Asha M.

Tarsadia Institute of Computer

Science and Technology

PY3007 - PHYSICS
LABORATORY MANUAL

B.Tech. Computer Science and Engineering (CSE)

B.Tech. CSE (CC/CS/AI & ML)
B.Tech. Computer Engineering (Software Engineering)
B.Tech Computer Engineering
B.Tech Information Technology

NAME: _______________________________________ ROLL NO.:____________________

BRANCH: __________________________________DIV.__________SEMESTER:________

ENROLMENT NO.: _____________________

YEAR – 2023 - 2024

 Asha M. Tarsadia Institute of Computer
Science and Technology

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. /Ms. _____________________________________

Roll No. ______________ of division ___________, batch _______, B. Tech.

______________________________ Semester _______, has satisfactory completed

the Laboratory work in the subject of PY3007 – Physics during the

academic year, 20 / 20 .

Laboratory Professor
 INDEX
Sr. Date of
Date Title Remark Sign
no Assessment

Determine the wavelength of laser using

1
diffraction grating and Single slit

2 Data analysis using least square fitting.

Study of V-I characteristics of Silicon diode,

3
Zener Diode & LED

To study the forbidden energy gap in

4
semiconductor diode.

5 Determine the numerical aperture of optical

fibre.

Study about solar cells and its power load

6
characteristics.

Standing (Transverse) Waves and resonance

7
Using Vibrating Strings. Melde’s Experiment

8 To study the Hall effect.

The Photoelectric Effect; photo current versus

9
intensity and wavelength

To determine value of Planck’s constant using

10
LEDs of different colors

To determine the resistivity of semiconductors

11
by four probe method at different temperature

12 Minor Project
 Experiment 1(1)

Objective
To determine Wavelength of Laser using Diffraction Grating

Items Required

1. Optics Bench

2. Laser Light Source

3. Diffraction Grating

4. Viewing screen

5. Two fixed stands

6. One sliding stand

7. Grating holder

8. Screen holder

9. Laser holding rod

Safety

Never look directly into laser beam or stare at its bright reflections-just asyou
should avoid staring at the sun or other light sources.

Procedure

1. Place the optics bench in the dark room and adjust the height of the
bench with the help of leveling screw.

2. Fix the laser light source with a holding rod.

3. Place sliding stand on the bench (on the side having zero mark) atextreme end
of the bench, and fix it with the help of provided screw.

4. Place the laser light source on sliding stand.

5. Take out the grating carefully from the accessory box
6. Mount the grating on grating holder from the edge without touching its
surface. And place the grating on grating stan
7. Now place the grating stand on fixed stand at a suitable distance fromthe
source so that Laser light falls normally on it.
8. Place the screen on the screen holder and mount it on the second fixstand at
other end of the bench.
9. After the assembling the assembly will look as shown in figure below

10. Switch ‘On’ the laser light.

Precaution: Laser light must fall on the transparent portion of grating.

Note: Adjust heights of all three uprights to be nearly the same i.e.,all
aligned in same plane.

11. Adjust the distance between the diffraction grating and screen so that the light
beam after passing through grating produces several bright spots on the screen.

12. Set the position of screen so that the diffraction spots are sharp and bright, if
necessary, adjust the grating also.

13. The brightest spot is the central maxima and symmetrically situated on both
sides of the central maxima there are three-four spots of diminishing intensity.

14. The first bright spot on either side of the central maxima is the first order
spectrum. Measure the distance between the centre of maxima and centre of
first bright spot on the screen with the help of graph scale provided on the screen.
15. The second bright spot on either side of the central maxima is the second order
spectrum. Measure the distance between the centre of central maxima and
centre of second bright spot on the screen as shown in figure 13.

16. Repeat the same procedure for 3rd and 4th order of spectrum.

17. Note the distance between grating and screen.

Note: Take the reading of the first edge of the stands on which grating and
screen are mounted and subtract them to get the distance between them.

