24 - A Thesis - v10

Cardiff University
Design and Implementation of Multi-Port

DC-DC Converters for Electrical Power
Systems
By
Emad Alhani
Ph.D.
A thesis submitted in accordance with the requirements for the award of
the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of the Cardiff University
May 2023
Supervised by:
Dr. Fatih Anayi
Design and Implementation of Multi-Port DC-DC Converters for Electrical Power Systems
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Declaration
I certify that this thesis has never been submitted before for a degree, nor has it been
considered for another degree or qualification at another university. My thesis consists of
my work and includes no collaboration results except where specifically indicated.
Emad Alhani
2023
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Acknowledgements
The greatest praise goes to Allah (God), who has given me the wisdom, health, and
patience to accomplish this task.
With the deepest gratitude, I would like to extend my best wishes to my primary
supervisor, Dr. Fatih Anayi, for the outstanding guidance, intellectual support, and
encouragement he provided throughout my graduate studies. Throughout my time
studying under Dr. Fatih Anayi, I have learned a great deal academically and personally.
The comments and advice you provided regarding my research, as well as my life and
career, were invaluable. Additionally, I wish to thank my second supervisor, Dr. Yevgen
Melikhov, for his generous support and academic guidance.
My sincere thanks go out to the many people who have contributed to the success of this
research and thesis. The author would like to thank Libya's higher education ministry.
Without their funding, this work would not have been possible. Thanks to them for their
financial support and the invaluable PhD Scholarship.
It is also highly appreciated that the academic and technical support staff within the school
helped with the construction of the equipment used for the experimental work, as well as
the design of the printed circuit boards. Thanks are due to the Postgraduate Research
Coordinator and the other administrative staff members.
It is my deepest wish to express my heartfelt appreciation to my mum, who has always
supported and encouraged me throughout my life and my academic pursuits. Thank you to
all my family members and relatives who have inspired and motivated me.
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Abstract
The thesis proposes developing, analysing, and verifying these DC-DC converters to
improve the current state-of-the-art topology. Four new DC-DC converters for
applications like light emitting diode, lighting microgrids DC, PV applications, and
electric vehicles are as follows.
In this study, the two-input converter is presented. The two-input converter that has
been proposed serves as the interface between the two input sources and load. Using
two switches and two diodes, the proposed converter minimises switching losses and contains
eight components in total, making it compact and low volume. As a result, the highest
average efficiency is 92.5%, and the lowest is 89.6%.
In this research, the new three-port converter that has been proposed serves as the
interface between the input source, a battery, and a load. In addition, the converter is
suitable for use in standalone systems or satellite applications. A low-volume converter is
designed with three switches and two diodes, thereby minimizing switching losses and ten
components in total. Regarding efficiency, the highest average is 92.5%, and the lowest is
90.9%.
Also, this study proposes a single-switch high-step-up converter for LED drivers and PV
applications. A further benefit of the proposed converter over conventional classical
converters is that it utilises only one active switch. These results align with simulation
results, and its gain is 6.8 times greater than classical converters. Furthermore, stress
across switches and diodes is smaller than the output voltage, approximately 50%.
Semiconductor losses were limited with a low duty cycle of 0.7. This makes the highest
average efficiency 95% and the lowest 93.9%.
The new four-port converter is presented for applications such as microgrid structures
and electric vehicles. As part of the integrated converter, two or three converters are
combined by sharing some components, such as switches, inductors, and capacitors, to
form a single integrated converter. As a result of the four-port converter proposed,
battery power can be managed, and output voltage can be regulated simultaneously.
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Table of Contents
Declaration............................................................................................................... I
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................. II
Abstract.................................................................................................................. III
Table of Contents ...................................................................................................... IV
List of Figures ......................................................................................................... X
List of Tables ....................................................................................................... XV
Abbreviation ........................................................................................................... XVI
Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Background for Satellite Applications................................................................ 1
1.2 Nanosateillate Technology ................................................................................ 5
1.3 Background for PV applications ........................................................................ 6
1.1.1 Grid Connected Photovoltaic Inverter ......................................................... 7
1.3.1 LED Driver ............................................................................................ 10
1.3.2 EV ......................................................................................................... 10
1.3.3 High Intensity Discharge (HID) Lamp ................................................... 11
1.1.2 Uninterruptible Power Supply UPS........................................................... 12
1.2 Outline of Thesis ............................................................................................. 13
1.3 The aim and objectives ................................................................................... 15
1.4 Contribution to knowledge .............................................................................. 16
1.5 Limitations of Work Undertaken ...................................................................... 17
1.6 Publications Arising from this Research.......................................................... 17
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Chapter 2 A Literature Review Multiport Power Converters ..................................... 19
2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 19
2.1.1 Non-Isolated Multiport Converter.............................................................. 22
2.1.2 Partly Isolated Converter .......................................................................... 29
2.1.3 Isolated Converter .................................................................................... 32
2.1.4 Comparison of Different Multi-port Converters ......................................... 35
2.2 Topology Review of Typical High Voltage Step-Up Converters ...................... 36
2.2.1 Cascaded Converters ............................................................................... 36
2.2.2 Quadratic Boost Converter ....................................................................... 38
2.2.3 Switched Capacitor Converters ................................................................ 39
2.2.4 Switched Inductor Converters .................................................................. 41
2.2.5 Integrated Converters ............................................................................... 44
2.3 Classification of DC-DC converters by Voltage Gain ...................................... 45
2.4 Switching Strategy .......................................................................................... 46
2.5 Failure Mechanism.......................................................................................... 47
2.5.1 Failure Type ............................................................................................. 47
2.5.2 Diode Failure Indications .......................................................................... 47
2.5.3 Transistor Failure Indications ................................................................... 48
2.6 Summary of existing solutions ........................................................................ 48
2.6.1 Development of new Multi-Port Converters .............................................. 48
2.6.2 Achieve high voltage step-up ratios.......................................................... 49
2.7 Summary ........................................................................................................ 50
Chapter 3 Not-isolated DC-DC Converter with Multiple Inputs and One Output for
Photovoltaic Power Generation Systems ................................................................. 52
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3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 52
3.2 Operation Principle ......................................................................................... 53
3.2.1 Proposed Circuit ....................................................................................... 53
3.2.2 Circuit Operation Principles ...................................................................... 54
3.3 Steady-State Analysis ..................................................................................... 56
3.3.1 Power Device Voltage Stress Analysis ..................................................... 57
3.4 Experimental results ....................................................................................... 57
3.5 Comparison with related topologies ................................................................ 60
3.6 Extension into Multiple-ports Converter .......................................................... 61
3.7 Summary ........................................................................................................ 62
Chapter 4 A Three-Port DC-DC Converter for Integrated PV-Battery Systems ........ 63
4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 63
4.2 Operation Principle ......................................................................................... 64
4.2.1 Proposed Circuit ....................................................................................... 64
4.2.2 Operation Modes ...................................................................................... 66
4.2.3 Steady-State Analysis .............................................................................. 68
4.3 Design Considerations .................................................................................... 72
4.3.1 Inductor Design ........................................................................................ 72
4.3.2 Control Strategy ....................................................................................... 74
4.3.3 Power Device Voltage Stress Analysis..................................................... 75
4.4 Experimental Results ...................................................................................... 75
4.5 Performance Comparison ............................................................................... 83
4.6 Extension into multiple input sources .............................................................. 84
4.7 Summary ........................................................................................................ 85
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Chapter 5 High gain DC-DC Converter for LED driving and PV applications ........... 87
5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 87
5.2 Proposed Converter and Operational Principle ............................................... 88
5.2.1 Circuit Configuration and Description ....................................................... 88
5.2.2 Converter Principle of Operation .............................................................. 88
5.3 Steady State Performance Analysis................................................................ 92
5.3.1 Steady-state voltage gain ......................................................................... 92
5.4 Design Consideration...................................................................................... 93
5.4.1 Inductor design ......................................................................................... 93
5.4.2 Sizing of capacitors .................................................................................. 95
5.4.3 Choice of Semiconductors ....................................................................... 97
5.5 Simulation results............................................................................................ 97
5.6 Experimental results ..................................................................................... 102
5.7 Performance Comparison ............................................................................. 104
5.8 Extension into Bipolar Output Four-Port Converter ....................................... 104
5.9 Summary ...................................................................................................... 105
Chapter 6 A New Bidirectional High Step-Up Multi-Input Multi-Output DC-DC
Converter for Renewable Energy Applications ....................................................... 107
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 107
6.2 Proposed converter and operation modes. ................................................... 109
6.2.1 First operation mode (DIDO) .................................................................. 110
6.2.2 Second operation mode (SITO).............................................................. 113
6.3 Control Structure method of proposed MIMO converter ............................... 115
6.3.1 Pole-placement control method .............................................................. 115
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6.4 Simulation Results ........................................................................................ 119
6.5 Extension into Multiple-Input Multiple-Output Converter ............................... 122
6.6 Summary ...................................................................................................... 123
Chapter 7 Conclusions and Future Works .............................................................. 124
7.1 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 124
7.2 Future Work………………………………………………………………………...127
Appendix A Simulink Model of the Proposed Converters…......…….............130
A.1 Introduction ……………………………………….……….…………...130
A.2 Two-Input Converter Simulink Model………………….....…...……...130
A.3 Three-Port Converter Simulink Model…………………………….…..131
A.4 High Set-Up Converter Simulink Model…………………….…..........132
A.5 Four-Port Converter Simulink Model……………..…........................133
A.6 Pole Placement Control MATLAB code……….………….…...….….133
Appendix B Proposed Converters Hardware…………………………………..140
B.1 Introduction …………………..………………………………………….140
B.2 Two-Input Converter Circuit ………………….……...........................141
B.3 Three-Port Converter Circuit……………………..………………….…142
B.4 High Set-Up Converter Circuit………………………………...……….142
Appendix C Controller Overview……..………….………………………...…....144
C.1 Introduction …………..………………………………..………...……...144
C.2 Digital Signal Processor (DSP) Board….……..………….……….….144
C.3 Software Implementation..………..……………………………...........145
Appendix D Gate Drivers and Sensors Interface Board………………...……147
D.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………147
D.2 Gate Drive Interface…………………………………………………….147
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D.3 Sensor Interface………………………………………………………..148
Appendix E Power Loss Analysis and Efficiency……………………………...150
E.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………...150
E.2 Inductor Loss…………………………………………………………....150
E.3 Diode Conduction and Switching Losses………………………….…151
E.4 Switch Losses and Switch Conduction Losses………………….…..151
E.5 Theoretical Efficiency……………………………………..………..…..151
References…………………………………………...…………..……..…….….…....150
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List of Figures
Fig 1.1 An illustration of the terminal I-V characteristics of a solar array, (a)
variations in irradiance, and (b) variations in temperature [2]. ................................................. 2
Fig 1.2 Satellite platform power converter solutions [2]. .............................................................. 4
Fig 1.3 Solar panels and batteries supply platform power, while various user loads
sink platform power [2]. ............................................................................................................................. 4
Fig 1.4 CubeSat specifications in the framework of overall small satellite
classifications [3]. .......................................................................................................................................... 6
Fig 1.5 Renewable energy system connected to the single-phase grid [17]. .......................... 8
Fig 1.6 The drive train of an electric vehicle [22]. ........................................................................... 11
Fig 1.7 Block diagram of a high intensity discharge lamp ballast. ............................................ 12
Fig 2.1 Traditional multiport connection in a standalone power system: (a) Multi-
Input ports. (b) Multi-output. .................................................................................................................. 20
Fig 2.2 Three-port converter TPC. ......................................................................................................... 21
Fig 2.3 The general configuration of a renewable energy generation system using a
three-port converter: (a) SISO mode. (b) SIDO mode. (c) DISO mode. ................................... 22
Fig 2.4 MPC category: (a) Non-isolated converter. (b), (c) partly isolated converter.
(d) Isolated converter. ............................................................................................................................... 23
Fig 2.5 Multi-input buck-boost converter [27]. ................................................................................ 24
Fig 2.6 Multi-input buck-boost converter [51]. ................................................................................ 25
Fig 2.7 Boost three-port converter proposed in [52]. .................................................................... 26
Fig 2.8 Single-switch non-isolated DC-DC converter [53]. ........................................................... 26
Fig 2.9 Non-isolated high step-up three-port DC-DC converter for hybrid energy
systems [42]. .................................................................................................................................................. 27
Fig 2.10 Three-port battery-integrated boost converter [54]. ................................................... 28
Fig 2.11 Proposed a non-isolated “dual-input dual-output boost converter [55]. ............. 29
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Fig 2.12 The converter proposed in [59]. ........................................................................................... 30
Fig 2.13 The three-port half-bridge converter with synchronous regulation (TPHBC-
SR) [60]. ........................................................................................................................................................... 30
Fig 2.14 The pulse width modulation (PWM) plus secondary-side phase-shift
controlled full-bridge three-port converter [61]. ............................................................................ 31
Fig 2.15 a current-fed dual active bridge structure [63]. ............................................................. 32
Fig 2.16 Isolated triple-active-bridge converter full bridge [68]. ............................................. 33
Fig 2.17 Isolated triple-active-bridge converter half bridge [66], [72]. .................................. 34
Fig 2.18 An isolated three-port bidirectional series-resonant converter with first
harmonic-synchronized pulse width modulation [74]. ................................................................ 35
Fig 2.19 Configuration of cascaded DC-DC converter [75],[76]. ................................................ 37
Fig 2.20 Cascade converter with two stages boost converters [75],[76]. .............................. 38
Fig 2.21 Quadratic boost converter [79]. ............................................................................................ 39
Fig 2.22 Topology of switched capacitor converter [80]. ............................................................. 40
Fig 2.23 Topology of the voltage lift circuit [82]. ............................................................................. 41
Fig 2.24 Topology of the switched inductor converter [86]. ....................................................... 42
Fig 2.25 Topology of the active network converter [86]. ............................................................. 43
Fig 2.26 Classification of boost converters by voltage conversion ratio [100]. ................... 46
Fig 3.1 Two-input topology. .................................................................................................................... 53
Fig 3.2 Typical Steady-state waveforms of proposed converter in (a) with d1 > d2, (b)
with d1 < d2. .................................................................................................................................................. 55
Fig 3.3 Equivalent circuit in DIDO mode. (a) Switching mode I. (b) Switching mode II.
(c) Switching mode III, (d) Switching mode IV................................................................................. 56
Fig 3.4 Hardware setup. ............................................................................................................................. 57
Fig 3.5 Specifications of the circuit, (a), (b) Driver signals, (c), Inductor currents of L1,
(d), Capacitors voltage Co, and (e), (f) voltage across switches. ............................................... 58
Fig 3.6 The efficiency of the presented converter for various output powers. .................... 59
Fig 3.7 Presented multi-input-single-output converter. ............................................................... 61
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Fig 4.1 Present converter structure (a) Two-input converter proposed based on sepic
(b) Two-input converter proposed based on boost. ...................................................................... 65
Fig 4.2 Three possible modes of operation for the converter..................................................... 67
Fig 4.3 The proposed converter's steady-state waveforms DIM. .............................................. 70
Fig 4.4 The proposed converter's steady-state waveforms DOM. ........................................... 71
Fig 4.5 Different switching states of the DIM:(a) state 1, (b) state 2, (c) state 3. ................ 71
Fig 4.6 Different switching states of the DOM:(a) state 1, (b) state 2, (c) state 3................ 72
Fig 4.7 Control scheme of the proposed three-port converter [124]. ..................................... 74
Fig 4.8 Hardware set up. ............................................................................................................................ 76
Fig 4.9 Results of the experiment in DIM (a) gate driving signals, (b) Output voltage
Capacitor. ........................................................................................................................................................ 78
Fig 4.10 Results of the experiment in DIM (a) inductor current of L1 (b) inductor
current of L2. ................................................................................................................................................. 79
Fig 4.11 Results of the experiment in DIM (a) battery current, (b) and (c)Power
switch voltage stresses. ............................................................................................................................. 80
Fig 4.12 Experimental results in DOM (a) gate driving signals (b) output voltage. ........... 80
Fig 4.13 Experimental results in DOM (a) inductor Current of L1 (b) inductor current
of L2. .................................................................................................................................................................. 81
Fig 4.14 Experimental results in DOM Power switch voltage stresses. .................................. 81
Fig 4.15 Experimental results in DOM (a) Diode voltage stresses (b) battery current. ... 82
Fig 4.16 The efficiency of the presented converter for various output powers. ................. 82
Fig 4.17 Present converter structure of the multiple-input converter proposed. .............. 85
Fig 5.1 proposed converter. ..................................................................................................................... 88
Fig 5.2 Equivalent circuits of the switching modes (a) Operation mode I, (b)
operation mode II. ....................................................................................................................................... 89
Fig 5.3 Key waveforms based on complementary control. .......................................................... 90
Fig 5.4 Voltage gain versus duty cycle. ............................................................................................... 93
Fig 5.5 Current evolution in the Inductor L1. .................................................................................... 94
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Fig 5.6 Voltage evolution in a capacitor C1. ....................................................................................... 95
Fig 5.7 Current evolution in the Inductor L2. .................................................................................... 96
Fig 5.8 Results of simulation of the input current iL1 and output voltage. ........................... 98
Fig 5.9 The input current of inductor iL1 and voltage across the power switch Q. ............ 98
Fig 5.10 Result of simulation of the input current iL1 and voltage across diode D1. .......... 99
Fig 5.11 Results of the simulation of the output current inductor (iL2) and voltage
across two diodes the D2 and D3........................................................................................................... 99
Fig 5.12 View of the experimental prototype of the hybrid DC-DC converter. ................. 100
Fig 5.13 (a) Capacitor voltage VC4 and (b) output voltage......................................................... 101
Fig 5.14 Currents were flowing through the inductors IL1 and gate drive signal. ............ 101
Fig 5.15 Voltage across the diode D2 and D3. ............................................................................... 102
Fig 5.16 Voltage across the switch. ................................................................................................... 102
Fig 5.17 The efficiency of the presented converter for various output powers. .............. 103
Fig 5.18 Non-isolated Symmetric Bipolar Output Four-Port converter. ............................. 105
Fig 6.1 The schematic of converters with multiple outputs: (a) conventional (b)
MIMO converter......................................................................................................................................... 109
Fig 6.2 Structure of the presented Four-Port converter. ........................................................... 110
Fig 6.3 Current flow paths of the converter (a) Steady-state waveforms of the
presented converter in the DIDO mode. Current flow paths of the presented
converter in the DIDO mode, (b) Switching mode 1, (c) Switching mode 2, (d)
Switching. ..................................................................................................................................................... 111
Fig 6.4 Current flow paths of the converter (a) Steady-state waveforms of the
presented converter in the SITO mode. Current flow paths of the presented converter
in the SITO mode, (b) Switching mode 1, (c) Switching mode 2, (d) Switching mode 3.113
Fig 6.5 (a) Block diagram of the pole-placement control of the proposed converter,
(b) voltage regulator loop of output, (c) current regulator loop of the input source. .... 118
Fig 6.6 Close loop simulation results (a) state of charge in DIM, (b) input variation,
(c) output voltage, (d) state of charge in TOM. .............................................................................. 121
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Fig 6.7 Close loop simulation results (a)load variation and (b) output voltage. .............. 122
Fig 6.8 Extension of the proposed multi-port DC-DC converter. ............................................ 123
Fig A.1 Simulink model of the Two-Input converter…………………………………………...…...128
Fig A.2 Simulink model of the Three-Port converter………………………………………….........129
Fig A.3 High Set-Up Converter Simulink Model…………………………………………………...…..130
Fig A.4 Four-Port Converter Simulink Model…………………………………………………………..130
Fig B.1 Complete Two-Input converter prototype…………………………………………………...137
Fig B.2 Complete Three-Port converter prototype…………………………………………………..138
Fig B.3 Complete high-set-up converter prototype………………….………………………….…...139
Fig C.1 Texas instrument TMS320F28335 DSP Board……………………………………………...141
Fig C.2 Control Overview………………………………………………………………………………………..142
Fig C.3 Program flow chart……………………………………….…………….………………………....……143
Fig D.1 Gate Drivers …………………………………….…………….………………….………....…………..…145
Fig D.2 Current & Voltage sensors……….…………….…………….…..…………………….................146
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List of Tables
Table 2.1 Review of MPC topologies ..................................................................................................... 49
Table 2.2 High voltage step-up ratios method ................................................................................. 50
Table 3.1 Parameters of the main prototype..................................................................................... 59
Table 3.2 Performance comparison of similar converter topology. ......................................... 60
Table 4.1 Dc currents of inductors L1, L2. .......................................................................................... 73
Table 4.2 Currents ripples of inductors L1, L2. ................................................................................ 73
Table 4.3 Components Details. ................................................................................................................ 83
Table 4.4 Operation Modes Selections and Switches Operation Lookup Table. .................. 83
Table 4.5 Comparative analysis of TPCs for different applications with a suggested
converter. ........................................................................................................................................................ 84
Table 5.1 The circuit specifications. ..................................................................................................... 98
Table 5.2 Analysis of output voltage waveform of the proposed converter. ...................... 99
Table 5.3 Performance comparison of similar converter topology ...................................... 104
Table 6.1 The circuit specifications. .................................................................................................. 117
Table 6.2 Analysis of output voltage waveforms of the proposed converter. ................. 120
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Abbreviation
AC Alternating Current
BTU British Thermal Units
CCM Continuous Conduction Mode
CDSs CubeSat Design Specifications

DC Direct Current
DCM Discontinuous Conduction Mode
DI Dual-Input
DIDO Dual-Input Dual-Output
DIM Dual Input Mode
DISO Dual-Input Single-Output
DMPPT Distributed Maximum Power Point Tracking
DO Dual Output
DOM Dual Output Mode
DPG Distributed Power Generation
EPS Electrical Power System

