Big Data refers to extremely large and complex sets of data that cannot be processed or

analyzed using traditional data processing tools and techniques. It is characterized by the
3Vs - Volume, Variety, and Velocity. Big data is generated from various sources such as
social media, sensors, mobile devices, and other digital sources.There are generally three
types of Big Data:

Structured Data: This refers to the data that can be easily organized and analyzed using
traditional databases. It includes data from financial transactions, inventory management,
and customer data.
OOP stands for Object-Oriented Programming. It is a programming paradigm that focuses on
the use of objects and their interactions to build software applications. OOP allows
Unstructured Data: This refers to the data that is not organized and cannot be easily developers to create software that is modular, flexible, and reusable. The features of OOP Network architecture refers to the design and structure of a computer network. It Data integrity refers to the accuracy, completeness, and
analyzed using traditional databases. It includes data from social media, emails, images, include: includes the hardware and software components, as well as the protocols and consistency of data stored in a database. It is an important aspect
and videos. communication methods used to enable communication between devices on the of database design because it ensures that the data in the
network., There are two main types of network architectures: client-server and database is reliable and trustworthy.
Encapsulation: This is the process of bundling data and functions together in a single unit peer-to-peer.
Semi-Structured Data: This refers to the data that has some structure but is not fully
called a class. Encapsulation provides data security by restricting access to data from outside
organized. It includes data from web logs, machine data, and sensor data. Data integrity is important because inaccurate or inconsistent data
the class and allowing access only through class functions.
Client-Server Network: In a client-server network architecture, there is a central can lead to errors in business processes, financial reporting, and
server that manages and controls access to resources on the network. Clients or decision-making. Inaccurate data can also damage a company's
In addition to these three types, Big Data can also be classified based on its source, such end-user devices such as desktop computers, laptops, and mobile devices connect reputation and result in legal issues. There are several types of
Inheritance: This is the process of creating a new class from an existing class, inheriting all its
as: to the server to access resources such as files, printers, and databases. The server is data integrity that need to be considered while designing a
properties and methods. Inheritance allows developers to create new classes that are similar
responsible for managing security, authentication, and access control. This database:
to existing classes but with additional or modified features.
architecture is commonly used in businesses and organizations where there is a
Social Media Data: This refers to data generated from social media platforms such as need for centralized control and management of network resources.
Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram. Entity Integrity: Entity integrity ensures that each record in a table
Polymorphism: This is the ability of an object to take on multiple forms. Polymorphism allows
is unique and has a primary key that identifies it. This ensures that
developers to write code that can work with objects of different types, as long as they share a
Peer-to-Peer Network: In a peer-to-peer network architecture, there is no central there are no duplicate records in the table.
common interface.
Machine Data: This refers to data generated by machines and devices such as sensors, server. Instead, all devices on the network are considered equal and can
cameras, and GPS devices. communicate directly with each other to share resources such as files, printers, and
databases. Each device on the network can act as a client or a server, depending on Referential Integrity: Referential integrity ensures that
Abstraction: This is the process of hiding implementation details and showing only the
the resources being accessed. This architecture is commonly used in home networks relationships between tables are maintained. For example, if a
necessary information to the user. Abstraction allows developers to create simpler and easier-
Transaction Data: This refers to data generated from financial transactions such as credit and small businesses where there is no need for centralized control and record in one table has a foreign key that references a record in
to-use interfaces for complex systems.
card transactions, stock trades, and bank transfers. management. another table, the foreign key value must match a primary key
value in the referenced table.
Classes and Objects: Classes are the blueprint for creating objects, which are instances of the
Web Data: This refers to data generated from web logs, clickstream data, and search data. class. Objects contain data and functions, and can interact with other objects to perform The main differences between client-server and peer-to-peer networks are:
Domain Integrity: Domain integrity ensures that data values in a
tasks.
column meet certain requirements, such as data type, format, and
Overall, Big Data is an important area of study as it can provide valuable insights into Centralization: In client-server networks, there is a central server that manages and range. For example, a column that stores dates should only allow
customer behavior, market trends, and business operations. controls access to resources. In peer-to-peer networks, all devices are considered valid dates to be entered.
Modularity: OOP allows developers to build applications using modules, which are self-
contained units of code that can be easily reused and combined to create larger systems. equal and can communicate directly with each other.