18. Tabulate all the retrieval data in observation table given below.

Observations:

Number of lines on the diffraction grating = a =..................................... Per mm

N = a x 10 = ………….per cm

Grating element (a+b) = 1/N = ........................... cm

 Angle of
Diffraction
Distance between Bright Spot 𝑋 180 λ=
𝜃= × sin 𝜃
(cm) 𝑟 𝜋 (a+b)sin 𝜃
Order of (radian) (Degree) (cm)
Sr. Spectrum
No On
On
(n)
Other Mean
One
θ = X /r
side side X=
𝑥1 +𝑥2
2
(radian)
(x1) (x2)

For 1st Order

1.
n=1

For 2nd Order

2.
n=2

For 3rd Order

3.
n= 3

For 4th Order

4.
n= 4

Therefore

λ = …………….. (For 1st order)

λ = ……………. (For 2nd order)

λ = …………… (For 3rd order)

λ = …………… (For 4th order)

Mean λ =________________cm

λ =________________nm
 Experiment 1(2)

Objective: To determine Wavelength of Laser using Single Slit

Equipments Needed:

1. Optics Bench

2. Laser Light Source

3. Single Slit

4. Viewing screen

5. Two fixed stands

6. One sliding stand

7. Screen holder

8. Laser holding rod

9. Graph Paper (To be arranged from laboratory )

Safety:

Never look directly into the laser beam or stare at its bright reflections.

Procedure:

1. Place the optics bench in the dark room and adjust the height of the
bench with the help of leveling screw.

2. Fix the laser light source with a holding rod.

3. Place sliding stand on the bench (on the side having zero mark) atextreme end
of the bench, and fix it with the help of provided screw.

4. Place the laser light source on sliding stand.

5. Take out the slit from the accessory box.

6. Mount the slit on holder from the edge without touching its surface.

7. Place the slit on fixed stand at a suitable distance from the source so thatLaser
light falls normally on it.
8. Fix the screen in the screen holder and mount it on the second fix standat other
end of the bench. As shown in below figure

9. Switch ‘On’ the laser light.

Precaution: Laser light must fall at the center of the slit.

Note: Adjust the heights of all three uprights to be nearly the same i.e.,all
aligned in same plane.

10. Adjust the distance between the slit and screen so that the light beam after
passing through slit produces several spots at the center of the screen.

11. Paste graph paper with the help of tape on the screen

12. Set the position of screen so that the diffraction spots are sharp and bright, if
necessary, adjust the slit also.

Note: The central bright spot is larger than the side spots.

13. The brightest spot is the central maxima and symmetrically situated on both
sides of the central maxima are spots of diminishing intensity. (see figure 14)
 14. On the graph paper, mark the following position:
a. Center of first dark spot on both side of central maxima

b. Center of second dark spot on both side of central maxima

c. if visible, center of subsequent dark spots.

15. Measure the distance between the centers of first dark 𝜆

spots which are formed on both side of central maxima,
divide this distance by 2. This distance will correspond to
the first minima (p=1).

16. Similarly measure the distance of second minima (p=2).

17. Repeat the same procedure for subsequent spots and note
in the observation table.

18. Note the distance between slit and screen (L).

Note: Take the reading of the first edge of the stands on

which slit and screen are mounted and then subtract to
get the distance between them.

19. Tabulate all the data in observation table given below.

Observations:

Slit Width, a = ……

Distance between slit and screen, L =……

Wavelength
Distance of minima from 𝑎 ×𝑦
Order of Distance between center of central maxima λ=
S. No. 𝑝 × √𝑦2 + 𝐿2
minima (p) minima (Xm) (in mm)
y = (Xm/2) (in mm) (in mm)

For 1st
1.
order p=1
For 2nd
2.
order p=2
For 3rd
3
order p=3
For 4th
4
order p=4

Mean λ = …………….
 Experiment 2

Objective: Data analysis using least square fitting.

Theory:

Least Square Method:

The least square method is the process of finding the best-fitting curve or
line of best fit for a set of data points by reducing the sum of the squares
of the offsets (residual part) of the points from the curve. During the
process of finding the relation between two variables, the trend of
outcomes are estimated quantitatively. This process is termed as
regression analysis. The method of curve fitting is an approach to
regression analysis. This method of fitting equations which approximates
the curves to given raw data is the least squares.
It is quite obvious that the fitting of curves for a particular data set are
not always unique. Thus, it is required to find a curve having a minimal
deviation from all the measured data points. This is known as the best-
fitting curve and is found by using the least-squares method.

