Chapter 4

Design of Bridge
Structures
Dr. Utino Worabo
A.Y 2021/22
 1. Super Structure Design

Design of Multi-beam multi-cell

1. Reinforced Concrete Bridges
2. Design of Composite Bridges (Steel and Concrete)
3. Design of Railway Bridges
Design of Multi-beam Multi-Cell Reinforced
Concrete Bridges
Analysis and Design of T-Girder Bridges
T-Girder Bridges
 The T-Girder construction consists of a transversely reinforced slab deck which spans
across to the longitudinal support girders.
 The slab is structural1y continuous across the top. The slab serves dual purpose of
supporting the live load on the bridge and acting as the top flange of the longitudinal
beams.
 T- Girders are used for bridges spanning from about 10 -25 meters.
 The girder stem thickness usually varies from 35 to 55 cm.
 Optimum lateral spacing of longitudinal girders is typically between 1.8 and 3.0 m
(equally spaced beams)
 They shall be used for span lengths
 10 – 25 m [ERA]
 10 – 20 m [Design of RC Bridge]
 10-25m [AASHTO]
 12-18m [Bridge Engineering Handbook]
T-Girder Bridges…. Cont’d
Diaphragms
 Diaphragms are provided transversely between the beams over the supports and
depending on the span, at mid-span and other intermediate locations.
• The purpose of providing diaphragms
is to ensure lateral distribution of live
loads to various adjacent stringers,
the magnitude of the share of each
stringer depends on the stiffness of the
diaphragms relative to the stringers
and on the method of connectivity.

• Diaphragms shall be used at span ends.

Intermediate diaphragms shall be used
where required in the judgment of the Diaphragms
Engineer
Analysis of T-Girder Bridges
 Design of T- girder bridges consists of
 deck slab analysis and design, and
 T-girder analysis and design.
 Structural analysis of the deck slab involves taking a continuous strip
perpendicular to the girders (AASHTO Art.9.6.1) and analyzing by
moment distribution or using design aid given by AASHTO.

 An approximate method of analysis in which the deck is subdivided into

strips perpendicular to the supporting components shall be considered
acceptable for decks (AASHTO Art. 4.6.2.1)
Analysis of T-Girder Bridges...
Design of Deck Slab of Girder Bridges
 Thickness of Top Flange (ERA Bridge Design Manual 2013, Article 5.4.1.1
and AASHTO, Article 5.14.1.5.1a)

 The thickness of top flanges serving as deck slabs shall be:

 the depth of a concrete deck, excluding any provision for grinding,
grooving, and sacrificial surface, should not be less than 185 mm
 Not less than the clear span between fillets, haunches, or webs
divided by 20, unless transverse ribs at a spacing equal to the clear
span are used or transverse prestressing is provided.

Slab thickness (AASHTO, Table 2.5.2.6.3.1):

𝑺+𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒕𝒔 = S = Girder spacing (mm)
𝟑𝟎
Design of Deck Slab of Girder Bridges …
An approximate method of analysis (AASHTO, article 4.6.2.1) in which
the deck is subdivided into strips perpendicular to the supporting
components shall be considered acceptable for decks.

 Influence line segment coefficient

The Influence line segment coefficient table is intended
Influence Segment Coefficients
Influence Segment Coefficients…
 AASHTO Art. 4.6.2.1.3 - Width of Equivalent Interior Strips
 The width of equivalent interior transverse strip over which the wheel loads can be considered
distributed longitudinally in concrete decks is given as [Table Art. 4.6.2.1.3-1]

+M = positive moment
−M = negative moment
X = distance from load to point of support (mm)
S = spacing of supporting components(mm) (T- beams)
AASHTO Art. 4.6.2.1.3 - Width of Equivalent Interior Strips…

h = depth of deck (mm)

L = span length of deck (mm)

P = axle load (N)

Sb = spacing of grid bars (mm)

 Calculation of Force Effects (AASHTO Art. 4.6.2.1.6)
The strips shall be treated as continuous beams or simply supported beams,
as appropriate. Span length shall be taken as the center-to-center distance
between the supporting components. For the purpose of determining force
effects in the strip, the supporting components shall be assumed to be
infinitely rigid.

The wheel loads may be modeled as concentrated loads or as patch loads

whose length along the span shall be the length of the tire contact area plus
the depth of the deck.

The strips should be analyzed by classical beam theory.