ESS Energy Storage Systems
EV Electric Vehicle
FB-TPC Full-Bridge Three-Port Converter
FF Fill Factor
FOC Fraction Open Circuit
FSC Fraction Short Circuit
HEV Hybrid Electric Vehicle
HIDs High-Intensity Discharge Lamps
HVDC High Voltage Direct Current
KCL Kirchhoff’s Current Law
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KVL Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
LED Light-Emitting-Diode
LEO Low Earth Orbit
MIMO Multi-Input Multi-Output
MMCs Modular Multilevel Converters
MOSFET Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor
MPC Multiport Converter
MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracking
OCC One-Cycle Control
OCFs Open-Crcuit Faults
P&O Perturb and Observe
PCB Printed Circuit Board
PFC Power Factor Correction
PFM Pulse-Frequency Modulation
PI Proportional Integral
PSC Partial Shading Condition
PV Photovoltaics
RES Renewable Energy Sources
SC Supercapacitor
SCFs Short-Crcuit Faults.
SIDO Single-Input Dual-Output
SISO Single-Input Single-Output
SITO Single-Input Triple-Output
SoC State of Charge
SSPS Secondary-Side Phase-Shift
STC Standard Testing Condition (nominal condition)
TPC Three-Port Converter
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TPHBC Three-Port Half-Bridge Converter
TPHBC-PF Three-Port Half-Bridge Converter with Primary Freewheeling
TPHBC-PR Three-Port Half-Bridge Converter with Post Regulation
TPHBC-SR Three-port Half-Bridge Converter Synchronous Regulation
UPSs Uninterruptible Power Supply System
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Chapter 1 Introduction
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1.1 Background for Satellite Applications
The growing cost of launching spacecraft into space, around $100k/kg, is a
key driver of efforts to reduce the mass and weight of its electrical system. In the
case of the international space station, the solar panels per kilowatt cost would be
over $3M/kW, presuming a mass of 1000 kg of the solar panel and starting power of
32 kW [1]. Thus, a satellite platform's cost heavily depends on its mass.
Additionally, it is commonly accepted that the electrical system of the satellite
platform accounts for about 25% of its total dry mass and 35% when the user power
system is included [2]. The mass of the space power system is a significant design
constraint.
Solar arrays, batteries, and an interface Power Conditioning Unit (PCU)
make up the satellite platform power system. In Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
applications, the PCU connects the solar arrays and the batteries to a distribution
bus, typically 28V. Upon delivery, the system provides power to various user loads,
including propulsion, altitude control, and data handling. Throughout the satellite's
operational life, the solar arrays produce the electrical power during solar insolation
and supply the power necessary to provide the satellite's bus, which supplies power
to the payload. The solar arrays mentioned above are costly and heavy;
consequently, one of the biggest challenges is transforming solar energy.
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The conversion of solar energy normally involves two steps. In the first step,
solar energy must be converted into uncontrolled electrical energy. Solar array
materials have a strong bearing on the efficiency and mass of electricity, and the
increasing efficiency depends on material engineering, which is beyond the scope of
power electronics research. An electronic circuit or interface is then used to
transform the power into a controllable and usable electrical power that can drive a
distribution bus in the second step. In the second conversion step, power electronics
engineers are responsible for developing smart solutions to achieve low mass and
high-efficiency power management.
According to Fig.1.1, different conditions of operation lead to different
nonlinear terminal characteristics of solar arrays are illustrated. A point on every I-V
curve for certain irradiance levels and temperatures produces the maximum power.
This point represents maximum power. Nevertheless, this point constantly fluctuates
according to variations in irradiance, temperature, and other environmental
conditions. To achieve maximum solar power harvesting, there is a need to install a
power electronics interface that can change the PV's load characteristics and force
the PV system to follow this optimum path.
(a) (b)
Fig 1.1 An illustration of the terminal I-V characteristics of a solar array, (a)
variations in irradiance, and (b) variations in temperature [2].
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Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) for the PV arrays in the satellite
PCU is very important in missions where the solar intensity changes dramatically.
Due to the decrease in the overall mass of the power system, MPPT is advantageous
when a smaller solar array is required to manage a given power budget requirement.
Additionally, a bus that has been regulated rather than unregulated will enable a
more efficient design of payload converters with less mass and volume by impacting
the filtering and derating of power components. Therefore, the mass of the converter
itself may also be reduced. Hence, MPPT and bus regulation can potentially reduce
the total mass of satellite power systems.
In contrast, during pre-launch operations, the launch phase, eclipse periods, and
when the solar array output is insufficient, the battery will provide electric power to
the satellite. To extend the battery's service life, overcharge and over-discharge
protection are essential. Therefore, satellite power systems should always have
battery protection.
On the other hand, in the traditional satellite power system architectures
illustrated by Fig.1.2, MPPT is normally achieved by using multiple independent
converters for solar panels, battery charging and discharging control, and bus
regulation. However, control complexity and conversion steps are increased. As a
result of the added complexity, size, weight, cost, and decrease in reliability, as well
as increased losses associated with such architectures, their wide adoption has been
slow. Despite its potential profitability, MPPT technologies have difficulty being
justified because the mass of MPPT regulators and control is complex. This
dissertation proposes a single conversion stage to maintain a regulated distribution
bus while achieving MPPT and battery regulation efficiently, as shown in Fig.1.3.
Power processing components and control tasks integrated into the three-port
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converter reduce the size, weight, complexity, and cost-effective, which makes it an
ideal choice for satellite power systems.
Fig 1.2 Satellite platform power converter solutions [2].
Fig 1.3 Solar panels and batteries supply platform power, while various
user loads sink platform power [2].
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1.2 Nanosatellite Technology

Nanosatellite technology has attracted significant interest in recent years.
Academic and industrial space communities have become increasingly interested
in nanosatellites. In contrast to traditional and sophisticated satellites, they are
less expensive and require less time to develop. However, they may be able to
perform space technology demonstrations. Due to the miniaturization of satellite
technology, space communities are increasingly interested in developing small
spacecraft missions based on CubeSat standards [3]. In addition to providing
easy access to space, they are also an excellent alternative for several space
research and educational projects such as solar sails [4], Earth observation [5]
and tether experiments, as they have a relatively low-cost budget, can be
implemented rapidly and can be launched from one deployment unit for a
relatively inexpensive launch. To ensure the success of the Nanosat mission, it
must provide sufficient power to each subsystem, both during daylight and
during eclipses, by utilizing the battery cells for power storage. In addition, this
power should be sufficient to meet the requirements of the subsystem. The ability
to achieve all these objectives depends on the proper design of the nanosatellite
Electrical Power System (EPS).
Generally, CubeSats belong to the pico-to-nano class of satellites. These
satellites are designed and constructed according to a specific set of standards on
advanced capabilities and functionality as outlined in the mission's CubeSat
Design Specifications (CDS). As shown in Fig. 1.4 1U, 2U, 3U, and 6U CubeSat
mechanical layouts are illustrated and compared [3].
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Fig 1.4 CubeSat specifications in the framework of overall small satellite

classifications [3].
As described in Fig. 1.4, an industry-standard 1U unit consists of a 10 cm cube
(10x10x10 cm3) weighing up to 1.33 kg. There are two ways in which a 1U
CubeSat can be used: either as a standalone satellite or in conjunction with other
CubeSats to form a larger satellite. Due to the great success of small CubeSats
such as the 1U and 3U units, an advanced standard for larger CubeSats (6U, 12U
and 27U) was proposed to enable much greater CubeSat capabilities [6]. The
CubeSat standard uses mass and volume to classify small satellites instead of the
usual classification of small satellites based only on their mass. A comparison of
the CubeSat standard with a generally accepted classification for small satellites
is presented in Fig. 1.4.
1.3 Background for PV applications

Many academics and industry representatives have expressed an interest in power
DC-DC converters in the last few decades due to the significant improvement in
power electronics. In today's era of modern power conversion systems, DC-DC
converters are essential components of almost every application, ranging from
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low-power applications such as Light-Emitting Diode (LED) drivers to high-
power applications such as grid-connected inverters [7]–[10], motor drive [11]
and Distributed Power Generation (DPG) system [12].
DC-DC converters have indeed been developed over a prolonged period of time,
but complex problems still exist, and related research is still under development
in depth and breadth. As part of this thesis, we focus on improving the topology
design of DC-DC converters to improve their performance by enhancing voltage
conversion ratio, power efficiency, reliability, and cost.
As part of the power conversion stage of many applications powered by
renewable energy sources, a high-efficiency, high step-up DC-DC converter is
required. As an example, grid-connected inverters [7]–[10] and High-Intensity
Discharge lamps (HIDs) [13], electric drives [14] and Uninterruptible Power
Supply Systems (UPSs) [15],[16] are common examples. Here is a brief
description of some emerging applications that require high-step-up DC-DC
power converters that will be discussed in more detail in the following sections.
1.1.1 Grid Connected Photovoltaic Inverter
Solar Photovoltaic (PV) technology is one of the most important aspects of
renewable energy, especially in countries that make good use of solar radiation
and have a high level of electricity production. A stand-alone system or one
connected to the grid could be used for the application. During 2014, PV grid-
connected power systems grew by 1.9 gigawatts in Germany, 2.4 gigawatts in the
United Kingdom, and 0.9 and 0.4 GW in France and Italy, respectively. During
the same period, Japan, China, and the United States have added 9,7, 10.6, and
6.2 gigawatts, respectively. Consequently, this adds a further 177 GW to the total
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global installed capacity [17] currently in use. A typical grid-connected PV
power system is shown in Fig.1.5 below.
Fig 1.5 Renewable energy system connected to the single-phase grid [17].
Typically, PV panels are connected in series with a power converter to obtain
a DC link voltage that can be used to track the PV's Maximum Power Point
(MPP) range to calculate the final power. In the case of partial shading, or when
there is a mismatch between shading and MPP, there is a significant increase in
MPP losses. Alternately, another configuration is to use a modular approach to
increase the MPPT efficiency of the system and reduce costs by using
independent DC-DC converters for each PV panel. In this case, each module is
equipped with a DC-DC converter integrated into it. In this way, every panel can
be configured differently, and the output power can be optimized by decoupling
them. Despite this, having two power electronic converters in this topology is
common. It is necessary to use a stepping-up boost converter for the first
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conversion stage to raise the relatively low DC voltage from the solar panel to a
certain level that can be synthesised for the alternating current AC line voltage,
which in most cases is 380 - 400 VDC. Another type of converter is the DC-AC
inverter, which injects sinusoidal currents into the grid. Using high-step-up DC-
DC converters, a Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) algorithm is
implemented to stabilise the voltage level on the DC bus, providing the PV array
with maximum efficiency. Undoubtedly, the quality of the DC-DC converter at
the core of the solar photovoltaic system plays a vital role in the overall
performance of the solar system since the DC-DC converter is the key
component that interfaces the solar PV system with the DC-AC inverter and
enhances its functionality.
An important drawback of a grid-connected power system is that the
system contributes to the grid only a portion of the power added to the grid by
using solar energy, which is only available during daylight hours on a daily basis.
To overcome this problem, photovoltaic inverter systems usually employ an
energy storage system, such as a battery, which can improve the system's
performance and provide reliability for the power supply [18]. Using the ESS, it
is attempting to provide a backup function so that solar energy can be transferred
to the ESS during sunny periods. When solar energy is unavailable at night, the
ESS delivers energy to the DC bus. This results in providing the grid with stable
and fast-response AC power. An integrated grid-connected PV system that
incorporates ESS can be achieved using a bidirectional DC-DC converter (boost
and buck) to switch power flow in both directions (forwards and reverses) during
power transfer.
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1.3.1 LED Driver
Since LEDs feature several advantages such as high-power density, high
luminous efficiency, long lifespan, mercury-free, and rapid response, they have
enormous potential as replacements for conventional lamps in residential,
automotive, decorative, and medical applications [19],[20]. In order to achieve
high illuminance in the application scenarios, LEDs are used in numerous
quantities. There is a need for a high output voltage level when LEDs are
connected in series. Because of the LEDs' current-voltage characteristic and the
negative coefficient of temperature for parallel-connected LEDs, it is necessary
to implement the current balancing technology to regulate the current through the
different LED strings [21]. There is a need for a boost voltage level of around
300 V for LED strings that are powered by 24 V batteries or PV panels for LED
applications. Due to this, LED drivers need high voltage converters since they
usually have a high voltage conversion ratio.
1.3.2 EV
To tackle air pollution, the British government will ban all new sales of petrol
and diesel cars by 2030 to curtail the risk of serious health issues due to air
pollution [22]. The secondary objective of automotive companies such as BWM,
Mercedes-Benz, Ford, and BYD is to meet the market demand for vehicles by
offering Electric Vehicles (EV), Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV), and fuel cell
vehicles. There is still a significant technical challenge involved in the design of
power DC-DC converters of high efficiency, low cost, and small volume. The
fuel cell vehicle drive system shown in Fig.1.6 can be considered a typical one.
Boosting the low fuel cell voltage needed to power the electric motors requires
high step-up DC-DC converters, which are an indispensable component. In most
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cases, the fuel cell is boosted to a voltage level of 200~400V and is compatible
with the battery pack when used correctly [23]. The second installation phase is
installing the inverter that drives the electric motor.
Fig 1.6 The drive train of an electric vehicle [22].
1.3.3 High Intensity Discharge (HID) Lamp
Due to the superior performance and numerous advantages of High-Intensity
Discharge (HID) lamps, they are preferable for using automobile headlamps
instead of conventional halogen lamps, such as higher performance, longer life,
better light beam focus, and better colour rendering capabilities than conventional
halogen lamps. Although the HID lamp is capable of delivering significant
advantages, when it comes to the actual operation, it is similar to the other
discharge lamps. It is required to be controlled by ballast to maintain steady state
power when it operates. There is a typical ballast circuit in Fig.1.7 which can be
used to ignite a lamp and power it at the same time.
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Fig 1.7 Block diagram of a high intensity discharge lamp ballast.
The ballast has three components: a high step-up DC-DC converter, an
inverter, and an igniter. There are various sources of powering HIDs, such as the
automobile battery, which provides a much lower voltage input than the voltage
for which the ballast is designed to operate. Thus, to provide the extra step-up
power required in the solar ballast, a DC-DC converter with high step-up
capabilities must be installed in the ballast to provide the battery voltage at (380
V-400 V) during starting up and at (60-135 V) during steady-state operation. Due
to these factors, it is crucial that a high-quality step-up DC-DC converter may be
used on the lamp that can produce a tenfold gain in voltage.
1.1.2 Uninterruptible Power Supply UPS

To protect sensitive loads from outages, an Uninterruptible Power Supply
(UPS) is increasingly used to supply power to them during outages on the utility
power grid under normal or abnormal conditions [15],[16]. As a result of UPSs
having long been used for providing seamless power to a wide range of critical
loads, such as medical equipment, communication systems, computers, and
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servers, UPSs have gained in popularity. Any UPS utilises DC-DC power
electronics converters to interface different power sources and loads to regulate
the voltage. Regarding UPS topology, it includes a Power Factor Correction
(PFC) circuit, which usually consists of a front-end AC-DC converter that
converts the AC-line voltage (90−265 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠). Inverters, to operate properly,
require a regulated DC link voltage of (380 - 400 V), provided by this supply.
The UPS is designed to act as a backup power source in case of a mains failure or
utility outage. The UPS can power the load from the battery backup powered by
48 V. To raise the voltage of the battery bank to that required by the DC bus, and
it is necessary to use a high step-up converter.
1.2 Outline of Thesis

This dissertation will be outlined in the following manner.
In chapter 1, an overview of the Multi-Port Converter used in applications
such as satellite platform power systems is presented in chapter one. As a result
of its reduced component count and fewer conversion stages than traditional
architectures with several independent converters, the Multi-Port Converter can
reduce mass and increase efficiency in space applications. Moreover, the chapter
briefly introduces the traditional converters that can be used in various
applications, such as those related to high step-up conversions, light drivers,
Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS), Electric Vehicles (EVs), etc.
In chapter 2, a review of the literature related to Multi-Port Converters is
presented. Three types of converters are discussed in the literature review:
isolated, non-isolated, and partially isolated. This chapter compares these
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converters to select the most suitable topology to integrate PV with an energy
storage system. Moreover, a literature review will provide an overview of current
state-of-the-art methods of developing step-up boost converters as a first step to
defining the work. There are several challenges related to non-isolated DC-DC
boost converters. A simplified circuit, lower cost, and higher efficiency system
platform are proposed.
Chapter 3 proposes a new non-isolated DC-DC converter for PV grid-
connected power generation systems, integrating two input sources. In addition to
the traditional advantages of Multi-Port Converters (MPCs), the proposed design
has many other advantages, including using one-stage conversion, fewer
components, and a low operation duty ratio. Even under changing and
unpredictable output demands, the converter continuously supplies the load and
regulates the output voltage. The converter can supply the load and regulating the
output voltage. A laboratory prototype has been developed to validate the
theoretical analysis, and experimental results have been provided.
Chapter 4 proposes a new non-isolated Three-Port DC-DC Converter for
standalone and space applications that integrate battery storage and an input
source. Aside from the traditional benefits of Multi-Port Converters MPC, this
circuit incorporates one-stage conversion, resulting in fewer components. The
converter continuously supplies the load for standalone systems and regulates the
output voltage by managing the power flow between the ports. The converter can
supply the load and always regulate the output voltage. Experimental results have
been presented to validate the theoretical analysis.
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In chapter 5, a new high-step converter employs two topologies that share
the same switch, which is suitable for LED drivers and PV applications. There is
also a description of how the topology is developed. The design of the converter
is validated through simulation. Furthermore, to verify the operational principles,
experimental test results of a prototype are presented.
Chapter 6 proposes a novel Four-Port Converter suitable for renewable
energy applications. Furthermore, the topology implements a single-stage energy
conversion, as well as sharing a common reference ground between inputs and
outputs. In addition, the operation of the circuit and its topology are described
first. Due to independent duty cycle values, the input current and output voltage
are tightly regulated. Control systems are designed based on the pole placement
method, which is useful in MIMO converters. A detailed analysis of the four-port
converter is presented, and the design of the converter is validated through
simulation.
In chapter 7, conclusions, and future works. A summary of the entire study
and a discussion of how well the objectives and research aim have been achieved.
It also suggests potential areas for further investigation based on the study's
findings.
1.3 The aim and objectives

Power electronics converters are key for interfacing and conditioning many
applications' source and load power levels.
This research aims to develop integrated single-stage power converter
structures that allow interface and control of multiple power sources and storage
devices while improving overall system functionality.
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The main objectives and research contributions are:
• To develop a new high step-up DC-DC converter topology benefits many
applications, though the focus here is on domestic solar PV applications
and LED drivers.
• To develop Two-Input Converter for various applications, such as
DMPPT PV applications, DC motor drive systems, and LED drivers.
• To propose and develop a Three-Port DC-DC Converter since it can
provide high efficiency, and several components are shared. The proposed
converter has many applications, such as satellite applications, DC motor
drive systems, and LED drivers.
• To develop a Multi-Input-Multi-Output topology. This topology is
proposed for microgrids, electric vehicles, and satellite applications with
battery backups.
1.4 Contribution to knowledge

This thesis is primarily composed of four contributions. Firstly in chapter 3,
a novel non-isolated Two-Input DC-DC Converter for PV grid-connected power
generation systems was proposed. This design offers many advantages over
traditional Multi-Port Converters (MPCs), such as using one-stage conversion
and fewer components. Secondly, in chapter 4, a new Three-Port DC-DC
Converter with integrated battery storage and an input source for space
applications was proposed. Additionally, this circuit incorporates one-stage
conversion, reducing component count. By managing the power flow between
the ports, the converter continuously supplies the load and regulates the output
voltage. Thirdly chapter 5 proposes a new non-isolated DC-DC converter for
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LED driving and PV applications. An important characteristic of this converter
topology is the integration of Luo and Cuk DC-DC converters. Using a single
power semiconductor switch, the proposed topology reduces voltage stress across
diodes and power semiconductor switches while maintaining a continuous input
current. In addition, this topology has the advantage of extending the static
voltage gain compared to a conventional boost converter. Lastly, chapter 6
proposes a novel Four-Port Converter suitable for renewable energy applications,
including electric Vehicles, DC microgrids, and space applications. Besides that,
the topology implements a single-stage energy conversion and has a common
ground for inputs and outputs.
1.5 Limitations of Work Undertaken

This work focused on developing new type of DC-DC converters, which has a
combination of properties that make it unique compared to existing DC-DC
converter topologies. The limitations of the work undertaken can be broadly
considered as follow:
The proposed converters have been analysed in steady-state CCM operation,
and their efficiencies have been calculated. For any DC-DC converters, the
performance could be characterised in other ways, including their performances
under unbalanced conditions. In addition, thermal studies and stability analysis
and their transient performances must be investigated with closed-loop voltage
and current controllers.
1.6 Publications Arising from this Research

The research work carried out in this thesis has resulted in following journal papers:
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• Alhani E, Anayi F, Melikhov Y,“Integrated Three-Port DC/DC Converter for

Different Applications.” Submitted for peer review in: IEEE access Journal.
• Alhani E, Anayi F, “The design of a hybrid DC/DC converter for LED lighting
systems using a single switch” Submitted for peer review in: Energy Reports
Journal.
• Alhani E, Anayi F, “Not-isolated DC/DC converter with multiple inputs and one
output for photovoltaic power generation systems” Submitted for peer review in:
Energy Reports Journal.
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Chapter 2 A Literature Review Multiport Power Converters
C
2.1 Introduction
Recent years have seen a rise in the popularity of renewable energy
sources such as solar energy due to their clean, environmentally friendly
nature and abundance in nature [24] The downside of solar energy is that they
are intermittent, and they are not generally reliable. It is necessary to use power
electronic converters to connect these sources to the load to solve this problem.
With the aid of these power converters, renewable energy sources can be tracked
for maximum power. The electrical power system can be managed for a satellite
system. T renewable energy sources can be interfaced with the energy storage
system [25] to store energy for eclipse and peak demand and distribute the power
effectively to load. Conventional connecting an energy source with a load
involves a single DC-DC converter with two ports [26],[27]. It is necessary to
have two or more power converters if more than one input power source or
Energy Storage System (ESS) will be used, as shown in Fig.2.1. These power
converters can be either connected to a power source, which means they are
producing unidirectional power flow, or they can be connected to the ESS in
which case they are producing a bidirectional power flow. Because these
converters are normally cascaded, it will increase the cost, the complexity of the
system, the number of components, and a reduction in system efficiency [28],
[29].
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Fig 2.1 Traditional multiport connection in a standalone power system: (a)