User-defined Integrity: User-defined integrity refers to any

Scalability: Client-server networks can be more scalable, as the central server can additional constraints that are specific to the business
Overall, OOP provides a powerful and flexible approach to software development, allowing
handle large numbers of clients accessing resources. In peer-to-peer networks, requirements of the database. For example, a database might
developers to build complex systems that are modular, maintainable, and scalable.
scalability can be limited by the number of devices on the network. have a requirement that all customer records must have a valid
email address.
The main objectives of a Database Management System (DBMS) are:Data storage and
retrieval: The primary objective of a DBMS is to provide efficient and reliable storage and
Management: Client-server networks are easier to manage and secure, as all access
retrieval of data. A DBMS should be able to store large amounts of data in a well-organized Ensuring data integrity is an important consideration during
to resources is controlled by the central server. In peer-to-peer networks, each
manner, and retrieve it quickly and accurately when required., Data integrity: A DBMS database design. It involves setting up constraints, rules, and
device is responsible for its own security and access control.
should ensure that the data stored in the database is accurate and consistent. It should relationships that govern the data stored in the database. By
enforce data integrity constraints, such as uniqueness and referential integrity, to prevent ensuring data integrity, businesses can rely on the data in their
data inconsistencies and errors., Data security: A DBMS should provide security features to databases to make informed decisions and run their operations
Overall, the choice of network architecture depends on the specific needs of the
protect data from unauthorized access and modification. It should ensure that only effectively.
organization or individual. Client-server networks are more suitable for larger
authorized users can access and modify the data, and provide mechanisms to audit and
organizations with a need for centralized control and management, while peer-to-
monitor data access and changes., Data sharing: A DBMS should support concurrent access
peer networks are more suitable for smaller organizations or home networks with a
to the database by multiple users and applications, and provide mechanisms for sharing
need for simplicity and flexibility.
data among them. It should ensure that the data is accessed and modified in a controlled
and coordinated manner to prevent data inconsistencies and conflicts., Data independence:
A DBMS should provide data independence, which means that the application programs
should be insulated from the underlying physical storage structures and implementation
details. This allows the database to be modified or reorganized without affecting the
application programs that use it. The OSI reference model (Open Systems Interconnection reference model) is a theoretical
framework that describes how data is transmitted over a network. It was developed by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in the early 1980s and is widely used as
a guide for network architecture and design. The OSI reference model consists of seven
layers, each of which performs a specific function in the process of data communication.
These seven layers are:
A data type is a classification of data items based on their properties and the operations that can be
performed on them. A data type determines the type of values that a variable can hold, the range
of those values, and the operations that can be performed on those values.There are several types Physical Layer: The physical layer is the first layer in the OSI model, responsible for the
of data in programming, including: Integer: An integer data type is used to represent whole transmission and reception of raw data between devices. It defines the physical
numbers without any decimal points. Examples of integer values are 0, 1, -3, and 1000., Floating- specifications of the transmission medium, such as cables, wireless frequencies, and
point: A floating-point data type is used to represent decimal numbers with a fractional part. connectors.
Examples of floating-point values are 3.14, -0.5, and 1.0., Boolean: A boolean data type is used to
represent logical values that can only be true or false. Examples of boolean values are true and
Normalization is the process of organizing data in a database to reduce redundancy
false., Character: A character data type is used to represent a single character, such as a letter or a Data Link Layer: The data link layer is the second layer in the OSI model, responsible for
and improve data integrity. It involves dividing larger tables into smaller tables and
symbol. Examples of character values are 'a', 'Z', and '$'., String: A string data type is used to error-free data transmission between devices on the same network segment. It provides a
reliable link between the physical layer and the network layer, using techniques such as defining relationships between them to eliminate duplicate data.
represent a sequence of characters. Examples of string values are "Hello, world!", "abc", and "123".,
Array: An array data type is used to represent a collection of values of the same data type. Examples framing, error detection, and flow control.
of array values are [1, 2, 3], ["red", "green", "blue"], and [true, false, false, true]., Pointer: A pointer
The normalization process consists of several normal forms, each with its own set
data type is used to represent a memory address of a variable or a function. Examples of pointer
of rules for organizing data. The most commonly used normal forms are First
values are 0x7fff5fbff7a8 and 0x4007e0. Network Layer: The network layer is the third layer in the OSI model, responsible for routing
Normal Form (1NF), Second Normal Form (2NF), Third Normal Form (3NF), and
data between different networks. It provides logical addressing, packet forwarding, and
Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF). Here are brief explanations of each of these
congestion control services, and ensures that packets are delivered to the correct
normal forms:
destination.