 Transverse Configuration for a Design Truck or Design Tandem
In the transverse direction, the design truck and design tandem should be located in such a
way that the effect being considered is maximized.
 Transverse Configuration for Lane Load
Similarly, the design lane is distributed uniformly over the 10-foot loaded width. Since the
design lane is 0.64 kips per linear foot in the longitudinal direction and it acts over a 10-foot
width, the design lane load is equivalent to 64 psf.
Transverse Configuration for Lane Load …

China’s City Highway Loads

 Critical Placement of Live Loads

Table 5.1 Span point notation (Design Of Highway Bridges an LRFD approach , 2nd Edition, Richard M. Barker et. al
, 2007)
Span point Alternative Span Percentage Explanation Critical Action
notation Span Point (Typical)
Notation

100 1.0 1 0 Left end of the first span Shear

104 1.4 1 40 Forty percent of the way across the Positive moment
first span
110 1.1 1 100 Right end of the first span Shear, negative
immediately left of the first moment
interior support
200 2.0 2 0 Left end of the second span Shear, negative
immediately right of the first moment
interior support
205 2.5 2 50 Middle of the second span Positive moment
 Müller Breslau Principle for Qualitative Influence Lines

In 1886, Heinrich Müller Breslau proposed a technique to draw influence lines

quickly. The Müller Breslau Principle states that the ordinate value of an
influence line for any function on any structure is proportional to the
ordinates of the deflected shape that is obtained by removing the restraint
corresponding to the function from the structure and introducing a force that
causes a unit displacement in the positive direction.
 Critical Placement of Live Loads
Table 5.2: Influence ordinates and areas (three-span continuous beam) Richard M. Barker et.
al , 2007
Critical Placement of Live Loads
a Usage:
Multiply influence ordinates for moment by length of span 1.
Multiply areas for moment by length of (span 1)2.
Multiply areas for shear by length of span 1.
Notes:
Area M(205)+ for span 2 is 0.1036, 0.1052, and 0.1029 for trapezoidal, Simpson’s and exact integration, respectively.
Areas V(205)+ and V(205)− for span 2 were computed by Simpson’s integration.
Table 5.7 Action envelopes for three-span continuous beam 100, 120, 100 ft (30480, 36 576
and 30480 mm)a

a The truck, tandem, and train vehicle actions are multiplied by the dynamic load allowance of 1.33 prior
to combining with the lane load.
 Design of Top Flange
Design for Flexure
To design the top flange, follow similar procedure with that of RC
sections.
* Negative moment should be taken at the face of the girder.

Shear Reinforcement

Slab bridges designed for moment in conformance with Article 4.6.2.3 may be
considered satisfactory for shear.
(AASHTO Article 5.14.4.1)

Check Serviceability Limit Requirements

Distribution Reinforcement
According to AASHTO, article 5.14.4.1, if the main reinforcement is perpendicular to the
traffic, the amount of bottom transverse reinforcement may be taken as a percentage of the
main reinforcement and a minimum spacing of 250mm.

Shrinkage & Temperature Reinforcement

As indicated in AASHTO, section 5.10.8, reinforcement for shrinkage and temperature
reinforcement shall be provided near surfaces of concrete exposed to daily temperature
changes. The specified amount of the steel should be distributed equally on both sides.
𝟎.𝟕𝟓𝑨𝒈
𝑨𝒔𝒕 ≥
𝒇
𝒚
 Design of Longitudinal Girder
According to AASHTO, Table 2.5.2.6.3.1, minimum structural depth (including
deck) for simple span T- and Box beams is given as follows:
𝐷𝑤 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝐿

where:
𝐷𝑤 : structural depth for simple span T- and Box beams
𝐿 : c/c spacing of the bridge
𝑎 = 0.07 for T-girder and 0.06 for Box-girder bridges
For continuous spans:
𝑎 = 0.065 for T-girder and 0.055 for Box-girder bridges
 Design of Longitudinal Girder…
Web thickness
 The minimum web thickness shall be determined by
requirements for shear, torsion, concrete cover and adequate
field placement and consolidation of concrete. As per AASHTO,
article C5.14.1.5.1C, the minimum web thickness, b (mm)is
w

given by
 Design of Longitudinal Girder…

Cross sections of T- girder

Effective flange width:
As the longitudinal compressive stress varies across the flange width of same level, it is
convenient in design to make use of an effective flange width, (may be smaller than the
actual flange width) which is considered to be uniformly stressed.
 Design of Longitudinal Girder…
Effective Flange Width for interior and exterior beams (AASHTO Article,
4.6.2.6)