Q.1 Find the least square regression line equation with the given x and y values.
Consider the values.

X 1 2 3 4 5

Y 1.5 1.6 2.1 3.1 5.5

Q.2 Find the least square regression line equation with the given x and y values.
Consider the values.

X 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

Y 0.0 1.5 3.0 4.5 6.0 7.5

 Q.3 Fit a curve of the form Y = a + bx + cx2 for following data using least square
method.

X 0 1 2 3 4

Y 1 1.8 1.3 2.5 6.3

Q.4 Find the least square regression line equation with the given x and y values.
Consider the values.

X 60 61 62 63 65

Y 3.1 3.6 3.8 4 4.1

Q.5 Find the least square regression line equation with the given x and y values.
Consider the values.

X 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Y 1.5 1.6 2.1 3.0 5.5 6.7 7.5 8.5

 Experiment – 3(1)

Objective: Study of Forward Characteristics of Silicon diode.

Equipments Needed:
1. Patch cords
Circuit Diagram:
Circuit used to plot Forward Characteristics of Si diode is shown in figure 3(1).1.

Figure 3(1).1
Procedure:
1. Before switch ‘On’ the supply rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW (counter
clockwise direction).

Figure 3(1).2
2. Connect Ammeter between TP4 and TP10, to measure diode current ID (mA)
& set Ammeter at 200mA range.
3. Connect Voltmeter across TP3 and TP11, to measure diode voltage VD & set
Voltmeter at 20V range.
4. Switch ‘On’ the power supply.
5. Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of diode voltage VD from
0 to 1V (0.83V) in steps and measure the corresponding values of diode current
ID in mA and note down in the Observation Table 1.
6. Plot a curve between diode voltage VD and diode current ID as shown in figure
3 (First quadrant) using suitable scale, with the help of Observation Table 1.
This curve is the required forward characteristics of Si diode.
7. Switch ‘Off’ the supply.
Observation Table 3(1).1:

Diode Voltage Diode Current ID

Sr. No.
(VD) (mA)

1 0.0V
2 0.1V
3 0.2V
4 0.3V
5 0.4V
6 0.5V
7 0.6V
8 0.7V
9 0.8V
10 0.9V
11 1.0V
 Experiment – 3(2)

Objective: Study of characteristics of Zener diode.

1. Forward bias
2. Reverse bias
Equipments Needed :
Patch cords
Circuit Diagram :
Circuit used to plot different characteristics of Zener diode is shown in figure 3(2).1.

Figure 3(2).1
Procedure:
❖ To plot Forward Characteristics proceed as follows :
1. Rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW (counter clockwise direction).

Figure 3(2).2
2. Connect Ammeter between TP8 and TP10, to measure diode current ID (mA)
& set Ammeter at 200mA range.
3. Connect Voltmeter across TP3 and TP11, to measure diode voltage VD & set
Voltmeter at 20V range.
4. Switch ‘On’ the power supply
5. Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of Zener voltage Vz from
zero to 1V in steps and measure the corresponding values of Zener current Iz
in mA & note down in the Observation Table 3(2).1.
6. Plot a curve between diode voltage Vz and diode current Iz as shown in below
figure 3(2).3 (First quadrant) using suitable scale, with the help of Observation
Table 3(2).1. This curve is the required Forward Characteristics of Zener
diode.
7. Switch ‘Off’ the supply.
 Figure 3(2).3

Observation Table 3(2).1:

Diode Voltage Diode Current Iz
Sr. No.
(Vz) (mA)
1 0.0V
2 0.1V
3 0.2V
4 0.3V
5 0.4V
6 0.5V
7 0.6V
8 0.7V
9 0.8V
10 0.9V
11 1.0V
❖ To plot Reverse Characteristics of a Zener diode proceed as follows:
1. Rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW (counter clockwise direction).