Multi-Input ports. (b) Multi-output.
Compared to single-port converters, multi-port converters, and especially
three-port converters, as shown in Fig.2.2, can provide a better design and
implementation experience, which is especially useful for renewable energy
systems, electric vehicles, aerospace applications, and DC distribution power
systems [30],[31]. Due to this fact, multi-port converters offer some advantages
compared to single-port converters, including reducing the cost and mass of the
system and improving power density by sharing components such as switches,
capacitors, etc., and storage elements [32],[33]. As well as increasing the
system's reliability, it uses central control, which reduces the number of
communication channels required, causing no communication delays or errors in
the process. A multiport converter is also an excellent way to improve the
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dynamic performance of the system by enabling multiple inputs and multiple
outputs (MIMO) [30],[34].
𝑃𝑂 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛 + 𝑃𝐵𝐴𝑇 (2.1)
Fig 2.2 Three-port converter TPC.
There are three main ways in which multi-port converters can be expressed
in (2.1), and these can be categorised according to their operation mode into three
types, Single-Input Single-Output conversion (SISO), Single-Input Dual-Output
conversion (SIDO), and Dual-Input Single-Output conversion (DISO). If only
two ports are active, and the power at each port is equal, SISO mode is present.
During SIDO mode, some generated power will be transferred to the storage
element if the input power exceeds the output power. In DISO, some power is
supplied to a load when the input power exceeds the demand.
The Multi-Port Converter (MPC) has been proposed in several papers over the
last few years [34]–[48]. A Three-Port Converter (TPC) has three ports and is the
most common type of MPC, is a Three-Port Converter (TPC). Three categories
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of MPC can be distinguished: non-isolated converters, isolated converters, and
partly isolated converters.
Fig 2.3 The general configuration of a renewable energy generation system

using a three-port converter: (a) SISO mode. (b) SIDO mode. (c) DISO
mode.
TPC can be divided into three categories, as shown in Fig.2.4 below. Each
category has a level of complexity, number of components, reliability, and power
ratio. As part of this chapter, the most recent MPC will be reviewed; this review
is meant to aid in selecting the most suitable topology for each application.
2.1.1 Non-Isolated Multiport Converter

When the isolation feature between the ports of the power converter is not
required in some applications, a non-isolated power converter is used. There are
some benefits associated with this type of topology, such as its low cost, high-
power density, and high efficiency [49]. As a result of this topology, all ports
share the same ground, and all are directly connected. Due to this reason, it is
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referred to as non-isolated. Furthermore, this topology has the disadvantage that
the voltage gain between the ports is not particularly high. Consequently, multi-
stage converters may be used in some situations when high voltage gains are
required [50]. Generally, the non-isolated multiport converters proposed in the
literature are based on various standard DC-DC converters, including buck,
boost, buck/boost, Cuk, SEPIC, and Zeta converters, which are well-known.
Non-Isolated Converter Partly-Isolated Converter
Partly-Isolated Converter Isolated Converter
Fig 2.4 MPC category: (a) Non-isolated converter. (b), (c) partly isolated
converter. (d) Isolated converter.
According to [27], Fig.2.5 illustrates a simple buck-boost converter with a
multi-input based on a simple design. Using this topology, N input sources with
different characteristics can be connected. This topology has the advantage of
having a low component count and being simple to control which is two of its
main advantages. A single inductor, diode, and capacitor are shared between the
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inputs of the given design. Although this topology is unidirectional, the ports in
the topology can transmit power in only one direction. Due to this, ESS cannot be
implemented on this topology, as it is unsuitable for this purpose.
Fig 2.5 Multi-input buck-boost converter [27].
Based on the multi-port converter proposed in [51], Fig.2.6 illustrates a
multiport converter. Furthermore, the output voltage of the new proposed
converter has the advantage of a positive polarity, which can be achieved without
using an additional transformer in addition to the advantages of the previous
converter. It is very convenient to use this new converter because it has a
bidirectional power flow that does not require an additional converter; it can be
used as a buck converter, a boost converter, and a buck-boost converter. In
addition to operating in Continuous Conduction Mode (CCM), the converter can
also operate in Discontinuous Conduction Mode (DCM).
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Sn
Vn
S2
V2
IL
Io
S1 L
Q3
V1 C
Q1 Q2 Vo
Fig 2.6 Multi-input buck-boost converter [51].
According to the paper of [52], there is a boost-type, three-port non-isolated
converter shown in Fig.2.7. In this study, an integrated circuit is proposed that is
capable of interfacing one renewable energy source, a battery, and a load
simultaneously. There is an advantage to this topology which is an equal
distribution of the power between the three ports at the same time. Two filter
capacitors are connected in parallel with the PV panel and battery to smooth the
pulsation current of the PV panel and battery. Specifically, the converter is
designed to operate in three different modes, namely, Dual-Outputs (DOs), Dual-
Inputs (DIs), Single-Inputs, and Single-Outputs (SISOs).
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Fig 2.7 Boost three-port converter proposed in [52].
The authors of [53] proposed a non-isolated, single-switch DC-DC converter.
Combining a cascade buck converter with a buck-boost converter is a great way
of reducing the number of components in the system. As mentioned previously,
the function of the combined buck and buck-boost converter comes down to one
switch that can handle the Maximum Power Point Track (MPPT), the battery
charging, as well as the operation of the load, which in this case is the water
pump, at a constant flow rate at the same time. An illustration of the proposed
circuit is shown in Fig.2.8.
L1 D4
D1 VB C1
L2 C2 M Vo
D2 S D3
Fig 2.8 Single-switch non-isolated DC-DC converter [53].
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Based on the findings of [42], the authors proposed a non-isolated “three-
port converter with high step-up”, as seen in Fig.2.9. The method of coupling
inductors is used to achieve a high voltage gain for the converter. For the
purpose of suppressing the leakage inductance effect, two clamped circuits are
used. The proposed converter has two different paths of power flow, one which is
the main voltage source that delivers power to the load, and the other which is the
battery that supplies power to the load. As a result of the proposed TPC, three
different modes have been developed. This leads to the input power source and
ESS being able to transfer power independently to the load by taking advantage
of the two distinct power flow paths. Power can also be transferred from the input
power source and the ESS to the load simultaneously, as well as the power to the
load while simultaneously charging the ESS from the input power source.
La1 La2 Cd1

Vin Do1
Dbc
S1 S3 Dd1
Cc2
S4
Lb1 Lb2
Cd2 Do2
V
V
VB Dd2 CL
S2 RL
Fig 2.9 Non-isolated high step-up three-port DC-DC converter for hybrid
energy systems [42].
According to [54], a battery-integrated boost converter comprises just one
switch, diode, and capacitor, as shown in Fig.2.10. A series combination. A direct
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path can be provided for charging the battery by combining solar power and
battery, allowing the solar energy source to deliver the maximum power. With
the proposed converter, it is possible to facilitate the tracking of Distributed
Maximum Power Points (DMPPT). As the PV module becomes an open circuit
during the night and the diode prevents the flow of current the other way, the
proposed converter cannot provide power during the night.
IB
+
VBattery D
L
Iin Vout
iL C R
Vin S
PV
Fig 2.10 Three-port battery-integrated boost converter [54].
Based on the findings of [55], the author proposed a non-isolated “dual-input
dual-output boost converter”, as seen in Fig.2.11. The proposed converter
operates in DI and DO modes with an inductor current hysteresis comparator for
mode switching is an effective form of energy management. However,
controlling five switches for the TPC operation is more complex and decreases
efficiency.
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D5 S5
S4 D4 Ibat
D1 S1 IL L
IO
D3 V bat
V
VS3
VPV Vin
C VD2 V VS2 Co R Vo V
V
V
V V V V
V
Fig 2.11 Proposed a non-isolated “dual-input dual-output boost converter
[55]. V
2.1.2 Partly Isolated Converter

In Three-Port Converter that is partly isolated, at least two ports share the
same ground with each other and are directly connected to each other. As well as
this, at least one port on the device is connected to a transformer that generates
high frequencies [56]. Galvanic isolation may be provided for some ports with
this type of arrangement. The high-frequency transformer provides the isolation
feature and increases voltage gain by changing the transformer's turn ratio and
achieving the isolation feature.
The authors of [57][58], [59] proposed a partly isolated three-port converter
with three types of ports: one for solar energy, one for batteries, and one for
outputs. As shown in Fig.2.12, the proposed circuit is based on the principles of
an active clamped forward converter and the half-bridge converter to achieve the
desired results. On the primary side of the transformer, there is an addition of one
switch and one diode, while on the output side, there are two switches that
replace the traditional half-bridge converter's output diode.
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S Rs C2 S2
SR2
Lo Vo
D3 LM
VPV
Rb
V S3 R SR1
C1
VB S1
R
Fig 2.12 The converter proposed in [59].
It has been proposed, however, that the authors of [60]. have developed a
family of three-port half-bridge converters. These converters have three
topologies: three-port half-bridge converters with post-regulation, three-port half-
bridge converters with synchronous regulation, and three-port half-bridge
converters with primary freewheeling. In terms of stand-alone renewable power
systems, converters are suitable for use in this field. A schematic diagram for this
converter can be seen in Fig.2.13. This shows that when the converter's output
voltage is raised, the effectiveness of the converter is reduced due to a reverse
recovery loss associated with the body diode of the output switches.
Lo
C1 S1 S3
D1 Co Vo
Lm
Vb
Vin S4
C2 S2
Fig 2.13 The three-port half-bridge converter with synchronous regulation

[60].
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As shown in Fig. 2.14, a Full-Bridge Three-Port Converter (FB-TPC) that
is controlled by Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) and Secondary-Side Phase Shift
(SSPS) is presented in [61]. As the picture below shows, the converter is
developed by combining an interleaved buck/boost converter and a phase-shift
full bridge converter on the secondary side, in which the primary active switches
are shared. The system's primary and secondary sides have been achieved with
zero voltage switching so that the power can be easily transferred between any
two ports without any problem. In [62], a distributed DC grid design for PV
applications has been implemented in which the proposed topology has been
applied.
S1 S3 D1 D2
L1 Lf
Vb Np Ns Co RO
CPV L2
VO
PV L S4 S2 S5 S6
o
Fig 2.14 The pulse width modulation (PWM) plus secondary-side phase-
shift controlled full-bridge three-port converter proposed in [61].
The proposed topology, as shown in Fig. 2.15, utilises a current-fed dual active
bridge structure, which is characterized by galvanic isolation between the battery
and the dc bus, a wide range of Zero Voltage Switching (ZVS), and a bidirectional
flow of power between any two ports of the system. A voltage multiplier cell is used
on the DC bus side of the bridge to achieve a high voltage conversion ratio between
the DC bus and the supercapacitor (SC). Topologies like this may lead to
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fluctuations in battery current [63], and the complexity of the circuit or component
ratings may increase [64].To achieve reverse power flow and continuous
charge/discharge current, [64] uses 22 active switches, while another existing four-
port converter [65] uses eight switches.
Q5 Q6
Cs1 Cs2
Q1 Q2 Q9 Q10 L CDc
LLK 3
L1
VDC
VC
L2 L4
Vb Vsc
Q3 Q4 Q7 Q8
Fig 2.15 A current-fed dual active bridge structure [63].
2.1.3 Isolated Converter

An isolation converter can also be referred to as a traditional half-bridge
converter or a full-bridge converter [66],[67]. The high-frequency multi-winding
transformer in the isolated converter connects all the ports. This means that all
ports in this topology are fully galvanically isolated. By using bidirectional
power switches, it is possible to enable bidirectional power flow between the
ports of this topology. However, there is a high number of components present in
this system. It is hard to share some of these components between ports as they
all require their components. Increasing the turn ratio of the high-frequency
transformer can achieve a high voltage gain, which can lead to a higher voltage
output.
An example of a triple DC-DC converter is shown in Fig. 2.16 [68]. All
ports of the circuit can achieve a bidirectional flow of power, which is a desirable
feature. There is no problem matching different voltage levels at each port as
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long as using a three-winding high-frequency transformer with different turn
ratios is possible. To control the flow of power, phase shift control is used. An
example of such work can be found in [69]. Zero Voltage Switching (ZVS) is
extended by introducing a simple and effective duty ratio control method on top
of the previous work to enhance its effectiveness. Two series resonant tanks have
been added to the full-bridge structure to achieve higher switching frequencies
and lower losses during switching [70].
S1 S2 S9 S10
L1 L2
V1 Co
Ro
S3 S4 S11 S12
S5 S6 L3
V1
S7 S8
Fig 2.16 Isolated triple-active-bridge converter full bridge [68].
In [71], the authors proposed a DC-DC converter consisting of three ports and
three half bridges, one of which is a boost half-bridge topology and the other
half-bridge bridges. It is achieved using a high-frequency transformer that
connects both half-bridges to achieve high voltages and galvanic isolation
between them. There is a smaller ripple in current when using a current-fed
topology, which is regulated as a boost converter. This is compared to voltage-
fed topologies. This result boosts voltage reduces the transformer current
requirement and provides a current mode control to offer more control flexibility.
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Two current-fed topologies are employed on the low voltage side by [66],[72] for
interfacing low voltage devices such as a low voltage battery and an
ultracapacitor, as shown in Fig.2.17.
S1 C1 1: n S2 C3
L1
V2
Cv2
V1
S3 C2 S4 C4
S5 C5
L2
V3
S6 C6
Fig 2.17 Isolated triple-active-bridge converter half bridge [66],[72].
In addition, switching losses are usually one of the key factors affecting system
efficiency, especially during light loads. Several series-resonant converters have been
proposed to reduce switching losses and achieve full-ZVS operation [73],[74]. An isolated
three-port bidirectional series-resonant converter is proposed for energy storage applications
that feature the first harmonic-synchronized pulse width modulation, as shown in Fig.2.18.
Using additional resonant components in this design structure will result in increased system
costs, reduced power density, and worse dynamic performance.
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S1 S2
L1
V1 C1
S9 S10
S3 S4
LM V3
S5 S6
L2 S11 S12
V2 C2
S7 S8
Fig 2.18 An isolated three-port bidirectional series-resonant converter with

first harmonic-synchronized pulse width modulation [74].
2.1.4 Comparison of Different Multi-port Converters
The advantages and disadvantages of each of the groups of MPC are
different. Galvanic isolation is used in a fully or partially isolated multi-port
converter so that all the ports are galvanically isolated from each other to prevent
shock hazards. In such a setup, it is very easy to achieve ZVS. As well as this,
there is a greater likelihood of achieving a high voltage-regulated ratio due to the
use of a high-frequency transformer. Despite this, they are heavier, larger, and
incur more magnetic losses because of the use of the high-frequency transformer
and the inclusion of more switches in the half-bridges and full bridges. As a
result, the efficiency and power density of the converter is reduced. A trade-off is
often necessary between advantages and disadvantages, as it is difficult to choose
between them all.
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In contrast to the isolated multi-port converter, the voltage-regulated ratio of
the non-isolated multi-port converter is limited by the converter's duty cycle, and
it isn't easy to achieve ZVS using such a converter. In contrast to the isolated
converter, the non-isolated converter has several advantages over the isolated
converter, including high efficiency and high-power density, together with a low
cost due to its numerous shared components that make it more cost-effective. A
coupled inductor switched capacitor, switched inductor, and multiplier circuit
could mitigate the drawbacks of non-isolated converters.
2.2 Topology Review of Typical High Voltage Step-Up

Converters
This section aims to give a brief overview of the typical topologies of boost
converters to improve their performance. When it comes to non-isolated
converters, switching capacitors, switching inductors, and coupled inductors can
all be used to improve voltage boost ratios by a significant amount.
Transformers and non-isolated converters are usually combined to form isolated
converters. In this way, high voltage conversion ratios could be achieved by
changing the turn ratio of transformers.
2.2.1 Cascaded Converters

To reach a higher output voltage, as shown in Fig.2.19, multiple boost
converters are connected in series to reach a higher output voltage to overcome
the voltage gain limitation of traditional boost converters [75],[76].
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Fig 2.19 Configuration of cascaded DC-DC converter [75],[76].
Previous boost converters have their output ports connected to the input
ports of subsequent boost converters. Thus, a cascaded converter has a voltage
step-up conversion ratio that is increased to the product of the voltage gain of
each boost converter in the cascade. Fig.2.20 shows that in the cascaded
connection of two boost stages. This approach enabled a high voltage conversion
ratio without using the unity duty cycle. There is a decrease in the voltage stress
placed on the switch Q1 and the diode Do1 in the first-stage converter compared
to a single conventional non-isolated boost converter. This reduces the switching
loss and conduction loss of switch Q1, along with a better reverse recovery
performance for diode Do1 compared to a single conventional non-isolated boost
converter. Due to the intermediated voltage of capacitor Cf1, the second
conversion stage reduces the input current. However, the voltage stress of
semiconductor components in the second stage is equal to that of a conventional
non-isolated boost converter, as the voltage stress of semiconductor components
is equal to that of the output voltage. This cascaded structure is not without its
downside, which is the complexity of controlling two switches. To ensure the
stable operation of the cascade converter, two closed-loop control circuits are
required, and this causes the cost of the converter to increase.
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L1 DO1 L2 DO2
Q1 Cf1 Q2 Cf2
Vin VO
Fig 2.20 Cascade converter with two stages boost converters [75],[76].
2.2.2 Quadratic Boost Converter
This quadratic boost converter has been proposed to reduce the complexity
of the control process of cascading two boost converters together to achieve a
high voltage conversion ratio by using only one switch for a high voltage
conversion ratio shown in Fig.2.21. [77]–[79]. Rather than using a switch Q1 to
control the circuit's feedback, the diode D1 is used instead, which reduces the
number of switches and closed feedback loops in the circuit. In Fig. 2.21, a
quadratic boost converter operates similarly to a cascaded converter. Similarly,
the quadratic boost converter can achieve high voltage gains without being
hampered by extreme duty cycles of switches, as in cascaded converters. The
main disadvantage of this method is that energy is converted twice, which can
impact the system's efficiency. Moreover, high-rated components are required
due to the high voltage and current stress on switch Q and the diode Do2, creating
an increased conduction loss on the circuit.
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D1
L1 L2 DO2
DO1
CO1 Q CO
Vin VO
Fig 2.21 Quadratic boost converter [79].
2.2.3 Switched Capacitor Converters
Fig 2.22 shows the basic topology of switched capacitor converters that
involve only the transfer of electrical energy as its operating principle [80]. The
voltage of the switched capacitor is increased to Vin when switches Q1 and Q2 are
on and Q3 are off. When Q3 is on and Q1 and Q2 are off, the capacitor C is
connected in series with the voltage source Vin to provide power to the load. Due
to this, it is possible to obtain a high output voltage by doubling the input voltage
due to the above process.
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Fig 2.22 Topology of switched capacitor converter [80].
This switched capacitor cell, known as the voltage lift circuit, is integrated
inside the boost converter so it boosts the voltage output [81]–[83]. A wide range
of voltage conversion ratios can be obtained by controlling the duty cycle of the
switches to regulate the output voltage. This voltage lift cell is integrated with the
conventional boost converter, as shown in Fig.2.23, and is used to improve the
voltage gain of the converter. When switch Q is switched on, the power source
Vin and the inductor Lb charge the capacitor C1. C1 is connected in series to Vin
and Lb on turning off the switch, resulting in a high output voltage.
Furthermore, components can maintain a lower current ripple due to the
inductor Lb. Because the static voltage gain involves the number of voltage lift
cells, it is necessary to obtain a high voltage step-up ratio with a large number of
components to obtain the high voltage step-up ratio. A voltage stress is also
referred to as a voltage differentiation value of a switch, which is the difference
between the output voltage and the input voltage.
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D1 DO
C1
Lb
CO VO
Vin Q
Fig 2.23 Topology of the voltage lift circuit [82].
2.2.4 Switched Inductor Converters
It is interesting to note that switched inductor converters, which use the
same operating principles as switched capacitor converters, are characterised by
the fact that they use a series connection between inductors and voltage sources
to obtain a high output voltage [84]–[87]. It can be seen from Fig.2.24 that when
switch Q is initiated, two inductors, L1 and L2, start to be charged by the diodes
D1 and D2. Through the diode D3, power is transferred from the input source,
together with both inductors L1 and L2, to the load after the switch has been
turned off. Accordingly, the output voltage will equal the maximum of the input
voltage and the voltage of either L1 or L2, assuming that the inductors' L1 and L2
voltages are the same. As a result, the system's power efficiency is deteriorating
because the voltage stress caused by switch Q equals the output voltage, which
decreases power efficiency [84].
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D1 L1
D3
D2 DO
L2
Vin Q CO VO
Fig 2.24 Topology of the switched inductor converter [86].
A two-switched-inductor boost DC-DC converter can be seen in Fig.2.25.
The active network converter is called a two-switched-inductor boost DC-DC
converter. A switched inductor cell is transformed into an active network
converter by eliminating the diode D3 and substituting active switches Q1 and Q2
for diodes D1 and D2. The power is transferred into the inductors L1 and L2 by
conducting the two switches. Diode Do transfers power from the input and
switched inductors to the output when the switches are off. The duty cycle of
both switches is the same.
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L1
DO
Q1 Q2
CO VO
Vin
L2
Fig 2.25 Topology of the active network converter [86].
The energy stored in the inductors is approximately equivalent to the
magnitude of the voltage input, as with the switched capacitor converter. Due to
the limitations of switched inductor converters in terms of voltage gain, they
cannot meet the needs of many applications. Although the voltage gain in the
active network can be increased by replacing the inductors L1~L2 in the network
cell for switched inductors, the converter will have a significant increase in
volume, weight, and cost [88]. There is also a possibility that the currents of two
inductors will be different when the characteristic of the two inductors differs.
When the switched inductors are discharged in series, the voltage spike of the
switches is also high. There is also a high reverse recovery loss in diode Do
because the voltage stress is equal to the sum of the diode's input and output
voltage.
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2.2.5 Integrated Converters
There is no method, according to the discussion above, that can achieve high
voltage step-up ratios without causing any disadvantages in the process. There
are limitations to the voltage gain of both the non-isolated conventional boost
converter and the three-level boost converter imposed by their duty cycle.
Cascaded converters and quadratic boost converters could be used to increase
voltage gain, which used several cells in a series connection, leading to an
increase in voltage gain. Still, the use of many components necessitated a
complex system for control. The energy stored in the capacitors has been
successfully applied to increase the output voltage of the switched capacitor
converters and multiplier circuits. Consequently, switched inductor converters
are designed to provide high voltage gain by installing the charged inductors in
switched inductor converters. Despite this, in all of these cases, the voltage gain
has been significantly increased with an increment in the number of components
used in each case.
The high voltage gain is produced by using high turn ratios of
transformers in transformer-based converters, including isolated converters, and
coupled inductor converters, resulting in a large volume, a high weight, and a
high loss of power for transformer-based converters. A transformer with a core
loss and a winding loss will lower power generation efficiency. To achieve the
high efficiency and high voltage step-up ratios required for DC-DC converters,
extensive research has been conducted in topologies that integrate the capacitive
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and magnetic methods. Some circuits, such as coupled inductors and voltage
multiplier circuits [89]–[93], coupled inductors and switched capacitors [94]–
[97], three-state switching cells and autotransformers [98], and three-state
switching cells and voltage multiplier circuits [99], can be incorporated into
converters to enhance the voltage gain.
2.3 Classification of DC-DC converters by Voltage Gain
A comparison of typical DC-DC converters with high voltage gains is
presented in the final part of the study to identify their respective advantages and
disadvantages. Based on the level of voltage gain the converter has, they can be
classified as shown in Fig.2.26, either through extensive or limited voltage gains.
The voltage conversion ratio of the typical boost and buck-boost converters is
limited due to their conventional design. In addition, there is also a limitation as
to the gain ratio of the voltage of the three-level converters. With an extreme duty
cycle of switches, they can only achieve a high voltage gain. Multiple converter
cells can extend the voltage step-up conversion ratio of wide static voltage gain
converters and switched capacitors, switched inductors, and transformers. There
is a significant increase in components when cascaded converters,
capacitor/inductor converters, and MMC converters are used to achieve high-
voltage gain.
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Fig 2.26 Classification of boost converters by voltage conversion ratio