For interior beams, the effective flange width may be taken as the least of:
• One-quarter of the effective span length;
• 12 times the average depth of the
slab, plus the greater of web
thickness or one-half the width of
the top flange of the girder; or
• The average spacing of adjacent
beams
 Design of Longitudinal Girder…
Effective Flange Width for interior and exterior beams (AASHTO Article,
4.6.2.6)
For exterior beams, the effective flange width may be taken as one-half the
effective width of the adjacent interior beam, plus the least of:
 One-eighth of the effective span length;
 6 times the average depth of the
slab, plus the greater of one-half
the web thickness or one quarter
of the width of the top flange of
the basic girder; or
 The width of the overhang
 Load Distribution Factor for the Girder
For moment:
 The live load flexural moment for interior and exterior beams with
concrete decks shall be determined by applying the lane fractions
For shear:
 The live load shear for interior and exterior beams\ shall be determined by
applying the lane fractions
 Load Distribution Factor for the Girder

The load carried by each girder is a function of the relative

stiffness of the components that comprise the slab girder system
 Load Distribution Factor for the Girder
Distribution of Live Loads Per Lane for Moment in Interior and Exterior
Longitudinal Beams. (AASHTO, from Tables 4.6.2.2.2b- 1 to 4.6.2.2.2e-1)

Distribution of Live Loads Per Lane for shear in Interior and Exterior
Longitudinal Beams. (AASHTO, from Tables 4.6.2.2.3a- 1 to 4.6.2.2.3c-1)

If the ranges of applicability are not satisfied, then conservative

assumptions must be made based on sound engineering judgment.
Figure 13-2 Common Deck Superstructures
Table 13-3 Distribution of Live Load per Lane for Moment in Interior Beam
 Load Distribution Factors . . .

Table 13-4 Distribution of Live Loads per Lane for Moment in Exterior Longitudinal Beams
 Load Distribution Factors . . .

Table 13-7 Distribution of Live Load per Lane for Shear in Interior Beams
Load Distribution Factors . . .
Load Distribution Factors…
Distribution of Loads to Interior Girder for Girder Structure

The general equation for loads applied to the interior girder is as follows:

WisDOT Bridge Manual, Jan 2019

State of Wisconsin
Distribution of Loads to Interior Girder for Girder Structure

The general equation for loads applied to the exterior girder is as follows:

WisDOT Bridge Manual, Jan 2019

State of Wisconsin
 Design Moment
The design moment is computed by combining the effects of dead loads and
live loads and applying the corresponding load combinations and load factors
specified in AASHTO,Table 3.4.1.1.

𝑴𝒔𝒅 = 𝜼 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝑴𝑫𝑳 + 𝟏. 𝟓𝑴𝑫𝑾 + 𝟏. 𝟕𝟓𝑴𝑳𝑳+𝑰𝑴

For strength limit state ƞ=1.05- for critical or essential bridges.

 Design for Flexure
To design the longitudinal girders, follow similar procedure with that of RC
sections
Three distinct type of flexural behavior of T-Sections:
1. When the T-Section is subjected to negative BM, tension is produced on
the flange portion resulting in a rectangular section of Width bw.
2. When the T-Section is subjected to positive BM and the equivalent
stressed block lies within the flange (if the calculated depth to the NA is
less than the slab thickness hf), the section can be analyzed as rectangular
beam with an effective width be.
3. When Y > hf, the section can be analyzed as a T-beam.
Design for Shear
 Design for Shear …
Procedures to compute β
Assume θ
Compute ε x,

Calculate Vn/f'c (<0.25)

Obtain θ1 and β from Table 5.8.3.4.2-1
If θ= θ1 are the same, Use the value of β which was obtained
from Table 5.8.3.4.2-1.
Using β, compute Vc,
Otherwise repeat the procedure.
Design for Shear …
 Check:
- Serviceability limit requirements,
- Fatigue limit state
Flow chart for the design of RC girder bridges
Design Example

* Design Method: LRFD

Specifications:
-AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Design Specifications, 4th ed. 2007

-Ethiopian Roads
Authority, ERA Bridge Design
Manual, 2013
Analysis and Design of Box Girder Bridges
 Box Girder Bridges
 Box-girder bridges contain top deck, vertical web, and bottom
slab with girders spaced at 1.5 times the structure depth.
 Concrete box girder bridges are economical for spans of above
25 to 45m. (Chinese Standard 15 to 36 m)
 They can be reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete.
 Longer span than 45m will have to be prestressed.
 They are similar to T-beams in configuration except the webs of
T-beams are all interconnected by a common flange resulting in
a cellular superstructure.
 Box Girder Bridges…
 The top slab, webs and bottom slab are built monolithically to act as a unit,
which means that full shear transfer must be provided between all parts of
the section.
 Reinforced concrete box girders have high torsional resistance due to
their closed shape and are particularly suitable for structures with
significant curvature.
 They provide space for utilities such as water and gas lines, power,
telephone and cable ducts, storm drains and sewers, which can be placed in
the hollow cellular section.
 When the exterior webs are inclined their slope should preferably be 1H:
2V.
 Box Girder Bridges…