Figure 3(2).4
2. Connect Ammeter between TP9 and TP10, to measure diode current ID (mA)
& set Ammeter at 200mA range.
3. Connect Voltmeter across TP3 and TP11, to measure diode voltage VD & set
Voltmeter at 20V range.
4. Switch ‘On’ the power supply.
5. Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of diode voltage VD from
zero to 6.8V in steps and measure the corresponding values of diode current Iz
in mA & note down in the Observation Table 3(2).2.
6. Plot a curve between diode voltage Vz and diode current Iz as shown in below
figure 3(2).5 (third quadrant) using suitable scale, with the help of Observation
Table 3(2).2. This curve is the required Reverse Characteristics of Zener diode.
7. Switch ‘Off’ the supply.
 Figure 3(2).5
Observation Table 3(2).2:
Diode Voltage Diode Current Iz
Sr. No.
(Vz) (mA)
1 0.0V
2 1.0V
3 2.0V
4 3.0V
5 4.0V
6 5.0V
7 6.0V
8 7.0V
 Experiment 3(3)
Objective: Study of Characteristics of Light Emitting Diode (LED)
Forward bias
Reverse bias
Equipments Needed :
Patch cords
Circuit Diagram :
Circuit used to plot different characteristics of Light Emitting Diode (LED) is shown
in Figure 3(3).1.

Figure 3(3).1
Procedure:
❖ To plot Forward Characteristics proceed as follows:
1. Rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW (counter clockwise direction).

Figure 3(3).2
2. Connect Ammeter between TP6 and TP10, to measure diode current ID (mA)
& set Ammeter at 200mA range.
3. Connect Voltmeter across TP3 and TP11, to measure diode voltage VD & set
Voltmeter at 20V range.
4. Switch ‘On’ the power supply.
5. Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of LED voltage VD from
zero to maximum in steps and measure the corresponding values of LED
current ID in mA & note down in the Observation Table 3(3).1.
6. Plot a curve between diode voltage VD and diode current ID as shown in below
figure 3(3).2 (first quadrant) using suitable scale, with the help of Observation
Table 3(3).1. This curve is the required Forward Characteristics of Light
Emitting Diode.
 Figure 3(3). 3 Characteristics of LED
7. Switch ‘Off’ the supply.

Observation Table 3(3).1:

Diode Voltage Diode Current ID
Sr. No.
(VD) (mA)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
❖ To plot Reverse Characteristics proceed as follows:
1. Rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW (counter clockwise direction).

Figure 3(3). 4
2. Connect Ammeter between TP7 and TP10, to measure diode current ID (mA).
3. Connect Voltmeter across TP3 and TP11, to measure diode voltage VD
4. Switch ‘On’ the power supply.
5. Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of diode voltage VD from zero
to maximum in steps and measure the corresponding values of diode current ID in an
Observation Table 3(3).2.
6. Plot a curve between diode voltage VD and diode current ID as shown in below figure
3(3).5 (third quadrant) using suitable scale, with the help of Observation Table 3(3).2.
This curve is the required Reverse Characteristics of Light Emitting Diode.
 Figure 3(3).5
7. Switch ‘Off’ the supply.
Observation Table 3(3).2:
Diode Voltage Diode Current ID
Sr. No.
(VD) (mA)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
 Experiment – 4

Objective: To study the forbidden energy gap in semiconductor diode.

➢ Plug the mains lead to the nearest mains socket carrying 230V ±10% at 50Hz A.C.
Make the circuit connection as shown in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1
➢ Insert the thermometer and the diode in the holes of the oven (The hole near to the
meter is for diode OA-79).
➢ Put the ‘OVEN’ switch to ‘ON’ position and allow the oven temperature to increase
up to 90°C.
Note :
➢ As soon a the temperature reaches 95°C switch off the oven enabling the
temperature to rise further and become stable around 90°C.
➢ When the temperature becomes stable start taking readings of current and
temperature. The current reading should be taken in steps of 5μA. The readings
should be taken during the fall of temperature from 90°C downwards.
➢ Tabulate your readings in the form shown below:
Reverse
Temperatur
Saturatio Temperatur 103=/ lo
e in 0C
n Current e T in 0K T g
(absolute) ls
in uA Is
 ➢ Plot a graph between the readings of 103/T on x-axis and log Is on Y-axis. The
graph is a straight line as shown in Fig. 4.2. take two points A and B on the graph.
From A draw a line parallel to Y-axis and from B a line parallel to X-axis meeting at
C.

