A Strong Partner for Sustainable Development

Module
In
ES 112

ENGINEERING UTILITIES

College of Engineering and Technology

Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering
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Module No. 2

BASIC LAWS

1st Semester AY 2023-2024

CHERRY LYN C. MAGBANUA

Instructor I

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Table of Contents

Contents Page Number

Title Page ………............................................................................... 1

Table of Contents ………………………………………………………………… 2

Introduction to the User ……………………………………………………… 3

Introduction………………………………………………………………………… 4

Overview……………………………………………………………………………… 5

Learning Outcomes ……………………………………………………………… 5

Lesson 1 – Specific Learning Outcome/Time allotment …………… 6

Pre-Test ………………………………………………………………………………. 7

Discussion…………………………………………………………………………… 8-44

Activities/Exercises ……………………………………………………………… 45-48

Evaluation/Post-Test……………………………………………………………. 49-52

References…………………………………………………………………………… 53

Student’s Contact Details ……………………………………………………… 54

WPU-Vision, Mission and Core Values…………………………………… 55

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INSTRUCTION TO THE USER

This module would provide you an educational experience while

independently accomplishing the task at your own pace or time. It aims as
well to ensure that learning is unhampered by health and other challenges. It
covers the topic about DC Circuits.

Reminders in using this module:

1. Keep this material neat and intact.

2. Answer the pre-test first to measure what you know and what to be
learned about the topic discussed in this module.
3. Accomplish the activities and exercises as aids and reinforcement for
better understanding of the lessons.
4. Answer the post-test to evaluate your learning.
5. Do not take pictures in any parts of this module nor post it to social
media platforms.
6. Value this module for your own learning by heartily and honestly
answering and doing the exercises and activities. Time and effort were
spent in the preparation in order that learning will still continue
amidst this Covid-19 pandemic.
7. Observe health protocols: wear mask, sanitize and maintain physical
distancing.

Hi! I’m Blue Bee, your WPU Mascot.

Welcome to Western Philippines University!

Shape your dreams with quality learning experience.

STAY SAFE AND HEALTHY!

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INTRODUCTION

Takes the view that circuits have inputs and outputs, and those relations between
inputs and outputs and the terminal characteristics of circuits at input and output
ports are all-important in analysis and design. Here, we will start from basic
concepts of how to electrically connect simple devices as well as learn how to take
measurements of voltage and current. This process will allow us to better visualize
and troubleshoot electric circuits that we will use in future labs and allow us to look
at the relationship of voltage and current in electrical components.

This material discusses one of the most essential learning competencies of ES 112 –
Engineering Utilities. It comprises several electrical circuits in order to know the
different types of theorem and principle in terms of electrical circuit.

It is very important that the learner will cooperate in by using this module page by
page and completing all the activities asked. At the end learning outcome is evaluated
based the different task given to you. Through your cooperation in this kind of
flexible learning delivery and understanding the basic concept, laws and methods of
analysis and theorem of electrical circuit.

It is expected that after using this module you will become more aware and
apprehensive to the operation of electrical circuit.

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OVERVIEW

Hi, there! Welcome to Engineering Utilities!

Module 2 covers Basic Laws of electrical circuit. The modules include only 1 lesson
with different subtopics: Lesson 1 – Basic Laws (Ohm’s Law, Kirchhoff’s Law, Series
circuit, Voltage division theorem, Parallel circuit, Current division theorem, Series-
Parallel circuit)

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the chapter you can:

1. Appreciate the importance of Basic Laws

2. Discuss the Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s law.
3. Identify series and parallel resistor calculation and combination.

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LESSON 1:

Basic Laws (Ohm’s Law, Kirchhoff’s Law, Series circuit,

Voltage division theorem, Parallel circuit, Current
division theorem, Series-Parallel circuit.

A. SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson, you can:

1. Practice Ohm’s law to calculate current, voltage, and
resistance values in a circuit
2. Demonstrate how to measure current, voltage, and
resistance in a circuit combination.
3. Understand the measurement of Resistance, voltage
and current.

B. TIME ALLOTMENT

You are tasked to accomplish this module in three

weeks (9 hours – 3 hours per week). Please be
reminded that you may finish this module any time of
the day and any day of the week just make sure to
submit it on the submission date.

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C. PRE TEST

Hello learner! Before we begin with our discussion, please

try to answer the following test. Don’t worry about your
performance. This test aims to assess your prior
knowledge on the topic and your score will not be
recorded.

Directions. Write the words which most correctly complete each of the
following statements.

1. The circuit in which current has a complete path to flow is called ______
circuit.

2. In a _________ circuit, the total resistance is greater than the largest

resistance in the circuit.

3. In a ____________ circuit, the total resistance is smaller than the smallest

resistance in the circuit.

4. Three equal resistances are connected in star. If this star is converted into
equivalent delta, the resistance of both the networks will be
_______________.

5. A closed path made by several branches of the network is known as

______________.

6. A terminal where three or more branches meet is known as ________.

7. Kirchhoff's current law is applicable to only __________.

8. According to Kirchhoff's voltage law, the algebraic some of all IR drops and
e.m.fs. In any closed loop of a network is always _______.

9. Three equal resistances are connected in star. If this star is converted into
equivalent delta, the resistance of both the networks will be
________________.

10. The terminals across the source are________________ if a current source

is to be neglected

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D. DISCUSSION

OHM’S LAW

Ohm’s law states that the voltage or potential difference between two points is directly
proportional to the current or electricity passing through the resistance, and directly
proportional to the resistance of the circuit. The formula for Ohm’s law is V=IR. This
relationship between current, voltage and relationship was discovered by German
scientist Georg Simon Ohm. Let us learn more about Ohms Law, Resistance, and its
applications.