Interior Girder Exterior Girder

Cross sections of Box girder
Box Girder Bridges…
Horizontally curved cast-in-
place multi-cell concrete
box girders may be
designed as single spine
beams with straight
segments, for central angles
up to 34 degrees within
one span, unless concerns
about other force effects
dictate otherwise.
 Box Girder Bridges…
Effective Flange Width for interior and exterior beams (AASHTO Article,
4.6.2.6)
For interior beams, the effective flange width maybe taken as the least of:
 One-quarter of the effective
span length;
 12 times the average depth of
the slab, plus the greater of web
thickness or one-half the width
of the top flange of the girder; or
 The average spacing of adjacent
beams
 Box Girder Bridges…
Effective Flange Width for interior and exterior beams (AASHTO Article,
4.6.2.6)
For exterior beams, the effective flange width may be taken as one-half the
effective width of the adjacent interior beam, plus the least of:
 One-eighth of the effective span
length;
 6 times the average depth of the
slab, plus the greater of one-half
the web thickness or one quarter of
the width of the top flange of the
basic girder; or
 The width of the overhang
 Box Girder Bridges…
Bottom Flange thickness
For Box-girder bridge, as specified in AASHTO, article 5.14.1.5.1b, the bottom
flange thickness shall be not less than:
 140mm;
 the distance between fillets or webs of non prestressed girders and beams
divided by 16; or
 the clear span between fillets, haunches, or webs for prestressed girders
divided by 30, unless transverse ribs at a spacing equal to the clear span are
used.
 Box Girder Bridges…
Bottom slab Reinforcement
(AASHTO article 5.14.1.5.2b / ERA Bridge design manual 2013 , article
5.5.2.4)
A uniformly distributed reinforcement of 0.4 percent of the
flange area shall be placed in the bottom slab parallel to the
girder span, either in single or double layers. The spacing of such
reinforcement shall not exceed 450mm.
 Composite Bridges

Typical components of composite I-girder bridge

Composite Bridges
 Composite Bridges
Some of the advantages of simply supported beams over beams designed as
continuous at supports are:
 very little of the steel web is in compression, and the steel top flange is
restrained by the slab, so the resistance of the beam is not limited by
buckling of steel;
 webs are less highly stressed, so it is easier to provide holes in them for
the passage of services;
 bending moments and vertical shear forces are statically determinate, and
are not influenced by cracking, creep, or shrinkage of concrete;
 Composite Bridges
 The disadvantages are that deflection at midspan or crack width at
supports may be excessive, and structural depth is greater than for a
continuous beam.

Effective cross-section of a composite beam

 The presence of profiled steel sheeting in a slab is normally ignored when
the slab is considered as part of the top flange of a composite beam.
 Class of X-Sections
The classification system defined in Sections 4.3.2 of EC 3 applies to cross-
sections of composite beams.
 The performance of a steel compression element in Class 2,3, or 4 can be
improved by attaching it to a reinforced concrete element.
Table 4.1 (EC 4)Maximum Width-to-thickness Ratios for Steel Outstand
Flanges in Compression
Table 4.2 (EC 4) Maximum Width-to-Thickness Ratios for Steel Web
Composite Bridges
Composite Bridges
Composite Bridges
 Composite Bridges
Critical sections for design of composite beams in the ULS
 I-I flexure in positive moment region
 II-II vertical shear
 III-III flexure in negative moment region taking into account the M/V
interaction
 IV-IV longitudinal shear (checking adequacy of shear dowels)
Composite Bridges
 Composite Bridges
 V-V checking the surface area along the perimeter around the dowels
if not sufficient provide transverse reinforcement
 VI-VI longitudinal shear capacity of concrete flange if not sufficient
provide transverse
 VII-VII LTB for compressed bottom flange
 Critical sections could also be areas with high concentrated forces or
significant changes in cross-sections (eg. holes in webs)
 Composite Bridges
 The effective width is assumed to have a width equal to Lo/8 on
each side of the steel web, but not greater than half the
distance up to the next beam.
 The reference length Lo is:
 Equal to the span in simple beams
 Equal to the approximate distance b/n inflection points in continuous
beams
 Observe different b for +ve and –ve moment regions→effect on
eff

analysis results
Composite Bridges
 Composite Bridges
Cross-section classes
 Composite beams are classified into the following 4 classes
depending on the stability conditions (local buckling) of the
elements of the steel component under compression

 Class 1: Plastic cross-sections can develop the full plastic

strength and demonstrate sufficient rotation capacity, so that
the plastic method of analysis can be used
 Composite Bridges
 Class 2: Compact sections can develop the full plastic capacity,
however they have limited rotation capacity so that elastic
analysis with limited amount of moment redistribution must be
used.