Figure 4.2 Graph to explain the determination of the slope of a line

Then slope of the line = AC/BC

Result:
Band gap ∆E = Slope/5.036=............eV.
Precautions:
1. The maximum temperature should not exceed 95°C.
2. Bulb of the thermometer and the diode should be inserted well in the oven.
Questions:
1. Explain what is band gap?
2. How is the reverse current produced in a semiconductor, and on what factors does it
3. depend?
4. Explain what is valence band and conduction band?
 Experiment – 5
Objective: Measurement of Numerical Aperture (NA) of optical fiber.
Equipments Required:

• Scientech 2501 TechBook with Power Supply cord

• Optical Fiber cable

• Numerical Aperture measurement Jig

Connection Diagram:

Procedure:

• Connect the Power Supply cord to mains supply and to the TechBook Scientech 2501.

• It is recommended to perform this experiment in ‘Dark room’ for better result.

• Connect one end of fiber cable to the output socket of emitter circuit and the other end
to the numerical aperture measurement jig. Hold the white screen facing the fiber such
that its cut face is perpendicular to the axis of the fiber.

• Hold the white screen with 4 concentric circles (10, 15, 20 & 25 mm diameter)
vertically at a suitable distance to make the red spot from the fiber coincide with10
mm circle.
 • Record the distances of screen from the fiber end L and note the diameter W of the
spot.

• Compute the numerical aperture from the formula given below.

𝑊
N.A. = √4𝐿2
+𝑊 2

sin 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 (acceptance angle)

• Vary the distance between in screen and fiber optic cable and make it coincide with
one of the concentric circles. Note its distance.

• Tabulate the various distances and diameter of the circles made on the white screen
and computer the numerical aperture from the formula given above.
Observation and Calculation:
𝑊
Sr. No. Diameter ‘W’ Distance ‘L’ N.A. = √4𝐿2
+𝑊 2

1 10 13 0.35
2 15 20 0.35
3 20 27 0.35
4 25 34 0.35

Inferences:
The numerical aperture as recorded in the manufacturer's data sheet is 0.5 typically. The
value measured here is 0.35. The lower reading recorded is mainly due to the fiber being
under filled.
Questions:
1. What is numerical aperture?
2. Write the formula for numerical aperture?
3. What is the significance of numerical aperture?
 Experiment – 6 (1)

Study about Solar cells and its power load characteristics

Objective: To measure V-I characteristics and Power Characteristics.
Experimental Setup:

Figure 5.1

Experimental setup includes:

• MAIN UNIT consisting of Digital Voltmeter, Digital Current meter, Variable

resistance selector (0Ω, 100Ω, 200Ω, 300Ω, 400Ω, 500Ω, 600Ω, 700Ω, 800Ω, 900Ω,
1000Ω): 1 no

• A photovoltaic Cell (big): 1 no

• A photovoltaic panel (array of 2 X 2): 1 no

• LAMP (source) with variable intensity in steps: 1 no

• Colour Filters: 4 nos + 4 nos

• Connecting cords :10 nos+10 nos

Procedure:
1. Illuminate the Lamp with the help of knob provided and measure the ac Voltage
applied to the bulb (with the help of multimeter) and note it as I1.
2. Connect the circuit as shown above with the help of Solar Panel, Voltmeter, Current
meter and resistor panel. Place the Lamp directly above the solar panel (with approx
distance from panel say 4"-6") so that light incident normally on the solar panel and
complete solar panel should be lit.
3. Begin with short-circuit i.e. RL= 0 Ω . Measure the short circuit current and panel
 output voltage. The panel voltage will be small for this case. Record both the voltage
and current in a table.
4. Vary RL from lower resistance to higher one so that the panel voltage increases from
zero toward open circuit (for open circuit, Measure the voltage and current for each
resistor and record them in the table.
5. Intensity I1(volts)=

RL Voltage Vdc Current Idc Power

Sr. No.
(ohm) (volts) (mA) (mW)

6. Use the data recorded in the table to plot I versus V and RL vs P on graph paper.
Mark Vm, Im, and Pmax (i.e., peak power conditions) on your plots.
7. Repeat above steps with different incident Intensity and plot the graphs as above.
 Experiment – 6 (2)

Study about Solar cells and its power load characteristics

Objective: To study the effect of angle of incidence.