Simplex, Half Duplex, and Full Duplex are three types of communication modes used in computer First Normal Form (1NF): This form requires that all data in a table be atomic,
Transport Layer: The transport layer is the fourth layer in the OSI model, responsible for end-
networks and telecommunications. meaning that each column should contain only one piece of data. For example, a
to-end data delivery between applications. It provides reliable and ordered delivery of data,
using mechanisms such as flow control, error recovery, and congestion control. table that stores customer data should not have a single column that contains both
the customer's first name and last name.
Simplex: In simplex mode, data can only be transmitted in one direction. It means that a device can
either send or receive data, but not both at the same time. The receiver cannot send any feedback
Session Layer: The session layer is the fifth layer in the OSI model, responsible for
to the sender. Examples of simplex mode communication are broadcast radio or television signals, Second Normal Form (2NF): This form requires that all non-key attributes in a table
establishing, maintaining, and terminating communication sessions between devices. It
and computer keyboards where only the input data is sent. be dependent on the primary key. This means that a table should not have
provides services such as session synchronization, checkpointing, and recovery, and
attributes that are dependent on only a part of the primary key. For example, a
manages session security and authentication.
table that stores sales data should not have an attribute for the sales
Half Duplex: In half-duplex mode, data can be transmitted in both directions, but not at the same representative's phone number if the phone number is not dependent on the sales
time. This means that a device can either send or receive data, but not both simultaneously. The representative ID.
Presentation Layer: The presentation layer is the sixth layer in the OSI model, responsible for
sender must wait for the receiver to acknowledge the data before sending more data. Examples of
data representation and formatting. It ensures that data is presented to the application layer
half-duplex mode communication are walkie-talkies, CB radios, and some computer networks.
in a usable format, regardless of the underlying data representation and encoding.
Third Normal Form (3NF): This form requires that all non-key attributes in a table
be independent of each other. This means that a table should not have attributes
Full Duplex: In full-duplex mode, data can be transmitted in both directions simultaneously. This that are dependent on other non-key attributes. For example, a table that stores
Application Layer: The application layer is the seventh and final layer in the OSI model,
means that a device can send and receive data at the same time, and there is no need to wait for product data should not have an attribute for the product's manufacturer if the
responsible for providing services to user applications. It includes protocols such as HTTP,
acknowledgments. This type of communication mode is commonly used in high-speed manufacturer's information is already stored in a separate table.
FTP, SMTP, and Telnet, which enable user applications to access network resources and
communication networks such as the internet, Ethernet networks, and telephone systems.
services.

Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF): This form is similar to 3NF but is more restrictive.
In summary, Simplex mode is unidirectional, Half Duplex mode is bidirectional but not It requires that every determinant in a table be a candidate key. This means that a
Overall, the OSI reference model provides a standard framework for the design and
simultaneously, while Full Duplex mode is bidirectional and simultaneous. The choice of table should not have any functional dependencies that are not based on the
implementation of computer networks, allowing different systems to interoperate and
communication mode depends on the requirements of the application, the available resources, and candidate keys.
communicate effectively.
the desired speed and reliability of communication.

PHP is a popular server-side scripting language used for developing web

An Entity Relationship Diagram (ER Diagram) pictorially explains the relationship between entities to Data security is the practice of protecting digital information from applications and dynamic websites. PHP stands for Hypertext Preprocessor
be stored in a database. Fundamentally, the ER Diagram is a structural design of the database. It acts unauthorized access, theft, corruption, or any other form of damage. It and is designed to be embedded in HTML pages. It is open-source and has
as a framework created with specialized symbols for the purpose of defining the relationship involves the implementation of various measures to ensure the confidentiality, a large community of developers who contribute to its development and
between the database entities. ER diagram is created based on three principal components: entities, integrity, and availability of data. There are several ways in which data security maintenance. Some advantages of PHP include:
attributes, and relationships. can be implemented:
Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs): OOP is commonly used in the development
of GUIs because of its ability to represent objects in a user-friendly manner.
For example, a button can be represented as an object with specific Easy to learn: PHP has a simple and intuitive syntax that is easy to learn,
The following diagram showcases two entities - Student and Course, and their relationship. The Encryption: Encryption is a technique that involves converting data into an especially for those who have experience with C or other programming
attributes such as color, size, and label.
relationship described between student and course is many-to-many, as a course can be opted by unreadable format that can only be deciphered with a decryption key. By languages.
several students, and a student can opt for more than one course. Student entity possesses encrypting sensitive data, it becomes much harder for unauthorized users to
attributes - Stu_Id, Stu_Name & Stu_Age. The course entity has attributes such as Cou_ID & read or access the data.
Video games: OOP is commonly used in the development of video games
Cou_Name. Platform-independent: PHP can be run on various operating systems,
because it allows for the creation of complex game objects with unique
attributes and behaviors. For example, in a racing game, each car could be including Windows, Linux, macOS, and others.
Access Control: Access control involves limiting the access of data to
represented as an object with unique properties such as speed, acceleration,
JavaScript is a scripting language that is commonly used for creating interactive and dynamic authorized users only. Access control can be implemented through various
and handling.
web pages. It is a client-side programming language that is executed by web browsers to add means, such as the use of passwords, biometric authentication, and user High performance: PHP is highly optimized for web development and has a
functionality and interactivity to web pages. permissions. fast execution speed.
Web development: OOP is widely used in web development for creating
dynamic and interactive websites. For example, a website that allows users
To add JavaScript to an HTML page, you can include the JavaScript code in a <script> tag Data Backup: Data backup is the process of creating copies of data and storing Open-source: Being an open-source language, PHP is free to use, distribute,
to create and manage their own accounts could use OOP to create an object
within the HTML document. Here is an example of how to add JavaScript to an HTML page: them in a secure location. This ensures that data can be recovered in case of and modify, making it an affordable option for web developers.Large
representing each user account.
data loss or damage.

In this example, the JavaScript code is included within the <script> tags in the <body> section community support: PHP has a large and active community of developers
Artificial Intelligence (AI): OOP is used in AI for modeling complex real-world
of the HTML document. The code defines a function called "myFunction" that displays an Network Security: Network security involves the implementation of measures who contribute to its development and maintenance. This means that
systems. For example, an AI system could use OOP to create objects
alert message when called. This function is then attached to a button element using the to secure computer networks from unauthorized access, hacking, and other there are a lot of resources available online, such as documentation,
representing different aspects of a problem domain, such as customers,
"onclick" attribute. When the user clicks the button, the function is executed and the alert cyber threats. Measures such as firewalls, antivirus software, and intrusion tutorials, and forums.
products, or orders.
message is displayed. detection systems can be used to secure networks.

Mobile development: OOP is commonly used in mobile app development Overall, PHP is a flexible, powerful, and popular language that has many
This is a simple example of how JavaScript can be added to an HTML page to create Data Masking: Data masking is the process of obfuscating data by replacing advantages for web developers.
because it allows for the creation of reusable code components. For
interactivity and user engagement. By adding more complex JavaScript code, web developers sensitive data with fictitious data. This ensures that the sensitive data cannot
example, an app that uses a database to store user information could use
can create dynamic and responsive web pages that provide a rich user experience. be accessed or used by unauthorized users.
OOP to create a reusable object representing the database.

In conclusion, data security is crucial in protecting digital information from

SPM stands for Software Project Management, which is the process of planning, organizing, unauthorized access, theft, and corruption. The implementation of the above
and controlling software projects from inception to delivery. The goal of SPM is to ensure that measures can help to ensure that data is kept secure and protected from
software projects are completed on time, within budget, and to the satisfaction of cyber threats.
stakeholders.