Ohm’s Law Definition

Most basic components of electricity are voltage, current, and resistance. Ohm’s law
shows a simple relation between these three quantities. Ohm’s law states that the
current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the voltage
across the two points.

Applications of Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s law helps us in determining voltage, current or resistance of a linear electric

circuit when the other two quantities are known to us. It also makes power calculation
simpler.
© SSPL via Getty Images

Georg S i m o n O h m (1787–1854), a German physicist,

in 1826 experimentally determined the most basic law
relating voltage and cur- rent for a resistor. Ohm’s work was
initially denied by critics.
Born of humble beginnings in Erlangen, Bavaria, Ohm
threw him- self into electrical research. His efforts resulted
in his famous law. He was awarded the Copley Medal in 1841
by the Royal Society of London. In 1849, he was given the
Professor of Physics chair by the University of Munich. To
honor him, the unit of resistance was named the ohm.

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How do we establish the current-voltage relationship?

In order to establish the current-voltage relationship, the ratio V / I remains constant

for a given resistance, therefore a graph between the potential difference (V) and the
current (I) must be a straight line.

How do we find the unknown values of resistance?

It is the constant ratio that gives the unknown values of resistance,

For a wire of uniform cross-section, the resistance depends on the length l and the area
of cross-section A. It also depends on the temperature of the conductor. At a given
temperature the resistance,

Where ρ is the specific resistance or resistivity and is characteristic of the material of

wire. The specific resistance or resistivity of the material of the wire is,

If ‘r’ is the radius of the wire, then the cross-sectional area, A = πr². Then the specific
resistance or resistivity of the material of the wire is,

Limitations of ohms law

1. Ohm’s law is not applicable to unilateral networks. Unilateral networks allow the
current to flow in one direction. Such types of network consist elements like
a diode, transistor, etc.

2. Ohm’s law is also not applicable to non – linear elements. Non-linear elements
are those which do not have current exactly proportional to the applied voltage
that means the resistance value of those elements changes for different values of
voltage and current. Examples of non – linear elements are the thyristor.

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THE ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

A practical Electric Circuit has at least four parts:

(1) A source of electromotive force (emf)

- The common source of emf are batteries and generators
(2) Conductors
- Conductors are wires which offers low resistance to the current
(3) A loads
- The load resistor represents a device uses electric energy, such as a
lamp, bell, toaster, radio or a motor.
(4) A means of control
- Control devices must be switches, variable resistances, fuses, circuit
breakers or relays.

A. A complete circuit or closed circuit is an unbroken path for current from the
emf, through a load and back to the source.

B. A circuit is called incomplete or open if a break in the circuit does not provide
a complete path for current.

C. A short circuit is usually caused by an accidental connection between two

points in a circuit which offers very little resistance.

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Defines the relationship between current, voltage and resistance. There

are three ways to express Ohm’s Law mathematically.

1. The current in a circuit is equal to the voltage applied to the circuit

divided by the resistance of the circuit.

V
I=
R

2. The resistance of a circuit is equal to the voltage applied to the circuit

divided by the current in the circuit.

V
R=
I

3. The applied voltage to a circuit is equal to the product of the current and
the resistance of the circuit.

V or E = IR = I x R

Where: I = current, A
R = resistance, Ω
V or E = voltage, V

EXAMPLES:

1. What is the amount of current (I) in this circuit?

Solution:
E 12 V
I=R I= = 4A
3Ω

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2. What is the amount of resistance (R) offered by the lamp?

Solution:
E 36V
R= R= = 9Ω
I 4A

3. What is the amount of voltage provided by the battery?

Solution:

V = IR = (2A) (7Ω) = 14V

ELECTRIC POWER

The electric power P is used in any part of a circuit is equal to the current I in the part
multiplied by the voltage across that part of the circuit. Its formula is:

P=VI=VxI

Where: P = power, W
V or E= voltage, V
I = current, A

Other forms for:

P P
I=V , V= I

V2
P = I2R , P= R

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EXAMPLES:

1. The current through a 100-ohms resistor to be used in a circuit is 0.20A. Find

the power rating of the resistor.

Given:
I = 0.20A
R = 100 ohms
P=?

Solution:

P = I 2R = (0.20A) 2 (100) = (0.04) (100) = 4W

2. How many kilowatts of power are delivered to a circuit by 240-V generator

supplies 20A to the circuit?

Given:
V = 240V
I = 20A
P=?

Solution:

P=VxI = 240V x 20A = 4800W = 4.8 kW

3. If the voltage across a 25,000 ohms resistor is 500V, what is the power
dissipated in the resistor?

Given:
R = 25,000 ohms
V = 500V
P=?

Solution:

𝐕𝟐 5002
P= = 25,000 = 10W
𝐑

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HORSEPOWER

A motor is a device which converts electric power into the mechanical power to a
rotating shaft. The electric power supplied to a motor is measured in watts or
kilowatts; the mechanical power delivered by a motor is measured in horsepower
(hp).

Note: ☼

1 horsepower = 746 watts = 0.746 kW

ELECTRIC ENERGY

Electrical energy is energy newly derived from electrical potential energy. When
loosely used to describe energy absorbed or delivered by an electrical circuit
"electrical energy" refers to energy which has been converted from electrical
potential energy.

kWh = kW x h

Energy = Power x Time

EXAMPLE:
1. How many energy is delivered in 2h by a generator supplying 10kw?

Given:
Time = 2
Power = 10
Energy=?

Solution:
Energy = Power x Time
Energy = 10kw x 2h
Energy = 20kWh

2. A 60W lamp switched on for 8 hours uses

Solution:

60W × 8 × 3600s = 1728kJ.

3. A 3kW kettle switched on for 5 minutes uses:

Solution:

3000W × 5 × 60s = 900kJ.

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COST OF ELECTRICAL WORK (K)

K = ET = (Pt) (T)
Where: K = cost of electric energy consumed in pesos or dollars
E = electric energy in kWHr
P = electric power in kW
pesos Dollar
T = tariff in kWHr or kWHr

t = time (duration of consumption)

EXAMPLE:

1. How many kilowatt-hours are consumed by a 250W bulb left on for 16h? How
much will it cost to operate the bulb for that long if electricity cost 6.5
cents/kWhr?

Solution:

W = Pt
W = 2.50 x 16
W = 4000 Wh = 4 kWh

K = ET
Cost = 4 x 6.5 = 26 cents

Note: 1kWh = 1kW × 1 hour = 1000W × 3600s = 3.6MJ

EFFECIENCY
Is the ratio of useful output power to the total power input power.

Pin = Pout + Ploss

Pout
η= x 100%
Pin

Wout
η= x 100%
Win

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EXAMPLES:

1. Determine the efficiency of a 110V motor that draws 15A and develops an
output power of 1.8 hp. How much power is lost? (1 hp = 746W)

Solution:
Pin = VI = 110 x 15 = 1,650W
Pout = 1.8 x 746 = 1,342.8W
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
η= x 100%
𝑃𝑖𝑛
1,342.8
η= x 100%
1,650
η = 81.38%

Ploss = Pin - Pout

Ploss = 1650 – 1342.8 = 307.2W

2. An electric motor develops a mechanical power of 20 hp with 88% efficiency.

Finds its electric input power.

Solution:
Pout = 20 x 746 = 14, 920W
Pout
Pin = Pin

14,920
Pin = = 16,955W 16.955kW
0.88

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KIRCHHOFF’S LAW

Ohm’s law by itself is not sufficient to analyze circuits. However, when it is coupled
with Kirchhoff’s two laws, we have a sufficient, powerful set of tools for analyzing a
large variety of electric circuits. Kirchhoff’s laws were first introduced in 1847 by
the German physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824–1887). These laws are
formally known as Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s voltage law
(KVL).
Kirchhoff’s first law is based on the law of conservation of charge, which requires
that the algebraic sum of charges within a system cannot change.

Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824–1887), a German

physicist, stated two basic laws in 1847 concerning the
relationship between the cur- rents and voltages in an
electrical network. Kirchhoff’s laws, along with Ohm’s law,
form the basis of circuit theory.
Born the son of a lawyer in Konigsberg, East Prussia,
Kirchhoff entered the University of Konigsberg at age 18 and
later became a lec- turer in Berlin. His collaborative work in
spectroscopy with German chemist Robert Bunsen led to the
discovery of cesium in 1860 and rubidium in 1861. Kirchhoff
was also credited with the Kirchhoff law of radiation. Thus
Kirchhoff is famous among engineers, chemists, and
physicists.

✓ Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents
entering a node (or a closed boundary) is zero.
✓ The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents
leaving the node.

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL):

According to KCL, at any moment, the algebraic sum of flowing currents through a
point (or junction) in a network is Zero (0) or in any electrical network, the algebraic
sum of the currents meeting at a point (or junction) is Zero (0). This law is also
known as Point Law or Current law.
In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of incoming currents to a point and
outgoing currents from that point is Zero. Or the entering currents to a point are
equal to the leaving currents of that point.
In other words, the sum of the currents flowing towards a point is equal to the sum of
those flowing away from it. Or the algebraic sum of the currents entering a node
equals the algebraic sum of the currents leaving it.

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Explanation of KCL:
Suppose some conductors are meeting at a point “A” as shown in fig 1.a. in some
conductors, currents are incoming to the point “A” while in other conductors,
Currents are leaving or outgoing from point “A”.
Consider the incoming or entering currents as “Positive (+) towards point “A” while
the leaving or outgoing currents from point “A” is “Negative (-)”.
Then:

I1 + (-I2) + (-I3) + (-I4) + I5 = 0

OR

I1 + I5 -I2 -I3 -I4 = 0

Example
Incoming or Entering Currents = leaving or Outgoing Currents
ΣI Entering = ΣI Leaving
For instance, 8A is coming towards a point and 5A plus 3A are leaving that point in
fig1.b,
THEREFORE:
8A=5A+3A
8A = 8A.

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Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL):

The Kirchhoff’s second law stated that;
In any closed path (or circuit) in a network, the algebraic sum of the IR product is
equal to the EMF in that path.
In other words, in any closed loop (which also known as Mesh), the algebraic sum of
the EMF applied is equal to the algebraic sum of the voltage drops in the elements.
Kirchhoff’s second law is also known as Voltage Law or Mesh law.
ΣIR= ΣE

✓ Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of voltages
around a closed path (or loop) is zero.
✓ Sum of voltages drops or Sum of voltages rises (Notice that if we had travelled
counter-clockwise)

Explanation of KVL:
A closed circuit is shown in fig which contains on two connection of batteries E1 and
E2. The overall sum of E.M.F’s of the batteries is indicated by E 1-E2. The imaginary
direction of current is also shown in the fig.

E1 drive the current in such a direction which is supposed to be positive while

E2 interfere in the direction of current (i.e. it is in the opposite direction of the
supposed direction of current) hence, it is taken as negative. The voltage drop in this
closed circuit is depends on the product of Voltage and Current.

The overall equation for the above circuit is:

E1-E2 = i1R1 + i2R2 – i3R3 – i4R4

If we go in the supposed direction of the current as shown in the fig, then the product
of the IR is taken as positive otherwise negative.

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It is very important to determine the direction of current whenever solving circuits

via Kirchhoff’s laws.
The direction of current can be supposed through clockwise or anticlockwise
direction. Once you select the custom direction of the current, you will have to apply
and maintain the same direction for over all circuit until the final solution of the
circuit.
If we got the final value as positive, it means, the supposed direction of the current
were correct. In case of negative values, the current of the direction is reversal as
compared to the supposed one then.

Solved Example on KCL and KVL (Kirchhoff’s Laws)

Resistors of R1= 10Ω, R2 = 4Ω and R3 = 8Ω are connected up to two batteries (of
negligible resistance) as shown. Find the current through each resistor.

Solution:
Assume currents to flow in directions indicated by arrows.
Apply KCL on Junctions C and A.
Therefore, current in mesh ABC = i1
Current in Mesh CA = i2
Then current in Mesh CDA = i1 – i2

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Now, Apply KVL on Mesh ABC, 20V are acting in clockwise direction.

Equating the sum of IR products, we get;

10i1 + 4i2 = 20 ……………. (1)

In mesh ACD, 12 volts are acting in clockwise direction, then:

8(i1–i2) – 4i2= 12

8i1 – 8i2 – 4i2= 12

8i1 – 12i2 = 12 ……………. (2)

Multiplying equation (1) by 3;

30i1 + 12i2 = 60

Solving for i1

30i1 +12i2 =60

8i1 – 12i2 = 12
______________
38i1 = 72

The above equation can be also simplified by Elimination

i1 = 72/38 = 1.895 Amperes = Current in 10 Ohms resistor

Substituting this value in (1), we get:

10(1.895) + 4i2 = 20

4i2 = 20 – 18.95

i2 = 0.263 Amperes = Current in 4 Ohms Resistors.

Now,

i1 – i2 = 1.895 – 0.263 = 1.632 Amperes

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Applications of Kirchhoff’s Laws

• Kirchhoff’s laws can be used to determine the values of unknown values like
current, Voltage, current as well as the direction of the flowing values in the
circuit.
• These laws can be applied on any circuit* (See the limitation of Kirchhoff’s Laws
at the end of the article), but useful to find the unknown values in complex circuits
and networks.
• Also used in Nodal and Mesh analysis to find the values of current and voltage.
• Current through each independent loop is carried by applying KVL (each loop)
and current in any element of a circuit by counting all the current (Applicable in
Loop Current Method).
• Current through each branch is carried by applying KCL (each junction) KVL in
each loop of a circuit (Applicable in Loop Current Method).
• Kirchhoff’s Laws are useful in understanding the transfer of energy through an
electric circuit.

Good to Know:
These rules of thumbs must be taken into account while simplifying and analyzing
electric circuits by Kirchhoff’s Laws:
• The Voltage Drop in a loop due to current in clockwise direction is considered as
Positive (+) Voltage Drop.
• The Voltage Drop in a loop due to current in anticlockwise direction is considered
as Negative (-) Voltage Drop.
• The deriving current by the battery in clockwise direction is taken as Positive (+).
• The deriving current by the battery in anticlockwise direction is taken as Positive
(-).

Limitations of Kirchhoff’s laws:

• KCL is applicable on the assumption that current flows only in conductors and
wires. While in High Frequency circuits where, parasitic capacitance can no longer
be ignored. In such cases, Current can flow in an open circuit because in these
cases, conductors or wires are acting as transmission lines.
• KVL is applicable on the assumption that there is no fluctuating magnetic field
linking the closed loop. While, in presence of changing magnetic field in a High
Frequency but short wave length AC circuits, the electric field is not a conservative
vector field. So, the electric field cannot be the gradient of any potential and the
line integral of the electric field around the loop is not zero, directly contradicting
KVL. That’s why KVL is not applicable in such a condition.
• During the transfer of energy from the magnetic field to the electric field where
fudge has to be introduced to KVL to make the P.d (potential differences) around
the circuit equal to 0.

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SERIES CIRCUIT

A series circuit is a circuit in which there is only one path for current to flow along.

- A series circuit is the simplest circuit

- A series circuit has only one path

Series circuit has only one path to ground, so electrons must go through each
component to get back to ground. All loads are placed in series.
Therefore:
1. An open in the circuit will disable the entire circuit
2. The voltage divides (share) between the loads
3. The current flow is the same throughout the circuit
4. The resistance of each load can be different

RESISTANCE

RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + ……. RN
RT = total resistance, Ω
R1 R2 and R3 = resistance in series, Ω

If R1 = R2 = R3 = ………. RN
Therefore: RT = nR

Where:
n = number of equal resistance
R = value of one resistance

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EXAMPLE:

1. A series circuit has a 50-Ω, a 70-Ω and a 100-Ω resistor in series. Find the
total resistance of the circuit.

RT = R1 + R2 + R3
RT = 50-Ω + 70-Ω + 100-Ω
RT = 225 Ω

VOLTAGE
VT = V1 + V2 + V3 = ………. VN
VT = total voltage, V
V1 = voltage across resistance R1, V
V2= voltage across resistance R2, V
V3 = voltage across resistance R3, V

EXAMPLE:

1. A series circuit has 6V across R1, 30V across R2, and 54V across R3. What is the
total voltage across the circuit?

Given:
V1 = 6V
V2= 30V
V3 = 54V
VT = total voltage

Solution:
VT = V1 + V2 + V3
VT = 6 + 30 + 54
VT = 90V

2. A 95V battery is connected in series with three resistors: 20Ω, 50Ω and 120Ω.
Find the voltage across each resistor.

STEP 1: Fid the total resistance RT

RT = R1 + R2 + R3
RT = 20 + 50 + 120
RT = 190Ω

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STEP 2: Find the current I. Write Ohm’s Law,

VT = IRT
VT 95
I= = = 0.5A
RT 190

STEP 3: Find the voltage across each part. In a series circuit, the current
is the same in each part; that is, I = 0.5A through each resistor.
V1 = IR1 = 0.5(20) = 10V
V2 = IR2 = 0.5(50) = 25V
V3 = IR3 = 0.5(120) = 60V

Check:

VT = V 1 + V 2 + V 3
VT = 10 + 25 + 60
VT = 95V

VOLTAGE DIVISION THEOREM (VDT) FOR RESISTOR CONNECTED IN SERIES

R1
V1 = VT R
1 + R2

R2
V2 = VT R
1 + R2

R
V = R VT
T

The voltage divider rule is used to solve circuits to simplify the solution. Applying
this rule can also solve simple circuits thoroughly The main concept of this voltage
divider rule is “The voltage is divided between two resistors which are connected in
series in direct proportion to their resistance. Voltage divider involves of two
important parts they are the circuit and the equation.

Using this formula, we can re-analyse the example circuit’s voltage drops fewer steps:

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POWER

PT = IVT
Where:
PT = total power; W
I = current, A
VT = total voltage, V

PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + …… + Pn
PT = total power, W
P1 = power use in first part, W
P2 = power use in second part, W
P3 = power use in third part, W
Pn = power use in nth part, W

EXAMPLE

1. Find the total power PT dissipated by R1 and R2.

STEP 1: Find I by Ohm’s Law

V VT
I = RT = R
T 1 + R2

VT 60
I= = 5+10 = 4A
R1 + R 2

STEP 2: Find the power used in R1 and R2

P1 = I2 R1 = 42 (5) = 80W
P2 = I2 R2 = 42 (10) = 160W

STEP 3: Find the total power PT by adding P1 and P2

PT = P1 + P2
PT = 80 + 160 = 240W

An alternative method to use directly:

PT = IVT
PT =4A (60) = 240W

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PARALLEL CIRCUIT

A parallel circuit is a circuit in which two or more components are connected across
the same voltage source.

VT = V1 = V2 = V3 = ………. VN

IT = I1 + I2 + I2 + …………. IN

1
RT = 1 1 1 1
+ + + …..
R1 R2 R3 Rn

If R1 = R2 = R3 = ………. RN

𝐑
Therefore: RT = 𝐧

Where:
n = number of equal resistance R = value of one resistance

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EXAMPLE:

1. Two lamps each drawing 2A and a third lamp drawing 1A are connected in
parallel across a 110-V line. What is the total current?

Solution:

IT = I1 + I2 + I3
IT = 2 + 2 + 1 = 5A
2. Two branches R1 and R2 across 110V power line draw a total line current of
20A. Branch R1 takes 12A. What is the current I2 in branch R2?

Solution:

IT = I1 + I2
I2 = IT - I1
I2 = 20 -12
I2 = 8A

3. Find the total resistance:

Solution:
1 1
RT = 1 1 1 RT = 1 1 1 RT = 1.14Ω
+ + + +
R1 R2 R3 2 4 8

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4. Four lamps, each having a resistance of 60Ω, are connected in parallel. Find
the total resistance.

Solution:
R
RT = n
R = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4
N=4
R
RT = n
60
RT = 4

RT = 15Ω

5. Find the total resistance of a 6Ω and an 18Ω resistor in parallel.

Solution:
𝑅1 𝑅2
RT = 𝑅
1 + 𝑅2

6 (18)
RT = 6+18

RT = 4.5Ω

CURRENT DEVIDER PRINCIPLE (CDP)

- Different resistor have their own individual currents

-

R2
I1 = IT R
1 + R2

R1
I2 = IT R
1 + R2

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EXAMPLE
1. Find the branch currents I1 and I2 for the circuit:

Solution:
R2 6
I1 = IT R = 18 3+6 = 12A
1 + R2

R1 3
I2 = IT R = 18 3+6 = 6A
1 + R2

CONDUCTANCES

Conductance is the opposite of resistance. The less resistance, the higher the
conductances.

Conductance = G
Unit = Siemens = S
G = is the reciprocal of R

1
G=
R

G = G1 + G2 + G3 + ……. GN

EXAMPLE

1. Find the total conductance of the circuit:

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Solution:
1 1
G1 = = 2 = 0.5S
R1

1 1
G2 = = 4 = 0.25S
R2

1 1
G3 = = 8 = 0.125S
R3

G = G1 + G2 + G3
G = 05 + 0.25 + 0.125
G = 0.875S
1
G=
R

1
R= = 1.14Ω
GT

POWER:

P = P1 + P2 + P3 + ……. PN
PT = VIT

EXAMPLE
1. Find the power dissipated in each branch and the total power of the circuit:

Solution:

First find the branch current and the power in each branch.
V 20
I1 = R = 10 = 2A
1

V 20
I2 = R = = 4A
2 5

P1 = VI1 = 20 (2) = 40W

P2 = VI2 = 20 (4) = 80W

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Then add these values for power in each branch to find PT

PT = P1 + P2

PT = 40 + 80

PT = 120W

Another way to find PT is to solve IT

IT = I1 + I2

IT = 2 + 6

IT = 8A
Then:

PT = VIT
PT = 20 (8)
PT = 160W

The 120W of power supplied by the sources is dissipated in the branch

resistances.
There are still other ways to find power used in each brand and total power.

V2 202
P1 = R = = 40W
1 10

V2 202
P2 = R = = 80W
2 5

V2
PT = R = V2 GT = (20)2 (0.3) = 120W
T

Where:
1 R1 + R2 10+5
R= = = 10(5) = 0.3 S
GT R1 R2

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SERIES – PARALLEL CIRCUIT (COMBINATION CIRCUIT

- Combining series and parallel circuits is often necessary to meet electrical

requirements and to group devices in a load circuit to obtain a particular
value of resistance.
Series
- Voltage drops add to equal total voltage
- All components where the same (equal) current
- Resistances add to equal resistance
Parallel:

- All components share the same (equal) voltage

- Branch currents add to equal total current
- Resistances diminish to equal total resistance
Find the equivalent resistance, REQ for the following resistor combination circuit.

Again, at first glance this resistor ladder network may seem a complicated task, but
as before it is just a combination of series and parallel resistors connected together.
Starting from the right hand side and using the simplified equation for two parallel
resistors, we can find the equivalent resistance of the R8 to R10 combination and call
it RA.

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RA is in series with R7 therefore the total resistance will be RA + R7 = 4 + 8 = 12Ω as

shown.

This resistive value of 12Ω is now in parallel with R6 and can be calculated as RB.

RB is in series with R5 therefore the total resistance will be RB + R5 = 4 + 4 =

8Ω as shown.

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This resistive value of 8Ω is now in parallel with R4 and can be calculated as RC as

shown.

RC is in series with R3 therefore the total resistance will be RC + R3 = 8Ω as shown.

This resistive value of 8Ω is now in parallel with R2 from which we can

calculated RD as:

RD is in series with R1 therefore the total resistance will be RD + R1 = 4 + 6 = 10Ω as

shown.

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Then the complex combinational resistive network above comprising of ten

individual resistors connected together in series and parallel combinations can be
replaced with just one single equivalent resistance ( REQ ) of value 10Ω.

CELLS and BATTERIES

▪ Cells and batteries are the primary sources of current and electricity called
“direct – current”
▪ CELL – is an electrochemical device consisting of two electrodes made of
different materials and an electrolyte.
▪ BATTERY – is an energy source that uses a chemical reaction to chemical
reaction to convert chemical energy into electrical energy. It consists of two or
more cells electrically connected together and packaged as a single unit.

SERIES and PARALLEL CELLS

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Types of CELLS
a. Wet CELLS – are cells that must be operated in an upright position. The
electrolyte is in liquid from. (Primary CELLS)

b. Secondary CELLS – also known as STORAGE CELLS are rechargeable and

can be reused many times. Energy is induced in the chemical substances by
applying an external energy.

PRIMARY CELL SECONDARY CELL

1. If discharge once, cannot be 1. If discharged, can be recharged.

recharged. 2. It can be easily charged by giving
2. For recharging, whole material is dc supply.
to be removed. 3. Heavy in weight.
3. These are light in weight. 4. Used for continuous rating with
4. Used for intermittent work with high load current.
low current rate. 5. More life
5. Low life

CELL NEGATIVE POSITIVE ELECTROLYTE VOLTS PER

PLATE PLATE CELL
PRIMARY CELLS
Carbon – zinc Zinc Carbon, Ammonium 1.5
(leclanche) Manganese chloride
dioxide
Alkaline Zinc Manganese Potassium 1.5
dioxide hydroxide
Mercury Zinc Mercuric Potassium 1.35
oxide hydroxide
Silver -zinc Zinc Silver oxide Potassium 1.6
hydroxide
Zinc –air Zinc Oxygen Potassium 1.4
hydroxide
Edison – lalande Zinc Copper oxide Sodium 0.8
hydroxide
SECONDARY CELL
Lead – acid Lead Lead dioxide Dilute 2.2
sulphuric acid
Nickel - iron Iron Nickel oxide Potassium 1.4
(Edison) hydroxide
Nickel – cadmium Cadmium Nickel Potassium 1.2
hydroxide hydroxide
Silver - zinc Zinc Silver oxide Potassium 1.5
hydroxide
Silver – cadmium Cadmium Silver oxide Potassium 1.1
hydroxide

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If the switch is open;

V = E = open circuit voltage

If the switch is closed;

E−V
E = V + Ir; V = E – Ir; I = r

E V
Also, I = R+r = R

Let E = VI + Ir equation 1

Then multiply each term in Equation 1 by current I

The result will be EI = VI + I2r

Where:

EI = power generated by the battery

VI = power delivered to the load, also useful power

I2r = power loss due to internal resistance

Cell Connections

- Cells may be connected in series or in parallel or in a combination of

both. If there is more than one cell to be connected in either series or
parallel connections, it is called a “battery” of cells. Therefore the term
“cell” means a single unit only.

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CELLS IN SERIES

- Cells are said to be connected in series if the (+) terminal of one is

connected to the (-) terminal of the following cell and so on.
- Cells are connected in series to obtain higher emf since the separate
emf’s are additive in this combination.

Etotal =E1 + E2 + E3 + …. + EN
If E1 = E2 = E3 = + ….. + EN
ET = nE
rtotal = r1 + r2 + r3 + ….. + rN
E
I = R+ rT
total

V = ETOTAL – Irtotal or V = IR

V = V1 + V2 + V3 + ….. + VN
Where:
Etotal = total internal emf; volts
rtotal = total internal resistance; ohms
I = total current ampere
V = terminal voltage; volts

CELLS with EQUAL EMF IN PARALLEL

- Cells are said to be connected in parallel when all the (+) terminals are
connected to each other & all the (-) terminals are connected to each other
as well.
- Cells connected in parallel have a total voltage reading equal to one cell
only.
ETotal = E1 = E2 = E3 . . . = En
1
rTotal = 1 1 1
+ +⋯
r1 r2 rn

r1 r2
For 2 cells rT = r
1 + r2

r1 r2 r3
For 3 cells rT = r
1 r2 + r2 r3 + r1 r3

E
I = R+Tr ; I = I1 + I2 + I3 + … + In
t

E1 − V E2 − V E3 − V En − V
I1 = ; I2 = ; I3 = ; In =
r1 r2 r3 rn

V = ET - IrT or V = IR

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EXAMPLE:

1. Find the following:

a. ET = Total internal emf; volts
b. rT = Total internal resistance; ohms
c. I = Total current, ampere
d. V = Terminal voltage, volts

0.2Ω 2.0V IT

0.4Ω 4.0V V 10Ω

0.6Ω 6.0V

Solution:

a. Etotal = E1 + E2 + E3
Etotal = 2.0 + 4.0 + 6.0
Etotal = 12V

b. rtotal = r1 + r2 + r3
rtotal = 0.2 + 0.4 + 0.6
rtotal = 1.2Ω
E
c. I = R+ rT d. V = ETOTAL – Irtotal
total

12
I = 10 + 1.2 = 1.07A V = 12 – 1.07 (1.2)

V = 10.716V

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2. Find the following:

a. rT = total internal resistance; ohms
b. I1, I2 and IT = current; ampere
c. V = terminal voltages; volts

5Ω 15V 10Ω 15V 10V 10Ω

Solution:
1
a. rTotal = 1 1
+
r1 r2

1
rTotal = 1 1
+
5 10

rTotal = 3.33Ω

E1 − V E2 − V
b. I1 = ; I2 =
r1 r2

15− 10
I1 = = 1A
5

15− 10
I2 = = 0.5A
10

IT = I1 + I2 = 1 + 0.5 = 1.5A

c. V = ET - IrT

V = 15 – 1.5 (3.33)

V = 10V

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CAPACITANCE

- Is the property of a capacitor

- Express in the unit of farad
- Capacitance is typified by a parallel plate arrangement and is defined in
terms of charge storage:
-

Q Q
C= Q = CV V=
V C

Where:
Q = magnitude of charge stored on each plate.
V = voltage applied to the plates
C = capacitance of capacitor

For a capacitor with two parallel plates; the formula is to find its capacitance is:
𝐴
C = k 𝑑 (8.85 x 10-12)

Where: C = capacitance; F

k = dielectric constant of the insulating material

A = area of the plate; m2

d = distance between the plates; m

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EXAMPLE

1. What is the capacitance of a capacitor that stores 4C of charge at 2V?

Solution:
Q 4
C= C= = 2F
V 2

2. What is the charge taken on by a 10-F capacitor at 3V?

Solution:
Q = CV Q = 10 (3) = 30C

3. What is the voltage across a 0.001 – F capacitor that stores 2C?

Solution:
Q 2
V=C V = 0.001 = 2000V

4. The area of one plate of a two plate is 0.0025m2 and the separation between
plates is 0.02m. If the dielectric constant of mica is 7, find the capacitance of
the capacitor?

Solution:
𝐴
C = k 𝑑 (8.85 x 10-12)

0.0025
C=7 (8.85 x 10-12)
0.02

C = 7.74 x 10-12 F

C = 7.74 pF

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CAPACITOR in SERIES:

▪ QT = Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = Q

▪ VT = V1 + V2 + V 3
1
▪ CT = 1 1 1
+ +
C1 C2 C3

CAPACITOR in PARALLEL:

▪ VT = V1 = V2 = V 3

▪ QT = Q1 + Q2 + Q3

▪ CT = C1 + C2 + C3

EXAMPLE:

1. Two capacitors of 20 microfarad and 30 microfarad are connected in series

across a 220v supply. Calculate the equivalent capacitance.

Solution:

C1 = 20 microfarad
C2 = 30 microfarad
1
C= 1 1
+
𝐶1 𝐶2

1
C= 1 1 = 12 microfarad
+
20 30

2. Four capacitor of 10, 20, 30 and 40 microfarad are connected in parallel.

Calculate the equivalent capacitance.

Solution:
C1 = 10 microfarad
C2 = 20 microfarad
C3 = 30 microfarad
C4 = 40 microfarad

CT = C1 + C2 + C3 + C4
CT = 10 + 20 + 30 + 40
CT = 100 microfarad

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E. ACTIVITIES/EXERCISES

Please read all questions carefully and make sure you understand the details before
you begin answering and work your own or individually to complete the following
critical thinking problem questions below:
Instruction: Write your answer on SHORT bond paper. (Problem Solving – simplify
the circuit and solve)

1. Find the total resistance in the circuit:

2. Find the voltage between point a and b in the circuit:

3. Find the total resistance in the circuit:

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4. Determine the branch current and the power absorbed by each resistor.

5. Find I1 and I2 in the circuit:

6. Find Rab for the circuit shown below:

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7. Find RT in the circuit:

8. Find the equivalent resistance of the circuit:

9. Determine the equivalent capacitance of the ff:

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10. Find the equivalent capacitance between terminal a and b in the circuits. All
capacitances are in µF

For question 11-15: Discuss in your own words and understanding.

11. What is an application of Ohm’s Law in our daily life?

12. What are some practical examples of Ohm’s Law? How can it be used by
typical consumers?
13. How are electric current, voltage and resistance used in everyday
circumstance?
14. What are some application of series and parallel circuits in the real world?
15. What are the real life applications of cells and battery?

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F. EVALUATION / POST – TEST

Work your own or individually to complete the following questions/problems below:

Instruction: Write your answer on SHORT bond paper. (Problem Solving – simplify
the circuit and solve)

1. The substation bar is made up to 2-inches round copper bars 20 ft long. What
is the resistance of each bar if resistivity is 1.724 x 10-6 ohm? cm.
2. A 220 V – 5 A electric lamp is used for 30 minutes. How much energy does it
require?
3. The energy used by the iron for 1 minute is 33 kJ, at a voltage of 220 volts.
How large the current is in the iron.
4. Someone watches TV on average 6 hours each day. The TV is connected to a
220 Volt voltage so that the electric current flow through the TV is 0.5
Amperes. If the electric company charges $0.092 per kWh, then the cost of
using electric energy for TV for 1 month (30 days) is…
5. In a house there are 4 lamps 20 Watt, 2 lamps 10 Watt, 3 lamps 40 Watt, are
used 5 hours every day. If the electric company charge 0.092 per kWh, then
the cost of using electric energy during 1 month (30 days) is ….
6. A certain process of the chemical has an energy efficiency of just 3.00%. In
order to complete this chemical process on a large-scale 140,000J of energy is
put in. Calculate the energy output of this process.
7. A labourer puts in around of 20J of energy in one strike of his hammer on the
nails head. The energy which the labourer inputs to drive he nail in the wood
is 8.0J. Calculate the efficiency of the laborer’s hammering?
8. A parallel plate capacitor has square plates of side 5 cm and separated by
a distance of 1 mm. (a) Calculate the capacitance of this capacitor. (b) If a
10 V battery is connected to the capacitor, what is the charge stored in
any one of the plates? (The value of εo = 8.85 x 10-12 Nm2 C-2)
9. Determine the amount of time that the following devices would have to be
used before 1.0x106 C (1 million Coulombs) of charge passes through them.
a. LED night light (I=0.0042 A)
b. Incandescent night light (I=0.068 A)
c. 60-Watt incandescent light bulb (I=0.50 A)
d. Large bathroom light fixture (I=2.0 A)
10. Draw a schematic diagram of a circuit consisting of a battery of three cells of
2 V each, a 5 Ω resistor, an 8 Ω resistor, and a 12 Ω resistor, and a plug key, all
connected in series.

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11. A kitchen in North America has three appliances connected to a 120V circuit
with a 15A circuit breaker: an 850W coffee maker, a 1200W microwave oven
and a 900W toaster.
(a) Draw schematic diagram of this circuit
(b) Which of these appliances can be operated simultaneously without
tripping the circuit breaker?
12. Given the circuit below:
(a) Calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit
(b) Calculate the current through the battery
(c) Calculate voltage in circuit

13. The diagram below shows a circuit with one battery and 10 resistors: 5 on the
left and 5 on the right. Determine the following:
(a) The current through
(b) The voltage drop across
(c) The power dissipated by each resistor

14. Determine the following quantities for each of the two circuits shown below:
(a) The equivalent resistance
(b) The current from the power supply
(c) The current through each resistor
(d) The voltage drop across each resistor
(e) The power dissipated in each resistor

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15. Find the current through a 20 ohms resistance, and current through a 40
ohms resistance.

16. Find the current i and voltage v over the resistor.

17. Find V1, V2 and V3 (Note: the arrows are signifying the positive position of the
box and the negative is at the end of the box)

i2

i3

I1

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18. Find V1 in the circuit.

19. Find V1, V2 and V3 in the circuit.

20. Find I1, I2 and I3 in the following circuit.

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G. REFERENCES

✓ Mathew N. O. Sadiku, Sarhan M. Musa, Charles K. Alexander, Applied

Circuit Analysis, International Edition 2013

✓ Richard J. Fowler, Electricity Principle & Applications, 8Th Edition

✓ Schaum’s Outlines, Basic Electricity, Second Edition

✓ Wikipedia. Com

✓ https://circuitglobe.com/dc-circuit.html

✓ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy

✓ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power

✓ https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/energy/Lesson-1/Power

✓ http://sciencelife23.blogspot.com/2016/04/numericals-based-on-
ohms-law.html

✓ https://www.thatquiz.org/tq/preview?c=cprc3294&s=ktl1ar

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Congratulations for completing this module!

Student’s Information

Name:
Program:
Year and Section:
Contact No.:
E-mail address:
Facebook Account:
Messenger Account:

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Vision 2020
WPU: the leading knowledge center for sustainable
development of West Philippines and beyond.

Mission
WPU commits to develop quality human resource and green
technologies for a dynamic economy and sustainable
development through relevant instruction,
research and extension services.

Core Values (3CT)

Culture of Excellence
Commitment
Creativity
Teamwork

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)