Repeat Experiment - 6(1) with different angle of incidences and compare the results.
Note:
Holder may be hot. Please be careful in handling.

Angle of
Sr. RL Voltage Vdc Current Idc Power
Inclination
No. (ohm) (volts) (mA) (mW)
(θ)

Write the conclusions in aspect of the effect of inclination angle.

 Experiment – 6 (3)

Study about Solar cells and its power load characteristics

Objective: To study the effect of incidence wavelengths.
Connect the circuit as in experiment 1. Select intensity of the bulb and RL corresponding to
Pmax
Place the colour filter on the solar panel and tabulate as below:
COLOUR VOLTAGE (V) CURRENT (mA) POWER(mW)
WHITE
BLUE
GREEN
RED
YELLOW
 Experiment – 6 (4)

Study about Solar cells and its power load characteristics

Objective: To study the effect of solar cells in Series and Parallel.

1. Connect the multimeter across solar panel 1. Select intensity of the bulb using knob
(no load resistance should be connected).
2. Measure the Voltage and Current using the same multimeter by rotating the knob to
“V” and “mA”.
3. Connect solar cells in series and tabulate the result as below:
No of Cells in Series Voltage (V) Current(mA) Power (mW)
1
2
3
4

4. Now keeping all cells in series, connect the circuit as in Experiment 1 and tabulate
the result as below:
5. Intensity I1(volts)=
RL Voltage Vdc Current Idc Power
Sr. No.
(ohm) (volts) (mA) (mW)

6. Plot the Graph between Power and RL.

7. Repeat above step with solar cells in parallel and tabulate the result.
 No of Cells in Voltage (V) Current(mA) Power (mW)
Parallel
1
2
3
4

8. Intensity I1(volts)=
RL Voltage Vdc Current Idc Power
Sr. No.
(ohm) (volts) (mA) (mW)

NOTE: All 4 solar panels may have different voltages and currents depending upon
the manufacturing conditions.
 Experiment – 7
Objective:
➢ To determine the frequency of an electrically maintained tuning fork by Melde’s
experiment using.

• Transverse arrangement.

• Longitudinal arrangement.
➢ To verify the laws of vibrating strings by Melde’s experiment that is to show that
λ2/T = constant using.

• Transverse arrangement.

• Longitudinal arrangement.
FEATURES:
The complete Experimental Set-up consists of the followings:
ELECTRICALLY MAINTAINED A large heavy nickel plated fork of
TUNING FORK approximately 60 vibrations is fitted on
heavy cost iron stand, with a special
arrangement enabling the apparatus to be
used horizontally or vertically. Complete
with electromagnetic relay fitted with
silvered points of contact. Works on 4 - 8
volts battery current. The electromagnet is
adjustable so that amplitude of vibration
may be varied between wide limits.
STAND WITH PULLEY
LIGHT WEIGHT PAN
BATTERY ELIMINATOR OMEGA TYPE BE-12/4. (Range 2 to 12V
D.C. at 4Amp.)
HALF METRE SCALE.
CONNECTING WIRES.

WORKING OF THE TUNING FORK:

Connections are made as shown in Figure. 7.1. The contact with the strip A is made with a
silver tipped screw S. An electromagnet M is placed between the two prongs of the fork. One
end of the coil of the electromagnet is connected to screw S and the other to battery eliminator
B. As the current is passed through the coil of the electromagnet, the prongs are attracted
inwards, the contact is broken and the current stops. The electromagnet loses its magnetism
and the prongs return back to their mean positions. The circuit is again completed due to
which the electro-magnet exerts attracting force on the prongs but due to inertia, the prongs
continue to move outwards till the outward velocity is reduced to zero by the elastic force.
Thus the fork does work against the magnetizing force. The prongs then return and as they
pass the mean position the contact is again broken, but due to inertia they continue to move
inwards and the whole process is repeated.

Figure 7.1
THEORY:
Melde's experiment - The apparatus consists of a light string AB of uniform diameter and
about one metre long, one end of which is connected to the prong of an electrically maintained
tuning fork and the other end after passing over a friction less pulley is connected to a light
scale pan P. The tension in the string can be varied by placing different weights in the pan.
Stationary waves are produced due to the superimposition of the direct waves sent by the
tuning fork and the reflected waves from the pulley. There are two modes of vibrations.

(a) TRANSVERSE ARRANGEMENT:

In this arrangement the vibrations of the prong of the tuning fork are in a direction
perpendicular to the length of the string as shown in Figure. 7.2. The time, during which the
tuning fork completes one vibration, the string also completes one vibration. If the thread of
length l vibrates in one loop, the frequency of the fundamental note under a tension T is given
by
 Figure 7.2

Figure 7.3

where m is the mass per unit length of the thread. If the same length vibrates in p-loop
under a tension Tp, then
From (i) and (ii), we have

Thus if we wish to have p-loops in the same length of the string, the tension should be
reduced to 1/p2 of its previous length.

(b) LONGITUDINAL MODE OF VIBRATION

In this arrangement the tuning fork is set in such a manner that the vibrations of the prongs
are parallel to the length of the string as shown in Fig. 3. In this case the time during which
the tuning fork completes one vibration the string completes half a vibration. Hence the
frequency of the thread is half that of the tuning fork. If the same length l of the thread
vibrates in one loop under a tension T, then

where m is the mass per unit length of the string. For p- loops the frequency

Thus if the same length of the thread vibrates under the same tension in the two modes of
vibration, the number of loops in the transverse arrangement is double as compared to the
number of loops in the longitudinal mode of vibration.
 Figure 7.4

When a string is set into resonant vibrations by the electrically maintained tuning fork,
stationary waves are produced. If l is the distance between the two consecutive nodes of a
loop, then In transverse arrangement

PROCEDURE:

(a) Transverse arrangement:

1. Find the weight of the pan P and arrange the apparatus as shown in Fig. 7.1.

2. Place the suitable load in the pan attached to the end of the string passing over
the pulley. Excite

the tuning fork by putting the switch on position.

3. Adjust the position of the pulley so that the string is set into resonant
vibrations and well-defined loops are obtained. If necessary, adjust the tension
by adding weights in the pan slowly and gradually. For fine adjustment add
 milligram weights so that the nodes are reduced to points.

4. Measure the length of say 4 loops formed in the middle part of the staring. If
L is the distance in which 4 loops are formed then distance between two
consecutive nodes l = L/4.

5. Note down the weight placed in the pan and calculate the tension T. Tension
T = (wts. in the pan

+wt. of pan) g.

6. Repeat the experiment twice by changing the weight in the pan in steps of one
gram and altering

the position of the pulley each time to get well defined loops.

7. Measure one metre length of the thread and find its mass to find the value of
m, the mass per unit

length.

(b) Longitudinal arrangement: Set the apparatus as shown in Fig. 3 and in this case the
tuning fork is adjusted such that motion of the prongs in the same direction as length
of the thread. The procedure remaining the same described in transverse arrangement.

OBSERVATIONS:

Mass of the pan

w = ...................... gm = ........................ kg.

Mass in the Pan

W = ..................... gm = .........................kg.

Mass of one metre of

thread m = .......................gm = .........................kg.

Tension
T = (W+w)g Newton = ......................... Newton
 Number of loops
P = ..................

Table 7.1:

Wave
Mas
Length of lengt
No. s in Tensio
correspondin h
Mode of Sr.No Of the n T = Mea
g nn
(W+ w λ /
2
Vibration . Loop λ = pan
thread L (in T
sL 2l/p W in )g
nm) KG
meter

(a)Transvers 2

e 3

1
b)
2
Longitudinal
3

Mean frequency n = ....................vib./sec.