 Class 3: Semi-compact sections could be stressed only up to

the proportional limit in the extreme fibers, because local
buckling prevent the mobilization of full plastic section capacity
 Composite Bridges
 Class 4: Slender cross-sections buckle locally preventing the
exploitation of even the yield limit. Their capacity is governed
by local buckling.
 Cross-section classes 3 and 4 are not generally used in high-
rise buildings
 Maximum c/t or d/t ratios for the different classes are given in
EC-3 and EC-4.
 Composite Bridges
 Cross-sections under positive bending moment, and with
plastic NA within concrete flange or top flange of the steel
component are classified as class 1, irrespective of the width to
thickness relations of the flange or the webs.
 In some cases, x-sections could be raised to higher classes
(composite beams with encased concrete)
 Composite Bridges
Plastic moment capacity
 The moment capacity must actually be determined on the basis
of strain distribution in the ULS (e.g. design moment
resistances in reinforced concrete sections)
 The limit strains may be ɛc,max in concrete, or max compression
strain in the steel elements to avoid excessive local buckling
 Composite Bridges
 With sufficiently thick walled steel sections however
(classes 1 and 2), it is possible to use rigid-plastic
approximations, which simplifies the analysis
significantly.
 Stress distribution at the ULS for sections in positive
and negative moment regions are shown in the
following figure.
Composite Bridges
 Composite Bridges
i. PNA in concrete flange (see figure in the next
slide)
Under the assumption of full shear connection:
Ncf = beff xplfcd = Npa;
Npa = Aafyd
xpl = Npa/ (befffcd);
xpl d-hR; xb= xpl /2
→ Mpl,Rd = Npa(xa+d-xb); where hR= rib height of
profiled sheeting
Composite Bridges
 Composite Bridges
ii. PNA in the steel flange at (x -d) from the interface
pl

Ncf = beff (d-hR)fcd;

Npa = Aafyd
Na = 2 bffya(xpl-d);
also Na = Npa- Ncf; xb= (d-hR)/2
Moment about Ncf
→Mp,Rd = Npa(xa+d-xb) – Na(xpl-(Npa- Ncf)/(4bf. fya) - xb)
Simplification gives
Mpl,Rd = Npa(xa+(d+hR)/2) – Na(xpl+hR)/2
Composite Bridges
 Composite Bridges
iii. PNA in the web
xpl = d+t+(Npa-Ncf-Nfa)/(2 s fyd)
Mpl,Rd = Npa(xa+(d+hR)/2) – Naf(d+t+hR)/2- Nas(xpl+t+hR)/2
Where: s is the thickness of the web

iv. Concrete flange in the tension zone

 Fs = Asfsk/ s; h = Fs/(s fy/ a)
 h < hweb
 Mpl,Rd = - Fs a(1-(h/4a))-Mpl,a
Composite Bridges
 Lateral Torsional Buckling
In composite beams, the upper flange of the steel section is restrained against
lateral buckling by the concrete slab. However, the typical pattern of bending
moments in a continuous beam results in the lower flange being in
compression in the region of internal supports.
Two possible forms of discrete lateral restraint of the lower
compression flange

It is necessary to ensure that such restraint is sufficiently strong and stiff to

be effective and that the pull-out strength of the shear connectors is not
exceeded.
 Shear Connectors
 To ensure a full composite action, shear connectors must be
provided at the interface between the concrete slab and the
structural steel to resist interface shear. Shear connectors are
usually provided throughout the length of the bridge.

 If the longitudinal reinforcement in the deck slab is not

considered in the composite section, shear connectors are not
necessary in negative flexure regions.
Steel Bridges
 Design Principles
Loadings
 As per AASHTO Specification

Structural Materials
 Steel meeting the AASHTO-M requirements is prequalified for
use in welded bridges.
 Concrete with 28-day compressive strength = 16 to 41 MPa is
commonly used in concrete slab construction.
 Design Principles
The flexural resistance of a steel beam/girder is controlled by four
failure modes or limit states:
 yielding,
 flange local buckling,
 web local buckling, and
 lateral-torsional buckling.
The moment capacity depends on the yield strength of steel, the
slenderness ratio λ in terms of width-to thickness ratio for local
buckling and unbraced length to the radius of gyration about
strong axis ratio for lateral-torsional buckling.
 Steel Superstructures
Webs:
 The web mainly provides shear strength for the girder. The web
height is commonly taken as 1/18 to 1/20 of the girder span
length for highway bridges and slightly less for railway bridges.

