCE:
Image 1: http://postimg.org/image/9dskyjsvj/
Image 2: http://postimg.org/image/3kawku281/
Image 3: http://postimg.org/image/ritblpo01/
Image 4: http://www.slideshare.net
Image 5:http://www.slideshare.net
Image 6: http://postimg.org/image/rhjdsam69/
Image 7: http://postimg.org/image/d0w4dpwox/
Image 8: http://postimg.org/image/ficgyq5z5/
Image 9: http://postimg.org/image/c7o3yug1t/
Image 10: http://postimg.org/image/a82wtowch/ 71
Image 11: http://postimg.org/image/sc5xebu0x/
Image 12: http://postimg.org/image/51wcwe6yp/
Image 13: http://postimg.org/image/dnzmgziyp/
Image 14: http://www.slideshare.net
Image 15:http://www.slideshare.net
Image 16:http://www.slideshare.net
Image 17:http://postimg.org/image/p1m5s6thd/
Image 18:http://postimg.org/image/mqetl9cbr/

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