Role of Gamma Camera Components in Radiological Diagnosis

CENTRAL ASIAN JOURNAL OF MEDICAL AND NATURAL SCIENCES
Volume: 04 Issue: 04 | Jul-Aug 2023 ISSN: 2660-4159

http://cajmns.centralasianstudies.org
Role of Gamma Camera Components in Radiological Diagnosis

1. Numan S. Dawood Abstract: The gamma camera, along with SPECT and
Ph.D. (Medical Physics) PET scanners, is one of the main imaging technologies
in nuclear medicine. A collimator is typically
2. Nadiya Y Mohammed
constructed from tungsten to provide high absorption of
Ph.D. (Medical Physics) gamma photon energies. It has a hole or holes for
3. Dalya A. Ali Mohammed imaging. Gamma rays from a radioactive source within
MSc (Medical Physics) the body are emitted in all directions, while the photons
required constructing an image travel through the hole.
4. Ramaq G. Al-Qadhi A scintillator is the most common material used to
Ph.D. (Medical Physics) convert the high energy of gamma radiation into a low-
5. A. H. Ng energy optical photon. These detectors are one of the
Ph.D. (Medical Physics) primary secrets to radio-diagnosis in nuclear medicine.
The photomultiplier tube (PMT) is a versatile device
with extraordinarily highly sensitivity and response. A
typical photomultiplier tube contains a photo emissive
Received 14th May 2023,
Accepted 15th Jun 2023, cathode (photocathode), focusing electrodes, an electron
Online 16th Jul 2023 multiplier, and an electron collector (anode).
Conclusion: In the medical imaging area, everyone
works to improve the resolution, sensitivity, and size of
1, 2, 3, 4
Department of physiology, College of their devices so that patients can be treated better and
Medicine, University of Baghdad, Baghdad, diagnoses can be made more accurately. Also, the
Iraq results of this study suggest that HGC could be a
1
[email protected], potential way to give better support during surgery.
2
[email protected]
3
[email protected] Key words: Gamma Camera, Collimator, Scintillator,
4
[email protected] PMT, Radiodiagnosis.
5
Senior Lecturer, Clinical Oncology Unit,
Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya
[email protected]
Introduction
The discipline of medical imaging currently employs a variety of image analysis techniques. These
techniques provide the radiologist with more information for precise disease analysis and diagnosis.
Therefore, the radiologist can now identify abnormalities in the body with significantly greater
precision.
The gamma camera, along with SPECT and PET scanners, is the main important part in the imaging
technologies of nuclear medicine [1, 2]. Gamma imaging systems have a collimator (pinhole, parallel
hole arrays, diverging or converging), a conversion medium (scintillator or semiconductor),
Photomultiplier Tubes (PMTs) or semiconductor arrays, and a readout mechanism [3]. Gamma camera
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Copyright (c) 2023 Author (s). This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of Creative Commons
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CAJMNS Volume: 04 Issue: 04 | Jul-Aug 2023
designs depend on medical characteristics such FOV, sensitivity, spatial resolution, portability, and
cost [4].
Nuclear medicine diagnosis relies on gamma detection and target organ radioactivity. Gamma rays
from the accumulating radioisotope region can be detected by a non-imaging gamma probe (GP)
during surgery [5] or by SPECT and PET preoperatively.
SPECT/CT, SPECT/ MRI and PET/CT hybrid imaging systems can produce gamma-ray images and
provide functional and anatomical information about the target before surgery [6-8]. These systems are
too big for the operating room. Several research organisations and manufacturers are aiming towards a
portable hybrid system for surgical applications. The Space Research Centre, University of Leicester,
created the hybrid gamma camera (HGC) to address this difficulty [9].
Radiopharmaceuticals are an essential component of nuclear imaging techniques, where they serve as
chemical carriers of radioactive material to the specific target. For thyroid scintigraphy, radioisotopes
such as Technetium-99m pertechnetate (99mTcO4-) are utilised [10]. The most frequently used
radionuclide is 99mTc, which can be coupled to a wide variety of pharmaceuticals and is therefore
used to diagnose a variety of diseases, and has the optimal gamma energy range around140 keV. The
radiopharmaceutical with radioisotope is injected, ingested, or inhaled depending on the nuclear
medicine exam. After a period, it will accumulate in the target for investigation. In scintigraphy, a
gamma camera detects the radiotracer's gamma rays and creates images of the body's radioisotope
distribution and tissue function. For example, a SPECT scan can be used for thyroid scintigraphy 20
minutes after injecting 185 MBq (5 mCi) of 99mTc-pertechnetate since the thyroid uptakes it most
between 10 and 20 minutes [11]. The skeletal uptake rate of 99mTc-bisphosphonates is 50–60% of the
entire injected amount "it is depended on weight and height of the body [12]", which ranges from 300
to 740 MBq after four hours [13].
The main objective of this article is to explain the role of gamma camera components in radiological
diagnosis of various diseases, as well as the impact of gamma camera parts on diagnosis.
Gamma Camera components
Gamma cameras have collimators, scintillation crystals, and PMTs.
Collimator: It is frequently made of tungsten, which has a high atomic number (74) and great
attenuation at the 140Kev gamma energy, this provides it with a high amount of absorption. Gamm-
rays from radioactive source within the body emitted in all directions, the photons necessary to build
the image are passing through the hole. Operating principle: all 𝛾-rays incident on septa of collimator
will absorb (inefficient), whereas photons that are passing (in certain directions) through hole will
reach the detector. The collimators were used to determine the direction of the gamma ray photons
reaching the detector, allowing an image to be created [14]. Gamma camera performance and
development, especially spatial resolution, sensitivity, and FOV, depend on collimator properties.
Geometry of the apertures' arrangements, the main types of collimators:
Pinhole collimator: Only one collimator hole allows gamma rays to reach the detector. Figure 1
shows a circular knife-edge pinhole collimator. Pinhole collimators enlarge and reduce picture size
based on the detector-to-collimator distance, t, and the collimator-to-source distance, h:
M= t / h
Figure ‎1: A diagram showing a cross-sectional view of the knife-edge pinhole collimator and t, h,
acceptance angle, α, pinhole diameter, d, and source to collimator angle, Ɵ [15].
Pinhole collimator inverts images with changing magnification. Figure 2 shows the pin-hole collimator
imaging the thyroid with high spatial resolution but low efficiency. As well as using for imaging small
organ.
Figure 2: Pinhole Collimator [16].

Parallel-hole collimator: The most typical collimator has all holes perpendicular to the crystal plane
and maintains image size and unaffected by the object-to-collimator distance and without inverted
image as illustrates in Figure 3. There is a variety of forms depending on hole size, length and septal
thickness to match energy of 𝛾-ray.
Figure 3: Parallel hole collimator [17]

Diverging collimator: Multiple holes which are diverging off-center, giving a miniature image. and
non-inverted image as shown in Figure 4. The detector further away from the imaging source will
allow further increase area of acquisition. Diverging collimators are used for whole-body imaging to
provide a wider field of vision. Simultaneously, it has lesser resolution and efficiency than parallel-
hole collimators [17].
Figure 4: Diverging collimator [17]

Converging collimator: Multiple holes which fan toward the center illustrate in Figure 5, which is
providing magnified, non-inverted images of small objects and are more efficient and more precise
than parallel-hole collimators. Some collimators may be flipped, allowing a technician to switch from
converging to diverging collimation [18].
Figure 5: Converging collimator [18]

Other collimators include slant-hole and fan-beam. Slant-hole collimators are slanted to the crystal
plane, while fan-beam collimators are converging over the transaxial direction and parallel over the
rotation angle [18]. Both are utilised in SPECT. [17].
Scintillator crystal:
Scintillator is a detector which is the predominant material for converting the high energy of gamma
rays into a low energy optical photon. These detectors represent one of the main keys of nuclear
medicine technology for radiodiagnosis. Inorganic scintillators have several advantages encourage
their use in gamma cameras such as the maximum gamma-stopping power and optical photon output,
this match well with photomultiplier tube (PMTs) absorption spectra and charge coupled device
(CCD), and are inexpensive to manufacture.
Inorganic scintillation crystals have an electronic band structure that controls the energy states in their
lattice. When gamma photons are absorbed by an inorganic crystal, the electrons are moved to the
conduction band. However, this is inefficient for producing light and, as a result; the emitted light is
low-quality. An increase in impurity concentration can enhance luminescence efficiency and the
emission wavelength. This effect is achieved by transferring the energy from the impurity centers to
the energy levels in the crystal lattice.
Thallium doped Sodium Iodide (NaI(Tl)), Thallium doped cesium iodide (CsI(Tl)) or CsI(Na) crystals
are most commonly used in gamma cameras. To prevent damage from moisture and dust, NaI(Tl) and
CsI(Tl) must be encapsulated in aluminium and transparent glass [19]. The probabilities of the
interaction of gamma photons which are passed through collimating holes with crystal depends on the
gamma energy and crystal thickness, some of these photons are absorbed in the crystal whereas some
of the photons scatter or pass through crystal without interaction. In gamma camera, the thickness of
the crystal takes into account because it has a high impact on the ability to detection gamma photons,
spatial resolution of the camera and to determine depth of radioactive material accumulated within
human body [20, 21]. For example, CsI (TI) has numerous properties that enable it to detect gamma
radiation, including an optical photon output of 54 photons per KeV, a Z efficacy is 54, and an
intensity of approximately 4.5 g/cm3. The maximal wavelength of scintillation photons is 565 nm.
This wavelength of the CsI (TI) crystal corresponds well with the detector's (CCD) response and has
an efficiency of greater than 90% for gamma photon detection. [22].
Photomultiplier tubes (PMT):
In the previous century, a scintillation mechanism was first used to quantify radiation. It uses a light
detector to convert the scintillation light emitted into a quantifiable electrical signal that can be
expressed as charge, voltage, or current. According to the literature, photomultiplier tubes are the most
common photodetectors in use today [22].
The photomultiplier tube (PMT) is a multifunctional device with extraordinarily high sensitivity and
rapid response. A photomultiplier tube contains a photocathode, focusing electrodes, an electron
multiplier, and an anode housed in a vacuum tube as illustrated in Figure 6.
Figure 6: Cross-section of PMT tube [23]

Incident photons hit the photocathode, on the device's entry window. The photoelectric effect causes
electrons to be ejected from the surface. The focusing electrode directs these electrons toward the
electrodes called dynodes, each dynode is held at a higher positive potential than the one before it, by
about 100 volts. The electrons are multiplied via the secondary emission process [24].
Although the PMT is a reliable device with a large intrinsic gain (on the order of 106-107), its
performance is restricted by its low quantum efficiency of ≈ 25%. They're also expensive, bulky,
fragile, and sensitive to magnetic fields, requiring successive dynodes with increasingly large positive
bias potentials [25].
Conclusion
1. Using high amount activities of Tc-99m lead to an increase in the count rate response by the
gamma camera, which will provide a distinct image.
2. Different collimations that can be used to produce the best image depending on the distances
between detector collimator and between collimator and source.
3. To enhance patient management and diagnosis, all medical imaging gadget designers and
manufacturers increase resolution, sensitivity, and size.
4. The hybrid gamma camera (HGC) could be used to estimate the depth of radiolabeled tissue within
a patient by combining optical and gamma imaging intraoperatively.
5. Finally, the findings of this investigation suggest HGC could be a promising technique for
providing superior surgical support.
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CENTRAL ASIAN JOURNAL OF MEDICAL AND NATURAL SCIENCES

Volume: 04 Issue: 04 | Jul-Aug 2023 ISSN: 2660-4159

Role of Gamma Camera Components in Radiological Diagnosis

456 Published by “ CENTRAL ASIAN STUDIES" http://www.centralasianstudies.org

457 Published by “ CENTRAL ASIAN STUDIES" http://www.centralasianstudies.org

Figure 2: Pinhole Collimator [16].

Figure 3: Parallel hole collimator [17]

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Figure 4: Diverging collimator [17]

Figure 5: Converging collimator [18]

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Figure 6: Cross-section of PMT tube [23]

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461 Published by “ CENTRAL ASIAN STUDIES" http://www.centralasianstudies.org

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