Knowledge of Earth’s interior is derived primarily from analysis of the seismic waves that propagate

through Earth as a result of earthquakes. Depending on the material they travel through, the waves may
either speed up, slow down, bend, or even stop if they cannot penetrate the material they encounter.

Collectively, these studies show that Earth can be internally divided into layers on the basis of either
gradual or abrupt variations in chemical and physical properties. Chemically, Earth can be divided into
three layers. A relatively thin crust, which typically varies from a few kilometres to 40 km (about 25
miles) in thickness, sits on top of the mantle. (In some places, Earth’s crust may be up to 70 km [40
miles] thick.) The mantle is much thicker than the crust; it contains 83 percent of Earth’s volume and
continues to a depth of 2,900 km (1,800 miles). Beneath the mantle is the core, which extends to the
centre of Earth, some 6,370 km (nearly 4,000 miles) below the surface. Geologists maintain that the core
is made up primarily of metallic iron accompanied by smaller amounts of nickel, cobalt, and lighter
elements, such as carbon and sulfur. (See also Earth.)

Discern between body and surface waves, primary and secondary waves, and Love and Rayleigh waves

Discern between body and surface waves, primary and secondary waves, and Love and Rayleigh waves

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There are two types of crust, continental and oceanic, which differ in their composition and thickness.
The distribution of these crustal types broadly coincides with the division into continents and ocean
basins, although continental shelves, which are submerged, are underlain by continental crust. The
continents have a crust that is broadly granitic in composition and, with a density of about 2.7 grams per
cubic cm (0.098 pound per cubic inch), is somewhat lighter than oceanic crust, which is basaltic (i.e.,
richer in iron and magnesium than granite) in composition and has a density of about 2.9 to 3 grams per
cubic cm (0.1 to 0.11 pound per cubic inch). Continental crust is typically 40 km (25 miles) thick, while
oceanic crust is much thinner, averaging about 6 km (4 miles) in thickness. These crustal rocks both sit
on top of the mantle, which is ultramafic in composition (i.e., very rich in magnesium and iron-bearing
silicate minerals). The boundary between the crust (continental or oceanic) and the underlying mantle is
known as the Mohorovičić discontinuity (also called Moho), which is named for its discoverer, Croatian
seismologist Andrija Mohorovičić. The Moho is clearly defined by seismic studies, which detect an
acceleration in seismic waves as they pass from the crust into the denser mantle. The boundary
between the mantle and the core is also clearly defined by seismic studies, which suggest that the outer
part of the core is a liquid.

The effect of the different densities of lithospheric rock can be seen in the different average elevations
of continental and oceanic crust. The less-dense continental crust has greater buoyancy, causing it to
float much higher in the mantle. Its average elevation above sea level is 840 metres (2,750 feet), while
the average depth of oceanic crust is 3,790 metres (12,400 feet). This density difference creates two
principal levels of Earth’s surface.

The lithosphere itself includes all the crust as well as the upper part of the mantle (i.e., the region
directly beneath the Moho), which is also rigid. However, as temperatures increase with depth, the heat
causes mantle rocks to lose their rigidity. This process begins at about 100 km (60 miles) below the
surface. This change occurs within the mantle and defines the base of the lithosphere and the top of the
asthenosphere. This upper portion of the mantle, which is known as the lithospheric mantle, has an
average density of about 3.3 grams per cubic cm (0.12 pound per cubic inch). The asthenosphere, which
sits directly below the lithospheric mantle, is thought to be slightly denser at 3.4–4.4 grams per cubic cm
(0.12–0.16 pound per cubic inch).

In contrast, the rocks in the asthenosphere are weaker, because they are close to their melting
temperatures. As a result, seismic waves slow as they enter the asthenosphere. With increasing depth,
however, the greater pressure from the weight of the rocks above causes the mantle to become
gradually stronger, and seismic waves increase in velocity, a defining characteristic of the lower mantle.
The lower mantle is more or less solid, but the region is also very hot, and thus the rocks can flow very
slowly (a process known as creep).

During the late 20th and early 21st centuries, scientific understanding of the deep mantle was greatly
enhanced by high-resolution seismological studies combined with numerical modeling and laboratory
experiments that mimicked conditions near the core-mantle boundary. Collectively, these studies
revealed that the deep mantle is highly heterogeneous and that the layer may play a fundamental role
in driving Earth’s plates.

Earth's core

Earth's core

At a depth of about 2,900 km (1,800 miles), the lower mantle gives way to Earth’s outer core, which is
made up of a liquid rich in iron and nickel. At a depth of about 5,100 km (3,200 miles), the outer core
transitions to the inner core. Although it has a higher temperature than the outer core, the inner core is
solid because of the tremendous pressures that exist near Earth’s centre. Earth’s inner core is divided
into the outer-inner core (OIC) and the inner-inner core (IIC), which differ from one another with respect
to the polarity of their iron crystals. The polarity of the iron crystals of the OIC is oriented in a north-
south direction, whereas that of the IIC is oriented east-west.
Plate boundaries

Examine how the theory of plate tectonics explains volcanic activity, earthquakes, and mountains

Examine how the theory of plate tectonics explains volcanic activity, earthquakes, and mountains

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Lithospheric plates are much thicker than oceanic or continental crust. Their boundaries do not usually
coincide with those between oceans and continents, and their behaviour is only partly influenced by
whether they carry oceans, continents, or both. The Pacific Plate, for example, is entirely oceanic,
whereas the North American Plate is capped by continental crust in the west (the North American
continent) and by oceanic crust in the east and extends under the Atlantic Ocean as far as the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge.

plate movement

plate movement

In a simplified example of plate motion shown in the figure, movement of plate A to the left relative to
plates B and C results in several types of simultaneous interactions along the plate boundaries. At the
rear, plates A and B move apart, or diverge, resulting in extension and the formation of a divergent
margin. At the front, plates A and B overlap, or converge, resulting in compression and the formation of
a convergent margin. Along the sides, the plates slide past one another, a process called shear. As these
zones of shear link other plate boundaries to one another, they are called transform faults.

Divergent margins

As plates move apart at a divergent plate boundary, the release of pressure produces partial melting of
the underlying mantle. This molten material, known as magma, is basaltic in composition and is buoyant.
As a result, it wells up from below and cools close to the surface to generate new crust. Because new
crust is formed, divergent margins are also called constructive margins.

Continental rifting

rift valley in Thingvellir National Park

rift valley in Thingvellir National Park

Upwelling of magma causes the overlying lithosphere to uplift and stretch. (Whether magmatism [the
formation of igneous rock from magma] initiates the rifting or whether rifting decompresses the mantle
and initiates magmatism is a matter of significant debate.) If the diverging plates are capped by
continental crust, fractures develop that are invaded by the ascending magma, prying the continents
farther apart. Settling of the continental blocks creates a rift valley, such as the present-day East African
Rift Valley. As the rift continues to widen, the continental crust becomes progressively thinner until
separation of the plates is achieved and a new ocean is created. The ascending partial melt cools and
crystallizes to form new crust. Because the partial melt is basaltic in composition, the new crust is
oceanic, and an ocean ridge develops along the site of the former continental rift. Consequently,
diverging plate boundaries, even if they originate within continents, eventually come to lie in ocean
basins of their own making.

Seafloor spreading

age of Earth's oceanic crust

age of Earth's oceanic crust

As upwelling of magma continues, the plates continue to diverge, a process known as seafloor
spreading. Samples collected from the ocean floor show that the age of oceanic crust increases with
distance from the spreading centre—important evidence in favour of this process. These age data also
allow the rate of seafloor spreading to be determined, and they show that rates vary from about 0.1 cm
(0.04 inch) per year to 17 cm (6.7 inches) per year. Seafloor-spreading rates are much more rapid in the
Pacific Ocean than in the Atlantic and Indian oceans. At spreading rates of about 15 cm (6 inches) per
year, the entire crust beneath the Pacific Ocean (about 15,000 km [9,300 miles] wide) could be
produced in 100 million years.

Divergence and creation of oceanic crust are accompanied by much volcanic activity and by many
shallow earthquakes as the crust repeatedly rifts, heals, and rifts again. Brittle earthquake-prone rocks
occur only in the shallow crust. Deep earthquakes, in contrast, occur less frequently, due to the high
heat flow in the mantle rock. These regions of oceanic crust are swollen with heat and so are elevated
by 2 to 3 km (1.2 to 1.9 miles) above the surrounding seafloor. The elevated topography results in a
feedback scenario in which the resulting gravitational force pushes the crust apart, allowing new magma
to well up from below, which in turn sustains the elevated topography. Its summits are typically 1 to 5
km (0.6 to 3.1 miles) below the ocean surface. On a global scale, these ridges form an interconnected
system of undersea “mountains” that are about 65,000 km (40,000 miles) in length and are called
oceanic ridges.

Convergent margins
Given that Earth is constant in volume, the continuous formation of Earth’s new crust produces an
excess that must be balanced by destruction of crust elsewhere. This is accomplished at convergent
plate boundaries, also known as destructive plate boundaries, where one plate descends at an angle—
that is, is subducted—beneath the other.