[100].
2.4 Switching Strategy

A semiconductor component will require three kinds of power consumption:
conduction loss, switching loss, and driving loss. Power switch driving losses are
the costs associated with turning power switches on and off, a factor that is often
overlooked. Furthermore, the conduction loss only affects the on-state resistance
of the device and its on-time ton in one cycle as long as the corresponding devices
are conducted. Therefore, installing components with a low on-state resistance
could be beneficial to reduce the conduction loss level. Switching loss occurs
when switches are turned on and off, which can be reduced by decreasing the
switching frequency, reducing the switching loss. Despite this, with the decrease
in switching frequency, there will be an increase in the volume of passive
components.
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2.5 Failure Mechanism

Based on the field experience, it has been found that semiconductor
components such as diodes, IGBTs, and MOSFETs have the greatest
vulnerability [101],[102], whose failure may have serious implications for
personal safety. Consequently, from academic and industry perspectives, fault
tolerance is important for power converters.
2.5.1 Failure Type
Two types of faults can be categorised as Short-Circuit Faults (SCFs) and
Open-Circuit Faults (OCFs). SCF is a condition which can occur in DC-DC
converters causing over-rated currents to flow through components such as the
output capacitor and load, resulting in overheating and eventual failure of the
entire system and even explosion. Several factors can cause OCF to be less
destructive than SCF, which will cause the power system to be shut down and
other components not to be damaged. However, the unexpected failure of some
critical applications, such as military and aeroplanes, will place passengers in
potential danger if the system goes down unexpectedly.
2.5.2 Diode Failure Indications
In particular, diodes have a high potential for failure, especially when
operated at high voltages or currents. It is well-known that the resistance drops to
zero or very low values when a diode is short-circuited in both the forward and
the reverse direction. In rare cases, an open circuit failure may occur and leads to
diode resistance becoming extremely high or infinite in both directions [103].
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2.5.3 Transistor Failure Indications
Several transistors are used in high voltage and current situations while
maintaining a minimum amount of internal power dissipation. These transistors
include IGBTs and MOSFETs. The voltage, current, and power that can be
output by a device can exceed its rated capability in the case of fault conditions.
Consequently, it is easy for short-circuits to occur within the transistors.
Additionally, when the silicon chip is overheated, the transistors on the silicon
chip would become open-circuit, and they would be vulnerable to unsoldering
when the chip is overheated.
2.6 Summary of existing solutions

The work proposed in this study will focus on developing new type of DC-DC
converters, which has a combination of properties that make it unique compared
to existing DC-DC converter topologies. The work undertaken can be broadly
considered as follows:
2.6.1 Development of new Multi-Port Converters
A review of MPC topologies for integrating PV with ESS is presented.
Based on the literature review, the non-isolated topologies are cost-effective,
highly efficient, and useful for low-power applications like satellite applications.
Thus, a satellite platform's cost heavily depends on its mass. The mass of the
space power system is a significant design constraint. The non-isolated converter
is the best topology to integrate the PV with ESS because the sharing component
will be cost-effective. In this study, the third and fourth chapters have focused on
developing new type of DC-DC converters, which has a combination of
properties that make it unique compared to existing DC-DC converter topologies.
Integrating different input sources to enhance the efficiency of the system, which
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is low-cost by sharing components and reducing power conversion stages by
reducing component counts, making the design compact with low volume. Table
2.1 gives the existing solutions and their downside.
Table 2.1 Review of MPC topologies

Existing Solutions Downside
Non-isolated-multi-port no isolation, low voltage
converters gain
Partly-isolated-multi-port weight, size, and
converters and Fully- magnetic losses
isolated-multi-port
increase,
converters
so, the efficiency and power
density reduce
2.6.2 Achieve high voltage step-up ratios.
According to the discussion above, no method can achieve high voltage step-up
ratios without causing any disadvantages. To achieve the high efficiency and high
voltage step-up ratios required for DC-DC converters, extensive research has been
conducted in topologies that integrate the capacitive and magnetic methods. Some
circuits, such as coupled inductors and voltage multiplier circuits [89]–[92], [104].
In this study, the fifth and sixth chapters have included high voltage step-up ratios
as part of their application requirements by using two methods, such as multiplier
circuits and cascading two topologies to share components and reduce power
conversion stages which reduce component counts, enhance the efficiency of the
entire system and achieve high gain with low cost. Table 2.2 gives high voltage
step-up ratios methods.
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Table 2.2 High voltage step-up ratios methods

Existing Solutions Downside
Quadratic boost Converters many components, which
leads to a complex control
Three-Level Boost extreme duty cycle, and the
Converters voltage gain is limited
Switched Capacitor the cost and design
Converters complexity are high when a
large amount of switched
capacitor cells is applied
Transformer-Based weight, size, and
Converters magnetic losses
increase, so the
efficiency and power
density are reduced
Coupled Inductors a large volume, a high

weight, and a high loss of
power, so high cost and
design complexity
2.7 Summary
A selection of MPC topologies for the literature review has shown that the
non-isolated topologies are cost-effective, highly efficient, and practical for use
in low-power applications due to their capabilities. The integration of PV with
ESS is presented in this chapter. Those isolated or partially isolated topologies
are best suited for applications where high power is required. In conclusion, non-
isolated converters are the best topology to integrate PV with ESS based on the
aforementioned conclusion. Thus, it will be the topic of the subsequent two
chapters. According to the analysis above, a substantial amount of work has been
done on high-voltage step-up DC-DC converters based on the topologies failure
mechanisms described above. For a high voltage step-up ratio to be achieved,
several typical topologies can be utilized, such as cascaded converters, switched
capacitor converters, and switched inductor converters. Nevertheless, some
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particular limitations are associated with each topology, such as a high number of
switches, high volume, low power efficiency, and an issue relating to leakage
inductance.
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Chapter 3 Not-isolated DC-DC Converter with Multiple Inputs and One Output for Photovoltaic Power Generation Systems
C
Chapter 3 Not-isolated DC-DC Converter with Multiple Inputs and

One Output for Photovoltaic Power Generation Systems
3.1 Introduction
Power electronics have largely influenced the development of various
industrial applications in recent years [105]–[107]. The pollution caused by
petrochemical energy resources is causing dramatic climate change on the earth.
Therefore, clean energy generation systems are more and more important. For
achieving environmentally friendly objectives, photovoltaic power generation
(PV) is becoming increasingly prevalent [108]–[110]. Due to their small size,
PVs can be located near the load points, thus reducing transmission costs and
losses greatly. In order to provide the required voltage and power, PV modules
are traditionally connected in series and parallel. Nevertheless, MPPT cannot be
applied to each PV module individually. Power electronic devices such as multi-
port converters could be very useful in power management.
This chapter describes a novel single-ended primary-inductor converter
(SEPIC)-based Two-Input DC-DC Converter. By using a series capacitor to
couple energy from the input to the output, the structure inherits all the
advantages of the SEPIC converter. The proposed converter has the capability of
combining several alternative energy sources. It is also possible to flexibly
distribute the load power among different power sources. Due to its buck-boost
characteristic, this converter is suitable for maximising the power produced by
solar panels. Even if one or more power inputs fail to provide energy to the load,
the converter presented can operate. Through the use of shared components, two
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converters are combined into one integrated converter that implements all the
functions of two converters. Compared to the traditional DC-DC converters, this
DC-DC converter has a high-power density while requiring fewer components to
be built. A thorough analysis of the converter's steady-state operation and
dynamic modelling is conducted. To verify the proposed circuit, the hardware
prototype was constructed and tested. Besides the above features, the converter is
suitable for a standalone or a grid-connected.
Vo
Fig 3.1 Two-Input topology.
3.2 Operation Principle

3.2.1 Proposed Circuit
As shown in Fig.3.1, a two-input converter has been proposed. The converter
has two main switches, S1 and S2, and two diodes, D1 and D2. A pair of inductors
is formed by L1, L2 and C1 couples energy from the input to the output, and Co
smooths the output voltage. With the proposed structure of the converter, the
converter would be more suitable for generating clean energy from various
renewable sources, such as solar panels, whose output is strictly dependent on the
environment. It will be discussed in the following section the operation principles
of proposed topology. The following sections will provide a detailed discussion
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of the converter's advantages. Due to its simplicity, the proposed converter
consists of a two-input structure that is analysed. Compared to other structures
described in [111], the proposed structure utilises fewer components. A DC-DC
converter with two inputs is constructed using seven switches [112].
Additionally, capacitor voltage ripples are not considered. The components
are also considered ideal, and parasitic parameters are not considered. For the use
of the converter in renewable energy systems, the steady-state and dynamic
behaviour has been analysed. Accordingly, the steady state of the proposed
converter can be described as follows.
3.2.2 Circuit Operation Principles
As shown in Fig. 3.2 and discussed in more detail below, the steady-state
waveforms of the proposed converter are depicted. In order to analyse the
operation modes, four modes of operation are to be considered, as shown in Fig.
3.3.
Switching mode I [t0 < t < t1]: [view Fig. 3.3(a)]: During this interval of time,
both power switch S1 and power switch S2 are ON. The diode D1 is reverse
biased due to Vin2 being greater than Vin1. Energy is absorbed by L1 from Vin2,
and iL1 increases linearly. Through capacitor C1, L2 is charged, and iL2 increases
linearly.
Switching mode II [t1 < t < t2]: [view Fig. 3.3(b)]: During this interval of time,
the power switch S1 is ON, and the power switch S2 is OFF. Linearly an increase
in iL1 is observed after L1 absorbs energy from the input source. Through
capacitor C1, L2 is charged, and iL2 increases linearly.
Switching mode III [t2 < t < t3]: [view Fig. 3.3(c)]: During this interval of time,
the power switch S1 is OFF and the power switch S2 is ON. By releasing energy
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through C1 and Vin2, L1 transmits energy to load R. Also, in this case, L2 releases
energy to load R. This results in linear decreases of iL1 and iL2.
Switching mode IV [t2 < t < t3]: [view Fig. 3.3(d)]: During this interval of time,
both power switch S1 and power switch S2 are OFF. Through C1 and D2, L1
releases energy to load R. Also, in this case, L2 releases energy to load R. This
results in linear decreases of iL1 and iL2.
If S1 and S2 are turned ON initially, switching mode I, switching mode II, and
switching mode IV may appear in a switching cycle orderly when d1 > d2 [view
Fig. 3.2(a)]. In contrast, states switching mode I, switching mode III, and
Switching mode IV will appear when d1 < d2 [view Fig. 3.2(b)], where d2 is the
duty cycle of switch S2.
(a) (b)
Fig 3.2 Typical Steady-state waveforms of proposed converter in (a) with

d1 > d2, (b) with d1 < d2.
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(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Fig 3.3 Equivalent circuit in DIDO mode. (a) Switching mode I. (b)
Switching mode II. (c) Switching mode III, (d) Switching mode IV.
3.3 Steady-State Analysis

With d1 > d2, according to Fig.3.2 (a), both examples (a) and (b) can be
deduced with the same result as d1 < d2. Therefore, Volt-second balance
requirements are applied to L1 and L2. It is assumed that the average inductor
voltage of a steady state equals zero. This leads to the following equation for the
output voltage of the proposed converter.
𝑑1 [(𝑉𝑖𝑛2 ) (𝑑2 )+(𝑉𝑖𝑛1 )(1−𝑑2 )]

𝑉𝑂 = (3.1)
(1−𝑑1 )
In the case where one of the inputs fails. Therefore, input port Vin1 is
considered to have failed in this case. There will be two switching modes
(Switching mode I and Switching mode III) [view Fig.3.3. (a), (c)]. As a result,
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the output voltage equation of the proposed converter can be rearranged and
deduced by using the following formula:
𝑉𝑖𝑛2 𝑑1
𝑉𝑂 = (3.2)
1−𝑑1
3.3.1 Power Device Voltage Stress Analysis
In order to select the best power switches and diodes, voltage stresses on
semiconductors are an important factor to consider. In order to simplify the
voltage stress analysis, the ripple voltage across the capacitors has been
neglected. In this regard, it is necessary to calculate the voltage stresses. These
equations are given below.
𝑉 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠−𝑆1 = 𝑉 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠−𝐷2 = 𝑉𝑂 + 𝑉𝑐1 (3.3)

𝑉 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠−𝑆2 = 𝑉 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠−𝐷1 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛2 (3.4)
3.4 Experimental results
Proposed Converter Resistor Load
Voltage Sensor
Power Supply
microcontroller
TMS320F28335
Fig 3.4 Hardware setup.
An experimental hardware prototype is implemented to confirm the feasibility
of the converter proposed, and the analysis is done as shown in Fig.3.4. As an
alternative to renewable energy sources, a constant voltage source was used in the
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experiments. Specifications for the circuit are presented in Table 3.1. This table
indicates that the first input source is a 10 V, while the second is a 12 V battery.
The control system also includes the microcontroller TMS320F28335 as part of its
implementation. In this experiment, the output voltage is set to 48 V. A
representation of the results is given in Fig. 3.5. The gate signals of the switches
can be seen in Fig.3.5 (a) below. Power switches S1, and S2 are applied with duty
cycles of 35 & 75% and 60% & 70%, respectively, when the signals are applied to
both power switches.
S1 (2V/div) S1 (2V/div)
35% 60%
S2(2V/div) S2(2V/div)
70%
75%
t(20µs/div) t(20µs/div)
(a) (b)
Vo(10V/div)
IL1(10A/div)
1111
1111
t(100µs/div) t(1ms/div)
(c) (d)
Vs1(20V/div) Vs2(50V/div)
1111
1111
t(20us/div) t(50us/div)
(e) (f)
Fig 3.5 Specifications of the circuit, (a), (b) Driver signals, (c), Inductor
currents of L1, (d), Capacitors voltage Co, and (e), (f) voltage across
switches.
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According to Fig.3.5(c) waveform of the input current iL1 is shown. Diagram
3.5. (d) shows the voltages across output capacitor C2. Under the conditions
described, it is shown that the output voltage reference is 48 V. As shown in Fig.3.5
(e) and (f), the voltage across the switches is given. The efficiency of the converter
being presented is demonstrated in Fig.3.6. As depicted in this figure, the converter
exhibits high efficiency across the complete range of load, and the efficiency
reaches its maximum value of 92.5% when the load power is 10 W. From the
results of the proposed converter, it can be concluded that the theoretical analysis
and its feasibility have been validated.
Table 3.1 Parameters of the main prototype.

Parameter value
Vin1 10 V
Vin2 12 V
Vo 48 V
L1 300 μH
L2 300 μH
C1, Co C1 = 100 μF, Co= 1000 μF
fs 25kHz
Fig 3.6 The efficiency of the presented converter for various output
powers.
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Table 3.2 Performance comparison of similar converter topology.

Proposed
[113] [114] [115] [116] [117] [118]
Converter
Power switch
2 4 2 6 6 3 5
count
Diode count 2 2 2 6 0 3 5
Inductor
2 2 1 2 4 2 1
count
Capacitor count 2 2 2 1 4 1 5
Total
component 8 10 7 15 14 9 16
count
Number of
operating 4 5 2 4 2 2 2
modes
Facility to
integrate two Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
input sources
Complexity of
Low Low Low High High High High
circuit
Count of
conducting
devices during Low Low Low High High Low
High
each operating
mode
Topology Buck- Buck- Buck, Buck-

Sepic Cuk Boost
Boost Boost Boost Boost
IPF Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes
Input to
output flow of shared shared shared shared shared shared shared
power way
fsw(kHz) 20 20-80 15 20 NR 20 20-150
Flow of Power Buck- Buck- Buck-

Buck-Boost No Boost Boost
Boost Boost Boost
IPF=independent power
3.5 Comparison with related topologies

The proposed MIC is compared with existing nonisolated MICs in Table
3.2. The most important parameters are the independent power flow from the
input sources and the topology of the operation, such as buck, boost, or both
buck–boost, as well as the number of components. MIC topologies are defined as
buck and boost, indicating a bidirectional converter, which bucks in one direction
and boosts in the other. In the MICs in [114] and [116], a high number of
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components are used in [116], and they are capable of operating in buck and
boost modes. There is a lower component count in the MICs in [117] and [113]
compared to [114] and [116], but power can be transferred from the input ports
only in boost mode. Compared to the proposed MIC, the MIC in [118] appears to
have a lower component count, but power flow can only be done in boost mode
instead of buck-boost. In addition, there should be eight components in the
proposed MIC. There is no doubt that the proposed MIC will have a low number
of components, less than 15, which is required by [115], considered the closest
competitor in terms of the capability of bidirectional buck-boost operation. There
would be fewer components in the MIC in [114] than in the proposed MIC, but it
would provide power in only a boost mode and not bidirectionally.
3.6 Extension into Multiple-ports Converter

The circuit diagram in Fig.3.7 illustrates the proposed multi-input DC-DC
converter. A new topology is introduced in this section, consisting of a switch and
one diode. Thus, an additional input source can be added as a result.
Fig 3.7 Presented multi-input-single-output converter.
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3.7 Summary
This chapter proposes designing and implementing a Two-Input–Single-Output
DC-DC converter. During the study, the operation of the proposed converter is
analysed. In addition, each cell's input current is determined by its duty cycle and is
independent of whatever input is used. A set of experimental results is also
presented to verify the converter's validity and feasibility among the advantages
gained of the proposed topology that it can be applied to clean energy generation
systems using MPPT on PV modules or hybrid energy generation systems
involving the use of batteries. Several input sources can be added to the proposed
topology that can be applied to various applications.
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Chapter 4 A Three-Port DC-DC Converter for Integrated PV-Battery Systems
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Chapter 4 A Three-Port DC-DC Converter for Integrated PV-

Battery Systems
4.1 Introduction
According to the conducted literature review, PV power is limited to the
available solar energy, which is uncontrolled. In reality, the MPPT algorithms track
the maximum possible power from the exerted solar energy. No solution better than
the Energy Storage System (ESS) solves solar energy intermittency [119].
According to [120],[121], the battery requires low maintenance, and its cost
becomes reasonable. Based on these reasons, the battery-integrated PV module
becomes very attractive, as reviewed in [30],[122],[123]. This chapter aims to
propose a new non-isolated three-port DC-DC converter that improves the circuit
described in Chapter 3. The proposed circuit is enhanced with a bidirectional power
flow port composed of S3 and diode D3 to interface with the energy storage unit, as
shown in Fig.4.1(a). By integrating an input source with battery storage, this
converter will boost its voltage, reduce the effects of solar energy intermittency,
and increase solar energy performance. By combining three converters into one, the
converter becomes an integrated converter. This converter has higher power density
and fewer components compared to traditional DC-DC converters. As part of the
development process, a hardware prototype was built and tested to verify the
proposed circuit. This converter has been designed as a stand-alone device for
applications such as power satellites. As an added benefit, it might be used in
electric vehicles.
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4.2 Operation Principle
4.2.1 Proposed Circuit

The converter presented has buck-boost characteristics and is suitable for
charging and discharging solar panels to maximise power output. This design can
be used as a step-down/step-up capability. To control the power of the inputs
independently, it is necessary to take advantage of the duty ratios of the switches.
The output voltage can also be calibrated to meet the set point by properly charging
or discharging the battery. They use a series capacitor to couple energy from the
input to the output.
Consequently, short-circuit outputs can be handled more smoothly. The
proposed converter consists of two inductors, as shown in Fig.4.1(a). L1 is
connected at the input side of the converter and, by doing so, causes the ripple
current in the inputs to be reduced, a continuous input current to be obtained, and a
second inductor at an output port. The design includes a SEPIC switch (S1), a
battery charging switch (S3), a discharging switch (S2), three diodes D1, D2, and D3,
an output port capacitor (C2), and a coupling capacitor (C1).
Further, according to the topology synthesis principle in Fig.4.1(a), another
integrated three-port converter can be derived based on boost topology, as
illustrated in Fig. 4.1(b). This would result in fewer components besides deriving a
new three-port converter from the proposed topology synthesis method.
In order to conduct a steady-state analysis, it is necessary to assume the following
conditions:
• In order to smooth out the output voltage, coupling capacitor C1 and the output
capacitor C2 are large enough to provide a smooth voltage.
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• All components are ideal, and there is no conversion loss.
• There is no consideration for the battery's internal resistor.
S1 Vo
R
Vin Iin D1 L1 C1 D2
+VC2-
+VL1 - +VC1 -
D3 iL2 C2
S2 L2
S3
Vb
(a)
S1 Vo
R
Vin D1 L1 D2
+VL1 - +VC1 -
D3 C1
S2
S3
Vb
(b)
Fig 4.1 Present converter structure (a) Two-input converter proposed on

sepic (b) Two-input converter proposed based on boost.
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4.2.2 Operation Modes

There are three possible modes of operation for the converter, each of which will
be discussed in this chapter. The next section below explains how a satellite can
operate in different modes during its orbital cycle. Based on what is shown in
Fig.4.2,
1. Single Input Mode (SIM)
The battery source in this mode of operation supplies the power to the load.
During this operation mode, the input source is not in use as a result of the
operation mode. In this mode, the input source is the eclipse period, as depicted
in Fig. 4.2(A).
2. Double Input Mode (DIM)
It is also possible that the input power might not have been able to meet the
load adequately due to insufficient input power. As a result, the batteries'
discharge is necessary to provide power to the load. In this case, the second
mode of operation is applicable, as seen in Fig. 4.2(B).
3. Double Output Mode (DOM)
DOM will become active as soon as the input source produces a higher
output power. The battery circuit must be open to being charged in this case. At
this stage of the process, power is provided to the battery by the input source, as
depicted in Fig. 4.2(C).
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stage (A) Operation (eclipse).
Stage (B) operation (the initial insolation).
Stage (C) operation (increased insolation).
Fig 4.2 Three possible modes of operation for the converter.
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4.2.3 Steady-State Analysis
1. Double Input Mode (DIM):
To enhance the input, the battery discharging is essential for the load to
achieve a high energy level. This means that when the battery is discharged, both
Vin input source and the battery produce energy that will feed the load. To
accomplish this goal, the current only has one path (through S2) that could be
followed. As a result, the amount of discharge is controlled by the duty cycle of
switch S2 and the duty cycle of switch S3 which is off state when discharge occurs.
It is shown in Fig.4.3 that the proposed converter exhibits a switching pattern and a
steady-state waveform at steady-state. It is during this state that three types of
operation modes will be described in the following manner:
State 1 (t0< t< t1): This mode allows the power switches S1 and S2 to be turned ON
simultaneously while S3 is kept OFF. The switch S2 has been turned ON, causing
the diode D1 to be reverse-biased. As a result of switch S1 is turned ON, the diode
D2 is reverse biased. It is evident that, in this interval, the battery power source
energies the inductor L1 during operation. During this mode, the capacitor C2
discharges to provide power to the load. It can be seen in Fig. 4.5(a). how the
current flows through the converter
State 2 (t1< t< t2): During this interval, S1 is ON, and S2 and S3 are OFF. Due to
reverse-biased voltages, the diode D2 is not operating. iL1 increases linearly as
energy is absorbed by L1. The capacitor C1 charges L2 respectively, and the iL2
increases linearly. During this mode, the capacitor C2 discharges to provide power
to the load. Fig.4.5(b) shows the current flow paths in the converter.
State 3 (t2< t< t3): During this interval, all three power switches S1, S2 and S3, are
OFF. Through C1 and D2, L1 releases energy to load R. Also, in this case, L2
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releases energy to load R. This results in linear decreases of iL1 and iL2. According
to Fig.4.5(c), the converter's current flow paths can be seen. By applying the
voltage-second balance to the inductors. Hence, the output voltages can be deduced
for this mode as follows.
V𝑏𝑎𝑡 d1 + V𝑖𝑛 (d1 − d2 ) − ( V𝑖𝑛 − V 𝐶1 − V 𝑜 ) (1 − d2 ) = 0 (4.1)
V 𝐶1 d1 − V 𝑜 (1 − d1 ) = 0 (4.2)
𝑑1 [𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑡 𝑑2 +𝑉𝑖𝑛 (1−𝑑1 )]

𝑉𝑂 = 1−𝑑1
(4.3)
2. Double Output Mode (DOM):
It is important to note that, in DOM, the Input source is used in two ways: to
supply power to the load Vo and as a Vbat battery charging source simultaneously.
In this case, switch S2 is always turned OFF. The battery acts as an output. The
battery can charge overabundant power generated by the Vin input source. One
switching cycle can have three possible switching states. It is shown in Fig. 4.4.
which is the steady-state waveform of the gate signals for the switches and the
inductor currents iL1 and iL2. Fig.4.6 shows the equivalent circuits for each state.
During this operation mode, three types of states will be described the as follow:
State 1 (t0< t< t1): As a result of this interval, S1 is ON, and S2 and S3 are OFF.
Due to reverse-biased voltages, the diode D2 is not operating. iL1 increases linearly
as energy is absorbed by L1. The capacitor C1 charges L2 respectively, and the iL2
increases linearly. During this mode, the capacitor C2 discharges to provide power
to the load. Fig.4.6(a) shows the current flow paths in the converter.
State 2 (t1< t< t2): During this interval, S1 is OFF, and S3 is ON. It is similar to
switching mode 1. Diode D2 is reverse-biased. Both the input source and the L1 are
used to charge the battery. L1 releases energy, resulting in a decrease in iL1.
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Through capacitor C1, L2 releases energy to the battery. Linearly, iL2 decreases.
During this mode, the capacitor C2 discharges to provide power to load R.
According to Fig.4.6(b), it can be seen the current flow paths of the state.
State 3 (t2< t< t3): S1, S2 and S3 are all OFF at this interval. The diode D2 is
switched ON to act as a freewheel diode. As a result of L1 releasing energy, C1 and
D2 can load R with energy. In the same way, L2 releases energy into load R,
respectively. There is, consequently, a linear decrease in iL1 and iL2. According to
Fig. 4.6(c)., the state's current flow paths can be seen. By applying the voltage-
second balance to the inductors, the output voltages can be deduced for this mode
in the following manner.
V𝑐1 = V𝑖𝑛 (4.4)
V 𝐶1 d1 + d3 ( V 𝑏𝑎𝑡 − V 𝑐1 ) + V 𝑜 (1 − d1 − d3 ) = 0 (4.5)
𝑉 𝑖𝑛 (𝑑1+𝑑3)−𝑉 𝑏𝑎𝑡 𝑑3
𝑉𝑂 = 1−𝑑1 −𝑑3
(4.6)
Fig 4.3 The proposed converter's steady-state waveforms DIM.
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Fig 4.4 The proposed converter's steady-state waveforms DOM.
(a) (b)
(c)
Fig 4.5 Different switching states of the DIM:(a) state 1, (b) state 2, (c) state
3.
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(a) (b)
(c)
Fig 4.6 Different switching states of the DOM:(a) state 1, (b) state 2, (c)
state 3.
4.3 Design Considerations

The following parameters will be utilised in this section to discuss the design
example:
VO = 48 V
Vin = 10~25 V
Vbat = 24 V
fs = 25 kHz
4.3.1 Inductor Design

The relationship between voltage and current between the system's ports can
be expressed as follows Based on the system's power conservation law.
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝑏 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑃𝑂 (4.7)
𝑉𝑜 2
𝑃𝑂 = 𝑅
(4.8)
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It can be shown in Table 4.1 that the DC of inductors can be calculated from
(4.7,4.8), where Io output current can be expressed as follows:

𝑉𝑜
𝐼𝑂 = 𝑅
(4.9)
Table 4.1 Dc currents of inductors L1, L2.
∆𝒊𝑳𝟏 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑑1
𝐿1𝑓𝑠
∆𝒊𝑳𝟐 𝑉𝑜 (1 − 𝑑1 )
𝐿2𝑓𝑠
Based on the peak-to-peak values for the inductor currents ∆iL1, and ∆iL2 that
occur during a switching period, the value of the inductor currents can be calculated
using volt second balance, as shown in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 Currents ripples of inductors L1, L2.
IL1 𝑉𝑜
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅1
IL2 𝐼𝑜 (1 − 𝑑1 )
𝑑1
According to the above results, it is possible to determine the peak value of the
inductor current and the average value of the inductor current in all modes.
Magnetic saturation can be avoided by designing inductors with moderate losses to
avoid excessive losses. As the device parameters vary from mode to mode, all
modes should be considered when selecting the inductor specification to ensure that
the device is selected according to the maximum values across all modes.
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Fig 4.7 Control scheme of the proposed three-port converter [124].
4.3.2 Control Strategy

The drive signals for the switches are produced by a Texas Instrument DSP
controller (TMS320F28335) that controls the power flow and produces PWM
signals for the switching process. According to the control scheme shown in Fig.
4.7, two feedback controllers are using the two control inputs of the modulator, one
controlling the Output Voltage Regulator (OVR) while the other controlling the
Input Current Regulator (ICR). As a result of this strategy, it is possible to tighten
up the regulation of the load voltage and prevent load transients from affecting the
operation of the input source. The ICR loop independently controls the operating
current of the input source to match the input source's reference current. A
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significant role that battery storage plays in this system is balancing the energy by
injecting power into the system at heavy loads and absorbing excess power when
solar energy is over the demands of the load. A simple PI voltage regulation loop is
used to regulate the output voltage by using an OVR.
4.3.3 Power Device Voltage Stress Analysis
Most power electronic device failures occur because of a failure in a
semiconductor device. As a result, semiconductor devices must be selected in a
manner that enhances their operation quality. Several characteristics must be
considered when designing and selecting diodes and switches. During the converter
design process, it is essential to consider maximum current flow. As can be seen in
Fig. 4.3 and Fig. 4.4, assume the following voltage stresses are calculated as
follows:
𝑉𝑆𝑀𝑎𝑥
1
= 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ; 𝑉𝑆𝑀𝑎𝑥
2
= 𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑏 ; 𝑉𝑆𝑀𝑎𝑥
3
= 𝑉𝑐 1 + 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑉𝑏 (4.10)
𝑉𝐷𝑀𝑎𝑥
1
= 𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝐷𝑀𝑎𝑥
2
= 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑉𝑖𝑛 ; 𝑉𝐷𝑀𝑎𝑥
3
= 𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ; (4.11)
To determine the voltage stresses on all semiconductors, it needs to use the
above equations along with (4.10), (4.11) and Tables 4.1,4.2 to protect
semiconductors from voltage and current stresses, and they must be selected
accordingly.
4.4 Experimental Results

A low-power hardware prototype is implemented to validate the proposed
converter's feasibility. The following Table 4.3 lists the parameters used to
implement the prototype. The experiments used a constant voltage source instead of
a renewable energy source. As seen in this table, the input power source of 10 V
and two series batteries of 12 V and 7.4 Ah are considered storage devices. As part
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of the control system, the microcontroller TMS320F28335 is also implementing the
control system. In this experiment, the output voltage is set at 48 V. An
experimental setup is provided in Fig. 4.8. Experimental waveforms are illustrated
in Figs 4.9-4.15. Specifically, the proposed converter can operate in two different
modes.
Resistor Load
Power
Batteries
Current Sensor Supply
Proposed Converter
microcontroller
Voltage Sensor
TMS320F28335
Fig 4.8 Hardware set up.
Dual-input mode is activated when Vin cannot fully or partially supply the
load. To regulate the output voltage, therefore, the battery must be discharged. By
using the power switch S2, the battery discharging mode can be controlled. As can
be seen in Figs. 4.9-4.11, the results of the experiments conducted in this mode of
operation are shown. The gate drive of two switches, S1 and S2, are shown in Fig.
4.9(a). As illustrated in Fig 4.9(b), the output voltage is 48V. In Fig.4.10 (a), (b),
the inductor currents iL1 and iL2 are shown, respectively. In addition, the battery
current is shown in Fig.4.11(a), and the voltage stress on the switches is also shown
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in Fig.4.11(b)(c). Only the battery voltage is stressing the power switch S 2. This
means it can reduce power losses by using a switch with a relatively low RDS (on)
power. As a result of the experimental results, the presented converter appears to
operate properly under various operational conditions.
In Figs. 4.12-4.15, the results of the experiments conducted for dual output
mode. The switch S3 and diode D3 will be activated. As shown in Fig. 4.12(a), the
gate-driving waveform of switches S1 and S3 is also shown. Based on Fig.4.12(b),
the output voltage reference is 48 V. Fig.4.13 (a), (b) illustrates the currents
flowing through the inductor L1 and L2, respectively. A typical waveform of
voltage stress is depicted in Fig.4.14 for switches S1 and S3. According to Fig.
4.15(a), the voltage stress on the diode D3 can be seen. The battery charging current
is shown to be pulsating in Fig.4.15(b).
The conversion efficiency of the presented converter is shown in Fig.4.16.
The figure shows that the converter's efficiency is high throughout the full range of
load, and the highest efficiency, 92.5%, is achieved when the load power is 10.
Several advantages have been outlined in [125] concerning using pulsating currents
for charging batteries. Because of the voltage and the current, all waveforms agree
with the previous analysis. Experimental results have shown that the converter can
be applied to various applications in various fields in both operation modes.
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S1(2V/div)
1111
S2(2V/div)
1111
t(20µs/div)
(a)
VO (10V/div)
1111
t(1ms/div)
(b)
Fig 4.9 Results of the experiment in DIM (a) gate driving signals, (b) Output
voltage Capacitor.
iL1 (10A/div)
1111
t(100µs/div)
(a)
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IL2 (2A/div)
1111
t(50µs/div)
(b)
Fig 4.10 Results of the experiment in DIM (a) inductor current of L1 (b)
inductor current of L2.
Ib (1A/div)
1111
t(100µs/div)
(a)
Vs1 (50V/div)
t(20µs/div)
(b)
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Vs2 (20V/div)
1111
t(20µs/div)
(c)
Fig 4.11 Results of the experiment in DIM (a) battery current, (b) and
(c)Power switch voltage stresses.
S1 (2V/div)
S2 (2V/div)
t(20µs/div)
(a)
VO (10V/div)
1111
t(5µs/div)
(b)
Fig 4.12 Experimental results in DOM (a) gate driving signals (b) output
voltage.
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IL1 (2A/div)
t(100µs/div)
(a)
IL2 (0.5A/div)
t(20µs/div)
(b)
Fig 4.13 Experimental results in DOM (a) inductor Current of L1 (b)
inductor current of L2.
Vs1 (50V/div)
1111
Vs3 (50V/div)
1111
t(20µs/div)
Fig 4.14 Experimental results in DOM Power switch voltage stresses.
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Vd3 (20V/div)
1111
t(10µs/div)
(a)
Ib (0.5A/div)
1111
t(50µs/div)
(b)
Fig 4.15 Experimental results in DOM (a) Diode voltage stresses (b) battery
current.
powers.
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4.5 Performance Comparison

Table 4.5 highlights the differences between the proposed DC-DC three-port
converter and similar topologies: (1) In addition to decreasing cost, the proposed
converter inductor is not required for a battery port filter, which reduces magnetic
elements. (2) Another significant advantage of the proposed topology is that the
input current used in the proposed topology is continuous, which can increase the
efficiency of the renewable energy utilised. (3) Aside from integrating multiple
devices in a single converter and being highly efficient, making it a good choice for
various power applications in renewable energy.
Table 4.3 Components Details.

Parameter Value Parameter Value
Output
48V Capacitor C2 1000µF/60V
Voltage VO
Battery Inductors
10~20V 300µH/12A
Voltage Vb L1 and L2
Switches
12~24V Fdp2532
Input voltage Vin S1, S2, S3
Diodes
Input current Iin 0~1.2A DSS16-01A
D1, D2, D3
Switching
25kHz Controller TMS320F28335
frequency
Capacitor
100µF/50V
C1 --- ---
Table 4.4 Operation Modes Selections and Switches Operation Lookup

Table.
Modes Power Condition S1 S2 S3 Active
(W) components
Double Input Mode PWM1 PWM2 - S1; S2; C1; C2;
PPV + PB = P0
(DIM) L1 and L2
Double Output Mode PWM1 - PWM3 S1; S3; C1; C2;
PPV = P0 + PB
(DOM) L1 and L2
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Table 4.5 Comparative analysis of TPCs for different applications with a suggested
converter.
Solution No. of Control The current The current

components complexity state of the state of the
L/C/S/D battery input source
SEPIC-based Proposed 2/1/3/2 simple discontinuous continuous

three-port topology on
converter Fig. 4.1(a).
[125]. 2/2/4/1 complex continuous discontinuous
[126]. 2/3/4/1 complex continuous discontinuous
[127]. 2/2/3/3 complex discontinuous continuous
[128] 2/3/3/4 complex discontinuous continuous
Boost-based Proposed 2/2/3/3 simple discontinuous continuous

three-port topology on
converter Fig. 4.1(b).
3/2/3/1 complex continuous continuous
[129].
[127]. 1/1/3/3 complex discontinuous continuous
[130] 2/1/3/0 simple continuous continuous
[131] 2/3/3/5 simple discontinuous continuous
[55] 1/2/5/5 simple discontinuous continuous
4.6 Extension into multiple input sources

The proposed converter is capable of hybridising some alternative energy
sources, makes it an ideal converter to be considered for use in hybridising
alternative energy sources. As a result of this structure, several unidirectional input
ports can be made that can be hybridised. Based on Fig.4.17, the converter
presented here has a topology in which (m+1) input is connected. Fig.4.17
illustrates a converter with two stages, which deal with the input stage, which
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connects multiple sources of power to the converter, and the Vbat stage, which
manages the charge and discharge of the converter's batteries. A total of m + 1
power switches and m + 2 diodes are part of the proposed converter for m-input.
Also, two inductors and two capacitors have been used to construct topology.
Vin(m+1) S(m+1)
D(m+1) S1 Vo
R
Vin L1 C1 D2
D1
D3
S2 C2
S3 L2
Vbat
Fig 4.17 Present converter structure of the multiple-input converter

proposed.
4.7 Summary
The objective of this chapter is to present a new non-isolated DC-DC
converter with two inputs. An in-depth discussion has been given about the
operation principle of the converter. Based on the analysis of the presented
converter, an optimal port voltage level can be chosen through either buck or boost
operating modes. In addition to reducing input current ripples, the SEPIC-based
structure provides the TPC with the inherent protection of being able to protect
itself against output short circuits due to the series capacitor. The converter
presented has a further advantage that it has a simple and cost-effective design
because there are no coupled inductors or transformers in the structure. The
experimental results verified with the proposed structure demonstrate voltage
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stresses on switches and diodes. Based on the experimental results, it has been
demonstrated that the analysis and converter performance are both viable. Further,
the proposed topology can also be applied to the design of multiple input specially
designed for different hybrid energy systems as a part of the proposed
methodology.
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Chapter 5 A High gain DC-DC Converter for LED driving and PV applications
C
Chapter 5 High gain DC-DC Converter for LED driving and PV

applications
5.1 Introduction
In order to meet the ever-increasing energy demand, renewable resources, and
energy storage systems have steadily gained acceptance as reliable and low-cost
means of generating power [132]. This has led to the integration of non-conventional
sources into existing distribution systems. In addition to the growing use of
renewable resources, semiconductor devices have advanced, and the energy market
has become more competitive, influencing power converter research. In order to
increase the power to voltage ratio of many existing low-power renewable resources,
a voltage-boosting stage is required [133],[134]. In the literature, several single
switch boost converter topologies are proposed, but their major goals are using
fewer magnetic elements, smaller sizes, lighter weight, reducing conduction losses,
and reducing inductor costs. The voltage stresses on these switches are nearly equal
to their output voltage. Rather than modifying an existing converter, it is preferable
to integrate the classic DC-DC converter. However, by cascading those classical
converters with additional boosting capabilities, the converter circuit's size and cost
can be reduced by reducing the power switches and passive elements [135]. This
chapter presents a DC-DC converter topology proposed to achieve ten times voltage
gain and low voltage stress on semiconductors. To achieve this goal, a new
combined Luo-Cuk converter topology on the organic combination of Luo topology
and Cuk topology combines the Luo and the Cuk topologies. As well as more than
two outputs of different types, the converter can also manage a series output. The
operating principles and the design example are described in detail. Experimental
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results are included to validate the effectiveness of the proposed topology in a high-
step-up application.
5.2 Proposed Converter and Operational Principle

5.2.1 Circuit Configuration and Description
By combining their input stages, Fig.5.1 illustrates a new hybrid Luo-Cuk
converter. As indicated by the dotted line box 1, this is the Luo converter, and as
indicated by the solid line box 2, this is the Cuk converter. Compared to the classical
Luo or Cuk converters, this new converter is distinguished using just one switch Q
and the extension of the static gain voltage compared to the classical converters.
Fig 5.1 Proposed converter.
5.2.2 Converter Principle of Operation

In a combined Luo-Cuk converter, not only can the two types of outputs be
produced, but they can also be produced as a series output. Below is an example of
an analysis of the series output of the two outputs, which illustrates the concepts of
the working principle. Based on the assumption that current is continuous in the
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inductor and all components are ideal, the combined Luo-Cuk converter has two
modes of operation in one switching cycle.
In operating mode [I]: which can be found in Fig.5.2(a), When the switch Q and
D1 are turned ON, the inductors L1 and L2 are in the charging mode. Meanwhile,
the capacitor C4 is in the mode of discharging. D2 and D3 are respectively blocked
by the negative voltages from VC1 and VC4, and the voltages across the inductors L1
and L2 are:
𝑑𝑖𝐿1
𝑉𝐿1 = 𝐿1 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑉𝑖𝑛 (5.1)
𝑑𝑖𝐿2
= 𝑉𝐶4 − 𝑉𝐶2 (5.2)
(a) Operation mode I
(b) Operation mode II
Fig 5.2 Equivalent circuits of the switching modes (a) Operation mode I, (b)
operation mode II.
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Ts
VGQ Ton
iL1max t
iL1
iL1=iin
iL1min
t
iL2 iL2max
iL2=io
iL2min t
VL1 Vin
t
Vc1 -Vin
VL2 Vc4 -Vc2

t
Vc2
𝑽𝑫𝑺 iDs=iL1+iL2
𝒊𝑫𝑺
Vc1
t
VD2, VD2=
VD3
VC1=Vc4=VD3
𝒊𝑫𝟐 t
𝒊𝑫𝟑
t
I II
Fig 5.3 Key waveforms based on complementary control.
When t = T on = DT𝑠 , i𝐿1 reaches the maximum value i𝐿1max . During the
conduction period of the switch 𝑄, the increment i𝐿1 of the current ∆ i𝐿1 ↑ Is:
𝑉𝑖𝑛
∆ i𝐿1 ↑= 𝐿1
DT𝑠 (5.3)
At the same time, i𝐿2 also reaches the maximum value i𝐿2 max, the increment of
∆ i𝐿2 ↑ Is:
𝑉𝐶4 −𝑉𝐶2
∆ i𝐿2 ↑= 𝐿2
DT𝑠 (5.4)
At this time, the LEDs are powered by capacitors 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 , and the current
flowing through the switch 𝑄 is:
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𝑖𝐷𝑠 = i𝐿1 + i𝐿2 (5.5)
In operating mode [II] is shown in Fig.5.2(b). When switch Q and D1 are turned
OFF, diodes D2 and D3 are turned ON, and the power supply and the inductor L1
release energy simultaneously. However, diode D2 supplies power to the capacitor
C1. Meanwhile, the capacitor C4 charges by L1 and the capacitor C2 by the inductor
L2 through the diode D3. The inductor currents iL1 and iL2 both decrease linearly,
and the voltages across the inductors L1 and L2 are:
𝑑𝑖𝐿1
= 𝑉𝐶1 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝐶4 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 (5.6)
𝑑𝑖𝐿2
= 𝑉𝐶2 (5.7)
At this point, the current flowing through diode D3 is:
𝑖𝐷3 = i𝑐4 + i𝐿2 (5.8)
During the OFF period of the switch Q, the reduction ∆ i𝐿1 ↓ of the current i𝐿1 in
the inductor 𝐿1 is:
V𝑐4 −𝑉𝑖𝑛
∆ i𝐿1 ↓= (1 − D)T𝑠 (5.9)
𝐿1
Due to the release of energy from the inductor 𝐿2 , the current flowing through
𝐿2 decreases, and its decrease ∆ i𝐿2 ↓ During this period is:
V𝑐2
∆ i𝐿2 ↓= (1 − D)T𝑠 (5.10)
𝐿2
When D > 0.5, the Luo link and the Cuk link can be boosted simultaneously,
and when D < 0.5, it can be to achieve the boost of the Luo link while the Cuk link
is stepped down.
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5.3 Steady State Performance Analysis

5.3.1 Steady-state voltage gain
According to the volt-second balance principle of the inductor 𝐿1 , the following
equation is obtained:
𝑉𝑖𝑛 DT𝑠 = ( V𝑐1 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 )(1 − D)T𝑠 (5.11)
𝑉𝑖𝑛 DT𝑠 = ( V𝑐4 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 )(1 − D)T𝑠 (5.12)
From equations (5.11) and (5.12), the voltage across capacitors C1 and C4 can be
obtained:
𝑖𝑛 𝑉
V𝑐1 = V𝑐4 = 1−𝐷 (5.13)
According to the volt-second balance principle of the inductor 𝐿2 , the following
equation is obtained:
( V𝑐4 − V𝑐2 )DT𝑠 = V𝑐2 (1 − D)T𝑠 (5.14)
The voltage across the capacitor C2 can be obtained from equation (5.14) :
𝐷
V𝑐2 = 𝐷 V𝑐3 1−𝐷 𝑉𝑖𝑛 (5.15)
V𝑜 = V𝑐1 + V𝑐2 (5.16)
(5.16) and (5.13)，(5.15) and (5.16)， The steady-state voltage gain of the
converter can be derived:
V𝑜 𝐼𝑜 1+𝐷
M= V𝑖𝑛
= 𝐼𝑖𝑛
= 1−𝐷 (5.17)
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Fig.5.4 shows the relationship between the voltage gain and the duty cycle of
the combined Luo-Cuk, Luo, and Cuk converters. It can be seen from the figure
that the voltage gain of the combined Luo-Cuk converter is higher than the voltage
of the Luo and Cuk converters. Compared with the gain, it not only realises the
high gain of the output voltage but also is suitable for the lighting system (such as
the LED photovoltaic lighting system), which combines the low voltage input
source and the LED.
Fig 5.4 Voltage gain versus duty cycle.
5.4 Design Consideration

5.4.1 Inductor design
The calculation of the value of the inductors and the circuit under analysis is
carried out to guarantee a certain variation in the average value (Fig.5.3). Generally
speaking, the differential equation (5.18) represents the evolution of the current in a
coil.
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iL
Fig 5.5 Current evolution in the Inductor L1.
𝑑𝑖𝐿1
(5.18)
Thus, equation (5.18) now looks like equation (5.19).