 Since the web contributes little to the bending resistance, its

thickness, t, should be as small as local buckling tolerance
allows.
 Steel Superstructures
Hybrid Sections:
 The hybrid section consisting of flanges with a higher yield
strength than that of the web may be used to save materials;
this is becoming more promoted because of the new high-
strength steels.
Variable Sections:
 Variable cross sections may be used to save material where the
bending moment is smaller and/or larger near the end of a span
 Stiffeners
 Transverse stiffeners increase shear resistance by providing
tension field action and are usually placed near the supports
and large concentrated loads.
 Longitudinal stiffeners increase flexure resistance of the web
by controlling lateral web deflection and preventing the web
bending buckling. They are, therefore, attached to the
compression side.
• It is usually recommended that sufficient web thickness be used to
eliminate the need for longitudinal stiffeners as they can create
difficulty in fabrication.
 Stiffeners
 Bearing stiffeners are also required at the bearing supports
and concentrated load locations and are designed as
compression members.
 Diaphragms and Cross Frames
Diaphragms and cross frames are transverse components used
to transfer lateral loads such as wind or earthquake loads
from the bottom of girder to the deck and from the deck to
bearings,
to provide lateral stability of a girder bridge, and to distribute
vertical loads to the longitudinal main girders.
 Cross frames usually consist of angles and act as a truss, while
diaphragms use channels or I-sections as a flexural beam
connector.
Diaphragms and Cross Frames
 Diaphragms and Cross Frames
The following general guidelines should be followed for
diaphragms and cross frames:
 The diaphragm or cross frame shall be as deep as practicable
to transfer lateral load and to provide lateral stability. For
rolled beam, they shall be at least half of beam depth
[AASHTOLRFD 6.7.4.2].
 Member size is mainly designed to resist lateral wind loads
and/or earthquake loads. A rational analysis is preferred to
determine actual lateral forces.
 Diaphragms and Cross Frames
 Spacing shall be compatible with the transverse stiffeners.
 Transverse connectors shall be as few as possible to avoid
fatigue problems.
 Effective slenderness ratios (KL/r) for compression diagonal
shall be less than 140 and for tension member (L/r) less than
240.
 Lateral Bracing
 The lateral bracing transfers wind loads to bearings and
provides lateral stability to compression flange in a horizontal
plan.

 All construction stages should be investigated for the need of

lateral bracing.

 The lateral bracing should be placed as near the plane of the

flange being braced as possible.

 Design of lateral bracing is similar to the cross frame.

 Plate Girders
 Plate girders are used to carry larger loads over longer spans
than are possible with rolled universal or compound beams.

 They are used in buildings and industrial structures for long-

span floor girders, heavy crane girders and in bridges.

 Plate girders are constructed by welding steel plates together

to form I-sections. A closed section is termed as a ‘box girder’.
Plate Girders
 Plate Girders
To be competitive and cost effective, the web of a plate girder is made
relatively thin compared to rolled section, and stiffeners are introduced to
prevent buckling either due to compression from bending or shear.
 Stiffeners are used at the load points, supports and at intermediate
points.
 Optimum use of materials is made
 Stability problem due to erection of compression flange
 Plate Girders
 Variations in girder depth are permitted. For instance, for simply
supported girders, where the bending moment is maximum at the centre,
the depth may be varied as shown in the figure below.
 Plate Girders
Girder Stresses
 The stresses from moment and shear for a plate and box girder in the
elastic state are shown below. The flanges have uniform direct stresses and
the web shear and varying direct stress.
Plate Girders
 Plate Girders
 The deeper the girder is made, the smaller are the flange plates
required. However, the web plate must then be made thicker or
additional stiffeners provided to meet particular design
requirements.
 A shallow girder can be very much heavier than a deeper
girder in carrying the same loads.
 The ratio of the breadth of the flange to its thickness is with in
the semi compact section (class 3) to avoid local buckling of
the compression flange.
 Plate Girders
Web Design
 The choice of the thickness of the web is related to the
stiffening. The minimum web thickness varies from 10mm for
girders up to 1200mm deep to 20mm for girders up to
1500mm deep.
 If the web plate slenderness d/tw>69ε, the local buckling
capacity can be increased by the provision of web stiffeners.
Plate Girders
 Plate Girders
Moment capacity
 If the depth/thickness ratio d/t for the web is less than or
equal to 69ε (for unstiffened webs) and 30ε√k (for stiffed
r

webs), the web is not susceptible to shear buckling.

Resistance of shear buckling
 For webs without intermediate stiffeners, shear buckling
resistance may be verified using either simple post – critical
method or Tension Field Method.
 Plate Girders
Simple Post – Critical Method
The design shear buckling resistance Vba,Rd is given by the following
equation.