Verification. Within the limits of experimental error λ2/T is constant. Hence the law is
verified.

CALCULATION:

1. Transverse arrangement
2. Longitudinal arrangement
 Experiment – 8
Objective: To study the Hall effect.

PROCEDURE:

➢ Place the Hall Probe between pole pieces and adjust their gap to a minimum so that
the poles do not touch the probe. Fix the air gap between the pole pieces of the
electromagnet.

➢ Now remove the Hall Probe and place the probe of Gaussmeter in between the gap
such that the probe face is perpendicular to the magnetic field and shows maximum
reading. Orientation of the probe should be such that it shows the +ve reading. Now
N indicated side of the probe indicates North Pole of the electromagnet.

➢ Take observations for electromagnet power supply current and magnetic field to
calibrate EMU-75/ 50 (as per Table-1 & Graph-1). Use this calibration in further
observations.

➢ Connect the widthwise contacts of the Hall Probe (Ge Crystal, p type or n- type) to
the terminals marked 'Voltage' and lengthwise contacts to terminals marked
'Current'.

➢ Switch 'ON' the Hall Effect set-up and adjust current to few mA.

➢ Switch over the display to voltage side. There may be some voltage reading even
outside the magnetic field. This is due to imperfect alignment of the four contacts of
the Hall Probe and is generally known as the 'Zero Field Potential'. In case its value
is comparable to the Hall Voltage it should be adjusted to a minimum possible using
Offset Adj. Knob on the panel (for Hall Probe (Ge) only). In all cases, this error should
be subtracted from the Hall Voltage reading.

➢ Now place the Hall Probe Ge. Crystal (p-type or n-type) in calibrated air gap of
electromagnet. It should be perpendicular to the magnetic field (show maximum
reading of Hall Voltage) and the crystal side of the probe should face the North Pole
of electromagnet. The setup is now ready for experiments. For n-type probe Hall
Voltage will show –ve sign and for p, +ve sign.

➢ Measure Hall voltage as a function of the current keeping suitable values of magnetic
field as constant ( as per Table 2 & 4 and Graph 2 & 4).
 ➢ Measure the Hall voltage as a function of magnetic field keeping a suitable value of
current as constant ( as per Table 3 & 5 and Graph 3 & 5).

Graph 8.1

Observation:

Table 8.1:
Graph 8.2:
Table 8.2: Keeping probe current constant and varying the Magnetic Field
Graph 8.3:
Table 8.3: Keeping Magnetic field constant and probe current varying

]
Graph 8.4:
Table 8.4: Keeping probe current constant and varying the Magnetic Field
Graph 8.5:
Table 8.5: Keeping Magnetic field constant and probe current varying
 Experiment 9(1)

Objective: To Determine the Planck’s Constant

Observation:

Frequency Stopping voltage

Sr. No Filters
(sec^-1 × 10^14) (V)

Calculation:
- Draw the graph Stopping voltage Vs Frequency from the observation
table.
 Experiment 9(2)

Objective: To verify inverse square law of radiation using a photoelectric cell.

Observation:

Filter Red = λ = 635 nm

Anode Voltage = +0.25 V

Distance between Lamp and (1/r^2)×10^3 cm^-
Sr. No. I µA
Photo cell (r) 2
 Experiment 10

Objective: Determine Plank’s constant using LED.

 Experiment 11

Objective: To determine the resistivity of semiconductors by four probe method at

different temperature.
 Current (I) = 3 mA (Constant)

Sr. No. Temperasture Voltage Temperasture Resistivity T^-1 × log10 𝜌

10^3
In (°C) (mV) In (K) (𝜌)

Current (I) = 5 mA (Constant)

Sr. No. Temperasture Voltage Temperasture Resistivity T^-1 × log10 𝜌

10^3
In (°C) (mV) In (K) (𝜌)
Distance Between probes (S) = 0.020 cm

Thickness of the crystal (W) = 0.03 cm