∆𝑖𝐿 𝑉𝐿
∆𝑡𝐿
= 𝐿
(5.19)
Thus, using the instantaneous value of the voltage at the coil terminals, 𝑉𝐿 , verified
during a certain period ∆𝑡𝐿 , it is possible to calculate the value of the coils.
In the case of the coil 𝐿1 , 𝑉𝐿1 The voltage is given by:
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑇 < 𝑡 < 𝑛𝑇 + 𝛿𝑇

𝑉𝐿1 = {
𝑈 − 𝑉𝑐1 , 𝑛𝑇 + 𝛿𝑇 < 𝑡 < (𝑛 + 1)𝑇
(5.20)
Using the first-time interval, we have ∆𝑡𝐿 = 𝛿𝑇, so:
𝑈𝛿𝑇
𝐿1 = ∆𝑖 (5.21)
𝐿1
For the coil case 𝐿2 , the voltage 𝑉𝐿2 Is given by:
𝑉𝑐1 − 𝑉𝑐2 𝑛𝑇 < 𝑡 < 𝑛𝑇 + 𝛿𝑇

𝑉𝐿2 = {
−𝑉𝑐2 , 𝑛𝑇 + 𝛿𝑇 < 𝑡 < (𝑛 + 1)𝑇
(5.22)
Using, in this case, the second time interval, we have ∆𝑡𝐿 = (1 − 𝛿)𝑇 , so:
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𝑉𝑐2 (1−𝛿)𝑇
𝐿2 =
∆𝑖𝐿2
(5.23)
5.4.2 Sizing of capacitors
Fig 5.6 Voltage evolution in a capacitor C1.
The calculation of the value of the capacitors C1, C2, and C4 and the circuit
under analysis is carried out to guarantee a certain variation ∆𝑣𝑐 to the average
value VC Fig.5.6. The differential equation (5.24) represents the evolution of the
voltage 𝑣𝑐(t) in a capacitor.
𝑑𝑉𝐶
𝑖𝑐 (𝑡) = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡
(5.24)
Applying the same reasoning in calculating the coils, equation (5.24), after
being linearised, presents the aspect of equation (5.25).
∆𝑣𝑐 𝑖𝑐
∆𝑡𝑐
= 𝐶
(5.25)
Thus, using the instantaneous value of the current in the capacitor, 𝑖𝑐 , verified
during a certain period ∆𝑡𝑐 , it is possible to calculate the value of the capacitors. In
the case of capacitor C1, the current 𝑖𝑐1 is given by:
−𝐼𝑜 , 𝑛𝑇 < 𝑡 < 𝑛𝑇 + 𝛿𝑇

𝑖𝑐1 = { 𝛿 (5.26)
𝐼𝑜 1−𝛿 , 𝑛𝑇 + 𝛿𝑇 < 𝑡 < (𝑛 + 1)𝑇
Using the first-time interval, we have ∆𝑡𝑐 = 𝛿𝑇 , so:
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𝐼𝑜 𝛿𝑇
𝐶1 =
∆𝑣𝑐1
(5.27)
In the case of capacitor C3, the current ic3 is given by:
−𝐼𝑜 , 𝑛𝑇 < 𝑡 < 𝑛𝑇 + 𝛿𝑇

𝑖𝑐4 = { 𝛿 (5.28)
𝐼𝑜 1−𝛿 , 𝑛𝑇 + 𝛿𝑇 < 𝑡 < (𝑛 + 1)𝑇
Using the first-time interval, we have ∆𝑡𝑐 = 𝛿𝑇 , so:
𝑜 𝐼 𝛿𝑇
𝐶4 = ∆𝑣𝑐 (5.29)
3
In the case of capacitor C2, its current does not present almost constant
instantaneous values during the switching states, contrary to what happens in
capacitors C1 and C4, so the above approximation is invalid.
Fig 5.7 Current evolution in the Inductor L2.
From the analysis of Fig.5.7, when the driven semiconductor is conducting,
the change in charge ∆𝑄 supplied to the capacitor corresponds to the area of the
triangle with height ∆𝑖𝐿2 /2 and base 𝑇/2 Thus:
𝑄
𝑄 = 𝐶 𝑉𝐶 → 𝐶 = 𝑉 (5.30)
𝐶
With C2 constant:
𝑄
𝐶2 = ∆𝑉 (5.31)
𝑐2
The change in load is then given by:
𝑄 = ∫ 𝑖. 𝑑𝑡
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𝑇 ∆𝑖𝐿2
2 2 𝑇∆𝑖𝐿2
∆𝑄 = 2
= 8
(5.32)
Therefore, the value of capacitor C2 is obtained in this way:
𝑇∆𝑖𝐿
𝐶2 = 8∆𝑉 2 (5.33)
𝑐2
5.4.3 Choice of Semiconductors

One of the design options that must be taken when sizing converters is the
choice of the type of controlled semiconductor to use, depending on the specific
application in which it is inserted. Thus, it is common to consider several factors,
such as the cost of the device, the voltage and current limit values supported, the
complexity of its control circuit, and the frequency at which it will operate, among
others. The semiconductor must be selected to withstand the maximum voltages
and currents, plus a safety margin of approximately 50%, if possible. Thus, given
the study under analysis, I opted for using an n-type reinforcement MOSFET
semiconductor. It is a device whose characteristics match the values that will be
effectively used in this project. The MOSFET will be oversized, thus ensuring
increased safety and reliability. Furthermore, it requires a relatively simple control
circuit compared to other devices. As for the remaining semiconductors included in
the study, they must be selected considering a safety margin close to that mentioned
above.
5.5 Simulation results

Using MATLAB/Simulink and Power System Toolbox, the proposed power
converter was tested in steady state. The theoretical analysis is verified by
simulating a new combined Luo-Cuk converter according to the parameters
presented in Table 5.1 to demonstrate the validity of the theoretical analysis.
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Table 5.1 The circuit specifications.
Parameter Value
Vin 7~10 V
Vo 48 V
L1 300 μH
L2 300 μH
C1, C2, C3 C1 = 470 μF, C2 = 470 μF, C3 = 100 μF, C4 = 100 μF
fs 25 kHz
Vout
IL1
Fig 5.8 Results of simulation of the input current iL1 and output voltage.
Qgate
VQ
IL1
Fig 5.9 The input current of inductor iL1 and voltage across the power
switch Q.
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VD1
IL1
Fig 5.10 Result of simulation of the input current iL1 and voltage across
diode D1.
VD3
VD2
IL2
Fig 5.11 Results of the simulation of the output current inductor (iL2) and
voltage across two diodes the D2 and D3.
Table 5.2 Analysis of output voltage waveform of the proposed converter.

Preshoot Overshoot Undershoot Rise Time Settling Time
Vo1 30.921% 0.224% 2.081% 41.577ms 72.264 ms
Vo2 29.221% 0.322% 2.056% 41.277ms 72.078 ms
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According to Fig.5.8, the simulation waveforms of the new combined Luo-Cuk
converter show the output voltage at 48V followed by the current of inductor L1. As
is obvious from Fig.5.9, it displays the waveforms of the driving voltage on switch
Q and the currents flowing through the inductor L1. The figure shows a relatively
low ripple in the current (the input current ripple) flowing through the inductor L1.
A picture of a switching Mosfet Q and its corresponding voltage stress waveforms.
According to Figs 5.10-5.11, The voltage stress waveforms of the diodes D1, D2,
and D3 and the current of inductor L2. The voltage stress on the diodes D2 and D3
are consistent with the voltage stress of the switch. It appears that the simulation
results agree with the analysis above, which lends credence to the findings of the
theoretical analysis. Table 5.2 shows the analysis of output voltage waveform Vo.
These results demonstrate the validity of the control performance.
Fig 5.12 View of the experimental prototype of the hybrid DC-DC converter.
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Vc4(5V/div)
t(100us/div)
(a)
VOUT (10V/div)
t(100us/div)
(b)
Fig 5.13 (a) Capacitor voltage VC4 and (b) output voltage.
Qgate (2V/div)
IL1(0.5A/div)
t(50µs/div)
Fig 5.14 Currents were flowing through the inductors IL1 and gate drive
signal.
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Vd2(20V/div)
Vd3(20V/div)
t(20µs/div)
Fig 5.15 Voltage across the diode D2 and D3.
VQ(10V/div)
t(20µs/div)
Fig 5.16 Voltage across the switch.
5.6 Experimental results

A low-power hardware prototype is implemented to evaluate the feasibility of
the converter proposed. In the laboratory prototype, all the circuit parameters are
the same as those used in the simulation, as described in Table 5.1. The
experiments were conducted with an electrical source of constant voltage instead of
a renewable energy source. Based on the table above, it is intended to have an input
power source of 7V. In addition, the microcontroller TMS320F28335 has been
included in the design to implement the control system. To demonstrate the test
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setup, the output voltage is set to 48 V. The experimental prototype is depicted in
Fig.5.12. In this chapter, the results were all obtained with a duty cycle of less than
0.7, and the duty cycle was set at 0.7 to limit the semiconductor losses, giving a
gain of 6.8, which was in line with the simulation results.
Based on Fig.5.13(a), the waveform shows that the output voltage is 48 V. On
Fig.5.13(b) also shows the voltage across the capacitor C4. Fig.5.14 shows the
experimental waveforms of the currents flowing through the inductors iL1 and gate
drive signal of switch Q. The inductor in this figure operates in the continuous
conduction mode. As shown in Fig.5.15 and 5.16, experimental waveforms show
the voltage across the switch and the diodes. Here is Fig.5.16, which shows the
experimental waveforms of the voltages across the diodes D2 and D3. It also shows
their complementary states of operation. Considering these last two figures, the
voltage stress across the switch and diodes is half the maximum output voltage. The
efficiency of the converter that is being presented is illustrated in Fig.5.17. The
figure indicates that the converter's efficiency is not less than 93.9% even under the
most unfavourable conditions when it is operating at 6 W.
powers.
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5.7 Performance Comparison

A comparison of the proposed converter's performance with other similar
converters is presented in Table 5.3. Based on these results, the proposed
converter provides a better voltage gain with only one active switch and less
normalized voltage stress on the switch. According to the analysis and discussion
presented, the proposed converter has the advantage of both functionality and
efficiency.
Table 5.3 Performance comparison of similar converter topology
Similar Converter Converter Converter Converter Converter

Proposed
Converter
Converter
Topology [136] [137] [138] [139] [140]
Switches used 1 2 1 1 1 1
Diodes used 5 2 2 3 1 2
No. of Inductors
3 2 2 3 2 2
used
No. of capacitors
3 2 3 3 3 3
used
Continuous input
Yes No Yes Yes No Yes
current
Voltage gain, VO (𝑑)2 2(1 + 𝑑) 1 𝑑 2𝑑 (1 + 𝑑)

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
(1 − 𝑑)2 𝑖𝑛 (1 − 𝑑) 𝑖𝑛 (1 − 𝑑) 𝑖𝑛 (1 − 𝑑)2 𝑖𝑛 (1 − 𝑑) 𝑖𝑛 (1 − 𝑑) 𝑖𝑛
Efficiency 91% 90% 91% 90% 92% 92.2%
The voltage
stress on the Moderate Less High Less High Moderate
active switch
5.8 Extension into Bipolar Output Four-Port Converter

This section proposes synthesising a new Four-Port bipolar Converter that
combines the outputs of a unipolar converter Luo and a unipolar converter Cuk as
shown in Fig.5.18. An additional bidirectional power flow port, consisting of
switches S2, S3, and diode D3, is added to the previously proposed topology in this
chapter to interface with the energy storage unit. The proposed converter integrates
solar panels and batteries into the bipolar dc microgrid. The proposed converter
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consists of only three switches to generate PV power, charge, and discharge
batteries, and deliver symmetrical bipolar voltage as the output voltage. In addition,
the converter can convert power between sources and loads in a single stage,
improving its efficiency. It is possible to guarantee higher reliability by sharing a
reference ground between the PV input port, the battery port, the positive output
port, and the negative output port. According to the relationships between PV
generation power and load power, the Four-Port Converter provides an
uninterrupted power supply to the DC load in three modes. The voltages of positive
and negative polarities in the converter are symmetrical regardless of the mode in
which it operates.
Fig 5.18 Non-isolated Symmetric Bipolar Output Four-Port converter.
5.9 Summary
This chapter proposes a combined Luo-Cuk converter topology appropriate for
LED lighting and PV applications. The working principles and steady-state
characteristics of the converter were discussed in detail. Two characteristics are
present in the converter. One of the key features of the equipment is to allow the
high voltage gain to be achieved for the converter through the Luo link and the Cuk
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link using the same input branch so that you can realise two types of outputs at the
same time through a single switch. It should also be noted that aside from the
extended voltage static gain, the stress on the diode and switch is also reduced. The
laboratory prototype results, and a theoretical and simulation analysis have also been
included. Besides integrating the DC-DC converter, the proposed topology synthesis
method also applies to the design of a non-isolated symmetric bipolar output Four-
Port Converter that interfaces the PV-battery system.
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Chapter 6 A New Bidirectional High Step-Up Multi-Input Multi-Output DC-DC Converter for Renewable Energy Applications
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Chapter 6 A New Bidirectional High Step-Up Multi-Input Multi-

Output DC-DC Converter for Renewable Energy Applications
6.1 Introduction
Integrating these sources into electric power grids has become significantly
more prevalent with the development of renewable energy sources. Nevertheless,
these sources often fail to meet the requirements of some applications due to the
low output voltage they produce. As a result, an interface voltage converter should
be used to increase the device's output voltage and control the output voltage [141]–
[144]. Further, renewable energy sources have a wide range of output voltages that
vary depending on the environmental conditions. This can be accomplished simply
by using N Single Input Single Output Converters for N voltage levels so that these
requirements can be met, as pictured in Fig.6.1(a), but the problem with this
approach is that it is very expensive and inefficient due to the large number of
components it requires [145],[146]. There is an increasing tendency to combine the
different types of sources, thereby reducing the component count and the overall
cost of the system. This requires Multi-Input (MI) DC-DC converters, which can
combine various sources.
Further, it has been suggested that the use of Multi-Output (MO) DC-DC
converters can also be used to provide the needed power to loads with different
voltage levels [147],[148]. As a result, high step-up DC-DC converters with
multiple inputs and outputs are becoming increasingly popular in applications,
including hybrid electric vehicles, DC microgrid systems, renewable energy, and
personal computers, which require energy flow and voltage regulation. Since it is
possible to integrate multiple SISO converters into one unit, the MIMO converter,
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shown in Fig. 6.1(b), becomes the dominant option since it can reduce the number
of components and overall cost due to its ability to combine multiple SISO
converters into one unit.
In terms of the Multi-Port Converter MPC structure, it can be divided into two
categories: isolating converters and non-isolating converters. In isolation MPCs,
voltage levels are flexible, power levels are high, and switch modes are soft [41],
[149],[150]. Compared to isolated converters, non-isolated converters, such as
buck, boost, buck-boost converters, etc., have the advantage of being compact,
more efficient, and with higher power density than isolated converters [151],[152].
The non-isolated converter seems more appropriate for low-voltage DC microgrid
applications (particularly those with a 48V DC bus voltage) than the isolated
converter.
This chapter presents a new non-isolated Four-Port DC-DC Converter suitable
for various applications requiring harvesting renewable energy sources. The
converter is characterised by bidirectional power flow, low input current ripple, and
a reduced number of components. This new non-isolated Four-Port Converter is
designed and derived based on the topology circuit proposed in Chapter 4 of this
thesis. A diode D4 and an active switch S4 have been added to have one more
output power port to the circuit. Voltage lift techniques have been used in the
circuit. There is an increasing geometric progression in the output voltage of a
converter that leads to high-gain outputs that produce low ripples and high-
efficiency outputs. The voltage lift cell has been inserted into the topology of the
four ports, which is mentioned in the literature review in section 2.2.3. A four-port
topology based on a single voltage lift cell has fewer components and a simpler
structure. Among the salient features of the proposed converter are the followings:
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1) Four simple switches are used to implement input generation, battery charging
and discharging, and two output voltages. As a result of the single-stage power
conversion between the source and the load, the converter's efficiency is also
greatly improved.
2) As a result of the relationship between input source power and load power, the
converter can operate in two modes: Single-Input Three-Output (SITO) and
Double-Input Double-Output (DIDO). This allows the converter to always provide
an uninterrupted power supply to the load.
(a)
(b)
Fig 6.1 The schematic of converters with multiple outputs: (a) conventional
(b) MIMO converter.
6.2 Proposed converter and operation modes.

An illustration of the power circuit of the proposed Four-Port DC-DC
Converter is given in Fig.6.2. Following this figure, the source Vin is considered to
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be the energy source, and the source Vbat is considered as the energy storage
(battery). According to the schematic, the proposed converter is composed of four
switches (S1 - S4), three diodes (D1, D2, D3, and D4), two inductors (L1 - L2), and
four capacitors (C1, C2, Co1, and Co2). The resistors R1 and R2 in this figure
represent the equivalent power that can be fed to a multilevel inverter. As a result of
the bidirectional power flow, the battery can be charged and discharged. When the
battery is discharged, no gate pulse is given to the switches S2 during the battery
discharge process. It is, therefore, possible to control the discharging current of the
battery and the output voltage by controlling switches S1 and S2. During charging,
switch S2 receives no gate pulse. The switches S1, S2, S3, and S4 will be controlled
to deliver energy from the input source to the battery. An attempt should be made to
minimise the ripple in the current drawn from the input sources. The converter
operates in two main modes.
Fig 6.2 Structure of the presented Four-Port converter.
6.2.1 First operation mode (DIDO)

When this operation mode is enabled, two input power sources, Vin and Vbat
(the battery), will supply the power to the loads. S3 is completely OFF during this
mode, and S1, S2, and S4 are activated. Every switch is assigned a particular duty.
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(a)
(b) (c)
(d)
Fig 6.3 Current flow paths of the converter (a) Steady-state waveforms of
the presented converter in the DIDO mode. Current flow paths of the
presented converter in the DIDO mode, (b) Switching mode 1, (c) Switching
mode 2, (d) Switching.
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Controlling the inductor current, S1 regulates the battery current to the desired
value. As shown in Fig.6.3 (a), the gate signals of switches and the inductor's
voltage and current waveforms. Depending on the state of the switches, there are
three different modes of operation in one switching period as follows:
Switching State 1 (t0< t< t1): Switches S1 and S2 will be turned ON during this
state. Since S1 is turned ON, D2 is forward-biased, and diodes D4 and D5 are
reverse-biased. So, Switch S4 has turned OFF. Because switch S2 is ON, and
Vin<Vbat Diode D1 is reverse-biased. As shown in Fig. 6.3(b), the equivalent circuit
of the proposed converter at this state. Due to the charge created by Vbat on the
inductor L1, the inductor current increases at this state. Additionally, in this mode,
the capacitors Co1 and Co2 are discharged, and the energy they hold is delivered to
the load resistances R1 and R2, respectively.
Switching State 2 (t1< t< t2): At this point, switch S2 is still turned ON, and switch
S1 has turned OFF. Diodes D1 and D2 is reverse-biased. In addition, switch S4 has
been turned ON. As shown in Fig.6.3(c), the equivalent circuit for the proposed
converter in this state can be seen. At this point, inductor L1 is discharged,
transferring its stored energy to capacitors Co1, Co2, and load resistances R1 and R2.
This mode also results in the charging of capacitors Co1 and Co2.
Switching State 3 (t2< t< t3): This mode is characterised by the OFF state of all
three switches. Therefore, the diodes D1 and D4 are forward-biased. The inductor L1
is discharged at this point, and the stored energy is delivered to the capacitor Co1,
Co2, and the load resistances R1 and R2. A charge is also applied to capacitors C1
and C2 in this mode. A schematic representation of the proposed converter in this
state can be found in Fig.6.3(d).
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6.2.2 Second operation mode (SITO)

This mode allows Vin to power both the Vbat battery and the loads.
(a)
(b) (c)
(d)
Fig 6.4 Current flow paths of the converter (a) Steady-state waveforms of
the presented converter in the SITO mode. Current flow paths of the
presented converter in the SITO mode, (b) Switching mode 1, (c) Switching
mode 2, (d) Switching mode 3.
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It occurs when the battery is depleted, and the load power is low. During this
operation mode, switches S1, S3, and S4 are all active, with switch S2 completely
OFF. Similarly, to the previous mode of operation of the converter in this mode,
there is a particular duty that must be considered for each switch.
The total output voltage is regulated by switching S1 to reach the desired value. A
switch S3 is responsible for regulating the battery charging current Ibat to maintain
the desired level. A representative example of a gate signal of a switch can be seen
in Fig.6.4(a), along with the voltage and current waveforms of an inductor.
Switching State 1 (t0< t< t1): During this state, switches S1 and D2 are turned ON,
so switches S3 and S4 are turned OFF. In addition, the diode D4 doesn't conduct due
to reverse bias. Here is a schematic representation of the equivalent circuit of the
proposed converter shown in this state in Fig.6.4(b). As a result of Vin charging
inductor L1, there is an increase in current flowing through the inductor. This mode
also involves the discharge of the capacitors Co1 and Co2 so that their stored energy
can be delivered back to load resistances R1 and R2, respectively, in this mode.
Switching State 2 (t1< t< t2): This mode of operation is accomplished by turning
OFF switch S1 and switch S3 turned ON. The diode D2 and D4 are reversely biased.
Therefore, diode S4 is still completely inactive. A schematic representation of the
equivalent circuit of the proposed converter in this state is shown in Fig.6.4(c). As
Vin = Vbat, the inductor current decreases during this period, and the inductor
releases its stored energy to the battery (Vbat). During this mode, the capacitors Co1
and Co2 will also be discharged to deliver their stored energy to the load resistances
R1 and R2 simultaneously.
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Switching State 3 (t2< t< t3): This mode maintains an OFF condition for switch S1,
turns OFF switch S3, and turns ON switch S4 and diode D4. As well as this, diode
D2 is still reverse-biased. The equivalent circuit of the proposed converter is shown
in Fig.6.4(d). As a result of this action, the inductor L at this point will be
discharged, and the energy stored in the inductor will be transferred to the
capacitors Co1 and Co2 and the load resistances R1 and R2, respectively. This mode
of operation also applies a charge to both capacitors C1 and C2.
6.3 Control Structure method of proposed MIMO converter

6.3.1 Pole-placement control method
A converter's control system consists of two control loops, one for controlling
the converter's output voltage and one for controlling the converter's input current.
Decoupling the SISO transfer functions of the system is required for designing
classical control compensators, like PI and PID. In the case of systems with more
than three orders, the decoupling method becomes more complex. Therefore,
MIMO systems control methods should be used to design converter closed-loop
controllers. Among the control methods used in MIMO converters is the integral
state feedback-based control method called pole placement, which is useful for
designing a control system. Using this method, a closed-loop system can be
designed with any pole location as desired, as long as the system is fully state-
controlled and able to control its state at all times. An appropriate state feedback
gain matrix is used to achieve this. The following is the definition of the
controllability matrix:
𝚿𝑪 = [𝑩 ⋮ 𝑨𝑩 ⋮ 𝑨𝟐 𝑩 ⋮ 𝑨𝟑 𝑩] (6.1)
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If ΨC is a complete-rank matrix (rank (ΨC) = 4), it is at this point that the system
becomes fully state-controlled. As a result, two additional integral states will now
be considered:
𝑞1̇ (𝑡) = 𝑟1 (𝑡) − 𝑦1 = 𝑟1 (𝑡) − 𝑖̃𝐿1 (𝑡) (6.2)
𝑞2̇ (𝑡) = 𝑟2 (𝑡) − 𝑦2 = 𝑟2 (𝑡) − 𝑣̃𝑜1 (𝑡) (6.3)
Based on the new integral states, it is necessary to rewrite the state equations and
output equations as follows:
𝑥̃̇(𝑡) 𝐴 ⋮ 0 𝑥̃(𝑡) 𝐵 0
[ ⋯ ]=[ ⋯ ⋮ ⋯ ] [ ⋯ ] + [⋯] 𝑢̃(𝑡) + [⋯] 𝑟(𝑡) (6.4)
𝑞̇ (𝑡) −𝐶 ⋮ 0 𝑞(𝑡) 0 𝐼
𝑥̃(𝑡)
𝑦(𝑡) = [𝐶 ⋮ 0] [ ⋯ ]
𝑞(𝑡)
In (6.4), Defining the input reference vector r(t), which can be shown in the
following way:
𝑟(𝑡) = [𝐼𝐿1.𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑉𝑜1.𝑟𝑒𝑓 ]𝑇 (6.5)
Following the definition in (6.4), the new matrixes are the following:
𝐴 ⋮ 0 𝐵
̅
𝐴=[ ⋯ ⋮ ̅
⋯ ] , 𝐵 = [⋯] (6.6)
−𝐶 ⋮ 0 0
̅ C) in the
It is possible to arrange the controllability matrix for the system in (6.4) (𝛹
following way:
𝐵 ⋮ 𝐴Ψ𝐶 𝐵 ⋮ 𝐴 𝐼 ⋮ 0
̅
𝚿𝑪 = [ ⋯ ⋮ ⋯ ]=[ ⋯ ⋮ ⋯ ][ ⋯ ⋮ ⋯] (6.7)
0 ⋮ −𝐶Ψ𝐶 0 ⋮ −𝐶 0 ⋮ Ψ𝐶
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If ΨC is considered complete-rank, the system defined in (6.4) is completely state-
controllable if and only if the rank of the matrix M is 6. Therefore, there is matrix
K, which satisfies the following equation:
It can be stated that if matrix M has rank six, it becomes completely state-
controllable if the rank of matrix C is considered a complete rank, which is where
the system defined in (6.4) is. Matrix K, then, can be described as follows:
𝑥̃(𝑡) 𝑥̃(𝑡)
𝑢̃(𝑡) = −𝐾 [ ⋯ ] = −[𝐾𝑋 ⋮ 𝐾𝑞 ] [ ⋯ ] (6.8)
𝑞(𝑡) 𝑞(𝑡)
The following equation can be written by substituting (6.8 into 6.4):
𝑥̃̇(𝑡) 𝐴 − 𝐵𝐾𝑋 ⋮ −𝐵𝐾𝑞 𝑥̃(𝑡) 0

[ ⋯ ]=[ ⋯ ⋮ ⋯ ] [ ⋯ ] + [ ⋯] 𝑟(𝑡) (6.9)
𝑞̇ (𝑡) −𝐶 ⋮ 0 𝑞(𝑡) 𝐼
𝐾11 𝐾12 𝐾13 𝐾14

𝐾𝑋 = [
𝐾21 𝐾22 𝐾23 𝐾24
] (6.10)
̀ 𝐾12
𝐾11 ̀
𝐾𝑞 = [ ]
̀ 𝐾22
𝐾21 ̀
Table 6.1 The circuit specifications.

Parameter Value Parameter Value
Output
48V Capacitor C2 1µF/50V
Voltage VO
Battery Capacitor Co1,
10~20V 1000µF/60V
Voltage Vb Co2
Inductors
12~24V 300µH/12A
Input voltage Vin L1 and L2
Switches
Input current Iin 0~1.2A Fdp2532
S1, S2,S3
Switching Diodes
25kHz DSS16-01A
frequency D1, D2, D3
Capacitor
100µF/50V Controller TMS320F28335
C1
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IL1.ref
Vco1.ref
IL1.ref
Vco1.ref
(a)
Vco1.ref q˙2 q˙2 Vco1.ref q˙2 q˙2
K`22 K`21
Vco1 Vco1
q1 K`21 q1 K`22
IL1 K21 IL1 K21
IL2 K22 D2 IL2 K22 D3
VC1 K23 VC1 K23
VCO1 K24 VCO1 K24
(b)
IL1.ref q˙1 q˙1 IL1.ref q˙1 q˙1
K`11 K`12
IL1 IL1
q2 K`12 q2 K`11
IL1 K11 IL1 K11

D1 D1
IL2 K12 IL2 K12
VC1 K13 VC1 K13
VCO1 K14 VCO1 K14
(c)
Fig 6.5 (a) Block diagram of the pole-placement control of the proposed
converter, (b) voltage regulator loop of output, (c) current regulator loop of
the input source.
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Using the state feedback gain matrix K, it is necessary now to find the
controlling signal (t) for the closed-loop system so that the closed-loop system
eigenvalues are situated in the right place. The control systems toolbox provided by
the MATLAB software contains a useful function for pole-positioning that takes
input from the system (6.4) and the locations of the desired eigenvalues to find the
state feedback gain matrices of the system. According to the block diagram of Fig.
6.5(a), the Pole-placement control method is shown in which the input the reference
tracks current (iL1) and the output voltage (Vo1) values iL1, ref, and Vo1, ref,
respectively, to balance the signals. A representation of two integral state feedback
loops is shown in Fig.6.5 (b), (c) for the converter proposed.
6.4 Simulation Results

The converter can either have a Dual-Input-Dual-Output (DIDO) or Single-
Input-Triple-Output Mode (SITO), which allows it to deliver uninterrupted power
to a DC load in both modes. MATLAB / Simulink is used to simulate the process to
carry out the steady state and transient analysis. Thus, controllers maintain a
constant and regulated output voltage by adjusting the duty cycles of switches as
the input voltage varies. As default DIDO mode has initiated, the state of charge is
changed to decrease, as presented in Fig.6.6(a). In SITO mode, where a higher
voltage input is applied to the converter, a transition occurs between two modes of
operation. During this instance, the mode switching occurred because the input
source increased to about 20V, as shown in Fig.6.6(b), leading to redundant power
being used to charge the battery. It can be seen from Fig.6.6(c) that Vo1 and Vo2 are
regulated.
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On the other hand, as it can be seen from Fig.6.6(d), the state of charge of
the battery increases when the switch from DIDO mode to SITO mode is initiated.
As the load resistance changes, as illustrated in Fig.6.7(a), the controllers are also
designed to regulate the output voltage based on these changes. The output voltage
across both output ports does not subject to any significant changes with any
change in load demands, and it remains around 48 V for both output ports with a
negligible variation when the load changes, as it’s seen in Fig.6.7(b). Table 6.2
shows the analysis of output voltage waveforms Vo1 and Vo2. These results
demonstrate the validity of the control scheme in both varying input voltage and
changing load demand situations.
Simulation results indicate that the proposed dynamic energy management
method can maintain a constant bus voltage despite varying inputs or outputs and
enable flexibility in switching between two modes.
Table 6.2 Analysis of output voltage waveforms of the proposed converter.

Preshoot Overshoot Undershoot Rise Time Settling Time
Vo1 30.921% 0.224% 2.081% 41.577ms 72.264 ms
Vo2 29.221% 0.322% 2.056% 41.277ms 72.078 ms
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(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Fig 6.6 Close loop simulation results (a) state of charge in DIM, (b) input
variation, (c) output voltage, (d) state of charge in TOM.
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(a)
(b)
Fig 6.7 Close loop simulation results (a)load variation and (b) output
voltage.
6.5 Extension into Multiple-Input Multiple-Output

Converter
The proposed converter's structure is illustrated in Fig.6.8. According to the
figure, the converter can be interfaced with another source of input power, Vin1.
The converter proposed has only two inductors, (n+1) capacitors and (n+1)
switches and diodes. The resistance R1 and R2 in the circuit represent the equivalent
power feeding a multilevel inverter. Power flow can be controlled, and input
voltage can be boosted by properly switching switches. This converter can be used
to hybridised FC, batteries, and SC.
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Fig 6.8 Extension of the proposed multi-port DC-DC converter.
6.6 Summary
A new DC-DC step-up converter with dual inputs and dual outputs was
presented in this chapter. An electric vehicle or microgrid can be hybridised with
multiple power sources employing this proposed converter topology with a unified
structure. Additionally, the converter can be utilised as a converter with a single
input and multiple outputs. It works in two main modes: battery discharging and
charging. In different conditions for electric vehicles or microgrids, the converter
can operate in different modes, such as buck and boost. A method of controlling the
system, known as the pole-placement method, was developed. Additionally, the
MATLAB simulation program is used to verify the various operating. Several input
sources and multiple outputs can be added to the proposed topology that can be
applied to various applications.
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Chapter 7 Conclusions and Future Works
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7.1 Conclusion
The techniques of increasing the voltage step-up conversion ratio have been
studied, analysed, and applied in two converters, a high-step-up converter, and a
Four-Port Converter, used to increase the voltage step-up conversion ratio. In
addition, the newly developed two Three-Port Converters. The designed converters
also achieve other advantages, such as a simple and cost-effective design, the ability
to step up or down in voltage level, continuous input current, and energy being
converted in one stage by flowing power bidirectionally between the two ports. For
the converter design to improve its performance, three characteristics are highlighted
as the most important ones:
• Step-up conversion ratios of high voltage are achieved without extremely high duty
cycles of switches.
• The volume is relatively small.
• The component count is low.
Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions can be drawn:
Chapter 3 introduces the Two-Input DC-DC Converter can be considered one
of the best candidates for input source integration to maximise the use of
renewable energy sources since it allows many of its components to be shared.
The design has some features, including continuous input current, energy being
converted in one stage by flowing power bidirectionally between the two ports,
and the ability to step up or down in voltage level. In addition, it is possible to
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apply the converter to various applications, such as DMPPT PV applications, DC
motor drive systems, and LED drivers. Experimental work has been conducted to
verify topology. In the proposed converter, there are two switches and two
diodes, which reduce switching losses, and have an overall component count of
(8), making the design compact with a low volume. The maximum average
efficiency achieved is 92.5%, whereas the minimum is 89.6%.
To optimise renewable energy sources, the ESS becomes an essential element, as
it can resolve the intermittency issue and help manage the unpredictable changes
in demand. One of the best possible candidates for an input source integration is a
Three-Port Converter, as introduced in chapter 4. Since it allows some
components to be shared, the proposed converter applies to many applications,
such as satellite applications, DC motors, and LED drivers. A detailed discussion
has been provided regarding the operation of the converter. By using either buck
or boost modes, the optimal port voltage level can be selected based on the
analysis of the converter presented. Furthermore, the SEPIC-based structure
provides the TPC with the inherent protection of protecting itself against output
short circuits due to the series capacitor, as well as reducing input current ripples.
It is also advantageous that the converter has a simple and cost-effective design.
There are three switches and two diodes in the proposed converter, thereby
minimizing switching losses. Ten components are in total, making the converter
compact and low volume. Experimental results have validated the proposed
structure. The highest average efficiency is 92.5%, and the lowest is 90.9%.
Besides integrating the DC-DC converter, the proposed topology synthesis
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method also applies to the design of non-isolated three-port converters that
interfaces with the PV-battery system.
Chapter 5 introduces a non-isolated high step-up converter with only one switch. It
is designed by integrating the Luo and Cuk topologies. This topology is intended
for light-emitting diode lighting and PV applications. Compared to the current
popular DC-DC converters, the proposed model has a high voltage step-up
conversion ratio. Experimental work has been conducted to verify the design of the
proposed non-isolated Luo-Cuk converter. All obtained results have a duty cycle of
less than 0.7 and a gain of 6.8 times higher than classical converters, which was in
line with the simulation results. In addition, stress across the switch and diodes is
smaller than the output voltage, approximately 50% of the obtained output voltage.
With a low-duty cycle, the semiconductor losses were limited. As a result, the
highest average efficiency reaches 95%, and the lowest at 93.9%. In addition to
integrating the DC-DC converter, the proposed topology synthesis method is also
applicable to designing a non-isolated symmetric bipolar output four-port converter
to interface with the PV-battery system.
Designed and simulated results for a Four-Port Converter are presented in
chapter 6. This topology is proposed for microgrids and electric vehicles with
battery backups. Low component counts are characteristic of the topology. Based on
the analysis of the converter presented, the optimal port voltage level can be
determined by using either buck or boost modes. It is also advantageous that the
converter has a cost-effective design and continuous current at the input. Through
simulation, the operation of the circuit and the control system of this converter has
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been verified. The proposed control structure achieves a regulated output voltage.
However, the Four-Port Converter can be extended to include an additional input
and output port.
7.2 Future Work

• Even though the proposed three-port converter can be extended to include n input
and n output ports in addition to the bidirectional battery port as mentioned in
chapters 3 and 4. A proper inverter can be incorporated into the proposed Three-
Port-Converter TPC and the proposed Luo-Cuk converter to enable plug-and-play
PV applications.
• Simulated results are used to verify the operating characteristics of Four-Port
Converter since the experiment conditions are limited. Their experiments can
therefore be conducted in the future.
• Current state-of-the-art topologies employ capacitor charge transference or
magnetic elements for high step-up applications. Another popular method is
integrating capacitive and magnetic means. New topologies with improved
efficiency may result from further research on gain extension cells.
• Deriving topologies that can be applied to various applications can be studied
further. Two classic topologies can be combined using the topology synthesis
method by sharing inputs such as Boost, Buck, Zeta, and Sepic.
• The coupled inductor can be added to the Luo-Cuk topology to make the system
more suitable for relatively high-power applications. As a possible extension, the
proposed converter includes an additional battery bidirectional port, and symmetric
two-bipolar output ports, as mentioned in chapter 5.
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Appendix A Simulink Model of the Proposed Converters
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Appendix A
Simulink Model of the Proposed Converters
A.1 Introduction
This section presents the closed-loop MATLAB/Simulink model used in
simulating the behaviour of the proposed converters (Two Input Converter,
Three-Port Converter, high step-up DC-DC Converter, and Four-Port Converter).
A.2 Two-Input Converter Simulink Model
Fig A.1 Simulink model of the Two-Input Converter.
Fig.A.1 shows the MATLAB\Simulink model of the proposed Two-Input
converter. It comprises two dc sources, Vin1 and Vin2, and two primary switches,
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S1, S2, and C1 coupling capacitors, C2 is the filter capacitor, and 𝑅 is the resistive
load. In this circuit, the two inductors.
A.3 Three-Port Converter Simulink Model
Fig A.2 Simulink model of the Three-Port Converter.
Fig.A.2 illustrates the MATLAB\Simulink model of the proposed Three-Port
Converter. The only difference in the circuits is the substitution of switch 𝑆2 with
a bidirectional cell to integrate the battery.
A.4 High Set-Up Converter Simulink Model
Fig.A.3 shows the MATLAB/Simulink structure of the proposed combined high
step-up converter. The converter employs two inductors (L1 and L2). It comprises C1,
C2, the filter capacitors C3 and C4 coupling capacitors, and three diodes, D1, D2, D3,
and 𝑅 is the resistive load.
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Fig A.3 High Set-Up Converter Simulink Model.
A.5 Four-Port Converter Simulink Model
Fig A.4 Four-Port Converter Simulink Model.
Fig.A.4 illustrates the MATLAB\Simulink model of the proposed Four-Port
Converter. The only difference in the circuits is adding extra switches 𝑆4 and D4
to integrate the second output port.
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A.6 Pole Placement Control MATLAB code
clear
clc
% close all
D1=0.51;
D3=0.74;
L1=300e-6;
L2=300e-6;
Cy=100e-6;
Co=1000e-6;
R=300;
Vbat=36;
Vcy=20;
Vco=48;
iL1=1.3;
iL2=-0.9;
% I=(Vco/R*1-D1-D3)/(D1+D3)
% Steady state model of mode SIDO
A=[0 0 (D3+D1-1)/L1 (D3+D1-1)/L1;0 0 (D3+D1)/L2 (D3+D1-1)/L2;(1-D1-D3)/Cy –(D1-D3)/Cy 0 0;(1-D1-D3)/Co (1-

D1-D3)/Co 0 -1/R/Co];
B=[(Vcy+Vco)/L1 (Vcy+Vco-Vbat)/L1;(Vcy+Vco)/L2 (Vcy+Vco-Vbat)/L2;-(iL1-iL2)/Cy –(iL1-iL2)/Cy;-(iL1-iL2)/Co –
(iL1-iL2)/Co];
C=[1 0 0 0;0 0 0 0];
D = [0 0; 0 0];
%% The system has two modes (SIDO & DISO) both have two input, two output
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
% % define state matrix
% state-space model of the first mode(SIDO)
% A=[0 0 -178 178;0 0 550 -500;-128 128 0 0; 0 -1 0 0.0000666];

%
% B=[8 0;48 -96;-0.014 2.56; 0 0];
%
% C=[1 0 0 0;0 0 0 1];
%
% D = [0 0; 0 0];
% % create a state-space object of SIDO
%%
% [num1 den1] = ss2tf(A,B,C,D,1) % iu = 1
% [num2 den2] = ss2tf(A,B,C,D,2) % iu = 2
%
%
% sys = ss(A,B,C,D);
% tf(sys)
% bode(sys)
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
% state-space model of second mode(DISO)
% A1=[0 0 -178 178;0 0 550 450;1 -1 0 0; 0 -1 0 0.0001];
%
% B1=[8 8;48 0;-0.014 2.5; 0 0];
%
% C1=[1 0 0 0;0 0 0 1];
%
% D1 = [0 0; 0 0];
D11=0.6;
D21=0.33;
L11=300e-6;
L21=300e-6;
Cy=100e-6;
Co=1000e-6;
R1=200;
Vbat=36;
Vcy1=10;
Vco1=48;
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iL11=1.2;
iL21=-0.9;
% % Steady state model of model DISO
A1=[0 0 (D11-1)/L11 (D11-1)/L11;0 0 D11/L21 (D11-1)/L21;(1-D11)/Cy -D11/Cy 0 0;(1-D11)/Co (1-D11)/Co 0 -
1/R1/Co];
B1=[(Vcy1+Vco1)/L1 Vbat/L1;(Vcy1+Vco1)/L2 0;-(iL11-iL21)/Cy 0;-(iL11-iL21)/Cy 0];
C1=[1 0 0 0;0 0 0 1];
D1a = [0 0; 0 0];
%%
% % create the state-space object of DISO

% [num11 den11] = ss2tf(A1,B1,C1,D1,1) % iu = 1
% [num22 den22] = ss2tf(A1,B1,C1,D1,2) % iu = 2
% sys1 = ss(A1,B1,C1,D1);
%% TF
% % tf(sys1)
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%
% Check open loop eigenvalues for both modes
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
% poles = eig(A)
% poles = eig(A1)
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%
% Check the rank of both modes
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
% rank(ctrb(A,B))
% rank(ctrb(A1,B1))
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%
% % Full state feedback control without integral action
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
% pL =[-7000+15500i;-7000-15500i;-200+15000i;-200-15000i];
% pL =[-200+5500i;-200-5500i;-7500+1000i;-7500-1000i];
% desired close loop 132eigenvalues of SIDO mode
% pL =[-50+150i;-50-150i;-100+200i;-100-200i];
% pL =[-50+1400i;-50-1400i;-200+4800i;-200-4800i];il only
% pL =[-5500+10i;-5500-10i;-9000;-10200]
% pL =[-50+400i;-50-400i;-100+1300i;-100-1300i];il only
% pL =[-5000+100i;-5000-100i;-9000;-10200];VO only
% pL =[-4099;-10000;-49990;-50000];
% pL =[-300+287i;-300-287i;-35000+22487i;-35000-22487i];
% pL =[-5000;-18907;-27888;-29400];
% pL =[-1473+100*1i -1473-100*1i -14999+9010*1i -14999-9010*1i];
% pL =[-880+i*600;-880-i*600;-2500+i*6000;-2500-i*6000];
% pL =[-10500+7487i;-10500-7487i;-7699;-7700];0000
% pL =[-12000;-20000;-7977;-7989];
% pL =[-26000;-35000;-49977;-49089];
% pL =[-410+i*1580;-410-i*1580;-2000+i*1710;-2000-i*1710];
% pL =[-310+i*1580;-310-i*1580;-2000+i*1710;-2000-i*1710];
% pL =[-210+i*1180;-210-i*1180;-2000+i*1710;-2000-i*1710];
% pL =[-210+i*480;-210-i*480;-2000+i*1710;-2000-i*1710];
% pL =[-250+i*170;-250-i*170;-2700+i*1700; -2700-i*1700];
% pL =[-12+i*40;-12-i*40;-200+i*20;-200-i*20];
% pL =[-300+1000i*1;-300-1000i*1;-70+5000i*1;-70-5000i*1];
% pL =[-100+500i*1;-100-500i*1;-500+5000i*1;-500-5000i*1];
% pL =[-4+0.25i*2; -4-0.25i*2;-30; -150];
% desired close loop 132 eigenvalues of DISO mode
% pL1 =[-2; -50;-90; -120];
% pL1 =[-6000+1000i;-6000-1000i;-25000+1250i;-25000-1250i];%IL/D2
% pL1 =[-6000+400i;-6000-400i;-25000+1250i;-25000-1250i];
% pL1 =[-6000+100i;-6000-100i;-10000+500i;-10000-500i];
% pL1 =[-1700+1000i;-1700-1000i;-20000+5000i;-20000-5000i];
% pL1 =[-1700+1000i;-1700-1000i;-20000+5000i;-20000-5000i]; %il/d1
% % pL1 =[-6000+100i;-6000-100i;-7000+500i;-7000-500i];
% % pL1 =[-5000+100i;-5000-100i;-6000+500i;-6000-500i];
% % pL1 =[-3000+100i;-3000-100i;-4000+100i;-4000-100i];
pL1 =[-3000+100i;-3000-100i;-3700+50i;-3700-50i];
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C
% % pL1 =[-1700+1000i;-1700-1000i;-20000+15000i;-20000-15000i];
% % pL1 =[-1700+1000i;-1700-1000i;-21500+14999i;-21500-14999i];
% % pL1 =[-29+10i;-29-10i;-1033;-5000];
% % pL1 =[-10+2.25i*1; -10-2.25i*1;-5; -10];
% % pL1 =[-1+1.25i*1; -1-1.25i*1;-2; -3];
% % To find the state feedback gain K using pole placement of SIDO mode
% % K= place(A,B,pL);
% % % To find the state feedback gain K1 using pole placement of DISO mode
%%
K1= place(A1,B1,pL1);
% % % create a closed loop for SIDO
% % sys_SIDO = ss(A-B*K,B,C,0);
%%
% % tf(sys_SIDO);
%
sys_DISO = ss(A1-B1*K1,B1,C1,0);
tf(sys_DISO)
%
% % create a closed loop for DISO
% % sys_cl1 = ss(A1-B1*K1,B1,C1,0);
%%
% poles = eig(sys_DISO)
% % bode(sys_cl(1,2)),grid on
% % bode(sys_cl(2,1)),grid on
%
%
%%
%
% % display plots of SIDO MODE
%
% % % /////////////////////////////////////////////////
% % [Gm,Pm] = margin(sys_cl(1,1))
% % [Gm,Pm] = margin(sys_cl(1,2))
% % % [Gm,Pm] = margin(sys_cl(2,2))
% h1 = subplot(211);
% margin(sys_DISO(2,1));
% hold on;
% margin(sys_DISO(2,2));
% hold on;
% margin(sys_cl(2,2));
% hold on;
%%%
% allmargin(sys_cl(1,1))
% 133igenva(sys_cl(1,1))
%
% bode(sys_cl(1,1),sys_cl(2,2));
% legend(‘iL1’,’Vo’);
%
% step(sys_cl)
% *///////////////////////////////////////
% display plots of DISO MODE
% /////////////////////////////////////////////////
% [Gm,Pm] = margin(sys_cl1(1,2))
% [Gm,Pm] = margin(sys_cl1(2,1))
% margin(sys_cl1(1,1));
% hold on;
%%
% margin(sys_cl1(2,2));
% hold on;
%
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% allmargin(sys_cl1(1,1))
% allmargin(sys_cl1(2,2))
% bode(sys_cl(1,1),sys_cl(2,2));
%
% step(sys_cl1)
% *///////////////////////////////////////
% bode(sys_cl),grid
% bode(sys_cl(1,1));
% hold on;
% h2 = subplot(1,2);
% bode(sys_cl(2,2,1,1));
% hold on;
%
%%
% % h1 = subplot(211);
% % bode(sys_cl(1,1));
% % hold on;
% % % h2 = subplot(212);
% % bode(sys_cl(2,2));
% % hold on;
% % set(gcf,’currentaxes’,h1);
% check for closed loop 134 eigenvalues of SIDO mode
% poles = eig(sys_cl)
% check for closed loop 134 eigenvalues of DISO mode
% poles = eig(sys_cl1);
% check step response for SIDO

% step(sys_cl)
% check step response for DISO

% step(sys_cl1)
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%
% % Full state feedback control with integral action
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
% % Add integrals of iL1 & Vo to the model for steady-state control and generate augmented plant of SIDO mode.
%
% Aa1=[A zeros(4,1);-C zeros(1,4))]
% Ba1=[B;zeros(1)];
% Ca= [C zeros(1)] ;
% Da=0;
%%
% Aa1 = [[A,[0 0 0 0]];[-C, 0]];
% Ba1 = [B;[0 0]];
% Ca1 = [C,0];
% Da1 = 0;
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
% Add poles for SIDO MODE
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
% Here we have six poles
% p1=-50+150i;
% p2=-50-150i;
% p3=-100+200i;
% p4=-100-200i;
% p5 =-50;
% p6 =-25;
% Ki= place(Aa1,Ba1,[p1,p2,p3,p4,p5])
% M=Ki(1:2,1:4)
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% M1=Ki(1:1)
% M2=Ki(3:3)
% M3=Ki(5:5)
% M4=Ki(7:7)
% % Z=Ki(1:2,5:5)
% M5=Ki(2:2)
% M6=Ki(4:4)
% M7=Ki(6:6)
% M8=Ki(8:8)
% Z1=Ki(9)
% Z2=Ki(10)
% % Z3=Ki(10)
% % Z4=Ki(12)
% sys_c= ss(Aa1-Ba1*Ki,Ca1,Da1)
% sys_1=(Aa1-Ba1*Ki);
%%%
% sys_c=ss(sys_1,Ba1,Ca1,Da1)
%
% tf(sys_c)
% [Gm,Pm] = margin(sys_c(1,1))
% [Gm,Pm] = margin(sys_c(2,2))
% margin(sys_c(1,1));
% hold on;
%
% margin(sys_c(2,2));
% % Add integrals of iL1 & Vo to the model for steady-state control and generate augmented plant of DISO mode.
Aa11=[A1 zeros(4,2);-C1 zeros(2)];

Ba11=[B1;zeros(2)];
Ca1= [C1 zeros(2)] ;
Da1 =0;
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
% Add poles for DISO MODE
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
% Here we have six poles
% Aa11=[A1 zeros(4,2);-C1 zeros(2)];
% Ba11=[B1;zeros(2)];
% Ca1= [C1 zeros(2)] ;
% Da1 =0;
%
%
p11=-3000+100i;
p21=-3000-100i;
p31=-4000+100i;
p41=-4000-100i;
% p51 =-98;
% P61=-101;
p51 =-4508;
P61=-5251;
%%
%%
%%
%%
Ki1 = place(Aa11,Ba11,[p11,p21,p31,p41,p51,P61]);
%
%%%%%
% F1=Ki1(1:2,1:4)
%%%%%
% H1=Ki1(1:2,5:6)
%%
% Nbar=-inv(C1*inv(A1-B1*K1)*B1)
% sys_1_1=(Aa11-Ba11*Ki1);
%%
% sys_c1_1=ss(sys_1_1,Ba11,Ca1,Da1)
%%%%
% step(sys_c1_1)
% % F=Ki(1:2,1:4);
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% % g1=Ki1(1:1);
% % g2=Ki1(2:2);
% % g3=Ki1(3:3);
% % g4=Ki1(4:4);
H=Ki1(1:2,5:6)
%
g1=Ki1(1:1);
g2=Ki1(3:3);
g3=Ki1(5:5);
g4=Ki1(7:7);
g5=Ki1(2:2);
g6=Ki1(4:4);
g7=Ki1(6:6);
g8=Ki1(8:8);
H1=Ki1(9);
H2=Ki1(11);
H4=Ki1(12);
% % H1=Ki1(1:1,5:6)
% H2=Ki1(2:2,5:6)
%%
% sim(‘MY_DC_20.slx’)
% sim(‘MY_DC21.slx’)
% % open_system(‘DISO_20.slx’)
% % sim(‘DISO_20.slx’)
% open_system(‘SIDO.slx’)
% sim(‘SIDO.slx’)
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
% % Check bode plot of both modes
% bode(sys_cl),grid
% bode(sys_cl1),grid
% step(sys_cl1)
% bode(sys_c)
% step(sys_c)
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%
% A11=[-3.847 2.98 -512.9 201;-2.28 -30.78 67.53 4.008;-0.08267 -0.3195 -79.38 30.54; 0 -1 0 0.0001];
%
% B11=[8 8;48 0;-0.014 2.5; 0 0];
%
% C11=[1 0 0 0;0 0 0 1];
%
% D11 = [0 0; 0 0];
%
% [num111 den111] = ss2tf(A11,B11,C11,D11,1) ; % iu = 1
%[num222 den222] = ss2tf(A11,B11,C11,D11,2); % iu = 2
%%
%%
%%
% sys = ss(A,B,C,D);
% tf(sys_c)
136
Appendix B Proposed Converters Hardware
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Appendix B
Proposed Converters Hardware
B.1 Introduction
This appendix details the power electronics hardware used in testing Three
Proposed converters (Two-input, Three-Port, and High set-up converter) in this
thesis.
B.2 Two-Input Converter Circuit
Fig B.1 Complete Two-Input Converter prototype.
Fig.B.1 shows the photograph of the Two-Input converter. The converter has
been designed and built to test the performance. The converter consists of two
inductors, two switches, a coupling capacitor, and an output capacitor.
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B.3 Three-Port Converter Circuit
Fig B.2 Complete Three-Port Converter prototype.
Fig.B.2 shows the photograph of the Three-Port converter. The converter
has been designed and built to test the performance. The converter consists of
two inductors, three switches, a coupling capacitor, and an output capacitor. As
can be seen from Fig.B.1 and Fig.B.2, both prototypes are the same. The only
difference is the third switch is added with a diode to integrate the battery for
bidirectional flow.
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B.4 High Set-Up Converter Circuit
An interleaved converter has been constructed in order to test the concept.
The converter is populated on the stripboard Fig.B.3. The converter consists of
two inductors, one switch, two coupling capacitors, three diodes, and two output
capacitors.
Fig B.3 Complete high-set-up converter prototype.
139
Appendix C Controller Overview
C
Appendix C
Controller Overview
C.1 Introduction
This appendix provides a comprehensive description of the control hardware
popularly known as the Digital Signal Processor (DSP) board. The board is used in
all the research work carried out in this thesis.
C.2 Digital Signal Processor (DSP) Board
A power electronics converter traditionally requires PWM signals to
operate. The converters are typically controlled by DSP based on
electronics/semiconductor chips. This controller is Texas Instrument ®
TMS320F28335 (DSC) [133]. The DSP board consists of many parts, such as an
analogue to digital converter (ADC) module with 16 input channels PWM
peripheral comprising six pairs of (ePWM) modules [134]. The card has four
communication ports that can be configured to allow data transfer between the code
composer studio (CCS) environment from the host computer to the target via the
JTAG interface [135]. Detail information and specifications of the TMS320F28335
DSP board can be found in [136]. Fig.C.1 shows the TMS320F28335 DSP card,
and a block diagram of the converter control architecture is shown in Fig.C.2.
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Fig C.1 Texas instrument TMS320F28335 DSP Board.
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Ccs interface
Serial interface
external mode
Host Pc
Fig C.2 Control Overview.
C.3 Software Implementation
The main codes (background loop) consist of TMS320F28335 peripheral
initialisation such as PLL, PWM module, ADC module, Watchdog, and Event
Manager. The entire application software is driven by a primary interrupt service
routine (ISR), which contains all the control codes and is triggered from the PWM
module of the DSP. The major feature of this implementation is the DSP integration
to obtain the reference voltage, configuring the voltage and current loop PI
controllers with anti-windup capabilities. The ISR is invoked every 20 μS (50 KHz)
by the period event flag of the Event manager submodule. Timers 1 is used as the
time base for the ePWM output generations with compare A and compare B sub-
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modules. The ADC timing is based on ADCCLK (25MHz) derived from
SYSCLKOUT, and the ADCCLK is used to time the sampling period. To ensure
that the samples are acquired before the commencement of the control code
execution, the ADC sequencer start of conversion (SOC) is triggered on the apex of
the PWM carrier. When the ADC sampling process is complete, an interrupt
contains all the control codes. The flow chart of this software implementation is
shown in Fig.C.3.
Functions
Main Control Data

Initialisations DSP core-
Acquisition Control PI
PLL,WD-Event Manager
algorithm Calc & Update
ISR Control Timer Com Values
Computer GUI
Communication
Fig C.3 Program flow chart.
143
Appendix D Gate Drives and Sensors Interface Board
C
Appendix D
Gate Drives and Sensors Interface Board
D.1 Introduction
The gate drive/sensors measurement board is a dedicated isolation and
conditioning board, which has been specifically designed to generate appropriate
gate signals required by the converter switches and also for measuring converter
input current and output voltage. Furthermore, the board interfaces the spectrum
digital F28335 board and hardware (power converter). A comprehensive
description of this board is described in this appendix.
D.2 Gate Drive Interface
The ePWM module of F28335 (Fig.C.1) represents one complete PWM
channel, each channel composed of a pair of PWM signals ePWM1A and
ePWM1B, respectively. The PWM peripheral can derive up to 12
IGBTs/MOSFETs. The gate drive interface permits the DSP PWM outputs to
derive the power converter switches. Two ePWM module outputs of the F28335
microcontroller are chosen; therefore, three interface circuits are provided. Each
interface is for only one PWM signal. The interface caters to a single switch with a
15V power requirement. This is possible with 5-15 V DC-DC converters.
Transmitting PWM signals at 15V is desirable to improve noise immunity. Fig.D.1
shows the interface boards, consisting of the gate drivers.
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Fig D.1 Gate Drivers.
D.3 Sensor Interface
The LEM® current transducer (LA 55-P) and voltage transducer (LV-25p) are
placed on board (Fig.D.2) to allow connection to the microprocessor ADC input.
The current transducer is for measuring the input current flowing through the
converter. The output current is an analogue voltage within the range of 0-3V with
a 2.5V nominal output voltage. The transducer measures the DC input current with
galvanic isolation between the power converter and the ADC circuit (primary and
secondary circuit). On the other hand, the voltage transducer measures the
converter's output voltage by using a load resistor to convert a current to a voltage.
The voltage transducer also has galvanic isolation between the analogue and digital
circuits. The sensors are positioned very close to the ADC input of the DSP board
such that the track length from the sensor output to the ADC input is very short to
reduce the level of noise or interference that might creep into the analogue signal.
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Fig D.2 Current & Voltage sensors.
146
Appendix E Power Loss Analysis and Efficiency
C
Appendix E
Power Loss Analysis and Efficiency
E.1 Introduction
The losses in DC-DC converters are due to the parasitic elements inherent in the
components, for example, MOSFET on-state resistance, inductor winding
resistance, core loss, capacitor ESR and forward diode resistance. Unlike the ideal
characteristics, in practice, these parasitic elements limit the voltage gain that a
converter can produce. This behaviour is typical in boost converters. This section
further illustrates the formulae used to estimate the losses regarding the components
used to implement the prototypes.
E.2 Inductor Loss
To determine the converter's efficiency, it is important to calculate the power
losses. To calculate the power loss, the following calculation is carried out
according to [153].
Initially, Root-Mean-Square (RMS) values for inductor currents must be
determined. By disregarding the ripples across the inductor currents, the RMS
values are equal to their average values. According to the following formula, the
inductor conduction losses can be calculated:
𝑃LLoss = 𝑟𝐿 𝐼𝐿2 (E.1)
The inductor L and its equivalent resistance is rL. Following this, it is
necessary to determine the conduction losses of the capacitor. In order to
calculate conduction losses, the following equations can be used:
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C
𝑃CLoss = 𝑟𝑐 𝐼𝑐 2 (E.3)
The equivalent resistance of the capacitor C is rC.
E.3 Diode Conduction and Switching Losses
In addition, diode power loss should be considered. To calculate the power
loss across diode, it is necessary to determine each diode's forward resistance and
forward voltage. To express the power loss across the diode, the following
formula can be used:
𝑃DLoss = 𝑟𝐷 𝐼𝐷𝐶 2 + 𝑉𝐹1 𝐼𝐷𝑐 (E.4)
It should be noted that rD1 is the diode equivalent resistance D1. Moreover, VF
is the forward voltage for diode D1 IDC and represents the average diode current.
E.4 Switch Losses and Switch Conduction Losses
As explained previously, the conduction losses in MOSFET occur when the
device fully conducts, and current passing through the on-state resistor 𝑅𝐷𝑆_𝑜𝑛
generates a power loss. The main switch conduction loss is calculated using the
switch-on state resistance from the data sheet and the switch RMS current given
by:
1
𝑃sLoss = 𝑟𝑠 𝐼𝑠 + 𝑓𝑠 𝐶𝑠 𝑉𝑄 2 (E.5)
2
The equivalent resistance of the switch S is represented by rS. The Cs represents
the output capacitor of a metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor.
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E.5 Theoretical Efficiency
The following formula can be used to calculate the efficiency of the converter
presented:
total
𝑃Loss = 𝑃LLoss + 𝑃CLoss +
+𝑃DLoss + 𝑃sLoss (E.6)
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂= total
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 +𝑃Loss
(E.7)
The efficiency of the presented converter can be calculated by substituting the
equations mentioned above and simplifying them.
149
References
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Cardiff University

Design and Implementation of Multi-Port

considered for another degree or qualification at another university. My thesis consists of

my work and includes no collaboration results except where specifically indicated.

patience to accomplish this task.

encouragement he provided throughout my graduate studies. Throughout my time

Melikhov, for his generous support and academic guidance.

financial support and the invaluable PhD Scholarship.

Coordinator and the other administrative staff members.

It is my deepest wish to express my heartfelt appreciation to my mum, who has always

Table of Contents ...................................................................................................... IV

List of Figures ......................................................................................................... X

List of Tables ....................................................................................................... XV

Abbreviation ........................................................................................................... XVI

Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 1

1.1 Background for Satellite Applications................................................................ 1

1.2 Nanosateillate Technology ................................................................................ 5

1.3 Background for PV applications ........................................................................ 6

1.1.1 Grid Connected Photovoltaic Inverter ......................................................... 7

1.3.1 LED Driver ............................................................................................ 10

1.3.3 High Intensity Discharge (HID) Lamp ................................................... 11

1.1.2 Uninterruptible Power Supply UPS........................................................... 12

1.2 Outline of Thesis ............................................................................................. 13

1.3 The aim and objectives ................................................................................... 15

1.4 Contribution to knowledge .............................................................................. 16

1.5 Limitations of Work Undertaken ...................................................................... 17

1.6 Publications Arising from this Research.......................................................... 17

Chapter 2 A Literature Review Multiport Power Converters ..................................... 19

2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 19

2.1.1 Non-Isolated Multiport Converter.............................................................. 22

2.1.2 Partly Isolated Converter .......................................................................... 29

2.1.3 Isolated Converter .................................................................................... 32

2.1.4 Comparison of Different Multi-port Converters ......................................... 35

2.2 Topology Review of Typical High Voltage Step-Up Converters ...................... 36

2.2.1 Cascaded Converters ............................................................................... 36

2.2.2 Quadratic Boost Converter ....................................................................... 38

2.2.3 Switched Capacitor Converters ................................................................ 39

2.2.4 Switched Inductor Converters .................................................................. 41

2.2.5 Integrated Converters ............................................................................... 44

2.3 Classification of DC-DC converters by Voltage Gain ...................................... 45

2.4 Switching Strategy .......................................................................................... 46

2.5 Failure Mechanism.......................................................................................... 47

2.5.1 Failure Type ............................................................................................. 47

2.5.2 Diode Failure Indications .......................................................................... 47

2.5.3 Transistor Failure Indications ................................................................... 48

2.6 Summary of existing solutions ........................................................................ 48

2.6.1 Development of new Multi-Port Converters .............................................. 48

2.6.2 Achieve high voltage step-up ratios.......................................................... 49

2.7 Summary ........................................................................................................ 50

Photovoltaic Power Generation Systems ................................................................. 52

3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 52

3.2 Operation Principle ......................................................................................... 53

3.2.1 Proposed Circuit ....................................................................................... 53

3.2.2 Circuit Operation Principles ...................................................................... 54

3.3 Steady-State Analysis ..................................................................................... 56

3.3.1 Power Device Voltage Stress Analysis ..................................................... 57

3.4 Experimental results ....................................................................................... 57

3.5 Comparison with related topologies ................................................................ 60

3.6 Extension into Multiple-ports Converter .......................................................... 61