Vba,Rd =dtw 𝜏𝑏𝑎 /γm1 > Vsd

where 𝜏𝑏𝑎 is the simple post – critical shear strength

 Plate Girders
Flange Design
 If the applied shear is greater than 50 per cent V the web is designed for
pl,Rd,

shear only and

 If the flanges are not Class 4 (slender), then the moment capacity may be
obtained by assuming that the moment is resisted by the flanges alone with
each flange subject to a uniform stress not exceeding fyf .
 Plate Girders
Flange thickness
 Local buckling of the compression flange may occur if C/tf>14ε.
 The moment capacity (Plastic modulus will be determined based on
compression flange) for a girder with laterally restrained compression
flange is: 𝑴𝒇,𝑹𝒅 = 𝑨𝒇 𝒅𝟎 𝒇𝒚 Τ𝜸𝒎𝟏 ≥ 𝑴𝒔𝒅
 where: 𝑑0 = ℎ − 𝑡𝑓
If Vsd > 0. 5Vba,Rd then Msd < Mf,Rd+(Mpl,Rd - Mf,Rd)[1-ρ]

𝟐
𝟐𝑽𝒔𝒅
where: 𝝆 = −𝟏
𝑽𝒃𝒂,𝑹𝒅
 Plate Girders
Design of Stiffeners
Two main types of stiffeners used in plate girders are:
 (1) Intermediate transverse web stiffeners : These divide the web into panels
and prevent the web from buckling due to shear. They also have to resist
direct forces from tension field action and possibly external loads acting
as well.
 (2) Load carrying and bearing stiffeners : These are required at all points
where substantial external loads are applied through the flange and at
supports to prevent local buckling and crushing of the web. The stiffeners
at the supports are also termed ‘end posts’.
Plate Girders
 Plate Girders
Stiffeners thickness, ts
Transverse stiffeners not subjected to any external loads or moments should
have a second moment of inertia Is about the centreline of the web not less
than Is given by:
◦ If a/d ≥ √2, Is = 0.75dt3 and If a/d < √2, Is = 1.5(d/a)2dt3
where
a is the actual stiffener spacing,
d the depth of web and t the minimum required web
thickness for actual stiffener spacing a .
 Therefore the moment of inertia of the stiffeners becomes:
𝐼𝑠 = 𝑡𝑠 𝑏𝑠3 Τ12
 Plate Girders
Buckling Resistance
 The intermediate stiffener should be checked for buckling for a
compression force of Ns. The compression force in an
intermediate stiffener, Ns, is obtained from:
𝑁𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠𝑑 − 𝑑𝑡𝑤 𝜏𝑏𝑏 Τ𝛾𝑚1 > 0

where 𝑉𝑐𝑟 = 𝑑𝑡𝑤 𝜏𝑏𝑏 Τ𝛾𝑚1 is the critical shear buckling resistance of
web
 Plate Girders
Effective X-section
 The effective cross section of a stiffener should be taken as a width of
web plate equal to 30εtw arranged with 15εtw in each side of the stiffener.
 The out- of- plane Buckling Resistance of compression members will be
determined by using buckling curve C and buckling length not less than
0.75d.
 Plate Girders
Load Carrying and Bearing stiffeners,
 Load carrying and bearing stiffeners are required to prevent
local buckling and crushing of the web due to concentrated
loads applied through the flange when the web itself cannot
support the load. The stiffeners are fully effective in resisting
the load.
Outstand
 This is the same as set out for intermediate stiffeners
 Plate Girders
Buckling Resistance
 The bulking resistance of the stiffener is checked by considering the cross-
sectional area A at the centre of the girder. As is the area of stiffener plus
s

15 times the web thickness (t) on either side of the centre line of the
stiffener (As = 2bsts +30εt2).
Thus Npl,Rd ≥ P
 If tension field is utilized in the web, the combined external transversal
shear force, F should not exceed the buckling resistance Npl,Rd of the
x

stiffener. (Fx=P+V-Vcr)
 Plate Girders
Where:
P is the applied concentrated load adjacent to the stiffener
V is the maximum shear in the web
Vcr is the critical shear buckling resistance of web
Steps to determine Npl,Rd
 Compute 𝐼𝑥 = 𝑡𝑠 𝑏𝑠3 Τ12, As, rx = (IX /As)0.5 and Le=0.75d
 compute λ = Le/r
 Obtain reduction factor for buckling χ using buckling curve C
 Calculate Buckling Resistance, Npl,Rd = χ Asfy/γm1
 Plate Girders
Bearing Resistance
 The bearing capacity of the stiffeners Ps is given by the
following equation and the stiffener is designed for this force.
Ps=As fy /γm1 and Ps > P
 Plate Girders
End-post design
 End anchorage should be provided to carry the longitudinal anchor force
representing the longitudinal component of the tension field at the end
panel of the web with intermediate transverse stiffeners.
 The end post of a plate girder is provided for this purpose, and may consist
of a single or twin stiffeners.
 Plate Girders
Outstand
 This is the same as set out for intermediate stiffeners
Bearing Resistance
 The bearing resistance of the end post is given by:
Ps= As,net fy/γm1 > Rsup
where Rsup Reaction force at the support and As,net = bt
Buckling Resistance
 This is the same as set out for load carrying stiffeners
 Connections
Connection between web and stiffeners
The connection between each plate and the web is to be designed for a shear
of not less than:t2/5bs (kN/mm). In most cases t2/8bs is used.
 Where t is the web thickness (mm) and bs the outstand of the stiffener (mm).
Connection between bearing stiffeners to web
𝑃𝑎𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑠
+ ≤ 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝐿𝑤𝑑 8𝑏𝑠
 Connections
Connection of end- post to web
 The welds between the stiffener and web must be designed to carry the
reaction and the shear from the end-post beam action.
𝑅𝑠𝑢𝑝
≤ 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝐿𝑤𝑑

𝐿𝑤𝑑 is the length of weld (=2d)

 Connections
Flange to web welds
 Fillet welds are used for the flange to web welds. The welds are designed
for the horizontal shear per weld:= FAy/2Ix .

where
F is the applied shear,
• A the area of flange,
• y the distance of the centroid of A from the centroid of the girder and
• Ix the moment of inertia of the girder about the x–x axis.
 Bearings and
Crash Barriers
 Bearings
 Bearings are structural devices positioned between the bridge
superstructure and the substructure.
Their principal functions are as follows:
1. To transmit loads from the superstructure to the
substructure, and
2. To accommodate relative movements between the
superstructure and the substructure.
 Bearings…
 The forces applied to a bridge bearing mainly include
superstructure self-weight, traffic loads, wind loads,
and earthquake loads.
 Movements in bearings include translations and
rotations. Creep, shrinkage, and temperature effects
are the most common causes of the translational
movements, which can occur in both transverse and
longitudinal directions.
 Traffic loading, construction tolerances, and uneven
settlement of the foundation are the common causes
of the rotations.
 Types of Bearings
 Bearings may be classified as fixed bearings and
expansion bearings.
 Fixed bearings allow rotations but restrict translational
movements.
 Expansion bearings allow both rotational and
translational movements.
 Types of Bearings…
Sliding Bearings
 A sliding bearing utilizes one plane metal plate sliding against
another to accommodate translations.
Rocker and Pin Bearings
 It typically consists of a pin at top that facilitates rotations, and a
curved surface at the bottom that accommodates the
translational movements
Roller Bearings
 Roller bearings are composed of one or more rollers between
two parallel steel plates.
 Types of Bearings…
Roller bearings have been used in both steel and concrete bridges.
Elastomeric Bearings
 An elastomeric bearing is made of elastomer (either natural or synthetic rubber).
It accommodates both translational and rotational movements through the
deformation of the elastomer.
 Selection of Bearings
 Generally the objective of bearing selection is to choose a
bearing system that suits the needs with a minimum overall
cost. The following procedures may be used for the selection of
the bearings.
1. Determination of Functional Requirements
2. Evaluation of Bearings
3. Preliminary Bearing Design
 Design of Elastomeric Bearings
 The design procedure is according to AASHTO-LRFD and is as
follows:
1. Determine girder temperature movement
2. Determine girder shortenings due to posttensioning,
concrete shrinkage, etc.
3. Select a bearing thickness based on the bearing total
movement requirements
4. Compute the bearing size based on bearing compressive
stress
5. Compute instantaneous compressive deflection
 Design of Elastomeric Bearings
6. Combine bearing maximum rotation.
7. Check bearing compression and rotation.
8. Check bearing stability
9. Check bearing steel reinforcement.
 Railings
Railings are provided along edges of bridges for protection of
traffic and pedestrian. There are three types of railings.
1. Traffic railings
2. Pedestrian railings
3. Combination railings
Purposes
 primarily containing the average vehicle
 protecting the occupants of a vehicle in collision with the
railing
 protecting other vehicles near the collision
 protecting people and property on roadway and nearby
areas underneath
 Concrete/Crash Barriers
 Crash barriers keep vehicles within their roadway and prevent them from
colliding.
 Concrete barriers usually have smooth finishes
 These barrier walls usually have vertical faces to prevent vehicles from
climbing the barrier.
 Concrete/Crash Barriers…
Design
 Strength limit state and extreme event limit state are considered
for the design of barriers. The design forces for a TL-4 barrier as
per AASHTO: Table A13.2.1 is used.
 Concrete/Crash Barriers…

Where: