Vibration of Induction Motors

Vibration Monitoring of Induction Motors
Master the art of vibration monitoring of induction motors with this unique guide to
on-line condition assessment and fault diagnosis, building on the author’s 50 years of
investigative expertise.
It includes:
Robust techniques for diagnosis of a wide range of common faults, including shaft
misalignment and/or soft foot, rolling element bearing faults, sleeve bearing faults,
magnetic and vibrational issues, resonance in vertical motor drives and vibration
and acoustic noise from inverters.
Detailed technical coverage of 30 real-world industrial case studies, from initial
vibration spectrum analysis through to fault diagnosis and final strip-down.
An introduction to real-world vibration spectrum analysis for fault diagnosis, and
practical guidelines to reduce bearing failure through effective grease management.
This definitive book is essential reading for industrial end users, engineers and
technicians working in motor design, manufacturing and condition monitoring. It will
also be of interest to researchers and graduate students working on condition
monitoring.
William T. Thomson is the Director of EM Diagnostics Ltd, and a former Professor of

Electrical Machines at Robert Gordon University. He has over 50 years of experience
in condition monitoring of induction motor drives, and is a Senior Member of the
IEEE, a Chartered Engineer and a Fellow of the IET.
Published online by Cambridge University Press

Vibration Monitoring of Induction
Motors
Practical Diagnosis of Faults via Industrial Case
Studies
WILLIAM T. THOMSON
EM Diagnostics Ltd, Scotland

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Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781108489973
DOI: 10.1017/9781108784887
© Cambridge University Press 2020
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First published 2020
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A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Thomson, William T., 1946- author.
Title: Vibration monitoring of induction motors : practical diagnosis of faults via industrial case studies /
William T. Thomson, EM Diagnostics Ltd, Scotland.
Description: First edition. | Cambridge ; New York, NY : Cambridge University Press, 2020. |
Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020007147 (print) | LCCN 2020007148 (ebook) | ISBN 9781108489973 (hardback) |
ISBN 9781108784887 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Electric motors, Induction–Vibration. | Electric machinery–Monitoring.
Classification: LCC TK2785 .T463 2020 (print) | LCC TK2785 (ebook) | DDC 621.46–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020007147
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020007148
ISBN 978-1-108-48997-3 Hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy
of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.

It includes:
monitoring.


Motors
Studies
WILLIAM T. THOMSON

www.cambridge.org
DOI: 10.1017/9781108784887

Includes index.
ISBN 9781108784887 (epub)
ISBN 978-1-108-48997-3 Hardback


It includes:
monitoring.


Motors
Studies
WILLIAM T. THOMSON

www.cambridge.org
DOI: 10.1017/9781108784887

Includes index.
ISBN 9781108784887 (epub)
ISBN 978-1-108-48997-3 Hardback


Contents
Preface page xv
About the Author xviii
Acknowledgements xix
Biographies of Personnel in the Acknowledgements xx
Nomenclature xxii
Acronyms and Abbreviations xxiv
Relevant Units of Equivalence Useful for this Book xxvi
1 Vibration Monitoring of Induction Motors and Case Histories on Shaft

Misalignment and Soft Foot 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.1 Overview of Causes of Vibration Problems in Induction
Motors 2
1.1.2 Overview of Shaft Misalignment 7
1.1.3 Vibration due to Shaft Misalignment and/or Soft Foot 10
1.1.4 Introductory Industrial Case History – Normal Shaft Misalignment
and no Soft Foot in a 230 kW/308 H.P. SCIM Pump Drive 12
1.1.5 Conclusions 19
1.2 Industrial Case History – Diagnosis of Misalignment in a 554 kW/743
H.P. SCIM Driving a Gas Recirculating Fan 19
1.2.1 Introduction 19
1.2.2 Overall Vibration Measurements 21
1.2.3 Vibration Spectrum Analysis Detected Abnormal
Misalignment 23
1.2.4 Main Conclusions 23
1.3 Industrial Case History – Diagnosis of Misalignment on a 7.5 kW/10 H.P.
SCIM – Pump Drive used to Lubricate Sleeve Bearings in a 35 MVA
Generator on an Offshore Oil Production Platform 27
1.3.2 Overall Vibration Results 27
1.3.3 Vibration Spectrum Analysis 29
v
vi Contents
1.4 Industrial Case History – Vibration Analysis Identified Soft Foot – Shaft
Misalignment in a 110 kW/147 H.P. SCIM Pump Drive 31
1.4.2 Vibration Analysis on Repaired Motor in Repair Shop 32
1.4.3 On-Site Vibration Analysis during a Coupled Run of
Repaired Motor 32
1.4.4 On-Site Vibration Analysis during an On-Site Uncoupled Run of
Repaired Motor 36
1.4.5 On-Site Vibration Analysis during a Coupled Run after Re-
alignment of the Drive Train 36
1.5 Industrial Case History – Vibration Spectrum Analysis (VSA) Diagnosed
Soft Foot and Abnormal Shaft Misalignment in a 180 kW/240 H.P. SCIM
Pump Drive 37
1.5.1 Summary 37
1.5.2 Overall Vibration Measurements and Vibration Spectrum Analysis
(VSA) – Motor Run Uncoupled and Coupled 37
1.5.3 Overall R.M.S. Velocities on the Motor as a Function of
Slackening and Tightening the Motor’s Fixing Bolts During an
Uncoupled Run – Soft Foot was Diagnosed 39
1.5.4 Overall Vibration Measurements and VSA – Comparison between
before and after Removal of Misalignment and Soft Foot 41
References and Further Reading 42
2 Rolling Element Bearings for Induction Motors 47

2.1 Basic Construction and Types of Rolling Element Bearings for Induction
Motors 47
2.1.1 Basic Construction of a Deep Groove Ball Bearing 47
2.2 Cylindrical Roller Element Bearings 53
2.2.1 Main Operational Features of a Cylindrical Roller Element
Bearing 54
2.3 Angular Contact and 4-Point Contact Ball Bearings 55
2.3.1 Angular Contact Ball Bearings 55
2.3.2 Main Operational Features of an Angular Contact Ball
Bearing 57
2.3.3 4-Point Angular Contact Ball Bearings – The QJ Series 57
2.4 Miscellaneous Rolling Element Bearings 58
2.4.1 Tapered Roller Bearings 58
2.4.2 Spherical Roller Bearings 59
2.5 Bearing Arrangements 61
References 61

Contents vii
3 Types of Defects in Rolling Element Bearings 63

3.1 Bearing Life and Fatigue 63
3.1.1 Prediction of the L10 Life of a Rolling Element Bearing 63
3.1.2 Fatigue Failure 65
3.1.3 Excessive Loads 66
3.1.4 False Brinelling 66
3.1.5 True Brinelling 67
3.1.6 Skidding or Slipping Tracks 67
3.1.7 Contamination – Corrosion – Fretting 68
3.1.8 Shaft Currents 68
References 73
4 Introduction to Vibration Spectrum Analysis to Diagnose Faults in Rolling

Element Bearings in Induction Motors 75
4.1 Summary 75
4.1.1 Liquid Natural Gas (LNG) Processing Plant 75
4.2 Vibration Analysis to Diagnose Bearing Faults 78
4.2.1 Idealized Stages of Bearing Degradation and Vibration Analysis
Techniques 78
4.2.2 Vibration Spectrum Analysis (VSA) as Applied in the Industrial
Case Histories 79
4.3 Flow Chart for Vibration Measurements and VSA to Diagnose Bearing
Defect Frequencies from Faulty Rolling Element Bearings
in SCIMS 81
4.4 Introductory Industrial Case History (1988) – Illustration of a VSA
Procedure to Diagnose Bearing Defect Frequencies in SCIMs 83
4.4.1 Stage One – Drive Train and Nameplate Data 83
4.4.2 Stage Two – Photographs of Motor and Positions of
Accelerometers 83
4.4.3 Stage Three – Select an Accelerometer 83
4.4.4 Stage Four – Predict the Bearing Defect Frequencies at the Full-
Load Rated Speed 83
4.4.5 Overall R.M.S. Velocities and VSA to Detect the 1X Frequency
Component and the Bearing Frequencies using Velocity versus
Frequency Spectra 84
4.5 Conclusions 87
References 88
5 Industrial Case Histories on VSA to Diagnose Cage Faults in Rolling Element

Bearings of SCIMS 90
5.1 Introduction 90
5.1.1 Motor Data and Positions for Vibration Measurements 90
5.1.2 Overall Velocity Levels and VSA 92
5.1.3 Inspection of the NDE Bearing 95

viii Contents
Appendix 5A – Photos of the Faulty Bearing Parts 96

5.2 Industrial Case History – VSA Detected a Broken Cage in a Polyamide
Cylindrical Roller Bearing in a 75 kW/100 H.P. SCIM 98
5.2.2 Overall R.M.S. Velocities 99
5.2.3 VSA Predicted a Broken Cage in the DE Bearing 100
5.2.4 Inspection of the Faulty Bearing 101
Reference 102
6 Industrial Case Histories – VSA Detected Inner and Outer Race Faults in Rolling
Element Bearings in SCIMS 103
6.1 Introduction 103
6.1.3 Visual On-Site Inspection of the NDE of Motor B 107
6.1.4 Interpretation of Logarithmic Spectrum and Predictions 107
6.2 Industrial Case History – VSA Diagnosed Outer Race and Ball Defects in
a 7324 B Single-Row Angular Contact Ball Bearing in the NDE of a
Vertical 1193 kW/1600 H.P. SCIM Driving a Thruster Propeller 109
6.2.2 Vibration Measurements and Overall Velocity Levels 110
6.2.4 Inspection – Photos – Conclusions 114
Appendix 6A Prediction of Bearing Defect Frequencies 115
6.3 Industrial Case History – VSA Diagnosed Outer Race Defects in a Rolling
Element Bearing via Vibration Measurements on the Drive End Frame of
a 160 kW/215 H.P. SCIM Driving a Boiler Forced Draft Fan 115
6.3.1 Summary 115
6.3.2 On-Site Vibration Measurements and Spectrum Analysis before
New Bearings were Fitted 117
6.3.3 Inspection of DE Bearing 119
6.4 Industrial Case History – VSA of Vibration Measured on the Outer Frame
Predicted an Outer Race Bearing Defect in a Vertically Mounted
75 kW/100 H.P. SCIM 120
6.4.1 Summary 120
6.4.2 Overall Vibration Velocity Measurements 121
6.4.3 Vibration Spectrum Analysis – Diagnosis of BPFO 123
6.4.4 Conclusion and Recommendations 124
6.4.5 Vibration Analysis Predicted Misalignment in Drive Train B 124

Contents ix
7 Industrial Case Histories – VSA Diagnosed False Brinelling and Problems

in Cylindrical Roller Bearings in SCIMs 127
7.1.1 Motor Data and Overall Vibration Velocity Measurements 127
7.1.2 Diagnosis of Bearing Defect Frequencies 129
7.2 Industrial Case History – VSA Diagnosed Skidding from an Extra
Capacity Cylindrical Roller Bearing (N234E M C3) in a 225 kW/300
H.P. SCIM 133
7.2.1 Historical Perspective and Summary 133
7.2.2 Vibration Measurements before and after New Bearings were
Fitted 133
7.3 Conclusions 138
References 139
8 Industrial Case Histories on VSA to Diagnose Miscellaneous Faults in Rolling

8.1 VSA Detected Corroded Deep Groove Ball Bearing in Vertically Mounted
1.5 kW/2 H.P. SCIMs 140
8.1.1 Motor Data and Description of Installation Layout 141
8.1.2 Vibration Measurements 141
8.1.3 Inspection of the Motor and DE Bearing 147
8.1.4 Proposed New Motor Design 148
8.2 Industrial Case History – Envelope Analysis used by a Vibration Sub-
Contractor Produced a False Diagnosis of a Cage Fault in a Cylindrical
Roller Element Bearing in a 225 kW/300 H.P. SCIM 152
8.2.2 Nameplate Data and Construction of the Motor 153
8.2.3 Vibration Measurements and VSA Applied to the SCIM before
Strip-Down and Inspection of the DE Bearing 156
8.3 Bearing Failures in 800 kW/1072 H.P. SCIMs Driving Sulphate Removal
Pumps (SRP) and a FAT on Repaired Motor 159
8.3.1 Catastrophic Bearing Failure and Broken Shaft 159
8.3.2 RCFA of a Faulty 6316 C3 Bearing and FAT of the Repaired
Motor (B) with New Bearings 162
8.4 Industrial Case History – False Brinelling and FAT of an 800 kW/1072
H.P. SCIM and Attenuation of Vibration between the Bearing Housing
and the Outer Periphery of the End Frame 166
8.4.1 Summary 166
8.4.2 Vibration Factory Acceptance Test (FAT) of
Repaired Motor 169

x Contents
8.4.3 Attenuation of Bearing Defect Frequencies 171

8.4.4 Conclusions and Final Outcome 173
References 174
9 Industrial Case Histories on Vibration Measurements and Analysis Applied

to Large Induction Motors with Sleeve Bearings 175
9.1 Introduction and Basic Operation of a Sleeve Bearing 175
9.1.1 Illustrations of the Practical Installation of an Oil-Fed Pressure
Sleeve Bearing 177
9.1.2 Brief Overview of Operational Problems with Sleeve
Bearings 180
9.2 Introductory Case History – Vibration Factory Acceptance Test of a New
6800 kW/9115 H.P. SCIM 182
9.2.1 Measurement of Shaft Displacement 183
9.2.2 Motor Nameplate Data and Vibration Test Specification 185
9.2.3 No-Load FAT Results from Vibration Measurements on the
Bearing Housing 186
9.2.4 No-Load FAT Results from Shaft Displacement Probe
Measurements 189
9.2.5 Full-Load Shaft Displacement Results 190
9.3 Industrial Case History – Analysis of Shaft Displacement and Subsequent
Strip-Down Inspections Diagnosed Faults in a Journal Bearing of a 6250
kW/8380 H.P. Slip Ring Induction Motor 192
9.3.1 Background 192
9.3.2 On-Site Operation and Motor Nameplate Data 193
9.3.3 Deliverables and Vibration Test Results 194
9.3.4 Ingress Protection (IP) Rope Seal Malfunction – Source of High
Shaft Displacement 198
9.3.5 Shaft Displacement with the IP Rope Seals Removed from the DE
and NDE 200
9.3.6 Shaft Displacements with New IP Rope Seals at the DE and
NDE – Full-Load Heat Run 200
9.4 Industrial Case History – Excessive Shaft Displacement during First
100 Minutes of a Five-Hour Heat Run of a Re-Furbished 2-Pole
6800 kW/9115 H.P. SCIM – Function of Temperature Change and
Rotor Design 202
9.4.1 Summary 202
9.4.2 Shaft Displacements at the NDE during the Full-Load
Heat Run 202
References 206

Contents xi
10 Industrial Case Histories on Magnetic Forces and Vibration from

Induction Motors 208
10.1 Electromagnetic Forces and Vibration in Induction Motors 208
10.1.1 Twice Supply Frequency Vibration 208
10.1.2 Vibration Components Caused by Rotor Slotting 210
10.2 Industrial Case History – Magnetic Forces and Vibration on the Stator
Core and Outer Frame of a New 4000 kW/5362 H.P. SCIM 211
10.2.1 Vibration Measurement and VSA during Factory
Acceptance Tests 212
10.2.2 Time Domain and VSA of Vibration on the Stator
Core Back 213
10.2.3 Bearing Housing Vibration – Comparison with Stator Core
Vibration 216
10.2.4 Outer Frame Vibration and Analysis at Full Load 218
10.3 Industrial Case History – False Positive of Cage Winding Breaks by a
Vibration Condition Monitoring (CM) Sub-Contractor – Identified the
True Cause as Normal and Inherent Stator Core Vibration at a Rotor Slot
Passing Frequency 221
10.3.1 History and Summary 221
10.4 Case Study – Measurement of the Stator Core Vibration Proved that
Broken Rotor Bars in a SCIM Modulate the Vibration Rotor Slot Passing
Frequencies at Twice the Slip Frequency 226
10.4.2 Measurement of Vibration Rotor Slot Passing Frequencies on the
Stator Frame 227
10.4.3 VSA of the Stator Frame Vibration with Broken Rotor Bars 230
10.4.4 Conclusions on Motor Current Signature Analysis (MCSA) versus
Vibration Analysis to Diagnose Broken Rotor Bars
in SCIMs 231
10.5 Case Study – Vibration Monitoring to Identify Changes in the Stator
Frame Vibration of a SCIM due to Supply Voltage Unbalance 232
10.5.2 Measurement of the Velocity and Acceleration of the Twice
Supply Frequency Component on the Stator Frame as a Function
of Position during No-Load and Full-Load Operation 233
10.5.3 Measurement of the Velocity and Acceleration of the Twice
Supply Frequency Component on the Stator Frame at Full Load as
a Function of Unbalanced Voltage Supplies 235
Appendix 10A Derivation of Twice Supply Frequency Vibration 237
References 238

xii Contents
11 Miscellaneous Industrial Case Histories on Vibration Analysis Applied to

Induction Motor Drives 241
11.1 Industrial Case History – Structural Resonance in a Vertically Mounted
265 kW/355 H.P. SCIM Driving a Fire-Water Pump 241
11.1.2 Phase One – Vibration Measurements During On-Site
Coupled Run 244
11.1.3 Phase Two – Vibration Measurements – On-Site
Uncoupled Run 245
11.1.4 Phase Three – Motor FAT Vibration Measurements – Rotor
Re-balanced to ISO G0.4 Grade – New Bearings Fitted 247
11.1.5 Phase Four – On-Site Vibration Measurements on the Refurbished
Motor during a Coupled Run – Operating Current of 300
Amperes 248
11.1.6 Phase Five – On-Site Vibration Measurements on the Refurbished
Motor during a Coupled Run – Operating Current of 400
Amperes 249
Appendix 11A Rotor Balance Certificate 252
11.2 Industrial Case History – Investigation into the Cause of Loud Acoustic
Noise from an Inverter-Fed 3.3 kV, 4500 kW/6032 H.P. Vertically
Mounted SCIM Driving a Multi-Phase Pump 252
11.2.2 On-Site Vibration Measurements and Analysis 253
11.2.3 Current Spectrum – Magnetic Flux and Electromagnetic
Forces 256
Appendix 11B Human Perception of Acoustic Noise 260
11.3 Industrial Case History – VSA of a Repaired 1000 kW/1340 H.P. SRIM
Diagnosed a High Twice Supply Frequency Vibration and Cracks in the
Concrete Mounting Plinth 260
11.3.1 Background and Objectives 260
11.3.2 Vibration Measurements and Analysis – Uncoupled Run at
Repair Shop 262
11.3.3 Vibration Measurements and Analysis – Uncoupled and Coupled
Runs at the Cement Factory 265
References 269
12 Overview of Key Features of Vibration Monitoring of SCIMS 270

12.1 Appraisal on VSA to Diagnose Faults in Rolling Element Bearings Used
in SCIMS 270
12.2 Predictions and Prognosis of Remaining Run Life 271
12.2.1 Variables that Affect the Remaining Run Life of Faulty Rolling

Contents xiii
12.3 Difficulties of Access to Measure Vibration Directly on the Bearing

Housings of Rolling Element Bearings in Induction Motors 272
12.4 Guidelines for Successful Grease Management of Rolling Element
Bearings in Induction Motors 277
12.5 Incorrect Bearings Fitted by Motor Repair Shop 278
References 278
Index 280

Preface
Vibration condition monitoring has been used for many years to diagnose mechanical
faults in bearings, gearboxes, compressors and pumps. Numerous text books cover
these topics but none focus on vibration monitoring to diagnose faults in induction
motors.
This book is unique because it is solely dedicated to vibration monitoring and analysis to
diagnose faults in induction motors.
There are 30 industrial case histories which include both theoretical and practical
knowledge for on-line condition assessment of induction motors. A key feature of
these case histories is closure of the loop between the diagnosis of faults using
vibration spectrum analysis and subsequent strip-down of the motors and accompany-
ing photographic evidence of, for example, faulty bearings. The industrial case
histories include:
Five on the diagnosis of shaft misalignment and/or soft foot.
Fifteen on the diagnosis of rolling element bearing faults.
Three on vibration problems in sleeve bearings.
Four on problems due to magnetic forces and vibration.
Three on miscellaneous problems including resonance in a vertical induction motor
drive, vibration and acoustic noise from induction motors supplied from inverters.
The case histories are presented in detail because a broad-brush, superficial presen-
tation that lacks clarity and evidence as to how the fault was diagnosed is meaningless
to the reader. Each case history is stand-alone and does not require the reader to scroll
backwards or forwards within the book to understand the vibration measurements,
spectrum analysis and predictions.
Chapter 1 provides an overview of publications on sources of vibration in elec-
trical machines. Problems in rolling element bearings account for the largest number
of failures of induction motors, therefore a review is presented on the use of vibration
measurements and spectrum analysis to diagnose faults in rolling element bearings.
The practical difficulty of accessing the housings of rolling element bearings is
strongly emphasised, because if bearing housings cannot be accessed then it is more
difficult to diagnose bearing faults.
xv
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108784887.001 Published online by Cambridge University Press
xvi Preface
A brief overview of shaft misalignment and soft foot in induction motor drives is
included and five industrial case histories are presented on vibration analysis to detect
shaft misalignment and/or soft foot.
Chapter 2 is a preparatory chapter for Chapters 3 and 4 and presents the main types
and basic features of rolling element bearings that are used in induction motors.
Chapter 3 presents an overview of the types and causes of defects that occur in
rolling element bearings to support the case histories in Chapters 4 to 8.
Chapter 4 presents an introduction to vibration spectrum analysis to diagnose
faults in rolling element bearings in induction motors. This chapter is a precursor to
the presentation of industrial case histories in Chapters 5 to 8 using conventional
vibration spectrum analysis to diagnose the onset of faults in rolling element bearings
before actual bearing failures occur.
It is emphasised that previously published books and papers that cover the theory
and application of vibration monitoring to diagnose faults in rolling element bearings
assume that vibration transducers such as accelerometers can always be mounted on
the bearing housings. In many cases access to bearing housings is not practically
possible on induction motors and this is a key fact that is demonstrated in this book.
Chapter 5 presents industrial case histories using VSA to diagnose cage faults in
bearings of SCIMs.
Chapter 6 presents industrial case histories using VSA to diagnose inner and outer
race faults in bearings of SCIMs.
Chapter 7 presents industrial case histories using VSA to diagnose false brinelling
and skidding problems in cylindrical roller bearings in SCIMs.
Chapter 8 presents industrial case histories using VSA to diagnose miscellaneous
faults in rolling element bearings in SCIMs.
Chapter 9 presents fundamental knowledge on the construction and operation of
sleeve bearings. The practical measurement of shaft displacement is also described, to
support the case histories in this chapter on vibration monitoring to diagnose problems
in sleeve bearings.
Chapter 10 presents the fundamental causes of electromagnetic forces and conse-
quential vibration in induction motors, including the twice supply frequency compon-
ent and its harmonics, and the classical rotor slot passing frequency components.
Chapter 11 presents industrial case histories on miscellaneous problems such as
mechanical resonance in a vertical induction motor drive and vibration and acoustic
noise from induction motors supplied by inverters.
Chapter 12 presents an appraisal on VSA to diagnose faults in rolling element
bearings. A discussion is provided on the key outcome that end users hope to achieve
from vibration monitoring, which is the prognosis of remaining operational life of a
SCIM after a fault is diagnosed.
It is also reiterated, via more photographic evidence, that access to mount tempor-
ary accelerometers directly on the bearing housings of rolling element bearings used in
induction motors can be difficult.
Guidelines are given for grease management of rolling element bearings because of
the predominance of failures being caused by incorrect greasing practice.

Preface xvii
Industrial end users, motor manufacturers, condition monitoring companies and

repairers of induction motors are the target market for this book. It is not a classical
academic text for undergraduate university or college courses. However, it may well
be of interest to post-graduate research students and academic staff with a specific
interest in condition monitoring of induction motor drives because the case histories
demonstrate what the real challenges are in industry.
This book is not suited to having questions at the end of each chapter and readers
can contact the author directly if they have questions on its content.
William T. Thomson (Bill)
Telephone: +44 19755 62446
e-mail: [email protected]

About the Author
Bill was born in Scotland in 1946 and started his career in 1961 as a maintenance
electrician. He has worked with induction motors at all levels from craft apprentice
through to appointment as a professor in electrical machines in 1990. For the past
20 years he has been, and still is, the managing director of his own company providing
consulting services in condition monitoring of electrical machines and drives.
Evening class study provided the vocational qualifications to enter the University of
Strathclyde (Glasgow, Scotland) in 1970. In 1973 he graduated with an Honours degree
in Electrical & Electronic Engineering specialising in electrical machines. From 1973 to
1977 he was a noise and vibration engineer with Hoover Ltd. In 1977 he was awarded a
master’s degree from the University of Strathclyde for a research thesis entitled ‘Reduc-
tion of Acoustic Noise and Vibration from Small-Power Electric Motors’. From 1977 to
1979, Bill was a lecturer in electrical power at the Hong Kong Polytechnic and from
1979 until 2001 he was a lecturer (1979–83), senior lecturer (1983–90) and professor
(1990–2001) at Robert Gordon University in Aberdeen, Scotland. In 1980, Bill initiated
his research on condition monitoring of induction motors and received research funding
from power utilities and major oil companies. The focus of the research was on the
industrial application of vibration analysis and Motor Current Signature Analysis
(MCSA) to diagnose faults in induction motors and drives before failures occur. Bill
successfully supervised ten PhD and eight MPhil students.
He left academia in 2001 to start his own company and is the Director and principal
consultant of EM Diagnostics Ltd providing consultancy services on the operation and
condition monitoring of induction motors to power stations, petrochemical refineries, natural
gas refineries and offshore oil and gas production platforms. He has published 72 papers on
condition monitoring of induction motors in engineering journals such as IEEE Transactions
(USA), IEE Proceedings (UK), and at International IEEE and IEE (IET, UK) conferences.
He is the co-author of an IEEE Press Wiley publication in 2017: William T. Thomson
and Ian Culbert, Current Signature Analysis for Condition Monitoring of Cage Induction
Motors: Industrial Application and Case Histories. Bill is a SMIEEE, FIEE (IET) in the
UK and a chartered professional engineer registered in the UK. He was awarded the
Queen’s award for technological achievement in 1992 for knowledge input to ‘Motor
monitor’ marketed by Entek, USA. In 1999, Bill provided access to his knowledge on
Motor Current Signature Analysis, via a licence from Robert Gordon University, Scot-
land, to Iris Power, Canada, for the development of an MCSA instrument.
xviii
Acknowledgements
Sincere thanks are expressed to Mr Archie Low and Mr Donald Sutherland, formerly
of Robert Gordon University (RGU), Scotland, for their indispensable contributions to
the design and construction of fault producing, 3-phase induction motor test rigs.
The author greatly acknowledges Mr Ellis Hood (see biography), former senior
lecturer at RGU for his invaluable input on checking the manuscript and for the many
technical suggestions he made to improve its content and style of presentation.
Very sincere thanks are expressed to Dr Muni Gunawardene (see biography),
consultant, EM Diagnostics Ltd, for his excellent drawings and presentation of
vibration spectra and for his technical contributions.
Mr Alistair Carr is acknowledged for his excellent advice and contributions that he
provided to the author to produce Sections 9.1.1 through to 9.1.2.4, which cover an
introduction to sleeve bearings in large HV induction motors. Alistair is a senior
electrical machines consultant with EM Diagnostics Ltd (author is the Director) and
was appointed in November 2014. He was formerly Head of Test with Parsons
Peebles, Scotland, and was employed by this company for 42 years.
Mr Bill Lockley, Life Fellow of IEEE, Calgary, Canada, is duly acknowledged for
his invaluable and private review of the manuscript, which was by personal invitation
from the author.
Bill dedicates this book to his wife, Mary Thomson, for her irreplaceable support,
patience and encouragement throughout his career which made the writing of this
book become a reality; without Mary, it would not have been possible.
William T. Thomson
xix
Biographies of Personnel in the
Acknowledgements
Ellis Hood BSc (Eng) Hons 2.1 MIEE CEng FTC (coms) CGLI
1953–55: Telecommunications Engineering training.

1955–57: National Service in RAF, wireless training, second line maintenance on
V Bomber gear.
1957–60: UK Post Office Technical Officer in Training – POED.
1960–66: Post Office Technical Officer, Line Transmission. Passed Post Office
Executive Engineers Board (1970).
1970–73: Lecturer in Telecomms and Electrical Engineering, Aberdeen Technical
College.
1973–77: Napier University, Edinburgh, Lecturer in Electrical Engineering.
1977–79: Secondary School Teacher of Mathematics – Hilton Academy Aberdeen.
1979–90: Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen. Lecturer (1979–84), Senior Lecturer
(1984–90) in Telecomms andElectrical Engineering, Course leader on HND course
in Electrical Engineering, 1979–88 and course leader on combined BSc/HND
course – the first of its kind in Scotland, 1988–90.
Education
1953: Scottish Higher Leaving Certificate.
1953–55/64–66: Full Technological Certificate in Telecommunications CGLI.
1966–70: BSc Electrical Engineering (Hons 2.1), University of Aberdeen, Scotland.
1971–72: Further Education Teaching Certificate in Engineering and Mathematics
1971–72.
1977: PGSCE Secondary Mathematics Teaching Certificate.
1984: MIERE CEng, MIEE 1987.
Dr G. W. D. M. Gunawardene BSc, MSc, PhD
1973–74: Gresham Lion Electronics, Twickenham, Middlesex, Test Technician.

1974–75: INSPEC, IEE, Hitchin, Hertfordshire, Technical Publications Inspector.
1976–79: Sheffield City Polytechnic, now Sheffield Hallam University, Research
Assistant.
1979–2010: Robert Gordon University, Lecturer.
xx
Biographies of Personnel in the Acknowledgements xxi
Education
1955–67: Moratu Maha Vidyalaya, Moratuwa, Sri Lanka, Primary and Secondary
Education.
1967–69: Katubedda Technical College, Sri Lanka, Technician Course.
1969–73: Kingston Polytechnic, Middlesex, BSc Electrical Engineering.
1975–76: University of Bradford, MSc Control Engineering.
1976–79: Sheffield City Polytechnic, now Sheffield Hallam University, PhD.
Publications
(1) G. W. D. M. Gunawardene and M. J. Grimble, Development of a Static Model for
a Sendzimir Cold Rolling Mill, IMACS Symposium on Control Systems, Technical
University, Vienna, Sept. 1978.
(2) G. W. D. M. Gunawardene, M. J. Grimble and A. Thomson, Static Model for
Sendzimir Cold Rolling Mill, Metals Technology, July 1981.
(3) Static Model of a Sendzimir Mill for Use in Shape Control, PhD thesis, 1982.
(4) G. W. D. M. Gunawardene and E. Forest, Controllability of Linear Control
Systems using Gilbert and Kalman Criteria, International Journal of
Mathematical Education, Sept. 1996.
Achievements
A programme to calculate the conditions of Sendzimir Cold Rolling Mill when loaded
was developed during the research period which was bought by two steel companies
in USA and Sweden.

Nomenclature
Quantity Unit
Quantity symbol Unit symbol
Acceleration a Metres per second squared m/s2

Angular frequency ω Radians per second rad/s
Ball diameter in rolling element BD Millimetres mm
bearing
Bearing dynamic capacity C Newtons N
Bearing rating life L10 Hours hr
Centrifugal force C.F. Newtons N
Coil distribution factor kd Number –
Coil span factor ks Number –
Contact angle of bearing surface β Degrees e.g. 40
to outer race
Current (r.m.s.) I Ampere A
Decibel – – dB
Displacement d Metres or millimetres m or mm
Electromagnetic force Fem Newtons N
Equivalent bearing load P Newtons N
Frequency of mains supply f1 Hertz Hz
Frequency of rotational speed of fr Hertz Hz
rotor
Fundamental rotational 1X Hertz Hz
frequency of vibration
Flux density B Tesla T
Full-load current If.l. Amperes A
Induced voltage in stator E Volts V
winding per phase
Line current IL Amperes A
Line voltage VL Voltage V
Lubricating viscosity vc Centistokes cSt
Magnetic flux Φ Weber Wb
Mass m Kilograms kg
Number of turns NT Integer –
Number of rolling elements ne Integer –
Pole pairs p Integer –
Power output P Kilowatts or horsepower kW or
H.P.
Power input to the induction Pin Kilowatts kW
motor
xxii
Nomenclature xxiii
(cont.)
Quantity Unit
Quantity symbol Unit symbol
Power factor p.f. Number –

Pitch diameter of rolling PD Millimetres mm
element bearing
Rotor slotting vibration frv Hertz Hz
frequency component
Rotor speed Nr Revolutions per minute r/min
Relative permeability of free µ0 Henry per metre H/m
space
Rotor bars or slots R Integer –
Synchronous speed Ns Revolutions per minute r/min
Slip s – Number
or %
Slip at full-load speed sf.l. – Number
or %
Speed n Revolutions per minute r/min
Time t Seconds s
Torque T Newton metre N·m
Torque – full-load Tf.l. Newton metre N·m
Torque – starting Ts Newton metre N·m
Turns per phase Nph Integer –
Voltage V Volts or kilovolts V or kV
Volt-amps VA Volt-amperes VA
Velocity v Metres per second or m/s or
millimetres per second mm/s

Acronyms and Abbreviations
API American Petroleum Institute, USA

ASWLP Auxiliary Sea Water Lift Pump
BD Ball Diameter
BPFI Ball Pass Frequency Inner Race
BPFO Ball Pass Frequency Outer Race
BS British Standard
BSF Ball Spin Frequency
CCGT Combined Cycle Gas Turbine
C.F. Centrifugal Force
CM Condition Monitoring
DE Drive End
DEA Drive End Axial
DEH Drive End Horizontal
DEV Drive End Vertical
FAT Factory Acceptance Test
FFT Fast Fourier Transform
FLC Full Load Current
FLT Full Load Torque
FPSO Floating Production and Oil Off-loading ship
FTF Fundamental Train Frequency
GRF Gas Recirculating Fan
HV High Voltage
H.P. Horse Power
ISO International Standards Organization
LNG Liquid Natural Gas
LV Low Voltage
MCSA Motor Current Signature Analysis
NDE Non Drive End
NDEA Non Drive End Axial
NDEH Non Drive End Horizontal
NDEV Non Drive End Vertical
NEMA National Electrical Machines Association, USA
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer
OIM Offshore Installation Manager
xxiv
Acronyms and Abbreviations xxv
PD Pitch Diameter
PM Planned Maintenance
QA Quality Assurance
QC Quality Control
r.m.s. (or R.M.S.) Root Mean Square
R&D Research and Development
RCFA Root Cause Failure Analysis
RTD Resistance Temperature Detector
SCIM Squirrel Cage Induction Motor
SPM Shock Pulse Measurement or Method
SRIM Slip Ring Induction Motor
SRP Sulphate Removal Pump
SWIP Sea Water Injection Pump
TEFC Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled
VSA Vibration Spectrum Analysis

Relevant Units of Equivalence Useful
for this Book
Metric/SI units Imperial
1.0 m 39.4 inches

25.4 mm 1.0 inch
1.0 mm 0.0394 inches/39.4 mils (ffi40 thou/mils)
50 μm 2.0 thou/mils
25 mm/s 1.0 inch/s
1.0 mm/s ffi0.04 inches/s
1.0 kg 2.2046 lbs (ffi2.2 lbs)
1.0 N 0.2248 lbsf (ffi0.225 lbsf )
1.0 Nm 0.73756 lbsf-ft (ffi0.738 lbsf-ft)
1.0 kg-m2 0.042 lbs-ft2
1.0 N/m2 145 10–6 lbsf/inch2
745.7 W (ffi746 W) 1.0 H.P.
xxvi
1 Vibration Monitoring of Induction
Motors and Case Histories on
Shaft Misalignment and Soft Foot
1.1 Introduction
Induction motors dwarf all other types of electric motors because they are used in
their hundreds of millions throughout industry around the world. Without the
induction motor, which was invented and successfully patented in the USA by
Nikola Tesla in 1888 (see references [1.1] and [1.2]), modern society as we know it
today would probably not exist. It is without doubt one of the greatest inventions
of all time but one which is sadly not common knowledge worldwide. It is well
known that induction motors typically consume between 40% and 50% of the
generated electricity [1.3] in an industrialised nation and are often referred to as
the workhorses of industry. A condition assessment of their operational integrity
via condition monitoring is normal practice by industrial users to prevent the
following:
(i) catastrophic failures
(ii) unscheduled downtime and lost (delayed) production and income
(iii) hazardous conditions that may lead to major accidents.
Maintenance strategies can be streamlined to be more reliable and cost effective.
The primary objective of this book is as follows:
To present industrial case histories on vibration measurements and analysis to diagnose
faults in induction motors.
This book avoids duplicating material already published on the theory of

induction motors (see references [1.23] to [1.29]), and on basic concepts and
theory of vibration measurements, signal processing and vibration analysis, since
there is an abundance of published literature on these topics and typical samples
are given in references [1.4] to [1.20]. The World Wide Web has many sites that
can provide information on vibration spectrum analysis [1.21]. A glossary of
terms is unnecessary due to easy access to definitions of vibration terms via the
Web; for example, an excellent vibration analysis dictionary can be accessed via
reference [1.22].
1
2 Vibration Monitoring of Induction Motors and Case Histories
1.1.1 Overview of Causes of Vibration Problems in Induction Motors

A seminal textbook [1.30] on the nature of induction motors for information on the
theoretical principles of electromagnetic forces and consequential vibration and
acoustic noise from induction motors, and a paper [1.33] by the same author, titled
Magnetic Noise in Poly-phase Induction Motors, are both recommended. A paper
[1.34] titled Understanding the Vibration Forces in Induction Motors, which focuses
on the causes of electromagnetic forces and associated electromechanical aspects, is
recommended for further reading. This paper [1.34] presents five industrial case
histories, and these are:
(i) stator core 120 Hz vibration transmitted to shaft and bearing housings
(ii) rotor thermal bow due to smeared laminations
(iii) rotor bar breakage on a compressor drive
(iv) demonstration of non-linear damping of oil film
(v) demonstration of vibration modulation at one times slip speed.
Several papers have also been published – see references [1.35] to [1.44] – on
motor vibration problems that also include vibration monitoring and analysis used to
diagnose a range of faults. The reader is encouraged to read these papers, particularly
reference [1.40], titled An Analytical Approach to Solving Motor Vibration
Problems. The author of this new book has also published papers on electromagnetic
forces and vibration produced by cage induction motors as a function of airgap
eccentricity, broken rotor bars and voltage unbalance – samples of which are given
in references [1.46] to [1.54]. A book titled Condition Monitoring of Rotating
Electrical Machines [1.55] presents a chapter (No. 8, 33 pages) on vibration
monitoring that covers the principal sources of vibration from electrical machines,
namely:
the dynamic behaviour of the rotating rotor

the response of the shaft bearings to forces and vibration from the rotor
the response of the stator core due to electromagnetic forces and mechanical forces
from the rotor
the response of the stator end windings in large induction motors due to
electromagnetic forces on the conductors.
However, no actual industrial case histories were presented in this reference
[1.55] on vibration monitoring and analysis, which diagnosed faults in induction
motors. The author has reviewed the contents of numerous books on vibration
monitoring and there is no evidence of any book which has, as a central
theme, the presentation of industrial case histories on vibration monitoring and
analysis used to diagnose faults in induction motors. The reader can find a very
extensive list of references on motor vibration and acoustic noise in reference
[1.45].

1.1 Introduction 3
1.1.1.1 Brief Review of Vibration Monitoring to Diagnose Faults in Rolling

Element Bearings in Induction Motors
The references cited in Section 1.1.1 do not, nor were they intended to, present
industrial case histories on vibration monitoring and analysis to diagnose faults in
rolling element bearings used in induction motors. The published literature indicates
that bearing failures account for approximately 50% of failures in induction motors, as
shown in the pie chart in Figure 1.1 [ 1.57].
An excellent presentation (70 slides) by ABB via the World Wide Web [1.58] also
states that approximately 50% of motor failures are caused by rolling element bearing
failures. Owing to this statistic, a review is presented on the application of vibration
analysis to diagnose faults in rolling element bearings. References [1.59] and [1.60]
state that approximately 50% of motor failures are due to bearing failures but they do
not subdivide that 50% to show the relative percentages of failures of rolling element
bearings compared to failures of sleeve bearings.
This needs to be given some consideration. It is very well known and accepted that
the number of rolling element bearings used in induction motors far exceeds those
with sleeve bearings and Chapter 4 expands on this with examples from industrial
sites. Note that failure statistics of electric motors can vary widely between industries,
their applications and maintenance strategies of the end users. Consequently, statistics
on motor failures need to be treated with some caution and cannot be generally applied
to all industries and different end users because there are numerous complex variables
that influence the statistics and types of motor failures; see references [1.56] to [1.62].
Reference [1.62] can be easily accessed via the Web and gives a very worthwhile
Figure 1.1 Typical distribution of failures in induction motors [1.57]. (A. H. Bonnett, Root Cause
Methodology for Induction Motors; A Step-by-Step Guide to Examining Failure, IEEE Industry
Applications Magazine, 18 (6), 2012, pp. 50–62.)

review titled Large Electric Motor Reliability: What Did the Studies Really Say?, and
the reader is encouraged to read this reference.
Sleeve or journal bearings are mainly, but not exclusively, used in induction motors
with ratings from, typically, 1000 kW/1340 H.P. upwards, and this will be further
discussed and explained in Chapter 9. Because of the predominance of induction
motors with rolling element bearings it is obvious that there will be more failures in
these than in sleeve bearings. However, that is certainly not the sole statistical reason.
Displacement probes are normally fitted in the housings of sleeve bearings as
shown in Figure 1.2 to monitor the peak–peak shaft displacement. An alarm level is
set to alert staff to possible problems and prevents a catastrophic bearing failure
because the motor is tripped out at a pre-set peak–peak displacement level, which is
a function of the bearing clearances and rotor speed.
Many strategic induction motors in industrial plants with rolling element bearings
do not have permanent vibration sensors fitted on the bearing housings as illustrated in
the photographs of Figures 1.3 (a and b), 1.4 and 1.5. For example, many end users
rely on monthly vibration surveys, using temporarily mounted accelerometers to
measure and trend the vibration from rolling element bearings.
It is naïve to suggest that end users should simply retrofit permanent accelerometers
after the induction motors are commissioned, because this would require a significant
capital cost investment.
For example, in the petrochemical industry the vibration sensors would often have to
be certified as being intrinsically safe and approved for the hazardous operating zone
Figure 1.2 Photograph of the NDE of a sleeve bearing assembly on a 3-phase, 6.6 kV, 2800 kW,
290 A, 60 Hz, 3575 r/min, p.f. = 0.85, eff = 96%, SCIM fitted with displacement probes.

1.1 Introduction 5
Figure 1.3a Photograph of the NDE of a 3-phase, 6.6 kV, 750 kW/1000 H.P., SCIM.
Figure 1.3b Photograph of the DE of a 3-phase, 6.6 kV, 750 kW/1000 H.P., SCIM.
Figure 1.4 Photograph of a 3-phase, 415 V, 75 kW/100 H.P., SCIM.

Figure 1.5 Photograph of a 3-phase, 415 V,185 kW/250 H.P., SCIM – coupling guard prevents
access to the DE bearing housing.
which further increases the capital costs. Flame-proof motors and certified hazardous
zone SCIMs must be re-certified by the OEM to permit mounting permanent vibration
sensors on the bearing housings. The reality is that, in many industrial plants, where
permanent vibration sensors were not installed on the bearing housings of induction
motors by the OEM before shipment to industry, they are rarely retrofitted.
A crucial practical factor that is very rarely mentioned in published papers or in
condition monitoring books is as follows:
It is often impossible to mount temporary accelerometers directly on both the DE and NDE
rolling element bearing housings of induction motors.
This is illustrated in Figures 1.3 (a and b) to 1.5 and will also be discussed and
further verified in case histories presented in Chapters 4 to 8. When the vibration
cannot be measured directly on the bearing housings, the vibration and spectra at the
positions where it is measured will obviously be different from that on the bearing
housing. Therefore, the analysis is more complex because the mechanical impedance
(stiffness) between the bearing housing and the positions of vibration measurements
can attenuate or amplify the vibration, the latter being the case from a fan cowl.
There is an additional complexity in the content of vibration from an induction
motor compared to the vibration from a pump, fan or compressor because the former
produces inherent electromagnetic forces and consequential vibration [1.30] to
[1.44] – see also Chapter 10 in this book. The closer the accelerometer is to the stator
frame (and core), for example on the outer periphery of an end frame, the greater the
effects that electromagnetic forces can have on the measured vibration.
One of the most informative books on vibration analysis to diagnose faults in
rolling element bearings is by Taylor and Kirkland, titled The Bearing Analysis
Handbook [1.63]. Case histories are presented in three chapters with definitive
predictions. However, there are only four of 21 case histories on diagnosing faults
in rolling element bearings in electric motors.

1.1 Introduction 7
Taylor and Kirkland’s book [1.63] is not dedicated to diagnosing rolling element
bearing faults in induction motors. It was never intended to, since it covers a wide
range of rotating mechanical plant with rolling element bearings. The largest electric
motor, which was covered in the four case histories on detecting bearing faults, in
Taylor and Kirkland’s [1.63] book was 224 kW/300 H.P., whereas there is a case
history presented in Section 6.2 in this book on the diagnosis of rolling element
bearing defects in an 1139 kW/1600 H.P. SCIM.
Condition monitoring companies and OEMs of vibration instruments and software
often present end users with vibration diagnostic charts, which give vibration charac-
teristics caused by faults in electric motors. A comprehensive vibration diagnostic
chart was published in reference [1.40], which makes the following points, with which
the author of this book agrees.
(i) Many different problems either electrical or mechanical in nature can cause
vibration at the same or similar frequencies.
(ii) One must look closely to differentiate between the true sources of vibration.
During the past 40 years the author has reviewed numerous reports on behalf of end
users that were written by vibration monitoring companies who conclude by stating the
problem could be, may be or might be this, that or the other and the end user was left to
make the final diagnosis and decide what action to take. The end users do not want
uncertainties. The case histories in this book give clear predictions and actions to be taken.
1.1.2 Overview of Shaft Misalignment

Theoretical coverage of three-dimensional misalignment forces is not required to
support the case histories presented in this chapter because the focus is on the
application of vibration spectrum analysis to detect shaft misalignment. For technical
information on shaft alignment and its practical application in industry the reader is
referred to the following books, references [1.64] and[1.65].
There is also an excellent white paper (62 pages) on a practical guide to shaft
alignment; see reference [1.66]. With respect to the industrial case histories that
follow, it is adequate to simply illustrate the different types of misalignment which
are shown in Figures 1.6 to 1.10.
Figure 1.6 Illustration of parallel misalignment.

Figure 1.7 Illustration of axial misalignment.
Figure 1.8 Illustration of angular misalignment.
Figure 1.9 Misaligned shafts prior to coupling being made up.
Horizontal parallel misalignment is often the most critical and gives rise to shaft
reaction forces in the direction of displacement as shown in Figures 1.9 and 1.10.
One of the major effects of shaft misalignment in an induction motor drive is the
production in a specific radial direction of rotor pre-load, which produces a radial
force that can push the rotor to the side. The rotor can in fact become displaced from
its original position resulting in a higher eccentricity level inside the seals and
bearings. In extreme cases it is also possible for the rotor to become bowed and rotate
in a bow configuration. This means that misalignment can change the radial airgap
length due to a change in dynamic airgap eccentricity [1.32]. It is well known that
misalignment can cause coupling failure and premature wear and consequential failure
of bearings in induction motors.

1.1 Introduction 9
Figure 1.10 Deflected shape after coupling is made up.
1.1.2.1 Motor Soft Foot

Soft foot is the term used to describe the following conditions:
(i) The mounting feet of the motor are uneven as illustrated in Figure 1.11a.
(ii) The surface of the mounting base for the motor is uneven as shown in
Figure 1.11b.
When soft foot exists, and the motor is coupled to the driven load this fault can
cause consequential shaft misalignment. Note that soft foot can develop over time due
to corrosion and rusting of shims and/or the mounting base. First-line overall vibration
measurements and VSA applied to an induction motor drive train can detect the
existence of abnormal misalignment.1
This will be shown in the case histories in this chapter, but identification of the type
of shaft misalignment and its fundamental cause cannot be reliably identified by solely
using VSA. The drive train needs to be shut down and alignment measurements
carried out, using optical or laser alignment or by traditional manual alignment; see
references [1.64] and [1.65].
In the first instance, it is wise to carry out a visual inspection of the motor’s base-
plate for any evidence of rust and loose fixing bolts. An initial indication of soft foot
can be achieved by using a dial gauge on each foot mount and each bolt sequentially
loosened and tightened.
Typically, more than 0.05 mm (i.e. 2 mils/thou) movement normally indicates soft
foot. The vibration measurements should be repeated during an uncoupled run
followed by tightening all the bolts to the same applied torque. Each bolt should be
sequentially slackened and retightened in sequence and vibration measurements
repeated. A soft foot problem will normally be obvious because the overall vibration
levels on the bearing housings and foot mounts will normally change as this check
proceeds.
1
Abnormal misalignment: end users often set a misalignment limit of 0.05 mm/0.002 inches in each of the
parallel, axial and radial planes.

Figure 1.11a Illustrations of soft foot produced by the motor.
Figure 1.11b Illustrations of soft foot produced by the mounting base, note that soft foot can also
occur in the axial direction.
1.1.3 Vibration due to Shaft Misalignment and/or Soft Foot

Industrial case histories will verify that VSA can diagnose shaft misalignment prob-
lems in induction motor drives. Vibration spectrum analysis, with no phase measure-
ments, was used in the case histories which follow and only the key vibration
characteristics are considered, since VSA alone cannot reliably determine the actual
type of shaft misalignment.
There is still some debate on the vibration components which are truly affected or
produced by each specific type of shaft misalignment, but it is incontestable that
misalignment produces changes in the vibration spectra, which are identifiable. This is
demonstrated in each case history in this chapter, because subsequent re-alignment
produced a normal vibration spectrum at the bearings.
The centrifugal force (C.F.) produced by inherent rotor imbalance in an induction
motor is constant provided the rotor’s mechanical imbalance and speed are constant.
The C.F. rotates at the speed of the rotor and produces the fundamental 1X vibration
component. For the avoidance of doubt the use of 1X in this book is defined as:

1.1 Introduction 11
The fundamental rotational speed frequency in Hz produced by the rotor.

The 1X component is not given in units of r.p.m. or c.p.m. because it applies to vibration
frequency spectra.
If the motor does not have soft foot and the shaft misalignment between the motor
and mechanical load in all planes is a minimum, then the velocity of the 1X component
should not normally vary significantly around the periphery of the bearing housings at
the DE and NDE.
In contrast, the forces produced by shaft misalignment are unlikely to be similar
around the radius of the bearing housing or outer periphery of the end frames and
therefore the magnitude of the velocity in one radial direction can be different from the
velocity in another radial direction. The generic condition of shaft misalignment can
cause the following vibration characteristics:
An increase in the magnitude of the 1X velocity component on the motor’s feet and/
or the bearing housing in the radial direction.
A high magnitude of the 2X velocity component, for example two or three times
greater than the velocity of the 1X component, for example, in the axial direction at
the DE.
Harmonics of the 1X component may occur due to shaft misalignment, which may
also be a by-product of soft foot in the motor mounting.
Shaft misalignment may cause high horizontal velocity at one end of the motor
whereas it can be high in the vertical direction at the other end. An increase in rotor
imbalance does not normally produce this vibration characteristic.
1.1.3.1 Preparatory Guidelines for Vibration Monitoring of Induction Motors

Before carrying out vibration condition monitoring of induction motors there are two
preparatory stages, namely, before and during the first on-site visit and these are as
follows.
Prior to visiting the site, the end user should provide the following:
A single source on-site contact.

The drive designations and tag numbers of the induction motors.
The full nameplate data that is held in the end user’s data base.
Information on records of greasing the bearings in induction motors.
History of planned maintenance and faults with dates and repairs.
Have new bearings been installed in any of the motors? If yes, the end user should
provide the numbers of the new bearings installed.
Date when each induction motor drive was last aligned.
Historical records of vibration measurements from induction motors.
During the first on-site visit carry out the following:
Record the nameplate data directly from all induction motors to be monitored and
compare with the end user's data base.

A look and listen tour (this excludes touch because surfaces can be hot) of the motors
to be vibration monitored noting any unusual noises and also evidence of rust on
the base-plates and at the edges of mounting shims.
If permitted take photos of the motors and focus on accessibility of the DE and NDE
bearing housings and the size of accelerometers required to be mounted on them via
magnets.
1.1.4 Introductory Industrial Case History – Normal Shaft Misalignment and no Soft Foot
in a 230 kW/308 H.P. SCIM Pump Drive
Abstract – This introductory case history illustrates that meticulous attention to detail
is essential for reliable vibration measurements and VSA to diagnose faults in induc-
tion motors.2 This case history is deliberately prescriptive and a detailed flow chart
(Section 1.1.4.1) for vibration measurements and VSA presents the method used by
the author.
1.1.4.1 Procedures for Vibration Measurements and Vibration Spectrum

Analysis (VSA) of SCIMs
For This Case History

Three SCIMs Driving Condensate Extraction Pumps
Tag numbers: DM 2501A, B, C; serial numbers: 8110004336.01/1/2/3.
Nameplate data: 3-phase, SCIM, 11 kV, 230 kW/300 H.P., 14 A,
50 Hz, 2957 r/min, 0.9 p.f., eff = 95.8%,
DE and NDE bearings, 6317 M C3 deep groove ball bearings.*
Preparations for On-Site Vibration Measurements

The accelerometer shown in Figures 1.14 to 1.16 with its magnetic attachment can
be mounted at the positions shown in Figures 1.12 and 1.13.
Its main features are: 100 mV/g 10%; linear frequency response: 2–15 kHz
5%; mounted base resonance nominally: 22 kHz 10%; 25 grams/ 1.0 ounce.
This accelerometer can be mounted directly on the bearing housings via a
magnet and owing to its small dimensions and light weight will not alter the
response of the vibrating surface.
On-Site Vibration Measurements – Basic Preparations

Operating currents: D2501A = 10.8 A, D2501B = 10.8 A, D2501C = 10.6 A.
Full-load speed from nameplate = Nr = 2957 r/min.
2
Normal shaft misalignment: typically less than 0.05 mm/0.002 inches in each of the parallel, axial and
radial planes.
*See Section 2.1.1: M = brass cage, C3 = radial clearance; bore diameter = 5 17 = 85 mm.

1.1 Introduction 13
(cont.)
Full-load slip, sf :l: ¼ N sNN
s
r
¼ 30002957
3000 ¼ 0:0143 pu ð1:43%Þ.
The full-load 1X rotational speed frequency fr = 2957/60 = 49.28 Hz.
The operational current of each motor ˂ full-load current; therefore, the rota-
tional speed Nr will be greater than the rated full-load speed at 2957 r/min and
likewise the 1X component will be greater than 49.28 Hz.
Vibration Instrument Specification and Spectrum Analysis Settings

The vibration instrument should be able to measure overall r.m.s., peak and peak–
peak velocity.
The instrument should have the facility to produce a linear and a dB velocity
spectrum (mm/s or dB vs frequency) with 12,800 spectral lines over the frequency
span selected. A vibration time domain display is also required.
Select a frequency span from 10–1000 Hz, and 12,800 spectral lines and
measure the overall r.m.s. or peak velocities at the positions shown in Figures 1.12
and 1.13.
For this motor select the velocity spectrum mode with a span of 10–1000 Hz,
12,800 spectral lines and therefore a line frequency resolution of 0.078 Hz/line and
record the spectra at all positions on each motor.
Select the velocity spectrum with a span of 10–120 Hz, 12,800 spectral lines and
a line frequency resolution of 0.0086 Hz/line and record the spectra at all positions
on each motor. The reason for this span and frequency resolution is to ensure
reliable separation of frequency components, 2X and 2f1.
*See Section 2.1.1: M = brass cage, C3 = radial clearance; bore diameter = 5 17 = 85 mm.
Figure 1.12 Positions of accelerometers on the NDE end frame and the motor’s mounting base.

Figure 1.13 Positions of accelerometers on the DE bearing housing and end frame.
Figure 1.14 Accelerometer.
Figure 1.15 Accelerometer with magnet (flux density 0.32 tesla/3200 gauss).

1.1 Introduction 15
Figure 1.16 Dimensions of accelerometer.
1.1.4.2 Overall R.M.S. Velocities

The results are presented in Table 1.1 and the highest velocity measured from the three
SCIMs was only 1.0 mm/s r.m.s. 10% at the DEH position on DM-2501B. The
British Standard (BS) 60034-14 -2004 [1.68] allows up to 2.3 mm/s r.m.s. with this
motor running uncoupled on a large, solid steel base plate (rigid mounting) – see
Table 1.2.
Note that the NEMA MG 1-2006 [1.69] vibration standard allows 3.0 mm/s peak
(see sections 7.8.1, 7.8.2 and table 7-1 in the standard) on a rigid mounting – see
Table 1.3. Therefore, these high-speed 2-pole SCIMs were running very smoothly
indeed.
1.1.4.3 Vibration Spectrum Analysis

The velocity spectra were recorded using two different baseband frequency spans of
10–1000 Hz and 10–120 Hz to provide base-line spectra for future comparisons, and
the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) [1.19, 1.20], had 12,800 spectral lines to give line
resolutions of 0.078 Hz/line and 0.0086 Hz/line respectively for the frequency
spans used.
As an illustration, only one set of velocity spectra is presented, which is for the
SCIM in slot DM2501A, since the spectra for the other two motors are very similar.
(i) Figure 1.17 shows the 1X component at 49.5 Hz at a velocity of 0.4 mm/s r.m.s.,
which is due to inherent mechanical imbalance in the rotor. The OEM confirmed
that the rotor was balanced to G1.0 grade, ISO 1940-1:2003 [1.67], hence the low
velocity of this component.
(ii) The analysis of the 10–500 Hz spectrum displays only one component at 100 Hz
of 0.46 mm/s r.m.s. (the highest) because the spectral line resolution was 0.078
Hz/line in Figure 1.17. The 2f1 and 2X components cannot be reliably separated
in this spectrum.

Table 1.1 Overall r.m.s. velocity levels in mm/s r.m.s., to within 10%.
Frequency span: 10–1000 Hz
Condensate export circulation pump DM-2501A 8110004336.01/1
Vertical Horizontal Axial
DE bearing housing 0.7 0.6 0.6

NDE end frame 0.6 0.66 Not accessible
Condensate export circulation pump DM-2501B 8110004336.01/2

Condensate export circulation pump DM-2501C 8110004336.01/3

Table 1.2 Limits of maximum velocity in mm/s r.m.s. – shaft height H
BS 60034–14–2004 [1.67], rigid mounting
Shaft height in mm Shaft height in mm Shaft height in mm

56 H 132 132 H 2802 H ˃280
1.3 mm/s r.m.s. 1.8 mm/s r.m.s. 2.3 mm/s r.m.s.
Table 1.3 Unfiltered vibration limits – resiliently mounted motors USA NEMA standards. MG 1,
section 7.8 [1.68]
r/min
@ Velocity Velocity r/min @ Velocity Velocity
60 Hz inches/s peak mm/s peak 50 Hz inches/s peak mm/s peak
3600 0.15/0.12* 3.8/3.0* 3000 0.15/0.12* 3.8/3.0*

1800 0.15/0.12* 3.8/3.0* 1500 0.15/0.12* 3.8/3.0*
1200 0.15/0.12* 3.8/3.0* 1000 0.13/0.1* 3.3/2.6*
900 0.12/0.096* 3.0/0.24* 750 0.1/0.08* 2.5/2.0*
720 0.09/0.072* 2.3/0.18* 600 0.08/0.064* 2.0/1.6*
600 0.08/0.064* 2.0/0.16* 500 0.07/0.056* 1.7/1.4*
NOTE: For motors with a rigid mounting, multiply values in Table 1.3 by 0.8: the corrected
values for rigid mounting have an asterisk *.

1.1 Introduction 17
Figure 1.17 DE vertical bearing housing velocity Figure 1.18 DE vertical bearing housing velocity
spectrum. zoom spectrum.
Figure 1.19 DE horizontal bearing housing velocity Figure 1.20 DE horizontal bearing housing velocity
(iii) Note that a measured component at 100 Hz suggests it is the twice supply
frequency component at 2f1, which is caused by the fundamental electromagnetic
force in a SCIM, see Section 10.1.1 and Appendix 10A.
(iv) Separation of the 2f1 and 2X was achieved by analysis of a 10–120 Hz spectrum,
with a line resolution of 0.0086 Hz/line and the zoom analysis is presented in
Figure 1.18.
(v) The 2X component is only 0.12 mm/s r.ms., whereas the 2f1 component at 100 Hz
is 0.42 mm/s r.m.s., which is 3.3 times greater than the velocity at 2X.
The reason for focusing on separating the frequency components at 2f1 and 2X (for
a 2-pole SCIM) is that the component at 100 Hz in Figure 1.17 is often referred to as
the 2X component which in this case, it is not, and its frequency is not given.
When diagnosing a shaft misalignment problem, the 2X component can, but
certainly not always, be an indicator of shaft misalignment if it has a substantially
higher velocity, for example, two to three times higher than the velocity of the 1X
component. This is certainly not the case in this case history. The velocity spectra for
the other positions on motor DM-2501A are shown in Figures 1.19 to 1.26.
The overall r.m.s. velocities measured next to the fixing bolts on each motor are
presented in Table 1.4.

Figure 1.21 DE axial bearing housing velocity Figure 1.22 DE axial bearing housing velocity zoom
spectrum. spectrum.
Figure 1.23 NDE vertical bearing housing velocity Figure 1.24 NDE vertical bearing housing velocity
Figure 1.25 NDE horizontal bearing housing Figure 1.26 NDE horizontal bearing housing velocity
velocity spectrum. zoom spectrum.

1.2 Industrial Case History – Diagnosis of Misalignment in a 554 kW/743 H.P. SCIM 19
Table 1.4 Overall r.m.s. velocities 10%, next to the motor’s fixing bolts; 10–1000 Hz
DM-2501A DM-2501A DM-2501A DM-2501A

FV1: 0.7 mm/s FV2: 0.6 mm/s FV3: 0.7 mm/s FV4: 0.6 mm/s
FH1: 0.24 mm/s FH2: 0.3 mm/s FH3: 0.26 mm/s FH4: 0.3 mm/s
DM-2501B DM-2501B DM-2501B DM-2501B
FV1: 0.7 mm/s FV2: 0.67 mm/s FV3: 0.8 mm/s FV4: 0.74 mm/s
FH1: 0.5 mm/s FH2: 0.6 mm/s FH3: 0.4 mm/s FH4: 0.3 mm/s
1.1.5 Conclusions
All the vibration spectra were acceptable on the DE bearing housing and on the outer
periphery of the NDE’s end frame of the motor in Tag slot DM-2501A. The highest
velocity of the 1X component was only 0.4 mm/s r.m.s. in the vertical direction on the
bearing housing at the DE. The velocities of the 2X components at all positions are
very low with the highest being only 0.12 mm/s r.m.s. in the vertical direction on the
DE bearing housing of DM-2501A.
There is no evidence whatsoever of an above normal shaft misalignment (e.g. ˃
0.05 mm/2 mils in of the alignment planes). The velocity of the 2f1 component in each
of the spectra due to the fundamental electromagnetic force was normal for a 2-pole
SCIM, with the highest being only 0.42 mm/s r.m.s. in the vertical direction on the DE
bearing housing. The other two motors had very similar velocity spectra.
There are no abnormal velocity levels at any of the positions next to the fixing
down bolts on the three motors and an inspection of Table 1.4 shows that the
velocities in the vertical positions do not differ by more than 0.1 mm/s r.m.s. and
likewise in the horizontal directions. The velocity levels in the vertical and horizontal
directions next to the fixing bolts are virtually the same and there is therefore no
evidence of soft foot in the motor mounting.
The case histories that follow in this chapter will confirm that abnormal levels of
shaft misalignment and soft foot can be diagnosed via VSA.
1.2 Industrial Case History – Diagnosis of Misalignment in a 554 kW/743

H.P. SCIM Driving a Gas Recirculating Fan
1.2.1 Introduction
Abstract – Four nominally identical SCIMs were used to drive gas recirculating
(GRF) fans in a Combined Cycle Gas Turbine (CCGT) fired power station. This

station was originally designed and built in the 1970s to use oil as the fuel source but
has had numerous changes during the past 40 years and is presently a CCGT station.
The nameplate data of the motors was as follows:
3-phase, induction motor

special Trislot [1.32] rotor design
3.3 kV, 554 kW/743 H.P., 110 A, 50 Hz, 740 r/min, star connected.
There were no permanently fitted displacement probes (see Section 5.2.3) in the
housings of the sleeve bearings of the fans or accelerometers on the bearing housings
of the rolling element bearings in the SCIMs.
A photograph of one of the GR fan motors is shown in Figure 1.27 and it is
obvious that access to measure vibration at or close to the NDE bearing is not
possible. This is the practical reality of applying vibration monitoring to SCIMs in
industry and note that there are internal motor cooling fans at the DE and NDE of the
motor, which means that the actual bearing housings are not accessible. There was
very limited access to the end frame of the DE bearing assembly due to the coupling
guard. The only accessible position was next to the grease pipe nipple as shown in
Figure 1.28 at approximately 13.00 hours looking from the DE of the motor through
to the NDE.
The vertical, horizontal and axial vibration on the DE sleeve bearing housings of
the fans could be measured via accelerometers mounted via magnets as shown in
Figures 1.29 to 1.31 but note that the top half of the bearing assembly is a non-
magnetic alloy.
Figure 1.27 Photograph of gas recirculating fan (GRF) motor.

Figure 1.28 Photograph of the motor’s end plate at the DE bearing assembly of a GR fan motors.
Figure 1.29 Photograph of accelerometer in vertical direction on the DE bearing assembly

of GRF2A.
1.2.2 Overall Vibration Measurements

The overall r.m.s. velocities on the motors’ DE and on the DE and NDE sleeve
bearings of the GR fans are presented in Table 1.5. Recall that accelerometers initially
measure acceleration, which is electronically integrated to provide the required vel-
ocity data.
(i) The velocity in the horizontal direction on the fan’s DE bearing of GRF2A was
6.4 mm/s r.m.s., which was five times higher than the velocity (1.3 mm/s) on the
DE bearing housing of the motor.

Table 1.5 Overall velocities in mm/s r.m.s., frequency span 10–1000 Hz
Drive train unit tag slot number: GRF1A
Motor NDE bearing Vertical Horizontal Axial

Not accessible Not accessible Not accessible
Motor DE bearing Radial position as shown in Figure 1.28: 1. 8 mm/s
Fan DE bearing 0.5 mm/s 0.73 mm/s 0.74 mm/s
Fan NDE bearing 0.3 mm/s 0.5 mm/s 0.3 mm/s
Drive train unit tag slot number: GRF1B

Motor DE bearing Radial position as shown in Figure 1.28: 1.4 mm/s
Fan DE bearing 0.9 mm/s 2 mm/s 1.0 mm/s
Drive train unit tag slot number: GRF2A

Fan DE bearing 2.0 mm/s 6.4 mm/s 4.0 mm/s
Drive train unit tag slot number: GRF2B

Fan DE bearing 1.0 mm/s 3 mm/s 2.0 mm/s
Figure 1.30 Photograph of accelerometer in horizontal direction on the DE bearing assembly of

GRF2A fan.

Figure 1.31 Photograph of accelerometer in axial direction on the DE bearing assembly of

GRF2A fan.
(ii) At the NDE of the GRF2A fan the overall r.m.s. velocity in the horizontal
direction on the bearing housing was 1.2 mm/s compared to 6.4 mm/s r.m.s. in
the same direction on the fan’s DE bearing.
(iii) The overall r.m.s. velocity in the axial direction on the DE bearing of the GRF2A
fan was 4 mm/s r.m.s., which was eight times higher than the velocity (0.5 mm/s
r.m.s.) in the axial direction on the NDE bearing housing of the fan.
1.2.3 Vibration Spectrum Analysis Detected Abnormal Misalignment

Owing to the relatively high overall r.m.s. velocity levels of 6.4 mm/s and 4 mm/s on
the GRF2A DE fan bearing compared to the other drives and the much lower levels on
the NDE of GRF2A, there was clearly an indication of a vibration abnormality in the
GRF2A drive train. Spectrum analysis was required to determine the cause of these
abnormal levels.
For comparisons with future vibration measurements, which should be taken at the
same load, the operational current of the motor was recorded at 85 amperes (If.l. = 110 A),
and a corresponding speed of 744 r/min (full-load speed of 740 r/min). The vibration
velocity (r.m.s.) spectra in the vertical, horizontal and axial positions on the DE plain
bearings of the GRF2A fan are presented in Figures 1.32 to 1.37.
1.2.4 Main Conclusions

(i) The 1X frequency component at 12.4 Hz (744 r/min) dominates the vibration
spectra in the horizontal and axial directions of the DE fan bearing of GRF2A at
6.3 mm/s and 3.7 mm/s respectively.
(ii) The horizontal and axial 1X components at the NDE of the fan were only 0.5 and
1.0 mm/s.

Figure 1.32 GRF2A vertical velocity spectrum, Figure 1.33 GRF2A horizontal velocity spectrum,
housing of DE fan bearing. housing of DE fan bearing.
Figure 1.34 GRF2A axial velocity spectrum, housing Figure 1.35 GRF2A vertical velocity spectrum,
of DE fan bearing. housing of NDE fan bearing.
Figure 1.36 GRF2A horizontal velocity spectrum, Figure 1.37 GRF2A axial velocity spectrum, housing
housing of NDE fan bearing. of NDE fan bearing.

(iii) If the relatively high 1X component at 6.3 mm/s r.m.s. in the horizontal direction
on the DE fan bearing housing was due to an increase in the mechanical
imbalance of the fan, then this should normally be also reflected in the horizontal
direction on the NDE fan bearing but it was only 0.5 mm/s r.m.s. Thus, a
mechanical imbalance fan problem was discounted.
(iv) As explained in Section 1.1.3 this vibration characteristic indicates that there is
misalignment between the motor and the DE bearing of the fan. Recall only one
vibration measurement was practically feasible on the motor. The alignment was
checked by power station personnel and the following misalignments were
reported to the author of this book.
From: Ian.Johnston@XXXXXXXX
To: Bill Thomson [email protected]
Subject: Re VIBRATION TESTING
Date: Thu, 24th August 2006 14:42:55 +0100
Bill,
At long last we have finished the alignment checks on GR Fan 2A.
The results are as follows, the motor was 10 thou high and the motor was 22 thou out
towards the turbine hall. As discussed the motor plinth holding down bolts were slack,
retightened approximately 2 turns.
Hope this information is of use to you.
Regards
Ian
Note that towards the turbine hall means towards the DE fan bearing on GRF2A.
Also 10 thou = 10 mils = 0.25 mm and 22 thou = 22 mils = 0.56 mm.
The normal misalignment tolerance used by the power station is typically between
2 thou (0.05 mm) and a maximum of 4 thou (0.1 mm) on these drive trains.
1.2.4.1 Conclusions on VSA after Re-Alignment

With reference to Table 1.6:
(i) Before realignment the 1X component was 6.3 mm/s r.m.s. in the horizontal
direction on the DE bearing housing of the fan (Figure 1.33) and after re-
alignment it dropped to 3 mm/s.
(ii) This reduction of 53%, confirmed that vibration analysis identified the
misalignment problem. The levels were now acceptable, and the results are given
in Table 1.6.
Vibration spectra on the fan’s DE bearing before and after realignment are pre-
sented in Figures 1.38 to 1.43.
The two spectra to compare are presented in Figures 1.40 and 1.41.
The reason for this selection is to verify that the largest change in the 1X component
was in the horizontal direction on the fan’s DE bearing housing.
There were no changes in the 1X component at the vertical and axial positions on the
DE bearing.

Table 1.6 Drive Train Unit Tag Slot Number: GRF2A
Velocity r.m.s. of the 1X frequency component before and after re-alignment
Fan DE bearing Vertical Horizontal Axial

Before: 1.9 mm/s Before: 6.3 mm/s Before: 3.7 mm/s
After: 1.9 mm/s After: 3 mm/s After: 3.6 mm/s
Fan NDE bearing Vertical Horizontal Axial
Before: 0.44 mm/s Before: 1.0 mm/s Before: 0.5 mm/s
After: 0.23 mm/s After: 0.76 mm/s After: 0.26 mm/s
Figure 1.38 GRF2A vertical velocity spectrum, Figure 1.39 GRF2A vertical velocity spectrum,
Figure 1.40 GRF2A horizontal velocity spectrum, Figure 1.41 GRF2A horizontal velocity spectrum,
Table 1.6 shows that the 1X components on the fan’s NDE bearing housing were
normal before realignment and that they dropped to very low levels after
realignment.

1.3 Industrial Case History – Diagnosis of Misalignment on a 7.5 kW/10 H.P. SCIM 27
Figure 1.42 GRF2A axial velocity spectrum, housing Figure 1.43 GRF2A axial velocity spectrum, housing
of DE fan bearing. of DE fan bearing.
1.3 Industrial Case History – Diagnosis of Misalignment on a 7.5 kW/10 H.P.

SCIM – Pump Drive used to Lubricate Sleeve Bearings in a 35 MVA
Generator on an Offshore Oil Production Platform
1.3.1 Introduction
Abstract – Three SCIMs were used to drive pumps that circulate lubrication oil via a
closed loop with an oil header tank to sleeve bearings in three 11 kV, 35 MVA,
synchronous generators operating on an offshore oil production platform. These
motors (see Figure 1.44) were highly critical because if one fails there is a loss of
circulating oil to the plain bearings in the generator, which is then automatically
disconnected.
The offshore installation manager (OIM) was informed by the incumbent vibration
condition monitoring sub-contractor that one of the motors had a bearing fault. No
detailed vibration analysis was presented to the OIM by the technician who took the
vibration measurements, and the diagnosis was based solely on high overall r.m.s.
velocity levels. The OIM contacted the author to provide an independent investi-
gation, which included a one-off visit to the offshore installation and the main
objective was as follows:
To carry out vibration measurements and analysis to ascertain whether there was
truly a faulty bearing in one of the small-power motors.
Neither the vibration measurement positions nor the velocity magnitudes on the frame
of the motor were made available to the author so that no direct comparisons with
earlier measurements could be made.
1.3.2 Overall Vibration Results

The three small-power SCIMs are referred to as motors A, B and C, and motor A was
the subject of the investigation. Only A and C were available for testing as B was

Figure 1.44 Photograph of one of the motors, showing the positions of the accelerometers – the
bearing housings are inaccessible.
off-line because only two generators are required to deliver the load demand. The
motor nameplate data for A and C are as follows:
date of manufacture: 1984

415 V, 7.5 kW/10 H.P., 14.5 A, 50 Hz, 2880 r/min
DE bearing: 6208-2Z-C3
NDE bearing 6206-2Z-C3.
These are deep groove, sealed ball bearings.
Measurements were taken at the positions shown in Figure 1.44 because of the
inaccessibility of the DE and NDE bearing housings. The accelerometers were
mounted via strong magnets and at the NDE were positioned on the bolts securing
the fan cowl directly to the NDE end frame, which provides a direct transmission path
to the end frame and bearing. Axial vibration measurements could not be taken at the
NDE because of the fan cowl.
The author had not previously analysed vibration from these motors. Note that an
‘off-the-shelf’ SCIM of 7.5 kW/10 H.P. is not normally supplied with actual Factory
Acceptance Test (FAT) results from the OEM. The suppliers will merely state that the
vibration levels meet the specifications set by, for example, NEMA MG 2 [1.68] or BS
60034-14-2004 [1.68]. The overall r.m.s. velocities from motors A and C are pre-
sented in Table 1.7.
From Table 1.7, the overall velocities at the DEH, NDEV and NDEH positions on
motor A were 8, 9 and 17 mm/s r.m.s. respectively. Whereas at the same positions on
the identical motor C the highest velocity was 3 mm/s r.m.s. at the NDEH position.

1.3 Industrial Case History – Diagnosis of Misalignment on a 7.5 kW/10 H.P. SCIM 29
Table 1.7 Overall r.m.s. velocities; 10%, 10–1000 Hz
Motor A
Measurement position: DE mounting flange

DEV: 1.5 mm/s DEH: 8 mm/s DEA: 4 mm/s
Measurement position: NDE on bolts securing the fan cowl
NDEV: 9 mm/s NDEH: 17 mm/s NDEA: Not accessible
Motor C
DEV: 1.5 mm/s DEH: 2.4 mm/s DEA: 1.4 mm/s
Measurement position: NDE on bolts securing the fan cowl
NDEV: 1.0 mm/s NDEH: 3.0 mm/s NDEA: Not accessible
Motor A had unacceptably high velocities but before switching off the motor the
velocity spectra were recorded for subsequent interpretation.
1.3.3 Vibration Spectrum Analysis

The velocity spectra from the problem motor A presented in Figures 1.45 to 1.49 were
taken using a frequency span of 10–500 Hz, and a line resolution of 0.078 Hz/line.
Note in particular the comparison between motors A and C presented in
Figures 1.49 and 1.50.
In motor A, the rotational speed frequency component (1X) dominates the velocity
spectra at the DEH and NDEH positions with values of 7.3 (overall 8 mm/s) and 15 mm/s
(overall 17 mm/s) r.m.s. respectively.
Caution should be exercised with respect to the magnitude of the velocity

measured on the holding down bolt for the fan cowl at the NDEH position as
coming solely from the NDE end frame, because the cowl could be amplifying the
vibration.
At the same position (NDEH) on the identical motor C the overall r.m.s. velocity
was only 3.0 mm/s and Figure 1.50 shows that the 1X component was only 2
mm/s, whereas at the same position on motor A it was 17 mm/s (see
Figure 1.48). The bolts holding down the fan cowl on motors’ A and B were all
tightly secured.
The overall r.m.s. velocities at the DEH and NDEH positions from motor
A were unacceptably high (8 and 17 mm/s r.m.s. respectively), particularly
at the NDE position and the high overall velocities were coming from the
dominant 1X component in these velocity spectra. It was obvious from the
velocity spectra that all other components were negligible in comparison to the
1X component

Figure 1.45 Motor A DEV velocity spectrum. Figure 1.46 Motor A DEH velocity spectrum.
Figure 1.47 Motor A DEA velocity spectrum. Figure 1.48 Motor A NDEV velocity spectrum.
Figure 1.49 Motor A NDEH velocity spectrum. Figure 1.50 Motor C NDEH velocity spectrum.

1.4 Industrial Case History – Vibration Analysis Identified Soft Foot 31
1.3.4 Conclusions
(i) The high overall r.m.s. velocities at the DEH and NDEH positions were a result
of the dominant 1X component in each spectrum.
(ii) An increase in the mechanical imbalance in the rotor could possibly cause the
high 1X velocities at the DEH (7 mm/s r.m.s.) and NDEH (15 mm/s r.m.s.).
However, this is highly unlikely in this 7.5 kW/10 H.P. SCIM because the
squirrel cage winding is aluminium die cast. There are no internal cooling fins on
the rotor that could be broken or lose material, since these are an integral part of
the short-circuiting end ring [1.32].
(iii) There is therefore no likely reason for an increase in the mechanical imbalance of
the rotor. The motor is cooled via an external fan and channels/ribs on the outer
frame of the motor as shown in Figure 1.44. Therefore, an increase in the rotor’s
mechanical imbalance was ruled out as the cause of the high 1X velocities. The
high velocities in the horizontal direction at the DE and NDE suggest that there
was an unacceptable level of misalignment between the motor and the pump.
(iv) It was subsequently confirmed by the OIM that the pump had been replaced nine
months prior to a set of vibration readings being taken by the incumbent
condition monitoring contractor followed by the investigation and analysis
carried out by the author.
(v) The OIM reported that following the author’s report the drive unit A was re-
aligned, and the overall velocities were reduced to 3 mm/s and 5 mm/s at the
DEH and NDEH positions thus confirming that the problem had been correctly
diagnosed.
(vi) Note that optical or laser alignment instrumentation could not be used owing to
the very restricted access to the drive train as shown in Figure 1.44, and re-
alignment was achieved by trial and error and subsequent vibration
measurements until the lowest velocities could be achieved at the DE and NDEH
positions. The re-alignment and vibration measurements were carried out by on-
site maintenance personnel on the offshore installation.
The reader is referred to references [1.64] to [1.66] for practical guidance on alignment
procedures for drive trains.
1.4 Industrial Case History – Vibration Analysis Identified Soft Foot – Shaft
Misalignment in a 110 kW/147 H.P. SCIM Pump Drive
1.4.1 Introduction
Abstract – This case history illustrates the industrial reality of an independent con-
sultant (the author) having to deal with three different parties after a project was
nominally completed but an ongoing vibration problem still existed in a SCIM drive
train. The three parties were as follows:

(i) the end user

(ii) electric motor repair shop
(iii) the vibration monitoring contractor who surveyed the rotating plant once
per month.
This case history will show that various problems existed such as:
Shaft misalignment, due to soft foot in the motor mounting, when a repaired SCIM
was coupled to the pump.
The soft foot was caused by rusted shims under the motor’s feet and a corroded
mounting base.
Prior to the author’s input the SCIM motor was overhauled and new bearings were
fitted.
Motor nameplate information:
3-phase SCIM, 415 V

110 kW/147 H.P., 176 A, 0.88 p.f.
50 Hz. 2970 r/min
DE and NDE bearings: 6314 C3 deep groove ball bearings.
1.4.2 Vibration Analysis on Repaired Motor in Repair Shop

The vibration was measured during an uncoupled run on a solid steel base-plate in the
motor repair shop at the positions shown in Figure 1.51. At the NDE only one
measurement was taken from a position on top of a bolt that secured the fan cowl to
the NDE end frame. This ensured that there was a solid transmission path through the
end frame to the bearing housing.
The overall r.m.s. velocities (highest 1.7 mm/s r.m.s.) are presented in Table 1.8
and they are perfectly normal for an overhauled motor with new bearings. These will
be taken as the base-line readings during an uncoupled run on a solid base-plate. The
SCIM was operating with a no-load current of 35 amperes.
The velocity spectra are shown in Figures 1.52 to 1.55.
1.4.3 On-Site Vibration Analysis during a Coupled Run of Repaired Motor

The repaired motor was returned to the LNG plant and the author emphasised that
vibration measurements should be initially carried out during an uncoupled run, but
the end user required the motor to be returned to continuous operation as soon as
possible and therefore did not take the author’s advice.
This was a constraint imposed by the end user.
The incumbent vibration condition monitoring vendor who carried out routine
vibration measurements once per month subsequently reported to the end user that the
overall vibration was higher than expected from a recently refurbished motor with new
bearings.

Table 1.8 Overall r.m.s. velocities 10% span 10–1000 Hz, 0.078 Hz/line, uncoupled run on a solid base-plate in the
motor repair shop
DEV DEH DEA NDE on the bolt holding down the fan cowl to the end frame
0.63 mm/s 0.4 mm/s 0.36 mm/s 1.7 mm/s
Figure 1.51 Positions of accelerometers.
Figure 1.52 DEV velocity (r.m.s.) spectrum, Figure 1.53 DEH velocity (r.m.s.) spectrum,
uncoupled run in repair shop. uncoupled run in repair shop.

Table 1.9 Overall r.m.s. velocities 10% span 10–1000 Hz, 12,800 lines, 0.078 Hz/line on-site
coupled run
DEV DEH DEA NDE on bolt holding down fan cowl

2.7 mm/s 5.4 mm/s 1.5 mm/s 2.8 mm/s
Figure 1.54 DEA velocity (r.m.s.) spectrum, Figure 1.55 NDE vertical velocity (r.m.s.) spectrum,
uncoupled run in repair shop. uncoupled run in repair shop.
The end user contacted the author to investigate the comments from the condition
monitoring vendor, but no quantitative vibration readings were provided to the author.
This was a constraint imposed by the end user.
The overall r.m.s. velocities measured by the author with the motor driving the
pump with an operating current of 100 amperes, at the same positions as the results
taken from the uncoupled run in the motor repair shop, are presented in Table 1.9.
1.4.3.1 Vibration Spectra – Coupled Run

Figures 1.56 to 1.59 give the velocity spectra using 12,800 lines and a frequency
resolution of 0.078 Hz/line from the coupled run.
The rotor was balanced to the ISO grade of G1.0 during the overhaul. Although the
overall velocities were acceptable on the SCIM, when driving a pump, it was of
concern that the DEH overall velocity was 5.4 mm/s r.m.s. from a recently refurbished
motor and note that this was double the magnitude of the overall r.m.s. velocity in the
vertical direction.
The key features of the velocity spectra are as follows.
(i) Figure 1.56 shows that the velocity spectrum from the DEV position is dominated
by the 2X component at 2 mm/s r.m.s., which is 3.6 times the magnitude of the 1X
component. In contrast, Figure 1.57 shows that the velocity spectrum from the
DEH position is dominated by the 1X component at 4 mm/s r.m.s., which is seven
times greater than the 1X component in the DEV position.

Figure 1.56 DEV velocity (r.m.s.) spectrum, on-site Figure 1.57 DEH velocity (r.m.s.) spectrum, on-site
coupled run. coupled run.
Figure 1.58 DEA velocity (r.m.s.) spectrum, on-site Figure 1.59 NDE vertical velocity (r.m.s.) spectrum,
coupled run. on-site coupled run.
(ii) There are also harmonics of 1X at 2X , 3X, 4X and 5X from the DEH position as
shown in Figure 1.57.
These characteristics are not normal, particularly the 1X component at 4 mm/s r.m.s.
in the DEH position in comparison to the much lower velocity of 0.56 mm/s r.m.s. of
the 1X component in the DEV position because this was a very recently refurbished
SCIM and the rotor was balanced to the ISO G1.0 grade.
Recall from Section 1.2, that rotor imbalance causes a centrifugal force, which is
rotating at the rotor speed frequency of 1X Hz, and this causes the bearing housing to
vibrate at that frequency, but such a large difference (by a factor of seven) between the
velocities from the DEH and DEV positions is abnormal.
The author predicted that the shaft misalignment was unacceptable and was the
cause of the vibration characteristics during the coupled run. He advised that the
vibration measurements were repeated during an on-site uncoupled run of the SCIM
for comparisons with uncoupled results from vibration measurements in the motor
repair shop.

Table 1.10 Overall r.m.s. velocities 10%, span 10–1000 Hz, 0.078 Hz/line
On-site uncoupled run and uncoupled run in the motor repair shop
NDE on bolt holding

Operating condition DEV DEH DEA down the fan cowl
Uncoupled run in the 0.63 mm/s 0.4 mm/s 0.36 mm/s 1.7 mm/s
motor repair shop
On-site uncoupled run 1.5 mm/s 2.3 mm/s 0.9 mm/s 2.6 mm/s
Maintenance staff at the LNG plant could or would not provide (perhaps through
lack of records?) any alignment results when the repaired motor was initially re-
installed, the author simply received a ‘blank’ response.
This was a constraint by the end user.
1.4.4 On-Site Vibration Analysis during an On-Site Uncoupled Run of Repaired Motor
Table 1.10 presents the overall r.m.s. velocities for the uncoupled runs in the repair
shop and on-site.
There is a substantial difference between the velocities during uncoupled runs at the
LNG plant and the motor repair shop. For example, the on-site DEH and DEV overall
r.m.s. velocities were 5.75 and 2.5 times greater than those measured in the repair shop
with the motor running uncoupled on a solid steel base plate. Owing to these large
differences, it was predicted that there was a soft foot problem with the motor
mountings on the on-site base-plate. The author observed that the base-plate was
corroded, and the maintenance staff confirmed that they simply replaced the shims
which were used before refurbishment of the motor. When challenged they did admit
there was some rust on the shims.
1.4.5 On-Site Vibration Analysis during a Coupled Run after Re-alignment

of the Drive Train
The author’s recommendations were to clean up the base-plate, check the base of the
motor for any signs of corrosion, fit new shims, re-align the drive train and carry out a
coupled run. The motor was realigned so that the maximum shaft misalignment was
0.05 mm/2mils/0.002 inches in all planes and there was no indication of soft foot via
the laser alignment measurements. The author repeated the vibration measurements at
an operating current of 100 amperes for a direct comparison with velocity measure-
ments presented from the initial coupled run. Table 1.11 presents the velocities before
and after re-alignment.

1.5 Industrial Case History – Vibration Spectrum Analysis (VSA) 37
Table 1.11 Overall r.m.s. velocities, span 10–1000 Hz, 0.078 Hz/line
Before and after correction of soft foot and shaft re-alignment
DEV DEH DEA NDE on bolt securing fan cowl
Before Before Before Before

2.7 mm/s 5.4 mm/s 1.5 mm/s 2.8 mm/s
After After After After

1.3 mm/s 1.9 mm/s 0.67 mm/s 0.75 mm/s
1.4.6 Conclusions
The overall r.m.s. velocities have been reduced by factors of 2, 2.8, 2.2 and 3.7 at the
DEV, DEH, DEA and NDE positions respectively after the drive train was realigned
so that the misalignment was 0.05 mm/2 mils in all planes and the motor’s soft foot
had been removed.
Traditional vibration spectrum analysis without using phase measurements suc-
cessfully diagnosed the problem.
1.5 Industrial Case History – Vibration Spectrum Analysis (VSA) Diagnosed

Soft Foot and Abnormal Shaft Misalignment in a 180 kW/240 H.P. SCIM
Pump Drive
1.5.1 Summary
Abstract – This case history verified that vibration analysis provided the evidence
required to prove that a motor had to be removed because of soft foot due to rusted
shims and a very rusty base-plate. The motor’s nameplate data are as follows:
3-phase SCIM, 415 V, 180 kW/240 H.P., 290 A

50 Hz 2960 r/min, p.f. = 0.9, eff = 96%
DE bearing: N316 C3; cylindrical roller bearing with steel cage
NDE bearings: 6316 C3; deep groove ball bearing with steel cage.
1.5.2 Overall Vibration Measurements and Vibration Spectrum Analysis (VSA) – Motor
Run Uncoupled and Coupled
Figure 1.60 shows the positions of the accelerometers and Table 1.12 presents the
overall velocities during coupled and uncoupled runs.
The key features of the overall r.m.s. velocities presented in Table 1.12 with the
motor running uncoupled compared to the motor driving the pump are as follows:
(i) DEV bearing housing: velocity dropped by a factor of 2
(ii) DEH bearing housing: velocity dropped by a factor of 1.8

Table 1.12 Overall r.m.s. velocity levels on the SCIM in mm/s r.m.s., to within 10%; frequency span: 10–1000 Hz
Coupled and uncoupled runs
Position DEV DEH DEA
DE bearing housing Coupled Coupled Coupled

3.0 mm/s 6.3 mm/s 2.7 mm/s
Uncoupled Uncoupled Uncoupled
1.5 mm/s 3.5 mm/s 1.3 mm/s
NDE on the bolt securing the fan cowl to the end frame.
Coupled: 10 mm/s; uncoupled: 4.7 mm/s.
(iii) DEA end frame: velocity dropped by a factor of 2

(iv) NDE end frame: velocity dropped by a factor of 2.
1.5.2.1 Vibration Spectra – Comparison between Coupled and Uncoupled Runs

Samples of vibration spectra for the DEH and NDE positions (see Figure 1.60) from
the coupled and uncoupled runs are presented in Figures 1.61 to 1.64.
A comparison between Figures 1.61 and 1.62 shows that the velocities of the 1X
and 2X components at the DEH position on the bearing housing have each dropped by
a factor of 2 during an uncoupled run compared to the coupled run.

Figure 1.61 DEH bearing housing: velocity spectrum. Figure 1.62 DEH velocity (r.m.s.) spectrum.
Figure 1.63 NDE velocity spectrum. Figure 1.64 NDE velocity spectrum.
A comparison between Figures 1.63 and 1.64 shows that the velocity of the 2X
component at the NDE has dropped by a factor of 8 during an uncoupled run
compared to the coupled run.
The above comparisons indicate that there was an unacceptable level of shaft
misalignment and possibly motor soft foot.
1.5.3 Overall R.M.S. Velocities on the Motor as a Function of Slackening and Tightening
the Motor’s Fixing Bolts During an Uncoupled Run – Soft Foot was Diagnosed
Figure 1.65 shows the positions and designations of the bolts holding down the motor.
Table 1.13 presents the overall r.m.s. velocities during an uncoupled run for a range of
bolt tightness conditions, starting with their tight positions and followed by combin-
ations of tight and slack bolts.
The key observations from Table 1.13 are as follows:
(i) With B1 slackened and the other bolts tight the overall r.m.s. velocity at the
DEH position dropped from 3.5 mm/s to 1.0 mm/s.

Table 1.13 Overall r.m.s. velocity levels on the SCIM in mm/s r.m.s., to within 10%; frequency span: 10–1000 Hz
Slackened and tightened motor’s fixing bolts – uncoupled run
Test condition NDE on bolt as shown

uncoupled run DEV DEH DEA in Figure 1.38
Holding down bolts tight – in 1.5 mm/s 3.5 mm/s 1.3 mm/s 4.7 mm/s
original positions
B1 slack, B2, B3, B4 tight 1.5 mm/s 1.0 mm/s 1.0 mm/s 3.4 mm/s
Figure 1.65 Positions of the motor’s fixing bolts.
(ii) With B3 slackened and the other bolts tight the overall r.m.s. velocity at the
DEH position dropped from 3.5 mm/s to 1.3 mm/s.
(iii) With B3 slackened and the other bolts tight the overall r.m.s. velocity at
the DEV position dropped from 1.5 mm/s to 0.75 mm/s.
(iv) With B3 slackened and the other bolts tight the overall r.m.s. velocity at the
NDE on the bolt holding down the fan cowl to the end frame dropped from
4.7 mm/s to 2.8 mm/s.
(v) The overall r.m.s. velocity at the DEA position on the end frame next to the
DE bearing housing remained virtually constant at 1.3 mm/s 15% when the
bolts were slackened and tightened in sequence.
These results provide the evidence that the motor mounting to the base had soft
foot. Also, in the axial position (DEA) the velocity only varied by 15% which
further verified this prediction.
The bolts holding down the motor were sequentially slackened and tightened, and it
was verified that the overall r.m.s. velocity at the drive end horizontal (DEH) position
on the bearing housing dropped by a factor of 3.5 when one of the motor’s fixing bolts
was slackened. Similar trends occurred at the other positions and this was a clear
indication that soft foot existed.

Table 1.14 Overall r.m.s. velocities on the SCIM in mm/s r.m.s., 10%
Coupled run before and after shaft re-alignment and removal of soft foot
DEV DEH DEA NDE

bearing housing bearing housing DE end frame On bolt; see Figure 1.60
Before: 3.0 mm/s Before: 6.3 mm/s Before: 2.7 mm/s Before: 10.0 mm/s
After: 1.3 mm/s After: 2.4 mm/s After: 1.2 mm/s After: 3.0 mm/s
Figure 1.66 DEH bearing housing: velocity spectrum. Figure 1.67 DEH velocity (r.m.s.) spectrum, on-site
coupled run.
The rust was removed from the surfaces of both the base-plate and the motor’s base
and each of these surfaces were machined to ensure that they were clean and had flat
surfaces.
New shims were installed under the motor’s base and the motor and pump were
coupled, then realigned using laser technology to achieve a maximum shaft misalign-
ment in any of the three alignment planes of 0.05 mm (2 mils). No soft foot was
indicated by the results presented in Table 1.14.
1.5.4 Overall Vibration Measurements and VSA – Comparison between before and after
Removal of Misalignment and Soft Foot
Table 1.14 presents the overall r.m.s. velocities during a coupled run before and after
shaft re-alignment and removal of motor soft foot.
The overall r.m.s. velocities have dropped by factors of between 2.3 and 3.3 at the
DE and NDE positions after re-alignment and removal of motor soft foot, therefore the
predictions from the measurements and VSA were proven to be valid.
Samples of velocity spectra before and after corrective action at the NDEH and
NDE positions (see Figure 1.60) are presented in Figures 1.66 to 1.69.
The 1X component from the original coupled run, which had a high
shaft misalignment and motor soft foot has dropped due to corrective actions from

Figure 1.68 NDE velocity spectrum.

Figure 1.69 NDE velocity spectrum.
6 mm/s r.m.s. to 2.4 mm/s (a reduction factor of 2.5) and the 2X component dropped
from 2 mm/s to only 0.12 mm/s r.m.s. (a massive reduction factor of 16.7).
1.5.5 Conclusions
Prior to carrying out the vibration measurements and VSA it was observed that the
motor was rusty, as were the edges of the shims under the motor and the mounting
base plate.
It might seem to the reader that using vibration monitoring to detect soft foot and
consequential shaft misalignment was unnecessary. The motor could have simply
been removed and corrective action taken to remove the rust, fit new shims, clean up
the base-plate and then re-align the drive train. This is a rather naïve suggestion for the
following reasons:
(i) The outer edges of the mounting shims for all the motors and base-plates were
rusted, because this LNG site was next to the sea, and therefore in a salty and
windy environment. The top and bottom faces of the shims are not visible.
(ii) The end user will certainly not shut down a strategic motor just because there is
evidence of rust. The end user requires evidence via analysis of the vibration,
while a motor is running, that soft foot and/or shaft misalignment is causing
unacceptable levels of vibration.
The results presented in this case history verified that VSA was required to convince
the end user to take the motor out of service for corrective action to remove the rust
which was the root cause of the soft foot problem.
References and Further Reading
1.1 N. Tesla, A New System of Alternate Current Motors and Transformers, Transactions of
American Institute of Electrical Engineers, V (10), 1888, pp. 308–27.
1.2 P. Dunsheath, A History of Electrical Engineering, Faber and Faber, first published in
1962.

1.3 Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/electricity consumption.

1.4 R. B. Randell, Vibration-Based Condition Monitoring, John Wiley, ISBN 978-0-470-
74788-8, 2012.
1.5 A. Brant, Noise and Vibration Analysis, John Wiley, ISBN 978-0-470-74644-8, 2011.
1.6 R. Elsheman, Basic Machinery Vibrations: An Introduction to Machine Testing, Analysis
and Monitoring, ASIN: B011YTFB9A, 1999.
1.7 J. I. Taylor, The Vibration Analysis Handbook, second edition, VCI, ISBN: 0-9640517-2-
9, 2003.
1.8 J. S. Mitchell, An Introduction to Machinery Analysis and Monitoring, Penwell Publish-
ing, Tulsa, Okla., 1981.
1.9 S. Timoshenko, Vibration Problems in Engineering, Wolfenden Press, ASIN:
B0012J1C80, 4 Nov. 2008.
1.10 S. Goldman, Vibration Spectrum Analysis – A Practical Approach, Industrial Press Inc.,
ISBN-13: 978-0831130886, 1999.
1.11 A. W. Lees, Vibration Problems in Machines – Diagnosis and Resolution, CRC Press,
ISBN-13: 978-1-138-89383-2, 2017.
1.12 J. P. Den Hartog, Mechanical Vibrations, fourth edition, McGraw Hill, New York, 1985.
1.13 R. A. Collacott, Mechanical Fault Diagnosis and Condition Monitoring, first edition,
Chapman and Hall, ISBN-13: 978-94-009-5725-1, 1977.
1.14 D. J. Inman, Engineering Vibration, third edition, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ,
2007.
1.15 R. E. D. Bishop, The Mechanics of Vibration, Cambridge University Press, Reissue
Edition, ISBN-10: 110740245X, July 2011.
1.16 C. Scheffer and P. Girdhar, Machinery Vibration Analysis & Predictive Maintenance,
Newnes, ISBN 0 7506 6275 1, 2004.
1.17 V. Kwok, Machinery Vibration – Measurement and Analysis, McGraw Hill Inc., ISBN: 0-
07-071936-5, 1991.
1.18 J. Vance, F. Zeidan and B. Murphy, Machinery Vibration and Rotor Dynamics, John
Wiley & Sons Inc., ISBN: 978-0-471-46213-2, 2010.
1.19 J. W. Cooley and J. W. Tukey, An Algorithm for Machine Calculation of Complex
Fourier Series, Mathematics of Computation, 19 (90), 1965, pp. 297–301.
1.20 A. V. Oppenheim, Papers on Digital Signal Processing, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.
1.21 Spectrum Analysis: SKF.com; http://www.skf.com/binary/tcm:12-113997/CM5118%
20EN%20Spectrum%20Analysis.pdf.
1.22 Vibration Analysis Dictionary – Mobius Institute: www.mobiusinstitute.com/site2/item
.asp?LinkID=2002.
1.23 M. E. El-Hawary, Principles of Electric Machines with Power Electronic Application,
Wiley–IEEE Press, July 2002.
1.24 M. Liwschitz-Garik and C. C. Whipple, Electric Machinery Vol. II, A-C Machines, Van
Nostrand Company, first published Sept. 1946.
1.25 M. G. Say, Alternating Current Machines, fourth edition, ELBS and Pitman Publishing,
1976.
1.26 P. C. Sen, Principle of Electrical Machines and Power Electronics, second edition, John
Wiley and Sons, 1997.
1.27 A. Chapman, Electric Machinery Fundamentals, McGraw Hill, 1985.
1.28 A. Hughes, Electric Motor and Drives – Fundamentals, Types and Applications, Butter-
worth-Heinemann, 1990.

1.29 G. Slemon, Electric Machines and Drives, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company Inc.,
1992.
1.30 P. L. Alger, Induction Machines – Their Behaviour and Uses, Gordon and Breach Science
Publications Inc., second edition, published by OPA Amsterdam, third printing with
additions, 1995.
1.31 H. Vickers, The Induction Motor, Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons Ltd, London, first edition
1924, second edition 1953.
1.32 W. T. Thomson and I. Culbert, Current Signature Analysis for Condition Monitoring of
Cage Induction Motors, IEEE-Press Wiley, ISBN: 978-1-119-02959-5, 2017.
1.33 P. L. Alger, Magnetic Noise in Poly-phase Induction Motors, Transactions of the AIEE,
73 (Part IIA), 1954, pp. 118–25.
1.34 M. J. Costello, Understanding the Vibration Forces in Induction Motors, Proc., 19th
Turbomachinery Symp., College Station, TX, Oct., 1989, pp. 179–83.
1.35 W. R. Findlay and R. R. Burke, Troubleshooting Motor Problems, IEEE Transactions on
Industry Applications, 27, Nov./Dec. 1991, pp. 1204–13.
1.36 R. O. Eis, Electric Motor Vibration – Cause, Prevention and Cure, IEEE Transactions on
Industry Applications, 1A11 (3), May/June 1975.
1.37 E. W. Sommers, Vibration in 2-pole Induction Motors Related to Slip Frequency, IEEE
Transactions on Power Applications, 74 (3), Feb. 1955, pp. 69–72.
1.38 A. J. Ellison and C. J. Moore, Acoustic Noise and Vibration of Rotating Electric
Machines, Proceedings of the IEE, 155 (11), Nov. 1968, pp. 1633–40.
1.39 F. T. Chapman, Production of Noise and Vibration by Certain Squirrel Cage Induction
Motors, IEE Journal, 61, Dec. 1922, pp. 39–48.
1.40 W. R. Finley, M. M. Hodowanec and W. G. Holter, An Analytical Approach to Solving
Motor Vibration Problems, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, 36 (5), Sept./
Oct. 2000, pp. 1467–80.
1.41 J. Baumgardner, Vibration in Squirrel-Cage Induction Motors, Proc. 18th Turbomachin-
ery Symp., College Station, TX, Oct. 1989, pp. 179–83.
1.42 S. J. Yang, Low Noise Electric Motors, Monographs in Electrical and Electronic Engin-
eering, IEE, Savoy Place, London, 1981.
1.43 W. J. Morrill, Harmonic Theory of Noise in Induction Motors, Transactions of the AIEE,
59 (8), Aug. 1940, pp. 474–80.
1.44 A. Arkkio, M. Antila, K. Pokki, A. Simon and E. Lantto, Electromagnetic Force on a
Whirling Cage Rotor, Proceedings of the IEE, Electrical Power Applications, 147 (5),
Sept. 2000, pp. 353–60.
1.45 A. Bonnett et al., Motor Vibes: Noise and Vibration Bibliographies and Abstracts, IEEE
Conference Record of 1993 Annual Pulp and Paper Industry Technical Conference, 1993,
pp. 184–205.
1.46 J. R. Cameron, W. T. Thomson and A. B. Dow, Vibration and Current Monitoring for
Detecting Airgap Eccentricity in Large Induction Motors, IEE Proceedings, 133 (Part B,
No. 3), May 1986.
1.47 D. G. Dorrell, W. T. Thomson and S. Roach, Analysis of Airgap Flux, Current and
Vibration Signals as a Function of the Combination of Static and Dynamic Airgap
Eccentricity in 3-Phase Induction Motors, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications,
33 (1), Jan./Feb. 1997, pp 24–34.
1.48 W. T. Thomson, A Review of On-Line Condition Monitoring Techniques for Three-Phase
Squirrel-Cage Induction Motors - Past, Present, and Future, IEEE Symposium on

Diagnostics for Electrical Machines, Power Electronics and Drives, Gijon, Spain, 1999,
pp. 3–18 (opening keynote address).
1.49 W. T. Thomson and P. Orpin, Current and Vibration Monitoring for Fault Diagnosis and
Root Cause Analysis of Induction Motors, Proc. 31st Turbomachinery Symposium, Texas,
A&M University, USA, Sept. 2002.
1.50 W. T. Thomson, A. Barbour, C. Tassoni and F. Filippetti, An Appraisal of the MMF-
Permeance Method and Finite Element Models to Study Static Airgap Eccentricity and its
Diagnosis in Induction Machines, Proc. ICEM'98, Istanbul, 1998.
1.51 W. T. Thomson, J. R. Cameron and A. B. Dow, On-Line Diagnostics of Large Induction
Motors, NATO ARW (by invitation only), Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium,
August 1986, published in the NATO Api Series, Pub Martines Hijhoff, July 1988.
1.52 W. T. Thomson, N. D. Deans, R. A. Leonard and A. J. Milne, Monitoring Strategy for
Discriminating Between Different Types of Rotor Cage Faults, Proc. 18th Universities
Power Engineering Conference Proceedings, University of Surrey, April 1983.
1.53 W. T. Thomson, Vibration and Noise in Small-Power Electric Motors, MSc thesis by
research, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland, 1977.
1.54 R. A. Leonard and W. T. Thomson, Vibration and Stray Flux Monitoring for Unbalanced
Supply and Inter-turn Winding Faults in Induction Motors, Proc, Condition Monitoring
Conference, University College, Swansea, Wales, UK, 1983.
1.55 P. Tavner et al., Condition Monitoring of Rotating Electrical Machines, The Institution of
Engineering and Technology, ISBN: 978-0-86341-739-9, London, UK, 2008.
1.56 A. H. Bonnett, Root Cause Failure Analysis for AC Induction Motors in the Petroleum
and Chemical Industry, IEEE Petroleum and Chemical Industry Conference (PCIC),
2010 Record of Conference Papers Industry Applications Society 57th Annual Confer-
ence, 2010, pp. 1–13.
1.57 A. H. Bonnett, Root Cause Methodology for Induction Motors; A Step-by-Step Guide to
Examining Failure, IEEE Industry Applications Magazine, 18 (6), 2012, pp. 50–62.
1.58 http://new.abb.com/docs/librariesprovider53/about-downloads/motors_ebook.pdf?sfvrsn=4.
1.59 IEEE Committee Report, Report of Large Motor Reliability Survey of Industrial and
Commercial Installations, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, 1A-21 (4), Parts
I and II, July/Aug. 1985.
Commercial Installations, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, 1A-23 (1), Part
III, Jan./Feb. 1987.
1.61 O. V. Thorson and M. Dalva, A Survey of Faults on Induction Motors in Offshore Oil
Industry, Petrochemical Industry, Gas Terminals and Oil Refineries, IEEE Transactions
on Industry Applications, 31 (5), Sept./Oct. 1995.
1.62 https://www.efficientplantmag.com/2012/03/large-electric-motor-reliability-what-did-the-
studies-really-say/ Large Electric Motor Reliability: What Did The Studies Really Say?,
EP Editorial Staff 23 March 2012; Efficient Plant Magazine formerly Maintenance
Technology: https://www.efficientplantmag.com/
1.63 J. I. Taylor and D. Wyndell Kirkland, The Bearing Analysis Handbook, ISBN: 0-
9640517-3-7, Vibration Consultants, VCI USA, 2004.
1.64 J. Piotrowski, Shaft Alignment Handbook, third edition, CRC Press, ISBN: 13 978-1-
57444-727-1, 2007.
1.65 J. S. Mitchell, Introduction to Machinery Analysis and Monitoring, second edition,
Penwell Books, USA, ISBN 0-78714-401-3, 1993.

1.66 Pruftechnic, A White Paper on a Practical Guide to Shaft Alignment, distributed in the
USA by Ludeca Inc. (www.ludeca.com), 2002, pp. 1–62.
1.67 ISO 1940-1:2003.
1.68 British Standard (BS) 60034-14: Rotating Electrical Machines, Part 14 Mechanical
Vibration of Certain Machines with Shaft Heights of 56 mm and Higher – Measurement,
Evaluation and Limits of Vibration Severity, Feb. 2004.
1.69 NEMA MG1: Motors and Generators, 2012.
Further Reading
1.70 A. H. Bonnett and G. C. Soukup, Rotor Failures in Squirrel Cage Induction Motors, IEEE
Transactions on Industry Applications, IA-22 (6), 1986, pp. 1165–73.
1.71 A. H. Bonnett and G. C. Soukup, Analysis of Rotor Failures in Squirrel-Cage Induction
Motors, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, 24 (6), 1988, pp. 1124–30.
1.72 A. H. Bonnett and G. C. Soukup, Cause and Analysis of Stator and Rotor Failures in
Three-Phase Squirrel-Cage Induction Motors, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applica-
tions, 28 (4), 1992, pp. 921–37.
1.73 H. Barr, A. H. Bonnett and C. Yung, Understanding Vertical Motor Bearing Systems and
Minimizing Their Failures, IEEE Petroleum and Chemical Industry Conference, 2007,
pp. 1–9.

2 Rolling Element Bearings
for Induction Motors
2.1 Basic Construction and Types of Rolling Element Bearings

for Induction Motors
Abstract – The objectives are to describe the main types of rolling element bearings
that are used in induction motors and these are as follows:
(i) To provide relevant information for Chapter 3, which is on the types of faults that
occur in rolling element bearings.
(ii) To provide knowledge relevant to the 15 industrial case histories in Chapter 4.
(iii) To provide engineers responsible for the operation and maintenance of induction
motors with knowledge on rolling element bearings.
This is not a book on the design, manufacture or in-depth operational characteristics of
rolling element bearings; for more information, see references [2.1] to [2.12].
2.1.1 Basic Construction of a Deep Groove Ball Bearing

Rolling element bearings support the rotating rotor and keep the rotational friction to a
minimum to allow smooth operation of induction motors. Figures 2.1 and 2.2 show
respectively open type and sealed deep groove ball bearings.
Illustrations of different types of cages are shown in Figure 2.3 and the functions of
a cage are as follows:
(i) To separate the rolling elements.
(ii) To keep the rolling elements evenly spaced for uniform load distribution.
(iii) To guide the rolling elements in the unloaded zone of the bearing.
The deep groove ball bearing is the most prevalent rolling element bearing used in
induction motors – see references [2.1] and [2.2]. The term deep groove reflects the
fact that the ring dimensions are relatively close to the dimensions of the balls in
comparison to a cylindrical roller element bearing, which is described in Section 2.2.
Different types of bearings have unique identification numbers which are universally
used by bearing manufacturers. For example, the 63** series, means a single-row,
deep groove ball bearing. Part numbers in this series typically range from 6300 up to
6340, which have bore diameters of 10 mm/0.393 inches and 200 mm/7.874 inches
47
48 Rolling Element Bearings for Induction Motors
Figure 2.1 Illustration of a deep groove ball bearing.
Figure 2.2 Photograph of unshielded and shielded deep groove ball bearings, reproduced by kind
permission of the NSK Corporation.
respectively. The first two numbers give the basic series for the part number, but
further numbers are required to identify the bore size and clearance, C.
A deep groove ball bearing such as a 6316 C3 is defined as follows:
(i) The first two numbers give the basic series for the part number.
(ii) Multiply the pair formed by the third and fourth numbers by 5 to give the bore =
5 16 = 80 mm/3.15 inches.
(iii) Except with: 00 = 10 mm, 01 = 12 mm, 02 = 15 mm, 03 = 17 mm and 04 =
20 mm.

2.1 Basic Construction and Types of Rolling Element Bearings for Induction Motors 49
Figure 2.3 Commonly used types of cages in rolling element bearings.
(iv) C3 gives the internal clearance designation (see Section 2.1.1.2).

(v) If an M is included that means the bearing has a brass cage.
2.1.1.1 Bearing Load Zone in a Horizontal Motor

The rolling element bearings in a horizontal induction motor are normally subjected to
a typical load zone as shown in Figure 2.4.
The rolling elements enter and depart the load zone and transmit the load on the
rotor around the raceway as shown by the arrows. The load is normally a maximum at
the 6 o’clock position and is proportional to the length of the arrows in Figure 2.4.
Where there are no arrows in Figure 2.4 the rolling elements are considered to be in
the unloaded zone of the bearing.
2.1.1.2 Bearing Clearances

Radial clearance is the internal radial movement of the outer ring with respect to the
inner ring as shown in Figure 2.5.
Axial clearance is normally referred to as axial end-play and is the maximum
relative movement of the inner ring with respect to the outer ring as shown in
Figure 2.6. The inner ring is permanently fitted onto the rotor shaft of an induction
motor and the outer ring is fitted into the bearing housing in the motor’s end frame.
The internal radial clearances ‘C’ are specified from C1 (smallest) through to C5
(largest). The ‘normal’ clearance is CN, which is a range between C2 and C3. If
the bearing clearance is not stated on the nameplate of a SCIM it is assumed to be a
normal clearance. The majority of motor manufacturers normally fit a bearing with a
C3 clearance in horizontal induction motors to allow for thermal expansion when the

Figure 2.4. The arrows illustrate the load zone on a rolling element bearing in a horizontal
machine; the lengths of the arrows are indicators of the load (stress) on those parts of the
bearings.
motor reaches its operating temperature at full load. Table 2.1 presents typical radial
clearances in a deep groove ball bearing.
2.1.1.3 Grease Lubrication of Rolling Element Bearings

Grease is normally used as the lubricant in a rolling element bearing and the reader is
referred to a seminal textbook [2.13] titled Grease Lubrication in Rolling Bearings by
Piet M. Lugt (John Wiley & Sons, 2003), which covers all there is to know about
greasing of bearings and includes 640 references. The main function of grease is to
prevent contact between the rotating parts within the bearing and this is achieved via
the production of a thin oil film on the contact surfaces, and in rolling element
bearings the grease has a number of additional advantages:
(i) reduces wear and friction
(ii) dissipates heat from friction

2.1 Basic Construction and Types of Rolling Element Bearings for Induction Motors 51
Figure 2.5 Illustration of radial bearing clearance.
Figure 2.6 Illustration of axial/end play bearing clearance.
(iii) prevents rust

(iv) provides a form of seal between invasive particles and the bearing.
The National Lubricating Grease Institute (NLGI, founded in 1933 in the USA) [2.14],
explains grease as the following:

Table 2.1 Internal radial clearances in deep groove ball bearings
CN is often referred to as the normal clearance for electric motors
Clearance given is in µm ( 25.4 to obtain thou or mils)

Nominal bore
diameter (mm) C2 CN Normal C3 C4 C5
Over Incl min max min max min max min max min max min max
10 only 0 7 4 11 2 13 8 23 14 29 20 37
10 18 0 9 4 11 3 18 11 25 18 33 25 45
18 24 0 10 5 12 5 20 13 28 20 36 28 48
24 30 1 11 5 12 5 20 13 28 23 41 30 53
30 40 1 11 9 17 6 20 15 33 28 46 40 64
40 50 1 11 9 17 6 23 18 36 30 51 45 73
50 65 1 15 12 22 8 28 23 43 38 61 55 90
65 80 1 15 12 22 10 30 25 51 46 71 65 105
80 100 1 18 18 30 12 36 30 58 53 84 75 120
Note: Incl means including.
Lubricating grease is a mixture of three main components: the lubricating fluid,

performance enhancing additives and thickener.
The lubricating fluid can be petroleum-derived lubricating oil, any of various synthetic
fluids or vegetable-based oil.
The additives are typically present in relatively low concentrations and are added to
the grease to provide enhancement in one of multiple performance areas.
The thickener is what sets grease apart from liquid lubricants. This component gives the
grease the property of consistency, making the product semi-solid rather than liquid.
The thickener is referred to as soap and is normally produced via a chemical
reaction between a carboxylic acid and an alkaline earth metal hydroxide. Other
thickeners such as polyurea and clays are also used. The purpose of a soap base is
to retain the oil in suspension until it is removed by the rotating parts of the bearing
and adheres to its surfaces. This action depletes the oil and effectiveness of the grease,
which are functions of the operating hours temperature, load, speed and environment.
2.1.1.4 Main Operational Features of Deep Groove Ball Bearings

The theoretical and practical reasons for operational features can be highly complex
and the reader is referred to the references. Only brief details of rolling element
bearings, which are adequate for the application of vibration monitoring applied to
induction motors, are presented in this book. The following characteristics of deep
groove ball bearings are summarised as follows:
(i) Good radial load capability.
(ii) Axial load capability in both directions. Suitable for a locating (DE) and floating
(NDE) bearing.

2.2 Cylindrical Roller Element Bearings 53
Table 2.2 Samples on the use of rolling element bearings in induction motors
3-Phase SCIM directly coupled to an incinerator fan – horizontal drive

415 V, 225 kW, 369 A DE N324E M C3 NDE 6316 C3
1490 r/min, 50 Hz Cylindrical roller Deep groove ball
3-Phase SCIM directly coupled to a reciprocating compressor in horizontal drive
11,000 V, 270 kW, DE 6324M C3 NDE 6319M C3
20 A, 980 r/min, 50 Hz Deep groove ball Deep groove ball
3-Phase SCIM directly coupled to a sulphate removal pump – horizontal drive
6600 V, 685 kW, 69 A DE 6316 C3 NDE 6316 C3
3580 r/min, 60 Hz Deep groove ball Deep groove ball
3-Phase SCIM directly coupled to a boiler feed pump – horizontal drive
415 V, 110 kW, 176 A DE 6314 C3 NDE 6314 C3
2970 r/min, 50 Hz Deep groove ball Deep groove ball
3-Phase SCIM directly coupled to a rich amine pump – horizontal drive
415 V, 185 kW, 316 A DE N324 C3 NDE 6316 C3
980 r/min, 50 Hz Cylindrical roller Deep groove ball
3-Phase SCIM directly coupled to a sea water lift pump – vertical drive
11 kV 355 kW, 23 A DE 6324 C3 NDE 7322B
1792 r/min, 60 Hz Cylindrical roller Angular contact
3-Phase SCIM directly coupled to a thruster propeller – vertical drive
6.6 kV, 1139 kW, 118 A, 1186 r/min, 60 Hz DE 6324 C3 NDE 7322B
Cylindrical roller Angular contact
(iii) Limited suitability for compensation of misalignment.

(iv) Very suitable for high speeds.
(v) Dimensional stability up to typically 150 C/302 F (for O.D. ˃250 mm/9.84
inches) up to typically 200 C/392 F.
2.1.1.5 Typical Applications

Figure 2.7 illustrates a ball bearing arrangement in an induction motor and Table 2.2
gives examples of rolling element bearings fitted to 3-phase SCIMs.
2.2 Cylindrical Roller Element Bearings
A cylindrical roller element bearing such as an N324 C3 is defined as follows:
The letter and first number give the basic series for the part number: in this case the
N indicates the flange configuration and 3 the part number. There are different
flange configurations such as NU and NJ, which means non-locating and semi-
locating designs respectively.

Figure 2.7 Illustration of a typical ball bearing arrangement in an induction motor.
Multiply the pair formed by the third and fourth numbers by 5 to give the bore =
5 24 = 120 mm/4.724 inches.
C3 gives the internal clearance designation.
If an M is included this means a brass cage.
If an E is included this means an extra capacity bearing.
Figure 2.8 illustrates the key constructional features of a cylindrical roller element
bearing and a photograph is presented in Figure 2.9.
2.2.1 Main Operational Features of a Cylindrical Roller Element Bearing

The following characteristics of a single-row cylindrical roller element bearing are
summarised as follows:
(i) high radial load capacity
(ii) very suitable for high speeds
(iii) high rigidity
(iv) can be selected to have axial load capability in both directions.
When an induction motor drives a mechanical load via a belt, the load on the DE
bearing is greater than if it were directly coupled and a single-row cylindrical roller
element bearing at the DE is used in preference to a single-row deep groove ball
bearing.

Figure 2.8 Illustration of a cylindrical roller element bearing.
Figure 2.9 Photograph of a cylindrical roller element bearing, reproduced by kind permission of
the NSK Corporation.
2.3 Angular Contact and 4-Point Contact Ball Bearings
2.3.1 Angular Contact Ball Bearings

The single-row angular contact bearing is often used at the NDE of vertically mounted
induction motors to take the downward thrust and at the DE a cylindrical roller
element bearing is used as a guide bearing. Figure 2.10 illustrates the construction
of an angular contact ball bearing and a photograph is presented in Figure 2.11.
A bearing with a maximum contact angle up to 40 is available in contrast to a deep
groove ball bearing where the contact angle (virtually a point) is nominally zero.

Figure 2.10 Illustration of an angular contact bearing.
Figure 2.11 Photograph of an angular contact bearing, reproduced by kind permission of the NSK
Corporation.
Clearly, for a given force, the stress (N/m2) on the ball bearing in an angular contact
bearing is much less compared to the same force applied to a deep groove ball bearing
because the surface contact area in the latter is much smaller.
For example, a single-row angular contact bearing with the number 7322B is
normally interpreted as follows:

Figure 2.12 Illustration of a 4-point angular contact ball bearing.
(i) The first two numbers indicate that it is an angular contact bearing.
(ii) Multiply the pair formed by the third and fourth numbers by 5 to give the bore =
5 22 = 110 mm/4.33 inches.
(iii) An angular contact bearing often has a brass cage.
2.3.2 Main Operational Features of an Angular Contact Ball Bearing

The following characteristics of a single-row angular contact ball bearing are very
briefly summarized as follows:
(i) Downward axial force (or thrust) can be supported in vertical SCIMs.
(ii) Can also support radial forces.
Two back-to-back angular contact bearings are often used in vertically mounted
induction motors, which means downward and upward thrust in the drive train can
be supported.
2.3.3 4-Point Angular Contact Ball Bearings – The QJ Series

A 4-point contact bearing is a novel design in that the ball path geometry results in
double the number of contact points as shown in Figure 2.12 and a photograph is
presented in Figure 2.12a. Note that it is a single-row ball bearing.
A typical 4-point angular contact ball bearing is a QJ316:
(i) The first two letters and the first number identify the bearing, and the pair (i.e. 16)
of numbers is multiplied by 5 to give the bore diameter = 80 mm/3.15 inches.

Figure 2.12a Photograph of a 4-point angular contact bearing, reproduced by kind permission of
the NSK Corporation.
The following characteristics of a 4-point angular contact ball bearing are very briefly
summarized as follows:
(i) The bearing can cater for high axial loads in both directions and relatively small
radial loads.
(ii) The contact angle is typically 30 .
(iii) This bearing requires considerably less space in the axial direction compared to
double row designs or back-to-back angular contact 7*** bearings. The QJ
bearing caters for downward and upward thrust in vertically mounted induction
motor drives.
2.4 Miscellaneous Rolling Element Bearings
2.4.1 Tapered Roller Bearings

Figures 2.13a and b present schematic diagrams of tapered roller bearings with
different contact angles [2.7].
This bearing has tapered rollers whose end surfaces make contact with the guide
flange on the inner ring as shown in Figures 2.13a and b.
A tapered roller bearing has a high load-carrying capacity in the radial direction and
in the axial direction. It is a highly durable bearing and is often used in back-to-back
pairs so that axial forces can be supported in both directions. A photograph of a
tapered roller element bearing is shown in Figure 2.13c.
The thrust rating capacity is dependent on the angularity of the rollers and as such
the contact angle is given. For heavy thrust loads the contact angle is typically 28 to
30 [2.7].

2.4 Miscellaneous Rolling Element Bearings 59
Figure 2.13a Contact angle, 10 to 16 [2.7].
Figure 2.13b Contact angle, 28 to 30 [2.7].
2.4.2 Spherical Roller Bearings

These bearings are very suitable for induction motors which carry a heavy load and are
often of the double row design as shown in Figures 2.13d and e. Both rows of rollers
have a common spherical raceway on the outer ring and therefore the bearing is
completely self-aligning [2.7]. The bearing has a very high load carrying capacity in
both the radial and axial (thrust) directions. Because it has a unique self-alignment
capability it can cope with misalignment between the shaft and bearing housing.

Figure 2.13c Photograph of a tapered roller element bearing, by kind permission of the NSK
Corporation.
Figure 2.13d Illustration of spherical roller bearing.
Figure 2.13e Photograph of a spherical roller bearing, reproduced by kind permission of the NSK
Corporation.
References 61
Figure 2.14 Fixed and floating bearing arrangements.
2.5 Bearing Arrangements
There are different types of bearing arrangement and only one is given as an illustra-
tion of their use as ball bearings in an induction motor. The reader should refer to the
references for more examples. One of the bearings needs to be fixed and the other in
this example is floating to allow for thermal expansion of the shaft–rotor assembly.
The definitive functions of fixed and floating arrangements are as follows:
(i) A fixed bearing guides the shaft and rotor assembly and also supports axial forces.
(ii) A floating bearing compensates for changes in the bearing centre due to thermal growth.
Figure 2.14 illustrates fixed and floating bearing arrangements.
These are the main rolling element bearings which are used in the industrial case
histories presented in Chapter 4. There is a vast selection of different types of rolling
element bearings which is beyond the scope of this book, and, as already stated, this is
not a book on bearings. The author considers that this chapter provides sufficient
information to allow the reader to comprehend the subsequent chapters which deal
with case histories on VSA to diagnose rolling element bearing faults before failures,
which is the prime function of this book.
References
2.1 A. H. Bonnett and T. Albers, Motor Bearing Systems, IEEE Industry Applications
Magazine, 8 (5), 2002, pp. 58–73.
2.2 A. H. Bonnett and T. Albers, Motor Bearing Systems for Forest Products Applications,
IEEE Conf., Record, Annual Pulp and Paper Industry Technical Conference, 2001,
pp. 96–110.

2.3 J. I. Taylor and D. Wyndell Kirkland, The Bearing Analysis Handbook, ISBN:
0-9640517-3-7, Vibration Consultants, VCI USA, 2004.
2.4 T. A. Harris and M. N. Kotzalas, Essential Concepts of Bearing Technology, fifth edition,
CRC Press, ISBN: 13 978-0-8493-7183-7, 2007.
2.5 D. F. Wilcock and E. R. Booser, Bearing Design and Application, McGraw-Hill,
New York, ASIN: B0011VRU2Q, 1957.
2.6 P. S. Haughton, Ball and Roller Bearings, Applied Science Publishers Ltd, London, 1985.
2.7 A. Palmgren, Ball and Roller Bearing Engineering, third edition, Burbank, Philadelphia,
1959.
2.8 R. K. Allen, Roller Bearings, Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons Ltd, London, 1945.
2.9 D. Dowson, History of Tribology, second edition, Longman, New York, 1999.
2.10 R. Juvinall and K. Marshek, Fundamentals of Machine Component Design, second
edition, John Wiley, New York, 1991.
2.11 B. Hamrock, B. Jacobson and S. Schmid, Fundamentals of Machine Elements, McGraw-
Hill, New York, 1999.
2.12 M. Spotts and T. Shoup, Design of Machine Elements, seventh edition, Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1998.
2.13 P. M. Lugt, Grease Lubrication in Roller Bearings, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, ISBN: 978-
1-118-35391-2, 2013.
2.14 The National Lubricating Grease Institute, https://www.nlgi.org/glossary/l/

3 Types of Defects in Rolling
Element Bearings
3.1 Bearing Life and Fatigue
Abstract – There are numerous publications with in-depth information on types and
causes of defects in rolling element bearings, and the reader is referred to the sample in
the list of references [3.1] to [3.26]. To support the industrial case histories in
Chapters 4 to 8 this chapter presents a brief and general overview of the types and
causes of defects which can occur in rolling element bearings. Figure 3.1 gives general
guidelines [3.4] on the causes of rolling element bearing failures in induction motors.
An estimate of bearing life is highly complex and is in fact a statistical quantity
when bearings are operating in industrial plant such as induction motors because
degradation and failure is a function of many variables which in practice are difficult
to quantify.
The International Standards Organization (ISO) publication ISO 281:2007 [3.1]
covers the calculation of bearing ratings and life and the reader should refer to
that standard for further information. In bearing technology, bearing life is
referred to as a bearing’s L10 life and in the ISO standard it is given as the life
that 90% of a large group of nominally identical bearings can be expected to reach
or exceed. In practice there are many variables which can affect the L10 life
when nominally identical bearings are used in a wide variety of applications in
industry.
3.1.1 Prediction of the L10 Life of a Rolling Element Bearing

A crucial factor is that the L10 life of a rolling element bearing is predicted on the
assumption that normal material fatigue is the main cause of failure. Figure 3.2 is
relative to the load relationship; for example, assume that L10 is ‘x’ years, then L50 is
taken to be the average life because equal numbers of bearings have failed or survived,
which is a factor of five or ‘5x’ years [3.2]. Thus, for an industrial application with an
L10 life of one year, 10% of the bearings could fail within the first year and 50% of the
bearings could fail after five years.
The basic L10 life predictor is calculated using Equation 3.1 [3.2]:
63
64 Types of Defects in Rolling Element Bearings
Figure 3.1 Typical causes of premature failures of roller element bearings in induction motors
[3.4]. (A. H. Bonnett, Cause and Analysis of Bearing Failures in Electrical Motors, IEEE Conf.,
Record of 39th PCIC Conference, 1992, pp. 87–95.)
Figure 3.2 Relative bearing life versus bearing failures in % [3.2]. (A. H. Bonnett and T. Albers,
Motor Bearing Systems, IEEE Industry Applications Magazine, 8 (5), 2002, pp. 58–73.)


106 C a
L10 ¼ , (3.1)
60n P
where:
L10 = run life, in hours
C = bearing dynamic capacity, N or lbsf
P = equivalent bearing load, N or lbsf
n = speed, r/min
a = 3 for ball bearings
a = 10/3 for roller element bearings.
Equation 3.1 is only applicable within specific constraints such as design, size,
lubrication, temperature, load and speed. Note that there is a limiting speed for each
bearing, which is a function of size, type, lubrication and configuration. It is therefore
obvious that the L1 life given by Equation 3.1 is certainly not a definitive predictor of
bearing life when they are installed in induction motors of different designs, which
operate in a diverse range of industrial applications and environments with different
planned maintenance strategies used by operators.
Bearing life is a function of numerous variables and an adjusted life rating can be
expressed as follows:
Ladj = f(C, P, n, vc, ct) (3.2)

where:
Ladj = adjusted rating/run life, hours
vc = lubrication viscosity, centiStokes or Pascal-second
ct = level of contamination.
Note that lubrication viscosity vc and amount of contamination ct are interdependent
and are normally expressed as a2–3 in Equation 3.2. It is this term which is highly
variable and unpredictable to any degree of certainty.
The objective of the above information is to provide the reader with an appreciation
of the factors that need to be considered with respect to bearing life in industrial plant
and the requirement to select the correct grease for the application and prevent
contamination.
3.1.2 Fatigue Failure

Bearings will eventually all fail by fatigue because this is the natural end to a bearing's
life. Fatigue is normally defined as the fracture of the running surfaces and subsequent
loss of small discrete particles of material from the rings or rolling elements and is
often referred to as spalling or pitting. When fatigue has been initiated, it will spread
with continued operation.

Figure 3.3 Illustration of bearing fatigue.
Figure 3.4 Illustration of effects of excessive loads on a bearing.
Figure 3.3 illustrates the classical case of fatigue and spalling. Fatigue usually starts
in the most heavily stressed part of the bearing, for example, in the load zone, centred
around 6 p.m. in a horizontal induction motor.
3.1.3 Excessive Loads

The symptoms of excessive loads on a bearing are characterized by heavy rolling
element wear paths as shown in Figure 3.4 and evidence of overheating may exist.
3.1.4 False Brinelling

False brinelling in a bearing is the term that describes the result of damage to a
stationary bearing caused by external vibration being transmitted to a stationary
motor’s bearings from adjacent running plant. Because the motor is stationary the
external vibration leads to micro-motion between the rolling elements and raceways.
There is no oil formation between the rolling elements (stationary) to prevent raceway
wear when the bearing is not turning. The symptoms are often characterized by wear
marks in an axial direction at each ball or roller’s position in the load zone, around an
arc centred at 6 p.m., as shown in Figures 3.5 and 3.6.

Figure 3.5 False brinelling on the outer raceway in the bearing’s load zone.
Figure 3.6 Damaged rollers due to false brinelling.
3.1.5 True Brinelling

Permanent indents of a hard surface are normally referred to as true brinelling, a name
derived from the Brinell scale of hardness. The symptoms of true brinelling are Brinell
marks which appear as indentations in the raceways as shown in Figure 3.7, and
severe Brinell marks can cause premature fatigue failure. Typical causes of true
brinelling include:
(i) Static overload on the bearing.
(ii) Severe impact to the bearing, for example excessive impulse loads from rock
crushers, etc.
(iii) Hammer usage to install the bearing.
3.1.6 Skidding or Slipping Tracks

‘Skidding’ is the sliding of the rolling elements on the inner ring caused by the bearing
being lightly loaded in comparison to the bearing’s dynamic loading capacity, causing

Figure 3.7 Indents caused by true brinelling.
ineffective lubrication. It is often observed (heard) when an induction motor is running

uncoupled during a Factory Acceptance Test and normally disappears when the motor
is installed on-site and is dynamically loaded while turning a mechanical load.
Figure 3.8 illustrates the region of skidding
The symptoms of skidding are shown in Figures 3.9 and 3.10 and these include
spotted smear marks or roughening of the rolling elements or raceways.
3.1.7 Contamination – Corrosion – Fretting

The symptoms are typically as follows:
(i) Red or brown staining and/or deposits on rolling elements and raceways as shown
in Figure 3.11.
(ii) There can be an increase in the radial clearance.
A poor quality outer ring housing fit can result in fretting corrosion as shown in
Figure 3.12. In this case the size of the load zone is revealed by the damage caused by
fretting corrosion.
3.1.8 Shaft Currents

An electrical current flowing through bearings in a SCIM can cause bearings to fail –
see references [3.27] to [3.31]. To prevent failures requires either insulation of the
bearings to stop the flow of current or diversion of the current by grounding.
Figure 3.13 is an example of fluting caused by bearing currents.
Causes of bearing currents include:

Figure 3.8 Region of skidding.
Figure 3.9 Example of effects of skidding on rollers.
(i) If a time-varying axial flux exists along the shaft and through the bearings, a shaft
voltage is generated via Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. If the voltage
is high enough to break down the oil film between the rollers and races a current
can flow and, due to high temperatures, this creates small pits/fluting in the
bearings. The axial flux is due to any magnetic asymmetry in the motor caused by,

Figure 3.10 Example of effects of skidding/slippage on the raceway of a cylindrical roller element
bearing.
Figure 3.11 Illustration of contamination by, for example, water.
Figure 3.12 Illustration of fretting corrosion.

Figure 3.13 Illustration of fluting which can be caused by bearings currents.
Figure 3.14 Illustration of the flow of bearing currents due to axial flux and induced shaft voltage.
for example, above normal (e.g. greater than 10%) airgap eccentricity or magnetic
asymmetry in the magnetic steels used in the stator or rotor core. The asymmetry
must be high enough to create an axial flux that generates a voltage which will
break down the oil film. There is a closed path for the flow of current since the
phenomenon is within the induction motor and not externally created.
Figure 3.14 illustrates the flow of current and insertion of insulation at the DE bearing
to break that flow can solve the problem of bearing failures due to circulating bearing
currents.
(ii) A different phenomenon is due to electrostatic discharges caused by friction, for
example, charge is transferred from the driven mechanical load, which
accumulates on the motor shaft through belts or via a shaft mounted fan operating

Figure 3.15 Electrostatic discharge currents which caused pitting as indicated by the arrow.
in very dry air. This can produce electrical discharges on the bearing surfaces and
consequential pitting that can lead to failure. Electrostatic coupling can be
produced from external power supplies, for example, from Pulse Width
Modulated Inverters (PWMs), which have very high dv/dt.
(iii) This is inherent during switching of Gate Turn-Off (GTOs) and Insulated-Gate
Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs), and is the major cause of electrical discharges.
Figure 3.15 illustrates the effects of discharge current which caused pitting in a
raceway.
Bearing manufacturers can now supply rolling element bearings with a ceramic
layer coating around the surface of the outer ring [3.32], which can prevent
bearing currents. The ceramic coating layer consists of an oxide-ceramic, which is
plasma sprayed on to the outer ring and these bearings can be fitted if the end user is
concerned about bearing currents, particularly in inverter-fed induction motors.
Also, shaft grounding via a carbon brush in contact with the shaft and earth can be
used to divert bearing currents in large motors and generators, but in hostile environ-
ments the mechanism and contact pressure have to be regularly maintained to ensure a
low resistance path to ground. Irrespective of the source of induced shaft voltage,
when the value exceeds typically 500 mV r.m.s., it can produce large enough currents
to permanently damage the bearings.
This chapter has presented a sample of the problems in roller element bearings,
but it is emphasized that many other problems and failures can occur for example,
due to:
(1) Excessive overheating caused by over greasing.
(2) Outer ring fracture.
(3) Misalignment during fitting of the bearings or excessive misalignment in the drive
train, which causes severe reaction forces on the bearings.
(4) Tight bearing fits.
(5) Lubricant failure, for example due to under greasing, mixing of greases, etc.
(6) Effects of reverse loading/severe cyclic loads.

References 73
References
3.1 ISO 281:2007, Rolling Bearings – Dynamic Load Ratings and Rating Life, Geneva, ISO,
2007.
3.2 A. H. Bonnett and T. Albers, Motor Bearing Systems, IEEE Industry Applications
Magazine, 8 (5), 2002, pp. 58–73.
3.3 A. H. Bonnett and T. Albers, Motor Bearing Systems for Forest Products Applications,
IEEE Conf., Record, Annual Pulp and Paper Industry Technical Conference, 2001,
pp. 96–110.
3.4 A. H. Bonnett, Cause and Analysis of Bearing Failures in Electrical Motors, IEEE Conf.,
Record of 39th PCIC Conference, 1992, pp. 87–95.
3.5 NTN Corporation, Care and Maintenance of Bearings http://www.ntnglobal.com/en/
products/catalog/pdf/3017E.pdf.
3.6 NSK New Bearing Doctor www.mx.nsk.com/downloads/americas_bearing/BearingDoc
tor_for_web.pdf.
3.7 Bearing Defects and Damage http://www.zkl.cz/en/for-designers/11-bearing-defects-and-
damage
3.8 Timkin Bearing Damage Analysis with Lubrication Reference Guide https://www.timken
.com/pdf/5892_Bearing%20Damage%20Analysis%20Brochure.pdf.
3.9 F. R. Hutchings and P. M. Unterweiser, A Survey of the Causes of Failure of Rolling
Bearings, from: Failure Analysis: The British Engine Technical Reports, Ed., American
Society for Metals, 1981.
3.10 Z. Vintr and M. Vintr, An Assessment of Mean Time between Failures for a Group of
Rolling Bearings, IEEE Conference Record, 2011, International Conference on Quality,
Risk Maintenance, and Safety Engineering, 2011, pp. 177–81.
3.11 W. R. Finley and M. M. Howowanec, Optimal Induction Motor Bearing Selection, Annual
Record of the IEEE 2003 Annual Pulp and Paper Industry Conference, 2003, pp. 29–41.
3.12 M. M. Howowanec, Evaluation of Antifriction Bearing Lubrication Methods on Motor
Life Cycle Cost, 1996 IEEE Record of Annual Pulp and Paper Industry Conference,
1996, pp. 170–7.
3.13 M. M. Howowanec, Satisfactory Motor Bearing Service Life: A Review of Often Over-
looked Design Considerations, IEEE Record of 1995 Annual Pulp and Paper Industry
Conference, 1995, pp. 177–184.
3.14 T. A. Harris and M. N. Kotzalas, Essential Concepts of Bearing Technology, fifth edition,
CRC Press, ISBN: 13 978-0-8493-7183-7, 2007.
3.15 J. I. Taylor and D. Wyndell Kirkland, The Bearing Analysis Handbook, ISBN:
0-9640517-3-7, Vibration Consultants, VCI USA, 2004.
3.16 J. I. Taylor, The Vibration Analysis Handbook, second edition, VCI, ISBN: 0-9640517-2-9,
2003.
3.17 D. F. Wilcock and E. R. Booser, Bearing Design and Application, McGraw-Hill,
New York, ASIN: B0011VRU2Q, 1957.
3.18 P. M. Lugt, Grease Lubrication in Roller Bearings, Wiley & Sons Ltd, ISBN:978-1-118-
35391-2, 2013.
3.19 T. Tallian, Rolling Contact Failure Through Lubrication, Journal of Institution of Mech-
anical Engineers, UK, 182 (3A), 1987.
3.20 P. S. Haughton, Ball and Roller Bearings, Applied Science Publishers Ltd, London, 1985.

3.21 A. Palmgren, Ball and Roller Bearing Engineering, third edition, Burbank, Philadelphia,
1959.
3.22 R. K. Allen, Roller Bearings, Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons Ltd, London, 1945.
3.23 D. Dowson, History of Tribology, second edition, Longman, New York, 1999.
3.24 R. Juvinall and K. Marshek, Fundamentals of Machine Component Design, second
edition, John Wiley, New York, 1991.
3.25 B. Hamrock, B. Jacobson and S. Schmid, Fundamentals of Machine Elements, McGraw-
Hill, New York, 1999.
3.26 M. Spotts and T. Shoup, Design of Machine Elements, seventh edition, Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1998.
3.27 Romero de Souza et al., Premature Wear and Recurring Bearing Failures in an Inverter-
Driven Induction Motor – Part I: Investigation of the Problem, IEEE Transactions on
Industry Applications, 51 (6), 2015, pp. 4861–7.
3.28 Romero de Souza et al., Premature Wear and Recurring Bearing Failures in an Inverter-
Driven Induction Motor – Part II: The Proposed Solution, IEEE Transactions on Industry
Applications, 51 (1), 2015, pp. 92–100.
3.29 S. Barker, Avoiding Premature Failure with Inverter Fed Induction Motors, Power
Engineering Journal, 14 (4), 2000, pp. 182–9.
3.30 T. Hadden et al., A Review of Shaft Voltages and Bearing Currents in EV and HEV
Motors, 42nd Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society, IECON,
2016, pp. 1578–83.
3.31 M. Asefi and J. Nazarzadeh, Survey on High Frequency Models of PWM Electric Dives
for Shaft Voltage and Bearing Current Analysis, IET Electrical Systems in Transportation,
7 (3), 2017, pp. 179–89.
3.32 J. A. Oliver, G. Guerrero and J. Goldman, Ceramic Bearings for Electric Motors, IEEE
Industry Transactions Magazine, 33 (6), 2017, pp. 14–20.

4 Introduction to Vibration
Spectrum Analysis to Diagnose
Faults in Rolling Element Bearings
in Induction Motors
4.1 Summary
Abstract – This introductory chapter supports the application of VSA – see references
[4.1] to [4.8] – which is used in the industrial case histories in Chapters 5 to 8, to
diagnose the onset of faults in rolling element bearings before actual bearing failures
occur. In the case histories, and whenever possible, the loop was closed between the
prediction of bearing faults through to strip down of the motors and photographic
evidence of the damaged bearings. Chapters 2 and 3 lead into this chapter because
they cover the typical types of roller element bearings used in SCIMs and types of
bearing faults.
Section 4.1.1 provides a typical example of the number of strategic LV SCIMs with
rolling element bearings compared to HV, high-power, SCIMs with sleeve bearings in
a large LNG processing plant. This section will also illustrate the vibration monitoring
strategy applied to these motors by an end user. In Section 4.1.1.1 there is a discussion
with photographic evidence of a catastrophic DE bearing failure in an LV, 185 kW/
250 H.P., SCIM, culminating in the destruction of the DE end frame and a broken
shaft.
The catastrophic destruction of a 185 kW/250 H.P. SCIM due to a bearing failure
was a major health and safety violation and demonstrates the importance of reliable
vibration monitoring to diagnose faults in rolling element bearings to prevent such a
failure. Section 4.2.1 provides a brief overview of the different stages of bearing
degradation and Section 4.2.2 presents the rationale for using VSA to diagnose faults
in rolling element bearings. The case histories in this chapter have not been previously
published.
4.1.1 Liquid Natural Gas (LNG) Processing Plant

This LNG processing plant had the following strategic SCIM drives:
Ten 3-phase 11kV SCIMs, which have sleeve bearings with ratings from 930 kW/
1247 H.P. to 2530 kW/3390 H.P., driving gas compressors and pumps.
At the date of manufacture in 1992, these HV motors were fitted with permanent
displacement probes to measure peak-to-peak shaft displacement. Alarm and trip
settings set at 70 μm and 100 µm peak-to-peak respectively have prevented any
75
76 Introduction to Vibration Spectrum Analysis to Diagnose Faults
Figure 4.1 Photograph of catastrophic failure of an LV SCIM and positions of mounting studs on
the DE end frame used by a condition monitoring vendor.
catastrophic bearing failures during the operational life (30 years) of these motors at
the time of writing this book.
Thirty-five strategic, LV, 415 V, SCIMs driving compressors, pumps and fans, with
ratings from 75 kW/100 H.P. to 265 kW/355 H.P. These motors are fitted with
rolling element bearings of different types, such as deep groove ball, cylindrical
roller and angular contact bearings. None of these SCIMs has permanent
accelerometers fitted for vibration monitoring.
The end user’s strategy for vibration monitoring of strategic LV motors with rolling
element bearings was, and still is, as follows:
(i) The end user sub-contracts a vibration monitoring vendor to carry out monthly
vibration surveys of these 35 LV SCIMs using temporary accelerometers. As
shown in Figure 4.1, these are mounted on permanent fixing studs and a hand-
held vibration analyser collects the data.
(ii) The sub-contractor uses vibration envelope analysis to detect bearing faults, but
the accelerometers used by the vendor are too large to mount on the bearing
housings of any of the 35 LV SCIMs. They are therefore mounted on the outer
periphery of the DE end frame as shown in Figure 4.1.
(iii) It is the author’s opinion that, to reliably apply envelope analysis, the
accelerometers must be mounted directly on the bearing housings, and this is also
supported in reference [4.9]. A case history is presented in Section 8.2 which
reports on the false diagnosis of a cage fault in a N324 C3 bearing in the DE of a
SCIM by a condition monitoring (CM) sub-contractor. Envelope analysis was
used, and the accelerometers were mounted on the outer periphery of the motor’s
flange and not on the bearing housing. The author was appointed as an

4.1 Summary 77
Figure 4.2 Catastrophic failure of the DE bearing.
Figure 4.3 Broken shaft, coupling spacer.
independent consultant by the oil company to carry out VSA before the motor
was stripped down and after new bearings were fitted. There was no cage fault
and VSA predicted the motor could have continued to run because there were no
faults in the DE bearing.
4.1.1.1 Catastrophic Bearing Failure and Destruction of a SCIM

In 2006, there was a catastrophic failure of the DE bearing in one of the strategic LV
SCIMs and photographs of the failed parts in the motor are shown in Figures 4.1, 4.2
and 4.3. The motor’s nameplate data are as follows:
Year of manufacture: 1992, serial number: T353Z

Type of motor: SCIM (Squirrel Cage Induction Motor)
3-phase, 415 V, 185 kW, 305 A, 50 Hz, 2960 r/min, p.f. = 0.88, eff = 96%
Connection: Δ stator winding, insulation class: F (temp. rise 80 C)

Rating: MC; Exn, temperature: T3; enclosure: IP55 TEFC

DE: N316 C3 (a cylindrical roller element bearing with 13 rollers)
NDE: 6316 C3 (a deep groove ball bearing with eight balls)
Grease: Shell RA; greasing interval: 1800 run hours from motor data sheets.
4.2 Vibration Analysis to Diagnose Bearing Faults
4.2.1 Idealized Stages of Bearing Degradation and Vibration Analysis Techniques

Figure 4.4 illustrates the typical stages of bearing defects – see references [4.2] to
[4.11] – from a very early stage (at the microscopic level), which commences with
Zone A followed by B, C and D, which indicates a bearing failure is normally
imminent.
4.2.1.1 Comments on the Application of Spike Energy and Envelope Analysis

Techniques
The application of shock pulse measurements (SPM) or envelope analysis to diagnose
the early inception of defects in rolling element bearings requires the accelerometer to
be mounted directly on the bearing housing. However, the industrial reality is that in
Figure 4.4 Various stages of degradation of a roller element bearing.

4.2 Vibration Analysis to Diagnose Bearing Faults 79
induction motors which have rolling element bearings the DE bearing housings may
not be accessible due to practical restrictions such as the coupling guard. Furthermore
at the NDE of induction motors which have external cooling fans and cowls the NDE
bearing is certainly not accessible.
The author therefore does not use spike energy, SPM or envelope analysis tech-
niques to assess the condition of rolling element bearings in induction motors.
End users are unimpressed with a false diagnosis that the bearing in a SCIM is
seriously degraded when the motor repair shop subsequently reports that considerable
operational life was still left in the bearings and there was negligible visual evidence
of any flaws. End users do not want to have a microscopic inspection of the bearing
just to prove that there are minor flaws. The end users require visual evidence that the
bearing has a reduced operational life and action has been taken to prevent a
catastrophic failure.
4.2.2 Vibration Spectrum Analysis (VSA) as Applied in the Industrial Case Histories
Vibration spectrum analysis (VSA) has been applied for many years and compared to
the signal processing required for envelope analysis the application of VSA is easier to
understand as will be verified in the case histories that follow in this chapter. This is
borne out by the author’s vast experience of meeting (during the past 40 years)
numerous on-site maintenance personnel and mechanical and electrical engineers
who are responsible for the operation, maintenance and condition monitoring of
induction motors with rolling element bearings. When end users were asked if they
understood the fundamental theory of envelope analysis and the associated signal
processing, their answers have nearly always been:
No, with additional comments that they do not really understand the fundamental theory and
signal processing used in envelope analysis.
In contrast, the end users are, in general, more comfortable with traditional VSA.
4.2.2.1 Rolling Element Bearing Defect Frequencies

The bearing defect frequencies due to bearing faults are a function of the bearing
dimensions, as shown in Figure 4.5.
With radially loaded bearings the contact areas of the balls and raceways carry the
largest loads hence fatigue failures normally involve these components. The ball spin
frequency is produced by the rotation of each ball about its own centre. The frequency
components due to an inner or outer race defect are generated when each ball passes
over a defect. This occurs ne times during a complete revolution of the raceway, where
ne is the number of rolling elements.
For completeness, the theoretical predictor equations for the bearing defect fre-
quencies are presented in Equations 4.1 to 4.4. The reader is referred to an excellent
book [4.3] that includes detailed theoretical derivations of the bearing defect frequen-
cies. Due cognisance should be taken of the fact that these formulae are theoretical,

Figure 4.5 Illustrations of bearing nomenclature.
and predictions can differ from actual measurements due to for example, skidding (see
Section 3.1.6) or the effects of high thrust loads.
Inner and Outer Race Defects

n
BD

e
BPFI ¼ f 1þ cos ðβÞ (4.1)
2 r PD
n
BD

e
BPFO ¼ f 1 cos ðβÞ ; (4.2)
2 r PD
BPFI = ball pass frequency of the inner race and is the frequency at which the rolling
elements contact a defect in the inner race,
BPFO = ball pass frequency of the outer race and is the frequency at which the rolling
elements make contact with a defect in the outer race.
Rolling Element Defect

A defective rolling element will be in contact with both the inner and outer raceways
during each revolution hence the defect frequency will be double the spin frequency
(BSF):
" 2
#
PD BD
2BSF ¼ f 1 cos ðβÞ ; (4.3)
BD r PD
2BSF = rolling element defect frequency.

The defect on a rolling element will normally strike the outer and inner raceways
during one revolution of the rolling element.

4.3 Flow Chart for Vibration Measurements 81
Abnormal Cage Operation

fr BD
FTF ¼ 1 cos ðβÞ ; (4.4)
2 PD
FTF = the fundamental train frequency is the rotational speed frequency of the
combined cage and rolling elements assembly. For example, FTF can be detected
as a discrete frequency component due to internal looseness. It has also been
reported [4.3] that FTF may modulate harmonics of BPFI, BPFO and 2BSF which
may show up as a difference frequency between these spectral components:
β = contact angle on raceways, degrees
PD = pitch diameter, mm
fr = rotational speed frequency of the rotor, Hz
BD = ball diameter, mm
ne = number of rolling elements, an integer.
4.3 Flow Chart for Vibration Measurements and VSA to Diagnose Bearing
Defect Frequencies from Faulty Rolling Element Bearings in SCIMS
The reader should refer to the preparatory guidelines for vibration monitoring of
induction motors presented in Section 1.1.3.1 and the flow chart for vibration meas-
urements in Section 1.1.4.1 before proceeding to the following flow chart.
On-Site Information Gathering

Record the nameplate data directly from all motors to be tested. Determine if
accelerometers can be mounted directly on the DE bearing housings (as shown in
Figure 4.6) via a strong magnetic attachment. Or is only the DE end frame
accessible due to the coupling guard covering the DE bearing housing?
Determine if the NDE bearing and NDE end frame are accessible. It is often the
case that the fan cowl completely covers the NDE bearing and the end frame (as
shown in Figure 4.6) and the cowl is bolted onto the outer periphery of the NDE
end frame. The accelerometer can be mounted on this bolt, which has a direct
transmission path through the end frame to the bearing housing. If permitted take
photos of the motors.
Preparations for On-Site Vibration Measurements

Predict the bearing defect frequencies using reference [4.12]. Initially use the full-
load rotational speed frequency from the full-load speed in r/min on the nameplate
of each SCIM, which is given by: 1X= Nr/60 Hz

(cont.)
Use the correct bearing numbers. If new bearings have been fitted in the past it
may well be that extra capacity cylindrical rolling element bearings have been
installed in place of standard ones.
For example, an induction motor nameplate specifies an N324 C3, but two major
bearing manufacturers no longer provide an off the shelf, standard steel cage
cylindrical roller bearing, which has been replaced by an extra capacity bearing
N324E M C3. A steel cage version, of an N324 C3 has 12 rollers and the N324E
C3 has 13 rollers. Therefore, the bearing defect frequencies will be different. If in
doubt calculate the frequencies for both bearings.
On-Site Vibration Measurements

Ensure the correct accelerometer is selected so that it has a linear response in the
range of the bearing defect frequencies and their harmonics and that it is securely
mounted via permanent mounting studs or magnetic attachments.
The best mounting positions are directly on the bearing housings. If that is not
possible then they should be mounted on the outer periphery of the DE end frame
to measure the horizontal and vertical vibration.
At the NDE when a fan cowl is fitted (see Figure 4.6) the accelerometer should
be mounted on a bolt securing the fan cowl. Measure, or record from an in-situ
ammeter the operational current.
Figure 4.6 Photograph of a 415 V,185 kW/250 H.P., SCIM.
Record the vibration velocity spectrum to accurately measure the r.m.s. velocity
(or peak) and frequency of the 1X component. If the measured 1X component is

4.4 Introductory Industrial Case History (1988) 83
(cont.)
different from the full-load rotational speed frequency, then recalculate the bearing
defect frequencies using the operational speed frequency.
Measure the overall r.m.s. velocity, velocity spectra and r.m.s. velocity of each
bearing defect frequency in the V, H and A directions and where possible, to be
measured on the bearing housings.
4.4 Introductory Industrial Case History (1988) – Illustration of a VSA

Procedure to Diagnose Bearing Defect Frequencies in SCIMs
Abstract – This is an introductory case history to illustrate a VSA procedure, used by

the author to diagnose the bearing defect frequencies produced by faulty rolling
element bearings operating in induction motors.
4.4.1 Stage One – Drive Train and Nameplate Data
Drive Train:
A SCIM driving a condensate extraction pump in an LNG processing plant has the
following nameplate data:
3-phase, SCIM, 11 kV, 230 kW/300 H.P., 14 A
50 Hz, 2957 r/min, 0.9 p.f., eff = 95.8%
DE and NDE bearings, 6317 M C3 deep groove ball bearings, M means brass cage.
4.4.2 Stage Two – Photographs of Motor and Positions of Accelerometers

The photographs presented in Figures 4.7 and 4.8 indicate where accelerometers could
be mounted, and the next stage is to select a suitable accelerometer.
4.4.3 Stage Three – Select an Accelerometer

The accelerometer, which is shown in Figures 1.14, 1.15 and 1.16 in Chapter 1 with its
magnetic attachment can be mounted at the positions shown in Figures 4.7 and 4.8. Its
main features are:
100 mV/g 10%; linear frequency response: 2–15 kHz 5%

Mounted base resonance nominally: 22 kHz 10%; weight: 25 grams/1.0 ounce.
4.4.4 Stage Four – Predict the Bearing Defect Frequencies at the Full-Load Rated Speed
The full-load speed from the nameplate = Nr = 2957 r/min.
Full-load slip sf.l. = (3000 – 2957)/3000 = 0.0143 or 1.43%.
The 1X rotational speed frequency component = 2957/60 = 49.28 Hz.

Figure 4.7 Positions of accelerometers on the NDE end frame and the motor’s mounting base.
Figure 4.8 Positions of accelerometers at the DE on the DE bearing housing and end frame.
Table 4.1 presents the predicted bearing defect frequencies using the full-load name-
plate speed. The predictions can be obtained via http://webtools.skf.com/BearingCalc/
selectProduct.action;jsession (see reference [4.12]). Simply enter the bearing number
(in this case 6317) and the shaft speed.
4.4.5 Overall R.M.S. Velocities and VSA to Detect the 1X Frequency Component and the
Bearing Frequencies using Velocity versus Frequency Spectra
First, if possible, record the motor’s operating current.
Tag number D2501A = 10.8 A; full-load current = 14 amperes. The results are
presented in Table 4.2 and the highest velocity was only 0.7 mm/s r.m.s. 10% at the

4.4 Introductory Industrial Case History (1988) 85
Table 4.1 Predicted bearing defect frequencies for the DE and NDE bearings
Bearing type: 6317 M C3 deep groove ball bearing with a brass cage
Full-load speed: 2957 r/min (1X frequency component = 49.28 Hz)

BPFO: 152 Hz BPFI: 242 Hz FTF: 19 Hz 2BSF: 205 Hz
Table 4.2 Overall r.m.s. velocity levels in mm/s r.m.s., to within 10%. Frequency span: 10–1000 Hz
Condensate export circulation pump DM-2501A 8110004336.01/1

mm/s r.m.s. mm/s r.m.s. mm/s r.m.s.

Figure 4.9 DEV velocity spectrum, 10–120 Hz, Figure 4.10 DEV velocity spectrum, 10–500 Hz,
0.0086 Hz/line. 0.078 Hz/line.
DEV position with the motor running on load at a current of 10.8 amperes – the motor
was running very smoothly indeed.
Figure 4.9 shows the velocity spectrum between 10 Hz and 120 Hz to exactly
identify the 1X frequency component which is 49.5 Hz (motor speed 2970 r/min).
The bearing defect frequencies in Table 4.1 were calculated using the full-load
nameplate speed and can be corrected using the operational speed, for example BPFO
= 152(2970/2957) = 153 Hz, this is a difference of only 0.65%. Therefore, the values
in Table 4.1 can be used for the first pass VSA.
(i) Figures 4.10 to 4.14 show the r.m.s. velocity spectra between 10 to 500 Hz for the
positions at the DE and NDE.
(ii) The objective was to present a VSA procedure to diagnose whether any of the
bearing defect frequencies given in Table 4.1. were present.
(iii) Figure 4.11 and Figure 4.14 indicate that BPFO at 153.7 Hz (predicted at the
operational speed = 153 Hz) at the DEH and NDEH positions exist but at very
low velocities of 0.05 mm/s and 0.035 mm/s r.m.s. respectively.

Figure 4.11 DEH velocity spectrum, 10–500 Hz, Figure 4.12 DEA velocity spectrum, 10–500 Hz,
Figure 4.13 NDEV velocity spectrum, 10–500 Hz, Figure 4.14 NDEH velocity spectrum, 10–500 Hz,
(iv) These velocities can be trended because the results presented are the base-line
measurements for this new motor.
(v) There was no evidence of any of the other bearing defect frequencies in the linear
spectra presented.
4.4.5.1 VSA to Detect the Bearing Frequencies using dB versus Frequency

Spectra
The dB scale is logarithmic and has a large dynamic range, for example, modern
vibration analysers have the facility to display a dB spectrum, typically with a
dynamic range of 80 dB, which is a factor of 10,000 in absolute velocity units.
Table 4.3 gives the dB values and the factor it equates to in absolute units.
The decibel value can be calculated as

v
dB ¼ 20 log , (4.5)
vr
where:
v is the measured absolute velocity in mm/s.
vr is the reference velocity in mm/s used to produce the dB spectrum.

4.5 Conclusions 87
Table 4.3 dB values and equivalent absolute factors
6 dB equates 10 dB equates 20 dB equates

to a factor of 2 to a factor of 3.16 to a factor of 10
40 dB equates 60 dB equates 80 dB equates
to a factor of 100 to a factor of 1000 to a factor of 10,000
Figure 4.15 DEV vertical bearing housing dB velocity spectrum, 10–250 Hz, 0.078 Hz/line.
A dB versus frequency spectrum is now used to detect the bearing frequencies because
much more information can be obtained as shown in Figure 4.15.
4.5 Conclusions
The following bearing frequencies are now very evident in the dB spectra of Fig-
ures 4.15 and 4.16, in comparison to the linear velocity spectra shown in Figures 4.10
and 4.11 which shows no bearing frequencies.
With respect to Figure 4.15:
BPFO = 153.7 Hz at –108 dB

BPFO is 40 dB smaller than the 1X component, which means it is 100 times smaller;
this is obtained using 10ð140=20Þ ¼ 100
2BSF = 207 Hz at –112 dB
2BSF is 44 dB smaller than the 1X component
BPFI = 242 Hz at 108 dB
BPFI is 40 dB smaller than the 1X component.
The bearing frequencies are very low in magnitude, but they do exist and can be
taken as base-line magnitudes at the DEV position on the bearing housing of this new
motor.

Figure 4.16 DEH horizontal bearing housing dB velocity spectrum, 10–250 Hz, 0.078 Hz/line.
(1) The dB scale is a much more powerful analysis tool compared to a linear velocity
spectrum, as demonstrated in this case history, and vibration analysts are strongly
encouraged to use the dB scale to obtain much more information.
(2) Unfortunately, there is a very strong reluctance by vibration analysts to use dB
vibration spectra and, likewise, mechanical and electrical power engineers
employed by end users find it alien.
(3) Overall vibration levels and linear spectra are normally presented in reports
because vibration standards are usually given in linear absolute units of
displacement, velocity or acceleration.
(4) Recall that acoustic engineers always use the dB scale and humans are perfectly
happy to relate to that scale when assessing the level of acoustic noise perceived
by the human ear in dBs.
References
4.1 S. A. McInerny and Y. Dai, Basic Vibration Signal Processing for Bearing Fault Detec-
tion, IEEE Transactions on Education, 46 (1), Feb. 2003, pp. 149–56.
4.2 Spectrum Analysis: SKF.com; http://www.skf.com/binary/tcm:12-113997/CM5118%
20EN%20Spectrum%20Analysis.pdf
4.3 J. I. Taylor and D. Wyndell Kirkland, The Bearing Analysis Handbook, ISBN: 0-
9640517-3-7, Vibration Consultants, VCI USA, 2004.
4.4 J. I. Taylor, The Vibration Analysis Handbook, second edition, Vibration Consultants,
VCI, ISBN: 0-9640517-2-9, 2003.
4.5 R. B. Randell, Vibration-Based Condition Monitoring, John Wiley, ISBN 978-0-470-
74788-8, 2012.
4.6 A. Brant, Noise and Vibration Analysis, John Wiley, ISBN 978-0-470-74644-8, 2011.
4.7 R. Elsheman, Basic Machinery Vibrations: An Introduction to Machine Testing, Analysis
and Monitoring, ASIN: B011YTFB9A, 1999.

References 89
4.8 J. S. Mitchell, An Introduction to Machinery Analysis and Monitoring, Penwell Publish-

ing, Tulsa, Okla., 1981.
4.9 Robert M. Jones, Enveloping for Bearing Analysis, Sound and Vibration Journal, 30
(2),1996, pp. 10–15.
4.10 Mig Xu, Spike Energy and its Application, Shock and Vibration Digest, 27 (3), May/June
1995, pp. 11–17.
4.11 T. Sundstrom, SPM White Paper: An Introduction to the SPM HD Method, pp. 1–36,
SPM Instruments AB 1 Box 504 1 SE-645 25 Strangnas 1 Sweden.
4.12 NSK http://www.jp.nsk.com/app02/BearingGuide/m/html/en/BearingSearch.html.

5 Industrial Case Histories
on VSA to Diagnose Cage Faults
in Rolling Element Bearings
of SCIMs
5.1 Introduction
Abstract – This case history reports on the application of VSA to diagnose a faulty
cage and consequential damage to the balls and inner raceway in an angular contact
bearing (7316 BE) at the NDE of a vertically mounted SCIM.
Photographs of the faulty bearing are presented. The fundamental cause of
the defects was lack of grease caused by not greasing the NDE bearing at intervals
of run hours recommended by the OEM of the motor. The end user did not have
a proper quality control regime for the correct greasing of bearings in induction
motors.
5.1.1 Motor Data and Positions for Vibration Measurements

The motor’s nameplate provided the following data:
3–phase, SCIM, 415 V, 150 kW/200 H.P., 243 A

50 Hz, 2965 r/min, p.f. 0.89, eff. 96.5%
Drive End (DE) bearing: NU316E M C3
Non Drive End (NDE) bearing: 7316 BE. The NU316E M C3 is a cylindrical roller
element bearing with an extra capacity rating E, a brass cage M and C3 clearance
The 73I6 BE is a single-row angular contact (of 40 ) ball bearing which can sustain
radial, axial or combined loads but the axial load can only be in one direction,
which is downward in this case.
The SCIM drives a strategic LNG booster pump in a gas processing plant but
permanent accelerometers were not installed on any of the strategic (75 kW and
above), 415 V, SCIMs in the plant. Access to the NDE bearing or end frame, which
contains the bearing was not possible due to the fan cowl.
It was not permitted to take photos in the LNG gas plant, but Figure 5.1 taken
during a Factory Acceptance Test (FAT) illustrates where vibration measurements
were taken at the NDE of the motor during on-site measurements.
The high mechanical stiffness of the end frame in the radial direction, which
is outwards from the NDE bearing housing, can cause vibration from the bearing to
90
5.1 Introduction 91
Figure 5.1 Positions of accelerometers at the NDE during a FAT, which is the same as the
positions on-site.
Figure 5.2 Motor during a FAT with the fan cowl removed, which was not possible on-site.
be attenuated. Therefore, the diagnosis of the inception of bearing defects can be

difficult.
Figure 5.2 shows the motor with the fan cowl removed during a FAT. The
diagnosis had to be correct because the costs (approximately £10,000) to remove
the motor have to cover the erection of scaffolding, provision of a crane to lift a
vertical motor and the supply of mechanical and electrical personnel. This cost is
normally greater than the cost to install a new set of bearings. An end user will quickly

92 Industrial Case Histories on VSA to Diagnose Cage Faults
Table 5.1 Overall r.m.s. velocities in mm/s (10%); span 10–1000 Hz
DE12 DE3 DEA NDE12 NDE3
Velocity r.m.s. Velocity r.m.s. Velocity r.m.s. Velocity r.m.s. Velocity r.m.s.
2.4 mm/s 2.0 mm/s 1.0 mm/s 1.2 mm/s 1.0 mm/s
Table 5.2 Predicted bearing frequencies at nominal full-load speed
NDE bearing type 7316BE
Nominal full-load speed 2965 r/min (49.42 Hz)

Contact angle: 40
Number of balls: 16
Article I. Article II. Article III. 2 BSF

BPFO BPFI FTF
243 Hz 350 Hz 20.3 Hz 203.5Hz
terminate the services of a condition monitoring company which is guilty of incorrect

diagnosis.
5.1.2 Overall Velocity Levels and VSA

The overall r.m.s. levels are given in Table 5.1 and the predicted bearing defect
frequencies for the NDE bearing at the full-load rated speed are presented in Table 5.2.
The analysis focused on detecting the cage defect frequency (FTF) at the NDE12
position and the subsequent trending of its magnitude during a period of 12 months
(see Figure 5.3).
The reason was that in July 2010, the FTF component was evident, but no other
bearing defect frequencies existed. The motor was not always running during the
monthly vibration surveys.
The predicted FTF component was at the full-load speed of 2965 r/min because that
is the nameplate speed and predictions were carried out before going on-site. The
operational speed was not known until the measurements were analysed. The motor
was not on full load and was operating on a reduced load, thus the speed was higher
and from Figure 5.4 the 1X rotational speed frequency component was 49.844 Hz,
which is a rotor speed of 2990 r/min.
The predicted FTF was corrected for the higher speed, which is equal to 20.3(2990/
2965) = 20.64 Hz. Interpretation of Figure 5.4 indicates there is a component at
20.47 Hz, which differs by only 0.8% from the predicted value of FTF at the
operational speed.
It was concluded that this was the FTF at a magnitude of 0.58 mm/s, which is 84%
of the 1X component and 53% of the overall r.m.s. velocity. The severity of the cage

5.1 Introduction 93
Figure 5.3 Schematic illustration of the motor to show the positions of accelerometers during on-
site vibration measurements.
Figure 5.4 Velocity r.m.s. versus frequency for position NDE12, 0.078 Hz/line.

Figure 5.5 Trend graph of magnitude of cage defect frequency versus a 12 month period from
July 2010 to July 2011.
Figure 5.6a Velocity spectrum for position NDE12, Figure 5.6 Velocity spectrum for position NDE12,
fault could not be estimated from a one-off measurement because the vibration was
measured on the outer periphery of the NDE end frame.
Figure 5.5 presents the results of trending the FTF component during a year.
Between March and July 2011 there was a doubling of the FTF component from
1.4 mm/s to 2.9 mm/s, and the rate of rise of FTF with respect to time is obvious in
the plot.
The vibration spectra recorded in July 2010 and July 2011 are presented in
Figures 5.6a and 5.6 to provide a direct comparison. The FTF component has
increased by a factor of 5 in 12 months.
The author recommended that the motor should be shut down and removed from
service as soon as possible. It was predicted that there was a cage defect and possibly
secondary damage to the raceways.

5.1 Introduction 95
5.1.3 Inspection of the NDE Bearing

The photographs shown in Figures 5.7 to 5.14 of Appendix 5A provide evidence to
justify the following conclusions:
(i) The angular contact bearing was operating with no effective grease
lubrication because the grease residue was in the form of consolidated
soap.
(ii) The root cause of the faults in the bearing was lack of grease.
(iii) There was substantial wear in the cage pockets and inside diameter of the brass
cage. Particles of brass debris from the damaged cage had accelerated the wear
process and reduced the operating life.
(iv) There was also consequential damage to balls and the inner
raceway.
(v) The remaining run life was dramatically reduced. If the motor had not been
stopped, a failure was imminent and there was potential for a bearing collapse
and a rotor to stator rub.
5.1.4 Conclusions
Because the NDE bearing housing was inaccessible, the vibration in
the V and H directions was measured on the outer periphery of the
end frame. Therefore the vibration was attenuated and the cage frequency
component was relatively small (0.58 mm/s) and thus the initial severity of the
fault was masked.
The magnitude of the FTF component was trended over a period of 12 months to
determine this component’s rate of rise, which was 2 mm/s r.m.s. during the last
month. This was unacceptable and the motor was removed from service to prevent a
catastrophic bearing failure.
The end user was strongly advised to install permanent accelerometers directly on
the DE and NDE bearing housing positions where access is impossible while the
motor is running.
The bearings should be re-greased at the run hours interval specified by the
motor’s OEM, and the correct volume and grade of grease must be inserted at
re-greasing.
The end user was advised to fit run hours counters on the induction motor drives to
record the run hours for each motor so that a structured greasing regime could be
implemented.
Vibration monitoring is a valuable aid to prevent sudden and catastrophic failures
but should not replace correct re-greasing of bearings.

Appendix 5A – Photos of the Faulty Bearing Parts
Figure 5.7 NDE bearing as removed from the SCIM.
Figure 5.8 Outer ring raceway.
Figure 5.9 Samples of the hardened soap thickener.

5.1 Introduction 97
Figure 5.10 Internal wear in the brass cage.
Figure 5.11 Inner ring raceway.

Figure 5.13 Sample of one of the balls.
5.2 Industrial Case History – VSA Detected a Broken Cage in a Polyamide

Cylindrical Roller Bearing in a 75 kW/100 H.P. SCIM
5.2.1 Introduction
Abstract – A SCIM that drives an Amine Transfer Pump at an LNG processing plant
was removed from service in July 2007 for the following reasons:
(1) To repair the rusted frame via a Thermally Sprayed Aluminium (TSA) process.
(2) To refurbish the motor and fit new bearings.
The motor was installed in 1990 and was last overhauled in 2004. Prior to strip-
down of the motor at the repair shop it was run uncoupled and vibration measurements
were carried out by the author. The motor’s nameplate details are as follows:

5.2 Industrial Case History – VSA Detected a Broken Cage 99
Figure 5.15a Positions of accelerometers.
3-phase SCIM, serial number V580-B2

75 kW, 415 V, 124 A, 2960 r.p.m., 50 Hz, p.f. = 0.88, eff = 95.6%
Δ – connected
Bearings – DE: N219-C3, NDE: 6219-C3.
5.2.2 Overall R.M.S. Velocities

The motor was mounted on a solid steel base-plate in the repair shop and supplied at
rated voltage and frequency; the no-load current was 18 amperes (14% of If.l.).
Vibration measurements were taken directly on the DE bearing housing and at the
NDE, on a 12 o’clock positioned bolt, which secures the fan cowl to the NDE end
frame. Figure 5.15a shows the positions where the vibration was measured on
the motor.
The overall r.m.s. velocities are presented in Table 5.3 the levels were low with the
highest being only 0.7 mm/s r.m.s. in the axial direction on the DE bearing housing.
Note that when the motor was last overhauled the rotor was balanced to ISO G1.0
[5.1], hence the low levels of vibration.

Table 5.3 Overall r.m.s. velocities before motor strip down, span 10–1000 Hz
DEV DEH DEA NDEV

bearing bearing bearing on bolt securing fan cowl to NDE end
housing housing housing frame
0.5 mm/s 0.65 mm/s 0.7 mm/s 0.7 mm/s
Table 5.4 Bearing defect frequencies
DE bearing type: N219 C3 cylindrical roller element bearing

No-load motor speed: 2998 r/min
Bearing frequencies
BPFO BPFI FTF 2 BSF
342 Hz 457 Hz 21 Hz 341 Hz
NDE bearing type: 6219 C3 deep groove ball bearing

No-load motor speed: 2998 r/min
Bearing frequencies
BPFO BPFI FTF 2 BSF
205 Hz 295 Hz 20.5 Hz 269 Hz
Figure 5.15 DEH velocity spectrum, 0.078 Hz/line. Figure 5.16 DEH velocity spectrum, 0.078 Hz/line.
5.2.3 VSA Predicted a Broken Cage in the DE Bearing

The predicted bearing defect frequencies at the no-load speed are presented in
Table 5.4.
5.2.3.1 Interpretation of Spectra before and after New Bearings were Fitted
(1) Figures 5.15 and 5.16 show that there was an FTF cage defect frequency
component in the DEH and DEA velocity spectra from the DE bearing housing
with magnitudes of 0.4 mm/s and 0.5 mm/s r.m.s. respectively. There were also
high-frequency components, which were spaced FTF apart.
(2) The conclusion was that there was a cage defect and the motor was removed from
service and the DE bearing inspected.

5.2 Industrial Case History – VSA Detected a Broken Cage 101
Figure 5.17 DEA velocity spectrum, 0.078 Hz/line. Figure 5.18 DEA velocity spectrum, 0.078 Hz/line.
Figure 5.19 Broken polyamide cage in the N219 C3 DE bearing.
(3) A new set of steel cage bearings was fitted, the motor was run uncoupled, and the
velocity spectra for the DEH and DEA positions are presented in Figures 5.17 and
5.18. There are no cage frequency components or harmonics.
5.2.4 Inspection of the Faulty Bearing

The motor was dismantled, and Figure 5.19 shows that the DE bearing had a broken
polyamide cage, thus confirming the author’s prediction that a serious cage fault existed.
At the previous refurbishment of the motor in 2004 the repair shop had fitted an
N219 C3 with a polyamide cage, but it should have been a steel cage bearing as was
originally fitted by the OEM of the SCIM. A new set of steel cage bearings was fitted.
5.2.5 Conclusions
(1) The overall r.m.s. velocities on the DE bearing housing were low (maximum of
0.7 mm/s r.m.s.), as shown in Table 5.3, and therefore this did not give any
indication whatsoever that there was a problem with the bearing.

(2) However, VSA clearly detected that the FTF dominated the DEA velocity
spectrum at a velocity of 0.5 mm/s r.m.s., which was 71% of the overall r.m.s.
velocity.
(3) Overall r.m.s. velocities should not be used to assess the operational condition of
rolling element bearings.
Reference
5.1 ISO 1940-1: 2003 Rotor Balancing.

6 Industrial Case Histories – VSA
Detected Inner and Outer Race
Faults in Rolling Element Bearings
in SCIMS
6.1 Introduction
Abstract – Two vertically mounted SCIMs (A and B) were used to drive LNG pumps
in an onshore LNG processing plant. The nameplates provided the following relevant
data:
3-phase, SCIM, 3.3 kV, 385 kW/516 H.P.

83 A, 50 Hz, 2960 r/min., 0.88 p.f., eff 92.2%, star connected
DE bearing: NU314 M C3
NDE bearings: QJ312 and N312 M C3.
The motors were vertically mounted and therefore a QJ312 bearing was used at the
NDE because it is a 4-point angular contact bearing which is designed to support axial
loads in both directions. It has a relatively high mechanical stiffness with minimum
deflection and has a split inner ring design to cater for the high speed.
The DE and NDE cylindrical roller element bearings are essentially guide bearings
in this motor and drive train and the M means they have brass cages. There were no
permanent accelerometers installed on any part of the drive train and the following
points are strongly emphasised.
Owing to the construction of the motors it was impossible to measure vibration on the bearing
housings and all measurements were taken on the outer frame of the motor as shown on the
photograph in Figure 6.1 and on the schematic illustration in Figure 6.2.
To detect any bearing defect frequencies required the use of a logarithmic dB (amplitude)
versus frequency spectrum because the mechanical stiffness characteristics between the bearings
and access to measure vibration attenuated the actual vibration components due to bearing
defects.

In January 2013, during a routine vibration survey of the two motors, the overall
r.m.s. velocities were measured and are presented in Table 6.1. The highest was 6 mm/s
r.m.s. at the DEH position on motor B. For a high-speed drive train, a value of 6 mm/s
is acceptable because it was not an uncoupled run under FAT test conditions and at the
DEH position the combination of motor and pump vibration is being measured.
103
104 Industrial Case Histories – VSA Detected Inner and Outer Race Faults
Figure 6.1 Photograph of motor and motor–pump drive.
Figure 6.2 Schematic illustration of positions of vibration measurements.

Table 6.1 Overall velocities from motors A and B on 13th January 2013, coupled to pump
See Figure 6.2 for positions of accelerometers
Motor A: NGL vertical pump motor: overall r.m.s. velocity 10%

Motor operating current = 47 A; full-load current = 83 amperes
DE motor flange DEV 2.0 mm/s DEH 1.0 mm/s DEA 1.0 mm/s
NDE motor casing NDEV 3.0 mm/s NDEH 2.0 mm/s NDEA 0.9 mm/s
Motor B: NGL vertical pump motor: overall r.m.s. velocity 10%

Motor operating current = 38 A; full-load current = 83 amperes
DE motor flange DEV 2.4 mm/s DEH 6.0 mm/s DEA 0.4 mm/s
NDE motor casing NDEV 1.0 mm/s NDEH 3.0 mm/s NDEA 4.0 mm/s
Table 6.2 Overall velocities from motor B on 7th May 2013
Motor C: Overall r.m.s. vibration in mm/s 10%.

Frequency span: 10–1000 Hz
Coupled to pump motor operating current = 38 A
Motor flange DE Motor casing NDE Pump stool

DEV DEH DEA NDEV NDEH NDEA Tr PSV PSH
16 2.4 6.0 0.4 1.0 3.0 4.0

Jan. 2013
7 May 2013 5.4 13.0 1.5 1.4 10.7 6.0 8.5 5.0 1.6
Uncoupled no-load run motor operating current = 16 A
7 May 2013 6.0 10.0 1.0 1.8 8.0 4.0 7.0
Note that this was the first time the author had analysed vibration data from these
motors and no historical records were available for trending vibration measurements.
They were considered to be operational, but a re-survey was proposed for May 2013.
On 7th May 2013, the velocity at the NDEH position on motor B when driving the
pump had increased from 3 mm/s to 10.7 mm/s and the results are presented in
Table 6.2. The overall velocity on the 3.3 kV terminal box (Tr) was 8.5 mm/s. These
levels were unacceptable.
The motor was uncoupled from the pump for a no-load run and the overall velocity
at the NDEH position dropped from 10.7 mm/s to 8 mm/s, verifying that the main
source of the high vibration was from the motor and not the pump. A vibration
spectrum analysis was applied to try to ascertain the source of the vibration problem.

Figure 6.3 Motor B – vibration spectrum NDEH, Figure 6.4 Motor B – vibration spectrum NDEH,
coupled to the pump. coupled to the pump.
Figure 6.5 Motor B – vibration spectrum NDEH, Figure 6.6 Motor B – vibration spectrum NDEH,
coupled to the pump. uncoupled.

The routine survey of 13th January 2013 produced a vibration spectrum from the
NDEH of motor B as shown in Figure 6.3 and this confirmed that the spectrum was
dominated by the 1X component at 3.24 mm/s, which was perfectly acceptable for a
high-speed SCIM driving a centrifugal pump in an industrial site.
There were no components above 400 Hz and components on this linear spectrum
between the 1X component and 400 Hz were negligible. Figure 6.5 shows that four
months later the 1X component had increased from 3.24 mm/s to 10.7 mm/s 10%
(as shown in Figure 6.4) which equates to a rate of rise of 1.9 mm/s per month. This
was unacceptable. This increase may have been caused by an increase in mechanical
imbalance or an increase in shaft misalignment in the drive train.
The pump was uncoupled, and a no-load run of the motor was carried out to
ascertain the main source of the 1X component. From Figure 6.6 the 1X component at
the NDEH position had dropped to 8 mm/s and it was clear that the high 1X
component was coming from the motor.

Figure 6.7 Motor B – uncoupled run, dB versus frequency spectrum at position NDEH on
the motor.
Misalignment between the pump and the motor was therefore not the source of the
problem but further analysis and interpretation were required.
6.1.3 Visual On-Site Inspection of the NDE of Motor B

A large volume of excess grease surrounded the motor’s shaft and end frame assembly
at the NDE at a height of approximately 100 mm (4 inches) next to the shaft and
spreading out beyond the shaft in a radial direction onto the end frame for at least
150 mm (6 inches). This should not have been present, and by comparison, there was
virtually no excess grease at the NDE of motor A.
The stainless-steel pipes between the motor’s original grease pipe from the NDE
down to nearly the bottom of the drive unit (for easy access for greasing) had five
right-angle bends. The use of so many right-angle bends that had small radii of
curvature was inadvisable. It was recommended that the number should be reduced
and each given a much larger radius of curvature.
6.1.4 Interpretation of Logarithmic Spectrum and Predictions

The linear velocity spectra did not follow the classical vibration characteristics from
faulty bearings. The linear velocity versus frequency spectra were dominated by the
1X component and there appeared to be no multiple harmonics of 1X from this motor
and no evidence of bearing defect frequencies.
However, a logarithmic dB versus frequency spectrum of the vibration from the
NDEH position on motor B when it was running uncoupled is shown in Figure 6.7.

Table 6.2a Predicted defect frequencies for a QJ312 bearing
NDE bearing information – bearing: QJ312
Contact angle: 0 No. of balls: 13 Operational speed: 2995 r/min

BPFO: 222.3 Hz BPFI: 327.7 Hz FTF: 20.2 Hz 2 BSF: 205.8 Hz
Figure 6.8 Damaged inner race of the QJ312 NDE bearing.
The predicted bearing defect frequencies for the QJ312 bearing at the NDE are
presented in Table 6.2a.
The dB spectrum presented in Figure 6.7 shows the following:
(i) There are multiple harmonics of the 1X component up to 10X.
(ii) There are bearing defects at BPFO, BPFI and FTF (plus multiple harmonics of
FTF were present).
(iii) It was therefore predicted that the QJ312 bearing was faulty.
(iv) Note that the spectrum was filtered to remove noise below 110 dB.
6.1.5 Conclusions
Based on the high (up to 13 mm/s r.m.s.) overall r.m.s. velocity measurements and the
interpretation of the dB spectrum presented in Section 6.1.4, the motor was stopped
and removed for an inspection of the bearings.
(i) A strip down and inspection verified the QJ312 bearing was faulty as is shown on
the photograph in Figure 6.8.
(ii) The motor’s nameplate stated an N314 M C3 rated bearing but an N312E M C3
bearing had been fitted at a previous overhaul. This means that the E rated
bearing was overrated for the load on the bearing.
(iii) Figure 6.9 shows that the N312E M C3 bearing from the NDE had severely
damaged rollers and this may have been initially caused by excessive skidding
(see Section 3.1.6 for an explanation of skidding).

6.2 Industrial Case History – VSA Diagnosed Outer Race and Ball Defects 109
Figure 6.9 Damaged rollers in the N312E M C3 NDE bearing.
Figure 6.10 Large volume of grease inside the motor and on the end windings, etc.
(iv) Figure 6.10 is a photograph of the inside of the motor that shows excessive
grease contamination of the end winding and blockage of ventilation,
resulting in overheating which could escalate degradation of both bearings at
the NDE.
6.2 Industrial Case History – VSA Diagnosed Outer Race and Ball Defects in
a 7324 B Single-Row Angular Contact Ball Bearing in the NDE of a
Vertical 1193 kW/1600 H.P. SCIM Driving a Thruster Propeller
6.2.1 Introduction
Abstract – Two vertically mounted SCIMs drive bow thrusters on a Floating Produc-
tion and Oil Off-Loading Ship (FPSO). This is an interesting case history because the

Figure 6.11 Positions of accelerometers and measured velocities (r.m.s.) at the NDE of Bow
Thrusters 1 and 2.
bearing defect frequencies were not evident in the vibration spectrum although the
faulty bearing was at an advanced stage of degradation.
However, a bearing with severe degradation is often characterised by a vibration
velocity spectrum with pronounced multiple harmonics of the 1X fundamental rota-
tional speed frequency (Nr/60 Hz) vibration component. This was indeed the case with
the NDE bearing in one of the following motors. Overall velocities (r.m.s.) and
vibration spectra are presented, and photos of the faulty bearing verified the diagnosis.
6.2.1.1 Motor Nameplate Data

3-phase, 6600 V, 1139 kW/1526 H.P., 118 A
60 Hz, 1186 r/min, 0.88 power factor, 96% efficient, star connected, SCIM
Drive End (DE) bearing: 6324 C3. Non Drive End bearing: 7324 B
The 6324 C3 is a deep groove ball bearing with a C3 clearance.
The 7324 B is a single-row angular contact ball bearing which can sustain radial, axial
or combined loads with the axial load being in one direction. The B specifies a 40
contact angle to support the downward thrust.
6.2.2 Vibration Measurements and Overall Velocity Levels

Vibration measurements were taken at the DE and NDE of each motor and Figure 6.11
presents the overall r.m.s. velocities at each position. The photographs shown in
Figures 6.12 and 6.13 give the positions of the accelerometers on the NDE of the
motors driving Bow Thrusters 1 and 2.

Figure 6.12 Photograph of actual positions of accelerometers and measured velocities (r.m.s.) at
the NDE of Bow Thruster No. 1.
Figure 6.13 Photograph of actual positions of accelerometers and measured velocities (r.m.s.) at
the NDE of Bow Thruster No. 2.

Table 6.3 Overall r.m.s. velocity mm/s, span between 5.3 Hz and 1000 Hz
Accelerometer positions for Bow 1 (B1) and Bow 2 (B2) as shown in Figure 6.11
DE0 DE90 DEA NDE0 NDE90 NDEA

mm/s mm/s mm/s mm/s mm/s mm/s
B1 B2 B1 B2 B1 B2 B1 B2 B1 B2 B1 B2
0.5 1.6 0.5 1.9 0.6 1.6 1.7 5.5 1.4 5.6 1.0 4.4
(i) The first step was to measure the overall vibration velocities r.m.s. (span of
5.3–1000 Hz) at the DE and NDE of each of the motors.
(ii) The lower frequency limit of 5.3 Hz was selected because the bearing cage
frequency (FTF) is 7.7 Hz and 8.8 Hz for the DE and NDE bearings respectively
(see Table 6.5 and Table 6.6 in Appendix 6A).
The overall velocities at the DE and NDE for both motors are presented in Table 6.3
and the key observations are as follows:
(a) Bow 1 DE motor: The overall velocities are low with the highest being only
0.6 mm/s r.m.s. in the axial direction (B1DEA).
(b) Bow 2 DE motor: The overall velocities are normal with the highest being
1.9 mm/s r.m.s. in the radial direction (B2DE90).
(c) Bow 1 NDE motor: The overall velocities are normal with the highest
being 1.7 mm/s r.m.s. in the NDE0 direction (B1NDE0).
(d) Bow 2 NDE motor: The overall velocities r.m.s. were high at the NDE of Bow
2 in comparison to the velocities at the NDE of Bow 1. The velocity was 5.6 mm/
s r.m.s. at B2NDE90 (recall not directly on the bearing housing) from Bow 2,
which was four times greater than the velocity of 1.4 mm/s r.m.s. at B1NDE90
which was directly on the bearing housing of Bow 1.
In summary, the overall r.m.s. velocities at the positions on the NDE of Bow 2,
namely, B2NDE0, B2NDE90 and B2NDEA, were 5.5 mm/s, 5.6 mm/s and 4.4 mm/s
r.m.s. respectively, whereas at the NDE of Bow 1, namely, B1NDE0, B1NDE90 and
B1NDEA, the velocities were only 1.7 mm/s, 1.4 mm/s and 1.0 mm/s r.m.s.
respectively.
Note that from Figures 6.12 and 6.13 the positions of the accelerometers on the
NDE of Bow 1 and Bow 2 were not the same, in fact the positions at Bow 2 were
further away from the bearing housing than was the case with Bow 1. The reasons for
this are as follows:
(i) During the vibration measurements there was a high acoustic noise level coming
from the vicinity of the NDE bearing of Bow 2; this could best be described as
a fast and repetitive chattering.

Figure 6.14 Velocity spectrum for position B1NDE0 Figure 6.15 Velocity spectrum for position B2NDE0
on the bearing housing at the NDE. on the end frame at the NDE.
(ii) It was proposed that the noise was being produced from repetitive transient
vibrations within the NDE bearing of Bow 2.
(iii) To obtain valid velocity (r.m.s.) vibration measurements the accelerometers
were placed at the positions on the NDE assembly of Bow 2 as shown on
Figure 6.13 because, when an attempt was made to measure the vibration directly
on the actual NDE bearing housing, the same position as on Bow 1, the transient
vibration pulses were very high.
(iv) This caused the vibration instrument to go into intermittent overload modes of
very short duration so that r.m.s. velocity readings could not be obtained on the
NDE bearing housing of Bow 2.

The high overall velocities (r.m.s.) measured on the main bearing end bracket and
rotor support assembly (see Figure 6.13 for Bow 2 positions) at the NDE of Bow
2 compared to the levels directly measured on the bearing housing of Bow 1 indicated
that there was a problem at the NDE of the motor driving thruster Bow 2. The cause
and severity of the problem at the NDE of Bow 2 could not be established from overall
velocity measurements (r.m.s.) and a vibration analysis was required.
The nominal full-load current of each motor was 118 amperes, and Bow 1 and 2
were operating at a reduced load of 60 and 63 amperes respectively. Therefore, the
operational speed of each motor was higher than the nominal full-load speed of
1186 r/min. The vibration spectra at positions B1NDE0 from the NDE of the SCIMs
driving Bow 1 and 2 are shown in Figures 6.14 and 6.15 respectively and a clear
difference between them is evident.
6.2.3.1 Interpretation of Vibration Spectra

The fundamental rotational speed frequency of the motor is given by:
1X = Nr/60 Hz,
where Nr = rotor speed in r/min,

1X = 19.77 Hz at the full-load speed of 1186 r/min.

The measured 1X = 19.92 Hz (1195 r/min).
The main features in the vibration spectra from the SCIMs driving Bow 1 and 2 are as
follows:
(i) There are multiple harmonics of the 1X frequency component from Bow 2, up to
the thirtieth harmonic, whereas from Bow 1 there are no harmonics of 1X
above the third harmonic, 3X.
(ii) The velocity (r.m.s.) of the 3X component at 2.63 mm/s from Bow 2 is 3.4 times
greater than 3X at 0.78 mm/s from Bow 1.
(iii) No bearing defect frequencies were evident.
6.2.4 Inspection – Photos – Conclusions

(i) It was concluded that there was a serious fault in the NDE bearing of the SCIM
driving Bow Thruster 2.
(ii) The motor was stopped, and the bearing was removed for inspection and the
damage shown in Figures 6.16 and 6.17 verified the vibration analysis and
prediction.
(iii) If the bearing had not been removed the next stage may well have been a bearing
collapse, probably resulting in a rotor to stator rub and consequential stator
core and winding damage, requiring a lengthy outage and an expensive motor
repair.
Figure 6.16 Damaged inner race way.

6.3 VSA Diagnosed Outer Race Defects in a Rolling Element Bearing 115
Figure 6.17 Sample of one of the damaged balls, all the balls were damaged.
Appendix 6A Prediction of Bearing Defect Frequencies
BPFO = Ball pass frequency outer race

BPFI = Ball pass frequency inner race
BSF = Ball spin frequency
FTF = Cage frequency
The predicted bearing defect frequencies were initially calculated using the full-load
nameplate speed because that is the only information available prior to going on-site to
take vibration measurements. They must be re-calculated with respect to the actual
operational speed obtained from the measurement of the 1X component. The measured
speed using the 1X component was 1195 r/min; therefore, all the frequency values in
Tables 6.5 and 6.6 were multiplied by the ratio of 1195/1186.
6.3 Industrial Case History – VSA Diagnosed Outer Race Defects in a Rolling
Element Bearing via Vibration Measurements on the Drive End Frame
of a 160 kW/215 H.P. SCIM Driving a Boiler Forced Draft Fan
6.3.1 Summary
Abstract – This SCIM was driving a boiler forced draft fan in an LNG processing
plant and only the end frames were available for assessing the operational condition of
the bearings. The coupling guard and the fan cowl respectively prevented access to the
DE and NDE bearing housings during the on-site vibration measurements. The overall
r.m.s. velocities on the DE end frame were perfectly acceptable for a SCIM driving a

Table 6.5 Predicted bearing frequencies for the motor’s DE bearing at the rated and nominal full-load
speed on the nameplate
Bearing ID: 6324 Manufacturer: confidential

No. of balls: 8 Motor speed at full load: 1186 r/min
BPFO: BPFI: FTF: 2 BSF:

62 Hz 96 Hz 7.7 Hz 86.7 Hz
Harmonics 2 3 4 5 6 7
BPFO Hz 124 186 248 310 371 433
BPFI Hz 193 289 385 481 577 674
FTF Hz 15.5 23 31 38.6 46 54
2 3BSF Hz 173 260 347 434 520 607
Table 6.6 Predicted bearing frequencies for the motor’s NDE bearing
Bearing ID: 7324B Manufacturer: confidential

No. of balls: 13 Motor speed at full load: 1186 r/min
BPFO: BPFI: FTF: 2 BSF:

107 Hz 149 Hz 8 Hz 89 Hz
Harmonics 2 3 4 5 6 7
BPFO Hz 214 321 428 535 642 749
BPFI Hz 297 446 595 745 892 1041
FTF Hz 16 24 32 40 48 56
2 3BSF Hz 177 266 354 443 534 620
fan in an industrial plant, witnessed by the fact that the maximum velocity was
3.2 mm/s r.m.s. in the vertical direction at the DE.
However, the bearing defect frequency BPFO from the N319 C3 DE bearing, plus
multiple harmonics, were evident in the vibration spectra on the DE end frame in the
vertical, horizontal and axial positions. See Figure 6.18 for an illustration of the
accelerometer positions, from which these spectra were obtained. Note that the taking
of on-site photographs of rotating plant was not permitted in this LNG installation.
The r.m.s. velocities of the bearing defect frequency components, due to a bearing
defect, when measured on a SCIM’s end frame can be considerably less than the
vibration measured directly on the bearing housing, because the bearing vibration can
be attenuated by the mechanical stiffness of the end frame. That attenuation is also a
function of frequency.
In this case there was considerable likelihood that the bearing vibration was greater
than the measured value on the end frame. It was therefore predicted that there were
defects in the outer race that merited the decision to stop the motor for an inspection of
the DE roller element bearing. The removal and inspection of the motor had to be done

Figure 6.18 Illustration of positions of accelerometers on the DE end frame, and on the fan cowl
at the NDE.
very quickly to minimize disruption to production. Fortunately, there was a planned

outage of the LNG processing plant for five days, and the motor was removed from
site and new bearings were fitted. The motor was refurbished with new bearings and
re-commissioned within the time frame allocated, but there was no time for a vibration
FAT in the repair workshop immediately after the repair.
Motor nameplate data are as follows:
3-phase, SCIM, 415 V 160 kW/210 H.P.
265 A, 50 Hz, 1480 r/min, 0.9 p.f.
DE bearing: N219 C3
NDE bearing: 6314 C3.
6.3.2 On-Site Vibration Measurements and Spectrum Analysis before New Bearings
were Fitted
The overall r.m.s. velocities on the DE end frame during a routine vibration survey are
presented in Table 6.7 and the maximum was 3.2 mm/s r.m.s. in the vertical direction
which is certainly acceptable for a SCIM driving its mechanical load. Note that this
was not a FAT vibration test during an uncoupled run.
It is important to point out that the levels on the actual DE bearing housing are very
likely to be higher. The motor’s operating current was 124 amperes (full-load current
= 265 amperes).
The first step in the prediction of a defect in a roller bearing is to calculate the
bearing defect frequencies for the synchronous speed of this SCIM, and these are
(1) The DEVEF velocity spectrum in the vertical direction on the DE end frame
between 10 Hz and 1000 Hz is presented in Figure 6.19 and this shows that

Table 6.7 DE end frame – overall r.m.s. velocities span 10–5000 Hz
The motor’s operating current was 124 amperes
On-site coupled run On-site coupled run

BEFORE THE MOTOR WAS REMOVED NEW BEARINGS
Accelerometer position mm/s r.m.s. mm/s r.m.s.
DE vertical 3.2 0.75

DEVEF
DE horizontal 2.0 0.9

DEHEF
DE axial 2.6 1.0

DEAEF
Table 6.8 Predicted bearing frequencies at the motor’s synchronous speed
Bearing: N319 C3
Contact angle: 0 Synchronous speed:
No. of balls: 8 1500 r/min (50 Hz)
BPFO: 134 Hz BPFI: 199 Hz FTF: 10.3 Hz 2 3 BSF: 137 Hz
BPFO and its harmonics are present. The fifth harmonic of BPFO was 1.7 mm/s
r.m.s., which is 53% of the overall r.m.s. velocity of 3.2 mm/s.
(2) Note that the motor was on reduced load at an operating current of 124 amperes
(full-load current is 256 amperes), therefore its speed is higher than the full-
load speed.
(3) The ball pass outer race defect frequency (BPFO) was initially calculated at
1500 r/min and was 134 Hz, the 1X component from the velocity spectrum in
Figure 6.19 was 24.88 Hz, which is equivalent to a rotor speed of 1493 r/min. The
predicted BPFO frequency based on the actual operating speed of the motor is
133.2 Hz and the measured BPFO was 133.4 Hz – a negligible difference.
(4) The motor was removed from service for an inspection of the bearings.
6.3.2.1 VSA after New Bearings were Fitted

New bearings were fitted and the rotor was mechanically re-balanced to ISO G1.0 in
the refurbished motor (date of manufacture 1991) in comparison to G 2.5, which was
the mechanical unbalance grade in the rotor of the motor removed for repair. There-
fore, the 1X component is reduced at each measurement position.
A comparison between Figures 6.19 and 6.20 clearly shows that with the new DE
bearing there was not a BPFO component present and there were no harmonics of
BPFO.

Figure 6.19 DEVEF vertical velocity spectrum, Figure 6.20 DEVEF vertical velocity spectrum,
10–1000 Hz, 0.078 Hz/line. 10–1000 Hz, 0.078 Hz/line.
Figure 6.21 Inner race defects centred at 6.00 p.m. in the load zone and spaced apart at
roller pitch.
Figure 6.22 Zoom view of inner race defects centred at 6.00 p.m. and spaced apart at roller pitch.
6.3.3 Inspection of DE Bearing

The DE bearing was dismantled during the repairs and Figures 6.21 and 6.22 are
photographs of the faults, which clearly show the defects in the outer race. The
damage was in the load zone centred around 6.00 p.m. with defects spaced at roller
pitch apart.

This suggests that the problem was caused by false brinelling and it was subse-
quently established that this was normally the standby SCIM, which had not operated
for nine months prior to a routine vibration survey check. The motor had not been
given any starts, for example once per month, or barred over to prevent false
brinelling.
In industrial plants where production and income generation are the key drivers this
non-turning of the rotor is very often the case because operators will not disrupt the
operational process just to turn a motor to prevent false brinelling – that is the
industrial reality and is based on the author’s experience of 57 years.
6.3.4 Conclusions
(i) This case history proved that it is possible to diagnose a bearing defect via
vibration analysis of vibration on the end frame of a SCIM even although the
overall r.m.s. velocities on the end frame were perfectly acceptable.
(ii) For example, the highest overall velocity was 3.2 mm/s r.m.s. on the DE end
frame; however, it was the presence of BPFO and its harmonics up to 1.7 mm/s
that were the key factors for predicting a bearing fault.
(iii) The motor was removed from service and photographs of the faulty bearing
confirmed the vibration analysis.
(iv) The bearing fault was caused by false brinelling because the motor had not
operated for nine months prior to the routine vibration survey check. The motor
had not been given any starts, for example once per month, or barred1 over to
prevent false brinelling.
(v) In industrial plants where production and income generation are the key drivers
this non-turning of the rotor is often the case because operators will not disrupt
the operational process just to turn a motor to prevent false brinelling.
6.4 Industrial Case History – VSA of Vibration Measured on the Outer

Frame Predicted an Outer Race Bearing Defect in a Vertically Mounted
75 kW/100 H.P. SCIM
6.4.1 Summary
Abstract – Two identical, 75 kW, vertically mounted SCIMs were driving auxiliary
sea water lift pumps (ASWLPs) on an offshore oil and gas production platform.
The DE and NDE bearing housings were inaccessible as shown in Figure 6.23.
There were no permanent accelerometers on the drive trains and vibration measure-
ments were taken at the positions shown in Figure 6.23 using small accelerometers
mounted on strong magnets.
1
Note: barred means manually turned via a bar connected to the motor shaft.

6.4 VSA of Vibration Measured on the Outer Frame Predicted an Outer Race Bearing Defect 121
Figure 6.23 Positions of accelerometers on the vertical SCIM.
Motor nameplate data are as follows:
3-phase, SCIM, 440 V 75 kW/100 H.P.

117 A, 60 Hz, 3575 r/min, 0.9 p.f., eff = 93.5%
DE bearing: 6314 C3
NDE bearing: 6314 C3.
6.4.2 Overall Vibration Velocity Measurements

The overall r.m.s. velocities at all positions on both motors were acceptable for
vertically mounted SCIMs driving pumps operating on an offshore oil and gas
production platform because the highest was 4.4 mm/s r.m.s. at the NDEA in motor
B as shown in Table 6.9.
These were the first on-site vibration measurements from these new motors, which
had only been in operation for six months, and are therefore the base-line results for
future comparisons. No FAT vibration results were available and, even during a FAT
test, the bearing housings would not be accessible on these vertical SCIMs – this is
obvious from the photograph of Figure 6.23. Hence comparisons between velocities
on the outer frame and directly on the bearing housings cannot be achieved.

Table 6.9 Overall r.m.s. velocities 10% in mm/s and BPFO r.m.s. velocities; frequency span:
10–1000 Hz
Motor A Motor B
BPFO as a % BPFO as a
Motor BPFO of overall Motor BPFO % of overall
A A velocity B B velocity
Location Position mm/s mm/s % mm/s mm/s %
NDE NDEH 1.0 0.17 17 % 2.8 0.2 7%

casing in
line with
bearing
NDEV 0.7 0.24 34 % 2.3 0.47 20 %
NDEA 2.5 0.8 32 % 4.4 0.25 6%
DE DEH 1.6 0.33 21 % 2.3 0.16 7%
casing in
line with
bearing
DEV 0.8 0.45 56 % 0.4 0.1 25 %
DEA 2.7 0.85 32 % 4.3 0.16 3.8 %
Figure 6.24 Overall r.m.s. velocities for motors A and B as a function of the positions shown in
Figure 6.23.
Note that offshore oil and gas production operators in the North Sea (off the coast
of Scotland) normally set the alarm and trip levels on SCIMs with rolling element
bearings to 7 mm/s (0.28 inches/s) and 11 mm/s (0.43 inches/s) r.m.s. respectively.
These levels are normally based on the measurements being taken directly on the
bearing housings but the only option with this motor is to apply these alarm and trip
levels to the measurement positions shown in Figure 6.23.
Graphical displays of the overall r.m.s. velocities for motors A and B as a function
of the positions where the velocity was measured are presented in Figure 6.24 to
provide a visual display compared to the tedious task of processing the numbers in
Table 6.9.

Table 6.10 Prediction of bearing defect frequencies DE and NDE bearing: 6314 C3 deep groove ball
bearing
From the vibration spectra, the 1X component = 59.922 Hz,

therefore the operating speed = 3595 r/min.
BPFO: 295 Hz BPFI: 185Hz FTF: 23 Hz 2 BSF: 245 Hz
Figure 6.25 Velocities of BPFO for motors A and B.
The overall r.m.s. velocities on motors A and B are acceptable for vertical motors
driving pumps on an offshore oil installation, with the highest being 4.4 mm/s r.m.s.
on motor B.
6.4.3 Vibration Spectrum Analysis – Diagnosis of BPFO

The bearing defect frequencies are required for interpretation of the spectra and these
are presented in Table 6.10. The predictions are based on the actual operating speed
(3595 r/min) obtained from the measured 1X rotational speed frequency component at
59.922 Hz.
There were distinct differences between the velocity spectra from motors A and B;
for example, the outer race defect frequency (BPFO) from motor A is 0.8 mm/s r.m.s.
at the NDEA position whereas at the same position on motor B it is only 0.25 mm/s
r.m.s.
The BPFO velocities for motors A and B as a function of the positions where the
velocity was measured are presented in Figure 6.25.
In summary:
(i) At the NDEA position the velocity of BPFO from motor A was 3.24 times greater
than that from motor B.
(ii) At the DEA position the velocity of BPFO from motor A was 5.3 times greater
than that from motor B.

The BPFO velocities can often be less when measured on the outer frame of the motor
than those measured directly on the bearing housings.
6.4.4 Conclusion and Recommendations

The spectrum analyses predicted that there was the initiation of outer race defects in
the bearings in motor A and this is further substantiated by the following facts:
Motor A
(i) BPFO’s velocity was 56% of the overall r.m.s. velocity at the DEV position.
(ii) BPFO’s velocity was 33% of the overall r.m.s. velocity at the NDEA position.
(iii) BPFO’s velocity was 32% of the overall r.m.s. velocity at the DEA position.
For motor B the percentages are much less:
Motor B
(i) BPFO’s velocity was 25% of the overall r.m.s. velocity at the DEV position.
(ii) BPFO’s velocity was only 5.3% of the overall r.m.s. velocity at the NDEA
axial position.
(iii) BPFO’s velocity was only 3.8% of the overall r.m.s. velocity at the DEA axial
position.
The ratio (as a percentage) of BPFO’s velocity to the overall r.m.s. velocity is an
important indicator of potential bearing problems, and the larger that percentage is, the
more likely it is that a bearing fault exists.
The recommendation was to take vibration measurements every month and trend
the overall r.m.s. velocities but with a focus on the velocities of BPFO from
motor A. If the velocities of BPFO increase by a factor of 2 or greater in this particular
case history,2 from 0.85 mm/s r.m.s. and 0.8 mm/s r.m.s. up to 1.7 mm/s and 1.6 mm/s
r.m.s. respectively at positions DEA and NDEA, then motor A should be stopped and
the bearings inspected to prevent a sudden and catastrophic bearing failure and a
consequential rotor to stator rub.
6.4.5 Vibration Analysis Predicted Misalignment in Drive Train B

Samples of the velocity spectra are presented in Figures 6.26 to 6.29, and these show
that at the NDEH and DEH positions on motor B the velocities of the fundamental 1X
rotational speed frequency components are 3 and 1.8 times greater than those from
motor A at the same positions.
A plot of the velocities of the 1X component for motors A and B as a function of the
positions where the velocity was measured is presented in Figure 6.30.
2
Note: this doubling factor has proven to be an effective working guide used by the author for 50 years.

Figure 6.26 Motor A NDEH spectrum of 1X. Figure 6.27 Motor B NDEH spectrum of 1X.
Figure 6.28 Motor A DEH spectrum of 1X. Figure 6.29 Motor B DEH spectrum of 1X.
Figure 6.30 Vibration velocity levels of the 1X component for motors A and B as a function of
position.

6.4.5.1 Conclusions and Recommendations on Misalignment

Both rotors in each of these new motors (six months in operation) were balanced to
ISO G1.0; consequently, it is very unlikely that the balance grade has increased in the
rotor of motor B.
It was therefore concluded that the higher (up to a factor of 2.8) velocities of the 1X
component in the NDEH, NDEA, DEH and DEA velocity spectra from motor B were
due to a larger misalignment in the B drive train than that in the A drive train.
However, as already stated, the overall r.m.s. velocities from motor B are oper-
ationally acceptable but it was still recommended that the alignment in the B drive
train should be checked at a planned maintenance outage.

7 Industrial Case Histories – VSA
Diagnosed False Brinelling and
Problems in Cylindrical Roller
Bearings in SCIMs
7.1 Introduction
Abstract – This case history will show that false brinelling, which is caused by
vibration being transmitted to a stationary motor’s bearings from an adjacent running
plant, was detected in a cylindrical roller element bearing even though the overall
velocity levels were normal.
This was achieved by interpreting the velocity spectrum to detect the bearing
defect frequencies. The SCIM was driving an Amine Transfer Pump in an LNG
onshore plant and was an in-situ standby unit. There were lengthy periods of time
during which the motor was neither started nor manually turned to prevent false
brinelling.
Interpretation of the vibration spectra and photographs of the faulty bearing
confirmed that the diagnosis was correct. The motor was removed and a refurbished
spare motor was installed. The vibration analysis from the replacement motor estab-
lished that no bearing defect frequencies were then present.
7.1.1 Motor Data and Overall Vibration Velocity Measurements

Relevant nameplate data:
3-phase, SCIM, 415 V, 75 kW/100 H.P.

126 A, 50 Hz, 2960 r/min, 0.88 p.f., eff 94%
DE: NU219 C3; NDE: 6219 C3.
The positions of the accelerometers on the DE are illustrated in Figure 7.1 and
Table 7.1 gives the overall velocities (r.m.s.) during a 12 month period.
The operational current was 75 amperes compared to the nominal full-load current
of 126 amperes; therefore the motor was on reduced load and the operational speed
was greater than the full-load speed of 2960 r/min.
Trends of the overall r.m.s. velocities on the DE bearing housing during a 12 month
period are presented in Figure 7.2:
(i) The results in Table 7.1 confirm that all the overall r.m.s. velocities were normal.
The highest velocity was 1.73 mm/s (r.m.s.) in the DEA direction and, based on
overall r.m.s. velocity levels, this motor was fit for purpose.
127
128 Industrial Case Histories – VSA Diagnosed False Brinelling
Table 7.1 Overall velocity mm/s r.m.s. on the DE bearing housing
Time-line DEV DEH DEA
December 2014 0.65 0.51 0.68

January 2015 0.46 0.53 0.57
February 2015 0.49 0.53 0.58
March 2015 0.65 0.66 0.63
April 2015 0.68 0.43 0.73
May 2015 0.72 0.47 0.77
June 2015 0.61 0.47 0.75
July 2015 0.52 0.64 0.59
August 2015 0.56 0.57 0.67
September 2015 0.49 0.73 0.58
October 2015 0.65 0.68 0.63
11 months Average: 0.59 Average: 0.57 Average: 0.65
November 2015 0.98 0.92 1.73
63% higher than 60% higher than 166% higher than
11 month average 11 month average 11 month average
Figure 7.1 Schematic illustration of the positions of accelerometers at the DE.

Table 7.2 Predicted bearing frequencies at nominal full-load speed
Bearing type NU219 Nominal full-load speed 2960 r/min (49.33 Hz)
BPFO BPFI FTF 2 BSF

338 Hz 451 Hz 21 Hz 337 Hz
Figure 7.2 Trend graph for 12 months of DE overall velocities r.m.s. on the bearing housing.
(ii) After 12 months the velocity at the DEA position had increased by 166%
compared to the average over the previous 11 months, and at the DEV and DEH
the velocities had increased by 63% and 60% respectively.
(iii) The change in the DEA velocity between the eleventh and twelfth month is
evident in the graph presented in Figure 7.2.
A vibration spectrum analysis was carried out to determine if bearing defect frequen-
cies existed.
7.1.2 Diagnosis of Bearing Defect Frequencies

The predicted bearing defect frequencies at the full-load speed are given in Table 7.2,
and Figure 7.3 shows the DEH velocity spectrum.
The 1X component at 49.688 Hz corresponds to a rotor speed of Nr = 2981 r/min,
therefore the bearing defect frequencies were re-calculated by multiplying the pre-
dicted frequencies at full load by (2981/2960), to give:
BPFO = 340.5 Hz; BPFI = 454.4 Hz; FTF = 21.3 Hz; 2 BSF = 339.6 Hz.
A zoom analysis around BPFO produced the spectrum shown in Figure 7.4.
Figure 7.5 presents a zoom spectrum to detect the FTF component.
7.1.2.1 Interpretation of the Velocity Spectra with the Faulty DE Bearing

(i) Figure 7.3 shows the BPFO component at 340.6 Hz (predicted 340.5 Hz) at a
velocity of 0.23 mm/s r.m.s., which is due to an outer race defect. BPFO is 20%
of the overall velocity at 1.0 mm/s r.m.s.

Figure 7.3 DEH velocity spectrum, 0.078 Hz/line.
Figure 7.4 DEH velocity zoom spectrum, 0.078 Hz/line.
Figure 7.5 DEH velocity zoom spectrum, 0.078 Hz/line.

Figure 7.6 DEH velocity spectrum, 0.078 Hz/line. Figure 7.7 DEH velocity spectrum, 0.078 Hz/line.
Figure 7.8 DEH velocity zoom spectrum, 0.078 Hz/line. Figure 7.9 DEH velocity zoom spectrum, 0.078 Hz/line.
(ii) The zoom spectrum in Figure 7.4 shows 2 BSF at 336.5 Hz with a velocity of
0.13 mm/s r.m.s., which is due to defect/s on the rollers. It is amplitude
modulated by the FTF component.
(iii) Figure 7.5 confirmed that there was a cage frequency component FTF, at
21.33 Hz (predicted 21.3 Hz) with a velocity of 0.9 mm/s r.m.s., which is 90% of
the overall velocity.
7.1.2.2 Comparison between Vibration Spectra with the Faulty Bearing

and a New DE Bearing
An identical spare motor was installed, which had new bearings previously fitted (see
Figures 7.6 to 7.9). Figures 7.7 and 7.9 confirmed that there were no bearing defect
frequencies present in the vibration spectra.
7.1.3 Conclusions
(i) Owing to the presence of three bearing defect frequencies, it was predicted that
there would be a defect in the outer race and on several roller elements.

Figure 7.10 False brinelling on the outer raceway in the bearing’s load zone.
Figure 7.11 Damaged rollers due to false brinelling.
(ii) This motor was an in-situ spare that typically had not run for six months and it
was subjected to vibration from adjacent motors and pumps. It was therefore
predicted that false brinelling would exist.
(iii) The DE bearing was removed in a motor repair shop and the photographs in
Figures 7.10 and 7.11 confirmed that false brinelling was the problem, therefore
the analysis and predictions were correct.

7.2 Industrial Case History – VSA Diagnosed Skidding 133
7.2 Industrial Case History – VSA Diagnosed Skidding from an Extra

Capacity Cylindrical Roller Bearing (N234E M C3) in a 225 kW/300
H.P. SCIM
7.2.1 Historical Perspective and Summary

Abstract – The main goal of this case history is to verify, via vibration analysis, that
excessive skidding of a brand new DE bearing during an uncoupled run was due to the
repair shop fitting an over capacity cylindrical roller bearing. Skidding can be
described as follows:
The term skidding in a roller element bearing is best described as excessive and
abnormal sliding of the rollers compared to normal operation where the rollers are
rotating in the raceways.
It is caused by insufficient traction forces between the rollers and raceways to
overcome the inertial and drag forces.
The typical causes of skidding in roller element bearings in SCIMs are during no-
load (uncoupled) operation, when the dynamic load is insufficient to load the
bearing, or when an overrated extra capacity bearing has been fitted.
Skidding can result in shear stresses below the surfaces of the raceways, which can
lead to premature failure, before the normal fatigue failure at the end of the
bearing’s operational life.
The industrial site was an LNG processing plant situated on the coastline of Scotland
facing the North Sea.
The strategic LV SCIMs were 25 years old and their outer frames were severely
corroded. A project to remove 35 motors for repairs and complete overhauls com-
menced in 2006, and the end user decided on the following procedures:
(i) The motors were to be run uncoupled at an electric motor repair shop and the
vibration at the bearings was measured before strip-down.
(ii) The motors would be dismantled and all external parts, such as main frames and
end frames, would be thoroughly cleaned and repaired, followed by a Thermally
Sprayed Aluminium (TSA) process to provide future protection from rust.
(iii) The rotors would be balanced to ISO G1.0 [7.1], to reduce centrifugal forces and
vibration on the bearings and transmitted vibration to other parts of the motor,
because the OEM’s original balance grade was G6.3 in 1981.
(iv) The repair shop was contracted to fit new bearings as per the nameplate
designations.
The repaired motors were to be run uncoupled at rated voltage and frequency and the
vibration recorded in accordance with the BS 60034-14 2004 vibration standard [7.2].
7.2.2 Vibration Measurements before and after New Bearings were Fitted
The motor’s nameplate data were as follows, but note the p.f. and efficiency of this
motor, which was manufactured in the UK in 1981, were not stated:

3-phase, SCIM, 415 V, 369 A, 225 kW, 1480 r/min, 50 Hz

DE bearing: N324 C3, NDE bearing: 6316 C3.
The motor was mounted on a solid base-plate in an electric motor repair shop and
supplied at rated voltage and frequency. The NDE fan cowl was removed and the
positions of the accelerometers at the DE and NDE are shown in Figures 7.12 and 7.13
respectively. The no-load current was 60 amperes (i.e. 16% of If.l.).
Figure 7.12 DE: positions of accelerometers.
Figure 7.13 NDE: positions of accelerometers.

Table 7.3 Overall r.m.s. velocity levels in mm/s (10%)
Prior to strip-down: rotor balance grade G6.3
DEV DEH DEA NDEV NDEH NDEA

velocity velocity velocity velocity velocity velocity
r.m.s. r.m.s. r.m.s. r.m.s. r.m.s. r.m.s.
2.7 mm/s 4.4 mm/s 3.2 mm/s 4.5 mm/s 1.7 mm/s 3.2 mm/s
New bearings: rotor balance grade G1.0
DEV DEH DEA NDEV NDEH NDEA

velocity velocity velocity velocity velocity velocity
r.m.s. r.m.s. r.m.s. r.m.s. r.m.s. r.m.s.
The overall r.m.s. velocity levels before and after the motor was overhauled and
new bearings were fitted are presented in Table 7.3.
The main reason for the low levels (maximum 1.2 mm/s) after the motor was overhauled was
that the rotor was re-balanced to G1.0 compared to G6.3 before the overhaul.
7.2.2.1 Comparison of Velocity Spectra before Strip-Down and after New

Bearings were Fitted
Figures 7.14 and 7.15 show the DEV velocity spectra with the original DE bearing
and after a new DE bearing was fitted.
Key observations:
(i) The 1X component after balancing the rotor to G1.0 has dropped to 0.26 mm/s
compared to 3.7 mm/s before overhaul due to the rotor balance being improved
from G6.3 to G1.0.
(ii) However, the acoustic noise from skidding during the no-load run with the
new DE bearing was very evident compared to the very low (virtually non-
existent) acoustic noise from skidding prior to the overhaul.
(iii) There are no standards that cover unacceptable levels of skidding in roller
element bearings. The author therefore could not state that the motor was unfit for
purpose because the overall r.m.s. levels were low (maximum of 1.1 mm/s r.m.s.
on the DE bearing housing) and the BS 60034-14 2004 vibration standard allows
up to 2.3 mm/s r.m.s.
(iv) The electric motor repair shop put forward their view that skidding was normal
during an uncoupled run and it should reduce when the SCIM is loaded and
coupled to the mechanical load. The author agreed that this is normally the case
but the noise level was excessive.

Figure 7.14 No-load uncoupled run prior to strip- Figure 7.15 No-load uncoupled run with new DE
down, vibration spectrum, DEV bearing housing. bearing, vibration spectrum, DEV bearing housing.
Figure 7.16 Vibration zoom spectrum, vertical DE bearing housing.
(v) The author probed the repair shop as to whether the new roller element bearing
at the DE was the same number as shown on the nameplate because he
considered the skidding noise to be too loud.
(vi) The repair shop then confirmed that they fitted an extra capacity bearing (N324E
M C3) and that is the main reason why the skidding was excessive compared
to that from the N324 C3 bearing that was in the motor before it was overhauled.
(vii) Also the centrifugal forces with the re-balanced rotor are less and therefore
the dynamic loading on the bearing is reduced, which compounds the problem of
skidding due to this overrated E (extra capacity) bearing.
7.2.2.2 Vibration Spectra as a Function of Skidding

A vibration zoom spectrum between 5 Hz and 100 Hz is shown in Figure 7.16. This
indicates that the vibration components measured from the new DE bearing housing in
the vertical position were due to skidding.

Bearing type: N324E M C3 cylindrical roller element bearing
E: extra capacity M: brass cage C3: clearance

Contact angle 0 Number of rollers: 13 Rotor speed: 1499 r/min
Bearing frequencies
BPFO BPFI FTF 2 BSF

130 Hz 194 Hz 10 Hz 121 Hz
Figure 7.17 Vibration zoom spectrum, 5–20 Hz, Figure 7.18 Vibration zoom spectrum, 5–20 Hz,
vertical DE bearing housing. vertical DE bearing housing.
There is also a component at 10.08 Hz which is very close to the predicted bearing
cage frequency (FTF) of 10 Hz at a no-load speed of 1499 r/min as presented in
Table 7.4.
A second zoom spectrum between 5 Hz and 20 Hz is shown in Figure 7.17, which
was taken at a different time from the velocity spectrum presented between 5 Hz and
100 Hz in Figure 7.16; the component at 10 Hz (FTF) is still present in Figure 7.17
but at a lower velocity and the DE bearing was still emitting the classical
skidding noise.
It is well known that when grease is inserted while the bearing is skidding the noise
will temporarily disappear because a temporary oil film is created between the rollers
and outer race. This film is quickly dissipated due to lack of loading on the motor
during an uncoupled no-load run of a SCIM of this size and rating.
Figure 7.18 shows the velocity spectrum after the acoustic noise from skidding
had disappeared immediately after 3 grams of grease were inserted and there were
no components thus verifying that skidding was exciting the bearing cage
frequency, FTF.
However, after the grease was thrown out due to minimum load on the bearing at
no-load, the skidding returned, as expected.

7.3 Conclusions
Figures 7.19 and 7.20 show photographs of an N324E M C3 bearing; note how robust
the brass cage is in this extra capacity bearing.
Figure 7.21 illustrates damage due to skidding.
The acoustic noise from skidding is a transient and not constant due to the skidding
mechanism.
Inserting grease into the bearing will very temporarily reduce skidding noise.
The E rated extra capacity roller element bearing should not replace the non E rated
bearing which is stated on the motor’s nameplate. That was the choice selected by the
OEM based on the design and operation of the motor.
Figure 7.19 Photograph of an N324E M C3 cylindrical roller bearing – the rule indicates the
overall diameter (254 mm/10 inches).
Figure 7.20 Photograph of an N324E M C3 to illustrate the rollers, cage and robustness of the
bearing.
Figure 7.21 Illustration of damage to rollers due to skidding.

References 139
References
7.1 ISO 1940-1:Rotor Balancing, 2003.

7.2 BS 60034-14: Rotating Electrical Machines, Part 14 Mechanical Vibration of Certain
Machines with Shaft Heights of 56 mm and Higher – Measurement, Evaluation and Limits
of Vibration Severity, 2004.

8 Industrial Case Histories on VSA
to Diagnose Miscellaneous
Faults in Rolling Element
Bearings in SCIMS
8.1 VSA Detected Corroded Deep Groove Ball Bearing in Vertically

Mounted 1.5 kW/2 H.P. SCIMs
Abstract – At an LNG processing plant, four horizontally mounted axial fans are
driven by 1.5 kW/2 H.P. SCIMs whose drive ends face upwards in a corrosive
environment because the units are installed close to the sea. The DE end frame has
channels that are designed so that the rotating shaft can throw off any accumulation of
water to prevent it entering the bearing housing. This preventive design operates only
when the motors are turning.
The motors only ever operate in pairs with a duty cycle of two weeks on and two
weeks off, because only two are required to meet the cooling requirements. However,
they still need to operate on a relatively regular basis to avoid the units being
stationary for long periods of time with the consequent possibility of false brinelling.
When the motors are stationary, the channel design described does not prevent the
ingress of water.
New motors were lasting for only approximately 12 to 18 months from installation
to failure, and removal of the faulty motors was based on their high acoustic noise, as
perceived by the human ear, or when the DE bearing seized, but the faulty motors
were never stripped down for inspection, the policy being to replace with new motors
and discard the faulty ones. Maintenance personnel merely accepted that failures were
an unavoidable consequence of the hostile operating environment.
The processing plant was thirty years old and the existing personnel did not know if
the design of the replacement motors was identical to the original design supplied by
the OEM of the fan drives. No vibration monitoring was applied to these small-power
SCIMs. The costs to remove a faulty motor and replace it with a new one had,
however, become unacceptable because it involved the following:
(i) cost of erecting and removing scaffolding
(ii) cost of time for maintenance personnel to remove a faulty motor and fit a new one
(iii) cost of a new replacement 1.5 kW/2 H.P. SCIM.
The maintenance manager at the plant decided to commission the author to carry out
vibration measurements, identify the root cause of failures and propose a solution. The
case history presents results from vibration measurements taken on the motors and
140
8.1 VSA Detected Corroded Deep Groove Ball Bearing in Vertically Mounted SCIMs 141
Figure 8.1 Schematic illustration of a deep a groove shielded ball bearing.
fabricated support structure together with spectrum analysis to determine when a motor
should be removed for inspection followed by an RCFA (root cause failure analysis).
8.1.1 Motor Data and Description of Installation Layout

The motor’s nameplate provided the following data:
3-phase, SCIM, 440 V, 1.5 kW/2 H.P., 3.9 A, 50 Hz, 930 r/min (i.e. 6-pole), delta
connected, SCIM
Drive End (DE) bearing: 6206 ZZ C3; (i.e. bore diameter 30 mm/1.18 inches)
Non Drive End (NDE) bearing: 6205 ZZ C3; (i.e. bore diameter 25 mm/0.984
inches).
The 6205 ZZ C3 and 6206 ZZ C3 bearings are deep groove shielded ball bearings with
a C3 clearance as shown in the photograph of Figure 2.2 and illustrated in Figure 8.1.
Figure 8.2 shows a photograph of one of the motors on its mounting bracket, which
is welded to the ‘H’ beam support structure, and Figure 8.3 presents a photograph
looking upwards towards the fan.
The main observations from the photographs in Figures 8.2 and 8.3 are as follows:
(i) There is extensive rust on the fan enclosure and ‘H’ support beams.
(ii) Each fan has four blades.
(iii) It is impossible to mount temporary accelerometers on either the DE, NDE
bearing housings or on the end frames.
(iv) Owing to the external cooling channels there are a very limited number of
positions on the motor’s frame to mount accelerometers.
8.1.2 Vibration Measurements

The positions of temporary accelerometers, which were mounted via magnetic attach-
ments, are shown in Figure 8.4. The diagnosis of bearing defect frequencies will be

142 Industrial Case Histories on VSA to Diagnose Miscellaneous Faults
Figure 8.2 Photograph of motor, mounting bracket and ‘H’ beam support structure.
Figure 8.3 Photograph of motor, fan and its enclosure, which demonstrates the extensive
corrosion.
difficult, because the magnitude of these components can be attenuated due to the
mechanically stiff end frames in the radial direction, the stator core structure and the
outer frame of the motor.
Figure 8.5 illustrates the ‘H’ beam support structure for mounting the motors to the
vertical support brackets. It is obvious that there will be vibration transmitted
through the ‘H’ beams between motors, and this further complicates the analysis of
vibration.

Figure 8.4 Schematic layout of accelerometer positions.
Figure 8.5 Schematic layout of ‘H’ beam support structure and positions of the four axial fan
motors; Bank A: A1 and A2; Bank B: B1 and B2.

Because it was vital to obtain data on the vibration from each motor operating on its
own, permission was given by the end user to run the units in various configurations,
and vibration measurements were taken with the fan motors running in the following
modes:
(i) Bank A: A1 and A2 running but with Bank B off – normal operation.
(ii) Bank B: B1 and B2 running but with Bank A off – normal operation.
(iii) A1, A2, B1, B2 – each motor running on its own – not normal operation.
(iv) Bank A and B on – all motors operating – not normal operation.
8.1.2.1 Overall Velocity Levels

Overall velocities (r.m.s.) were measured using a span of 10–1000 Hz and for the
spectrum analysis the instrument was set to 12,800 lines, which gives a frequency
resolution of 0.077 Hz/line.
Table 8.1 presents a full set of velocities (r.m.s.) immediately prior to one of the
motors being removed. The actual acoustic noise perceived by on-site personnel and
the author was used as a parameter for the selection of the quietest and noisiest motors
when operating alone.
The key observations were as follows:
(i) Bank A: A1 running alone was perceived as the quietest motor.
(ii) Bank B: B2 running alone was perceived as the noisiest motor.
A comparison between the velocity levels from the quietest and noisiest motors is
(i) From Table 8.2 the velocity in the horizontal direction on the B2 motor’s frame
was 5.6 times larger than at the same position on motor A1.
(ii) There was a strong correlation between vibration levels and perceived acoustic
noise from each of these motors operating alone.
(iii) Also, the vibration on the motor frames in the horizontal direction of A1 alone
and with A1 and A2 operating together (normal) shows that the vibration on A1
has increased by a factor of 1.67, thus confirming vibration transmission from A2
to A1.
8.1.2.2 Vibration Spectrum Analysis and Interpretation

The vibration spectra for the problem motor (B2) and the healthy motor (A1) are
presented in Figures 8.6 and 8.7. Note that the velocities of any components above
200 Hz were negligible.
An interpretation of the spectra indicates the following:
(i) There was a clear difference between the velocity spectra shown in Figures 8.6
and 8.7 for the noisy (B2) and quiet (A1) motors respectively.
(ii) The predicted bearing defect frequencies are given in Table 8.2 for the actual
speeds of motors B2 and A1.

Table 8.1 Overall velocities levels in mm/s (within 10%), 10–1000 Hz)
Vibration measurements on motor A1
Accelerometer A bank on B bank on

position B bank off A bank off All on A1 alone
Motor frame V 1.4 0.9 1.6 0.6

Motor frame H 1.5 1.2 2.0 0.9
Motor terminal box A 2.0 0.8 1.6 1.4
Mounting bracket H 1.4 1.2 1.7 0.65
H beam A 1.2 0.8 1.3 0.4
Vibration measurements on motor A2
Accelerometer A bank on B bank on All on A2 alone

position B bank off A bank off
Motor frame V 2.4 1.2 2.5 2.7
Motor frame H 3.3 3.2 3.8 3.0
H beam A 2.0 1.5 2.3 2.0
Vibration measurements on motor B1
Accelerometer A bank on B bank on All on B1 alone

position A bank off A bank off
Motor frame V 0.8 2.3 3.0 0.5
Motor frame H 0.95 2.0 3.7 3.2
H beam A 0.6 1.5 1.8 0.55
Vibration measurements on motor B2
Accelerometer A bank on B bank on All on B2 alone

position B bank off A bank off
Motor frame V 1.0 3.8 4.4 3.3
Motor frame H 4.0 4.0 5.0 5.0

H beam A 1.2 2.4 2.9 2.7
DE bearing: 6206 ZZ C3 NDE bearing: 6205 ZZ C3
Contact angle: 0 No. of balls: 9 Motor speed: 956 r/min;

1X = 15.94 Hz
BPFO: 56.9 Hz BPFI: 86.6 Hz FTF: 6.3 Hz 2 BSF: 73.6 Hz

Figure 8.6 Faulty motor B2, DE horizontal velocity r.m.s. versus frequency spectrum.
Figure 8.7 Healthy motor A1, DE horizontal velocity r.m.s. versus frequency spectrum.
In the healthy motor there are no components higher than 0.3 mm/s r.m.s., whereas
in the spectrum from the problem motor there are in fact harmonics of the cage defect
frequency at 11FTF and 16FTF at 0.6 mm/s and 0.7 mm/s r.m.s. respectively.
(iii) The fan blades passing frequency at 4X was 2.3 mm/s r.m.s. in the problem motor
(B2), which will cause higher centrifugal forces on the DE bearing, compared to
4X at 0.3 mm/s in the healthy motor (A1).
(iv) This suggests that the mechanical unbalance in the fan of the faulty motor was
much greater (value unknown) than in the healthy motor’s fan.
(v) It was also noted that, when a strong wind was imposed on the fan in the opposite
direction to its rotation, the 4X component increased in velocity.
(vi) It was therefore recommended to remove motor B2 for a full strip-down and
inspection of the DE bearing.

Figure 8.8 Motor before strip down – recall it is vertically mounted with the drive end upwards.
Figure 8.9 Close-up of the labyrinth seal set up.
8.1.3 Inspection of the Motor and DE Bearing

Figures 8.8 and 8.9 show photographs of end views of the motor’s DE to illustrate the
channels and labyrinth seal arrangement, which ensure that any accumulation of water
is thrown off the bearing provided that the shaft is rotating.
The motors remained stationary for 26 weeks per annum and this was therefore the
cause of the ingress of water because the seal system cannot function when the motor
is stationary. Figures 8.10 and 8.11 verify the highly corroded and contaminated
condition of the DE bearing.

Figure 8.10 Corroded and contaminated DE bearing.
Figure 8.11 Heavily corroded and contaminated DE bearing – the face shown is towards the DE
end frame.
8.1.4 Proposed New Motor Design

The bearing seals must prevent the ingress of water during all operating and stationary
conditions, and special features include:
(i) There must be radial and axial sealing at the DE.
(ii) The rotor shaft must be stainless steel.
(iii) Fan cowl and fixings to be stainless steel.

Figure 8.12 Photograph of new motor.
Figure 8.13 Close-up photograph of the DE of the new motor.
Motor rating:
3-phase SCIM, 1.5 kW/2 H.P., 440 V(10%), 3.9 A, 50 Hz, 945 r/min
cosΦ = 0.75, η = IE1–77. DIN 60034; PTB 09 ATEX 1011 X; IP66
Type: DB100L, vertical foot mounted drive shaft upwards IMV6
DE and NDE bearings 6206 2ZR C3.
Photographs of the new motor are shown in Figures 8.12 and 8.13, and Figure 8.14
illustrates the special seal system at the DE.
8.1.4.1 Overall Vibration Levels and VSA of New Motor Design

Table 8.3 presents a comparison between overall velocities r.m.s. from the old motor
design with a faulty DE bearing and the new motor design in tag slot B2. Note that the
fan was re-balanced.

Table 8.3 Overall velocities levels in mm/s (within 10%); span: 10–1000 Hz
Original noisy motor and new motor design
Noisy motor: New motor design:

only B2 running only B2 running
Accelerometer position mm/s r.m.s. mm/s r.m.s.
Motor frame V 3.3 0.7

Motor frame H 5 2
Motor terminal box A1 6.6 2.2
Figure 8.14 Illustration of double sealing system to prevent the ingress of water or any other
contamination.
Table 8.3 shows that, by comparison to the overall velocities produced by the
original faulty motor, there was a large reduction of those from the new design. Both
motors were in tag slot B2 when the measurements were taken.
The quantitative reductions were as follows:
Motor frame V: Reduction in velocity by a factor of 4.6.
Motor frame H: Reduction in velocity by a factor of 2.5.
Motor terminal box A1: Reduction in velocity by a factor of 3.
The velocity spectra from the faulty motor and new motor design are presented in
8.1.5 Conclusions
(i) There was evidence of harmonics of FTF as shown in Figure 8.15 in the
original motor with the faulty DE bearing. The spectrum in Figure 8.16 shows
that there are no bearing defect frequencies from the new motor design.

Figure 8.15 Faulty motor in slot B2, DE horizontal velocity r.m.s. versus frequency spectrum.
Figure 8.16 New motor in slot B2, DE horizontal velocity r.m.s. versus frequency spectrum.
(ii) The 4X vibration component on the original motor was 2.3 mm/s which was due
to mechanical unbalance of the external fan; whereas with the new motor and the
fan re-balanced it dropped to 1.0 mm/s.
(iii) The original axial fan motors operated on a two week on/off regime; thus for
26 weeks they were stationary in a hostile environment because the LNG plant is
on the coast directly next to the North Sea off Scotland.
(iv) Figures 8.8 and 8.9 show photographs of end views of the original motor’s DE to
illustrate the channels and labyrinth seal arrangement, which is supposed to
prevent any accumulation of water entering the bearing. This design only
functioned properly provided that the shaft was rotating, but for 26 weeks
(annually) it was stationary.

(v) The fundamental root cause of bearing seizures at the DE of the motors was
caused by the ingress of water with consequential corrosion and contamination of
the DE bearings.
(vi) A new design of motor was proposed to prevent the ingress of water and is
presented in Section 8.1.5. The design has a double bearing seal assembly
and has proven to be successful because no DE bearing failures have been
reported since 2015. This is in comparison to the original motor designs
which had regular DE bearing failures of eight motors every 12 to
18 months.
8.2 Industrial Case History – Envelope Analysis used by a Vibration

Sub-Contractor Produced a False Diagnosis of a Cage
Fault in a Cylindrical Roller Element Bearing in a 225 kW/300
H.P. SCIM
8.2.1 Introduction
Abstract – An oil company that operated an offshore oil production platform in the
North Sea off the coast of Scotland sub-contracted a vibration condition
monitoring (CM) vendor to carry out monthly vibration measurements on rotating
equipment.
The sub-contractor used envelope analysis to assess the operational condition of
rolling element bearings in the LV (440 V, 60 Hz) SCIMs. On a previous occasion, the
sub-contractor had predicted a bearing cage defect in one of the SCIMs, but this was
proven to be false after strip down and examination of the DE bearing by an
independent motor repair workshop.
The sub-contractor subsequently reported another cage fault in the DE bearing of a
different SCIM, and this is the subject of this case history. The oil company decided to
carry out a quality assurance (QA) test case on the sub-contractor’s prediction of
another cage fault and commissioned the author to carry out an investigation with the
following objectives:
(i) With the motor running uncoupled in a motor repair workshop, carry out
independent vibration measurements on the motor prior to strip-down for
overhaul.
(ii) To analyse the vibration prior to strip-down of the motor and predict if either a
cage fault or any other bearing fault existed in the DE bearing.
(iii) To obtain a preliminary report from the repair shop on the condition of the
bearings.
The author predicted, by using VSA, that there was not a cage fault in the DE
cylindrical roller element bearing, and subsequent examination of the bearing con-
firmed that there were no bearing defects whatsoever and only slight and normal wear
as reported by the repair workshop.

8.2 Industrial Case History – Envelope Analysis 153
Figure 8.17 Photograph of the motor on the repair shop’s base-plate.
Figure 8.18 Illustration of motor to show coupling guard covering the DE bearing and the cowl
over the NDE.
8.2.2 Nameplate Data and Construction of the Motor

3-phase SCIM, 440 V, 225 kW/300 H.P., 60 Hz, 352 A, 1775 r.p.m.
Ins class: F, temp rise: 80 C
Eff = 93.2%, 0.9 p.f. Δ – connected
Bearings: DE N324-C3, NDE 6316-C3.
A photograph of the motor mounted on the repair shop’s base-plate is shown in
Figure 8.17. It is a flange mounted motor, which drives a centrifugal pump. and when
it is installed on the offshore oil production platform the coupling guard is bolted to
the mounting flange at the DE, as illustrated in Figure 8.18, such that access to the DE
bearing housing is impossible.

Table 8.4 Overall vibration measurements by a condition monitoring sub-contractor at the DE
Accelerometer Measured quantity Instrument reading
DEH on motor flange Overall r.m.s. velocity 1.5 mm/s r.m.s.

Enveloped acceleration 4.0 g Env
Acceleration 1.0 g
DEV on motor flange Overall r.m.s. velocity 1.4 mm/s r.m.s.
DEA on motor flange Overall r.m.s. velocity 1.5 mm/s r.m.s.
A SCIM of this voltage and power rating will normally be cooled by an external
fan, which is covered by a fan cowl, and therefore access to the NDE bearing housing
was impossible, as shown in Figure 8.17.
The CM sub-contractor applied vibration envelope analysis to assess the condition
of rolling element bearings in the motor shown in Figure 8.17 by measuring the
vibration on the outer periphery of the DE flange and on the fan cowl in line with the
end frame at the NDE. The author considers it was unwise to use envelope analysis,
because the vibration on the outer periphery of the DE flange is not the same as the
vibration on the bearing housing.
It is very well known that the special accelerometer used for subsequent envelope
analysis should be mounted directly on the bearing housings to reliably diagnose
faults in rolling element bearings in SCIMs as discussed in Section 4.2.1.1.
The overall levels of velocity, acceleration and enveloped acceleration recorded by
the CM sub-contractor and presented to the author’s client are shown in Table 8.4. The
oil company has an alarm and shut-down policy for SCIMs with rolling element
bearings at 7 mm/s and 11 mm/s r.m.s. respectively when driving the mechanical load.
The enveloped acceleration spectrum presented by the sub-contractor to the client
is presented in Figure 8.19, which shows that there was a component at 12.5 Hz and its
harmonics. It was proposed by the sub-contractor that this was due to a cage fault in
the DE bearing.
The component at 12.5 Hz in Figure 8.19 is not a cage FTF frequency
component.
8.2.2.1 Prediction of the DE Bearing Defect Frequencies

It was unknown when, or if, this motor had been previously overhauled or if new
bearings were fitted at any time, therefore the following points which were presented
in the flow chart of Section 4.3 need to be considered.
(i) Although the nameplate specifies an N324 C3 steel cage bearing, two major
bearing manufacturers no longer provide this standard steel cage cylindrical roller
element bearing as an off-the-shelf stock item. They now only supply, as a stock
item, an extra capacity bearing replacement, namely an N324 E M C3 to replace
an N324 C3. Similarly, for other cylindrical roller element bearings.
(ii) Note that the steel cage version of an N324 C3 has 12 rollers and the N324E M C3
has 13 rollers; therefore the bearing defect frequencies are different.

Bearing type: N324 C3 cylindrical roller element bearing
Contact angle: 0 Number of rollers: 12 Motor speed: 1799 r/min
Bearing frequencies
BPFO BPFI FTF 2 BSF

145.8 Hz 214 Hz 12.2 Hz 152.6 Hz
Bearing type: N324E M C3 cylindrical roller element bearing
E: Extra capacity M: Brass cage C3: Clearance
Contact angle: 0 Number of rollers: 13 Motor speed: 1799 r/min
Bearing frequencies
BPFO BPFI FTF 2 BSF

156.3 Hz 233.5 Hz 12 Hz 145.6 Hz
Figure 8.19 Envelope spectrum (gE) versus frequency (Hz), DEH on the flange.
The bearing defect frequencies for both bearings are presented in Tables 8.5 and 8.6.
The bearing defect frequencies predicted by the author for an N324 C3 and an
N324E MC3 (it was unknown which bearing was in the motor) are presented in
Tables 8.5 and 8.6 for a no-load speed of 1799 r/min and the cage frequency
component FTF is 12 Hz and 12.2 Hz respectively.
The sub-contractor tested the motor on load on the offshore installation but did
not state the operating current or speed, but it would certainly have been less than
1799 r/min (no-load uncoupled speed) and the cage frequency FTF would be 11.84 Hz

and 12 Hz for an N324 C3 and N324E M C3 respectively if the motor was on full load.
This oversight is typical of a mechanical vibration technician not understanding the
basics of induction motor operation.
8.2.3 Vibration Measurements and VSA Applied to the SCIM before Strip-Down
and Inspection of the DE Bearing
8.2.3.1 Test Conditions
(1) The motor was mounted on a solid steel base-plate in the motor repair workshop
as shown in Figure 8.17.
(2) The motor was supplied at the rated nameplate voltage (440 V) and, at the time of
testing, the supply frequency was f1 = 60.47 Hz. The supply frequency was
subject to variation because it was supplied from an independent generator.
(3) The no-load input line currents were balanced to within 1.5 amperes of the
average line current, which was 56 amperes.
(4) Because the sub-contractor had predicted a cage fault in the DE bearing the focus
was on taking vibration measurements at the DE at the same positions as those
used by the sub-contractor as shown in Figure 8.18.
(5) Vibration measurements were also recorded directly on the actual bearing
housings at the DE and NDE (the fan cowl was removed) because this was
possible when the motor was run uncoupled in the repair workshop.
(6) Overall vibration velocity levels (r.m.s.) using a frequency span of 5.3 Hz to
1000 Hz were recorded, based on using the British Standard, BS EN 60034-14,
Feb. 2004 [8.1] as a general guide. The maximum permissible velocity (r.m.s.) in
either the V, H or axial positions on the bearing housing is 2.3 mm/s 10% for
this motor, when rigidly mounted on a solid steel base-plate during an
uncoupled run.
8.2.3.2 Overall R.M.S Velocities Prior to Motor Strip-Down

The overall r.m.s. velocities measured by the author are presented in Table 8.7 before
strip down and removal of the bearings for inspection. Note the differences in
velocity between the readings from accelerometers mounted directly on the bearing
housings and those from accelerometers mounted on the positions used by the sub-
contractor.
For example, at the DEV position on the bearing housing the velocity was 3.2 mm/s
r.m.s. but only 1.4 mm/s r.m.s. in the vertical position on the outer periphery of the DE
end frame.
The overall r.m.s. velocities presented in Table 8.7 are acceptable for a SCIM that
has been operating on an offshore oil production platform, with the highest being
3.2 mm/s at the DEV position on the bearing housing of this SCIM. Therefore, based
on these velocities during an uncoupled run the motor was fit for purpose. The DEV
bearing velocity is 2.3 times greater than the DEV velocity on the DE flange. No
historical records of repairs or PM inspections were available.

Table 8.7 Overall r.m.s. velocities before motor strip down, span 5.3–1000 Hz
Accelerometers mounted at positions shown in

Figures 8.17 and 8.18 during the uncoupled run
DEV DEH DEA

Outer periphery of DE flange Outer periphery of DE flange See Figure 8.18
1.4 mm/s 2.4 mm/s 1.0 mm/s.
Accelerometers mounted directly on the

DE and NDE bearing housings during the uncoupled run
DEV DEH DEA NDEV NDEV NDEA

Figure 8.20 Illustration of motor to show where the vibration was measured that produced the
spectra shown in Figures 8.21 to 8.24.
8.2.3.3 Vibration Spectrum Analysis – Uncoupled Run before Strip-Down

of the Motor
Figure 8.20 shows the accelerometer positions and Figures 8.21 to 8.24 show the
spectra from the DE positions on the outer periphery of the DE flange. Recall that
these are the positions where the vibration CM sub-contractor took the measurements
on the motor when operating on the offshore platform. The vibration spectra are
normal during the uncoupled run before strip-down of the motor and there is no
evidence of any cage defect frequency at 12 Hz.
However, the vibration zoom spectrum of the DEH vibration on the flange indicates
that there are components at 11.6 Hz and 12.5 Hz as shown in Figure 8.22, but these
are not due to a cage defect in either an N324 C3 or an N324 EM C3 bearing.
To recap, Figure 8.20 shows the positions that vibration measurements were taken
to produce the spectra shown in Figures 8.21 to 8.24.

Figure 8.21 DEH spectrum from the DE flange, 0.078 Figure 8.22 DEH zoom spectrum from the DE flange,
Hz/line. 0.078 Hz/line.
Figure 8.23 DEV spectrum from the DE flange, 0.078 Figure 8.24 DEA spectrum from the DE flange, 0.078
Hz/line. Hz/line.
The components shown in Figure 8.22 can be the effect of skidding of a cylindrical
roller element bearing during an uncoupled run of a SCIM, as was proven in the case
history in Section 7.2.
Interestingly, the CM sub-contractor stated that the cage frequency was at 12.5 Hz
when the motor was tested on load when driving the pump on the oil production
platform.
This was not a cage defect frequency, but note that the DE bearing could have been
skidding, particularly if it was an extra capacity rated N324 EM C3 bearing, which is
over rated for the motor and would not be in accordance with the OEM’s original
design specification.
The author predicted that there was no cage defect in the DE bearing, after which
the motor was dismantled and the bearings were inspected.
8.2.3.4 Preliminary Inspection of the DE Bearing

The actual bearings in the motor confirmed after motor strip-down, were as follows:
DE: N324 E M C3 (i.e. an extra capacity, brass cage, with C3 clearance).
NDE: 6316 C3.

8.3 Bearing Failures in 800 kW/1072 H.P. SCIMs 159
Figure 8.25 Photograph of the DE bearing which indicates that no cage fault existed; note that the
brass cage is very robust.
Clearly this motor had been previously repaired, and an extra capacity bearing was
fitted at the DE, which is what the author anticipated would be the case.
This bearing should not have been fitted because the OEM’s design for this SCIM did not
require an extra capacity bearing.
The key factor is that an E rated bearing requires more dynamic loading to prevent excessive
skidding.
8.2.4 Conclusions
The repair shop reported that there was no cage defect in the DE bearing, and the
general condition of the bearing was that it was only slightly worn due to the normal
wear process.
Figure 8.25 shows a photograph of the DE bearing and it is in a normal condition
and to quote the repair shop:
‘The DE bearing, if properly maintained would
have continued to perform with no problems’.
This verified the author’s prediction, via VSA, that there was not a cage defect and
confirmed the CM sub-contractor’s prediction that a cage fault existing in the DE
bearing was a false diagnosis due to the use of vibration envelope analysis in a
situation when the accelerometers could not be fitted directly on the bearing housing.
Figures 8.26 and 8.27 present photographs of a new N324 E M C3 bearing and it is
obvious that the brass cage is very robust indeed.
A cage fault in this brass cage, of an extra capacity rated bearing would be a rare event.
8.3 Bearing Failures in 800 kW/1072 H.P. SCIMs Driving Sulphate Removal
Pumps (SRP) and a FAT on Repaired Motor
8.3.1 Catastrophic Bearing Failure and Broken Shaft

Abstract – There are two case histories in Section 8.3. This first case history reports
on a catastrophic failure of an NDE bearing and a consequential broken shaft, which

Figure 8.26 Photograph of a new N324E M C3 cylindrical roller bearing – the ruler scaled in
inches indicates the overall diameter.
Figure 8.27 Photograph of an N324E M C3 to illustrates the rollers, cage and robustness of this
bearing.
occurred in one (A) of five SCIMs driving sulphate removal pumps (SRP) on a large
offshore oil production (approximately 200,000 barrels of oil per day) platform.
There were also subsequent failures of DE and NDE 6316 C3 bearings in identical
motors. The routine vibration condition monitoring was carried out once per month by
a CM vendor who did not have experts on the design and operation of SCIMs. The
author was not involved in vibration monitoring and analysis of any of the motors
prior to bearing failures. He was initially hired by the oil company to investigate this
catastrophic failure.
It was difficult to obtain reliable operational records and measured vibration data
from the date of installation of these new motors in 2007 up to the time of a bearing
failure. Maintenance crews changed every three weeks, therefore it was difficult to
obtain concise and unambiguous records. An RCFA of the failed bearing was
impossible because the bearing was seized due to the very high temperature, which

was more than 900 C at the inner raceway, as predicted from an independent
metallurgical examination. Thus, any initial evidence of bearing degradation was
destroyed.
The reason for presenting the inspection of this failure is to demonstrate the
catastrophic damage that can be caused by a failed bearing, and as a lead in to the
case histories that follow on identical motors.
The SCIM details are as follows:
3-phase SCIM, 6.6kV, 800 kW/1072 H.P., 76 A, 60 Hz, 3580 r/min, 0.9 p.f., eff =
96%
Star connected, frame E450/1400, IP56, Class F, B temperature rise
Number of rotor bars: 50, single cage, rotor bars not skewed, airgap length 4 mm
Bearings: DE and NDE 6316 C3, re-greasing quantity 33 g
Nominal bearing L10 life: 30,000 hours, lubrication details: use Shell Albida R2 grease
OEM’s recommendation: bearings should be greased every 1200 running hours
using the quantity of grease given above.
Note that the pump manufacturer supplied the complete drive train and, as is
normally the case, various electrical machine manufacturers were invited to tender
for the supply of the motors. The oil company contracted the pump manufacturer to
supply the motor as part of the complete package.
The L10 life for the bearings was 30,000 hours, which is 3.4 years, but these motors
do not run continuously because the running regime alternates their usage. The
author’s opinion was that for the high speed and rating of these motors it would have
been wise to have used sleeve bearings.
On the day prior to the failure the vibration was measured on the outer periphery of
the end frames at the DE and NDE by a condition monitoring contractor (not the
author of this book) and the highest overall r.m.s. velocities were 15 mm/s (0.6 inches/s)
and 12 mm/s (0.47 inches/s) in the horizontal and vertical directions respectively;
therefore the motor should have been stopped. However, because of essential oper-
ational requirements the motor could not be immediately shut down, and the bearing
failure and broken shaft occurred the next day.
This is an example where production and possible loss of income take priority over
the operational condition of the motor even though there was clearly a vibration
problem. Note that the author could not obtain any recorded vibration spectra leading
up to the failure because only overall vibration velocities were measured.
8.3.1.1 Inspection
Figures 8.28 and 8.29 show photographs of the motor and broken shaft respectively,
which were received by the OEM, and Figure 8.30 indicates it was a classical torque
and twist break due to seizure of the bearing. The tip of the broken shaft was within
the inner raceway of the NDE bearing. Figure 8.31 presents a photograph of the NDE
bearing which was seized.

Figure 8.28 Overall view of NDE. Figure 8.29 Broken shaft end.
Figure 8.30 Severely damaged fan due to

Figure 8.31 Catastrophic failure of NDE bearing;
broken shaft.
fragments of bearing insulation are on the
surface of the outer race.
8.3.2 RCFA of a Faulty 6316 C3 Bearing and FAT of the Repaired Motor (B) with
New Bearings
An identical motor (B) to the one described in Section 8.3.1 was returned to the OEM
based upon a loud clunking noise from the DE, which was reported by maintenance
personnel on the offshore platform. Permanent accelerometers were not fitted on the
motor and a third-party vendor carried out vibration measurements on a monthly basis
using temporary accelerometers mounted via magnets.
A repeat catastrophic bearing failure, as reported in Section 8.3.1, was not accept-
able to the oil company and evidence was required to ascertain the cause(s) of the
problem in this identical motor. The author was hired to carry out an investigation,
which was in three stages:
(i) Inspect the motor received by the OEM and, if possible, run the motor on the
OEM’s test bed and take vibration measurements before any strip-down.

Figure 8.32 Section of DE bearing which Figure 8.33 Severe spalling (pitting) of the
shows a lack of effective grease. inner raceway.
(ii) Remove the bearings from the DE and NDE to determine the condition of the
bearings and grease.
(iii) Carry out a vibration Factory Acceptance Test (FAT) after the fitting of new bearings.
8.3.2.1 Attempt to Run the Motor and Bearing Inspection

The motor was started on a low voltage and after approximately 30 s of running at
200–300 r/min it was obvious that the loud clunking noise was coming from the DE
bearing, and therefore the test was stopped to prevent any further damage.
Figure 8.32 shows a section of the DE bearing and there was a distinct lack of
effective grease and when it was turned it was very rough indeed. The bearing was
carefully dismantled, and Figure 8.33 shows the inner raceway. As expected, there was
severe fatigue spalling (pitting) at approximately ball pitch intervals. This is indicative
of false brinelling due to these five drive trains being adjacent to each other.
A maximum of four drives is required at any one time, therefore one is stationary.
8.3.2.2 No-Load Factory Acceptance Test (FAT) – Vibration Measurements

New 6316 M C3 bearings were fitted to the DE and NDE of the motor. The motor was
mounted on a solid steel base-plate in the OEM’s factory test house and supplied with
6600 V at 60 Hz, and the no-load current in each phase was 10.5 2% A.
Vibration readings were taken in accordance with BS EN 60034-14 [8.1].

The overall allowable maximum r.m.s. velocity is 2.3 mm/s (0.09 inches/s) 10%
for this speed and shaft height of motor with a frequency span of 10 Hz to 1000 Hz.
The supply frequency to the motor during the FAT was accurately measured via
current signature analysis [8.4]. The frequency was not constant because the motor
was supplied from an independent generator whose output frequency varied
between 59.83 Hz and 60.1 Hz (see Figure 8.34 for a sample current spectrum).
That is the reason for the different frequency values of the vibration component at
the fundamental rotational speed frequency (1X) in the vibration spectra.
The accelerometers were mounted as shown in Figures 8.35 and 8.36, and the
overall r.m.s. velocities on the DE and NDE bearing housings are presented in

Table 8.8 Overall velocities r.m.s. 10%, span 10–1000 Hz
DEV DEH DEA

DE bearing housing 1.2 mm/s 0.38 mm/s 0.4 mm/s
NDE bearing housing NDEV NDEH NDEA

0.65 mm/s 0.56 mm/s 0.4 mm/s
Figure 8.34 Current spectrum; span of 0–130 Hz.
Figure 8.35 Accelerometer positions directly on Figure 8.36 Accelerometer positions

the DE bearing housing. directly on the NDE bearing housing.
Table 8.8. They are normal and well below the upper limit of 2.3 mm/s r.m.s. as
specified in BS EN 60034-14, Feb. 2004 [8.1].
The vibration spectra are presented in Figures 8.37 to 8.42, and Table 8.9 gives the
predicted bearing defect frequencies.
8.3.3 Conclusions
(i) The vibration spectra are all normal as measured on the DE and NDE bearing
housings and, as expected, they are dominated by the 1X frequency component,

Figure 8.37 DEV vibration spectrum. Figure 8.38 DEH vibration spectrum.
Figure 8.39 DEA vibration spectrum. Figure 8.40 NDEV vibration spectrum.
Figure 8.41 NDEH vibration spectrum. Figure 8.42 NDEA vibration spectrum.
which is caused by the centrifugal force from the inherent mechanical unbalance,
which was ISO balance grade G1.0 [8.3], in the rotor.
(ii) There were no bearing defect frequencies present, as should be the case with
brand new bearings.
(iii) These results provided a base-line of the overall r.m.s. velocities and vibration
spectra for a refurbished SRP motor, which was fitted with new bearings.
(iv) The motor was returned to the oil company.

Bearing type: 6316 M C3 deep groove ball bearing
M: Brass cage C3: Clearance
No. of balls: 8 Motor speed approximately:

3599 r/min
Bearing frequencies
BPFO BPFI FTF 2 BSF

185 Hz 295 Hz 23 Hz 249 Hz
Figure 8.43 Photograph of the motor.
8.4 Industrial Case History – False Brinelling and FAT of an 800 kW/1072
H.P. SCIM and Attenuation of Vibration between the Bearing Housing
and the Outer Periphery of the End Frame
8.4.1 Summary
Abstract – Sections 8.31 and 8.3.2 presented information on a catastrophic NDE
bearing failure and broken shaft in one of five motors that drive sulphate removal
pumps on an offshore oil and gas production platform (see Figure 8.43).
Figure 8.33 showed a severely pitted (spalled) DE bearing in an identical motor
(B). It was proposed that this may have been initiated by false brinelling.
Motor details:
3-phase SCIM, 6.6kV, 800 kW/1072 H.P., 76 A, 60 Hz, 3580 r/min, 0.9 p.f., eff
96%
Star connected, frame E450/1400, IP56, Class F, B temp rise

8.4 Industrial Case History – False Brinelling and FAT of an 800 kW/1072 H.P. SCIM 167
Figure 8.44 Motors mounted on a steel fabricated structure on the offshore oil production
platform.
Bearings: DE and NDE 6316 C3, re-greasing quantity 33 g

Lubrication details: Shell Albida R2 grease
OEM’s recommendation: bearings should normally be re-greased every
1200 running hours using the correct quantity of grease.
A photograph of the layout of the motors driving the sulphate removal pumps is shown
in Figure 8.44. Access to the motors is obtained by removing the external panels.
This case history reports on an identical SCIM, which was not rotated for five
months after it had been returned to the offshore oil production platform after refur-
bishment and fitting of new bearings.
It had been stored for different periods of time (unknown) in various locations, such
as in a dedicated storage area that was three decks (levels) above the SRP drive trains,
and then on the deck directly below the drive trains as shown (ellipse) in Figure 8.44,
before it was installed in its drive train slot.
This motor was returned to the repair shop as a test case to establish if false
brinelling was present in the bearings as part of the investigation to ascertain the root
cause of the bearing failures in these motors.
Stationary motors were also stored on the deck immediately below (see Figure 8.44)
the drive trains and were subjected to vibration from various sources and likewise
when installed in a drive train slot because the running SRP motors are mounted on a
communal, steel fabricated base.
8.4.1.1 1nspection of Bearings

The DE and NDE bearings were dissected, and Figures 8.45 to 8.49 present photo-
graphs of the nominally new bearings from the repaired motor which had not been
turned on the offshore installation while being stored in different locations:
(i) Evidence of initial false brinelling, as shown in Figure 8.45.
(ii) Evidence of light fretting corrosion on the DE bearing, as shown in Figures 8.46
and 8.47.

Figure 8.45 DE 6316 C3 inner ring raceway; evidence of false brinelling.
Figure 8.46 DE 6316 C3 outer ring outside diameter; light fretting corrosion.
Figure 8.47 DE 6316 C3 inner ring bore – light fretting corrosion on bore surface.

Figure 8.48 DE 6316 C3 multiple light surface abrasions/wear markings on the spherical
surface.
Figure 8.49 DE 6316 C3 steel cage pocket – multiple surface abrasions/wear in pocket
cavity.
(iii) Multiple light surface abrasions/wear on the balls, as shown in Figure 8.48.
(iv) Multiple surface abrasions/wear in the steel cage pocket, as shown in Figure 8.49.
8.4.2 Vibration Factory Acceptance Test (FAT) of Repaired Motor

New bearings were fitted to the motor and a vibration FAT was carried out in a motor
repair shop. The motor on the test bed is shown in Figure 8.50. The fan cowl was
unbolted from the end frame to allow vibration measurements on the NDE bearing
housing.
The overall r.m.s. velocities are presented in Table 8.10, and they are well below
(maximum 1.5 mm/s r.m.s.) the maximum allowable of 2.3 mm/s (0.09 inches/s)
r.m.s. as specified in BS 60034-14-2004 [8.1].

Table 8.10 Overall r.m.s. velocities on bearing housings and end frames
(i) No-load uncoupled run – vibration measurements carried out as per BS 60034-14,
Feb. 2004 [8.1].
(ii) Maximum allowable overall r.m.s. velocity = 2.3 mm/s (0.09 inches/s) 10%; frequency
span 10–1000 Hz
(iii) Rated volts applied: 6600 V; measured frequency: 60.05 Hz
(iv) Measured no-load phase currents: R: 10.5, Y: 10.7 and B: 10.2 A
Vibration after two hours of uncoupled run

See Figures 8.51 to 8.54 for positions of accelerometers
Position DEVB bearing Position DEHB bearing Position DEAEF end frame
housing housing 0.7 mm/s
1.2 mm/s 1.5 mm/s
Position DEVEF end Position DEHEF end frame

frame 0.67 mm/s
0.8 mm/s
Position NDEVB bearing Position NDEHB bearing

housing housing
1.2 mm/s 0.9 mm/s
Position NDEVEF end Position NDEHEF end frame Position NDEAEF end
frame 1.5 mm/s frame
1.6 mm/s 0.6 mm/s
Figure 8.50 FAT vibration measurements – photograph of the motor with its NDE fan cowl
separated from the end frame to allow access to measure the vibration directly on the NDE
bearing housing.

Figure 8.51 Motor in-situ: the DE bearing Figure 8.52 Motor in-situ: photograph of NDE –
housing is not accessible. the NDE bearing housing is not accessible.
Figure 8.53 Accelerometers on the DE bearing Figure 8.54 Accelerometers on the outer
housing. periphery of the DE end frame.
8.4.3 Attenuation of Bearing Defect Frequencies

Because the bearing housings on the SCIM cannot be accessed on the offshore oil and
gas production platform, as shown in Figures 8.51 and 8.52, an additional and key
objective of the FAT vibration measurements was as follows:
To compare the vibration directly on the bearing housings with that measured on
the outer periphery of the end frame.
The magnitudes of the bearing defect frequencies of vibration generated within the
bearing can be attenuated when the vibration is measured on the outer periphery of the
end frame or at the end of the stator frame.
This SCIM is a Zone 1, flame-proof EXd design and the construction is very robust,
particularly the end frames, which will have a high mechanical stiffness in both the
radial and axial directions, as shown in Figures 8.53 to 8.56.
From Table 8.10, the effect of attenuation between the overall r.m.s. velocities
measured on the DE bearing housing, compared to the overall r.m.s. velocities values
on the DE end frame, is as follows:

Table 8.11 Bearing Defect Frequencies
Bearing type: 6316 M C3 deep groove ball bearing
M: Brass cage C3: Clearance
No. of balls: 8 Motor speed approximately:

3599 r/min
Bearing frequencies
BPFO BPFI FTF 2 BSF

185 Hz 295 Hz 23 Hz 249 Hz
Figure 8.55 Accelerometers on the NDE bearing Figure 8.56 Accelerometer on the outer periphery
housing. of the NDE end frame.
Attenuation Factors DEHB : DEHEF = 1.5 : 0.67; i.e. an attenuation by a factor

of 2:2.
The horizontal r.m.s. velocity at the DEHEF position on the periphery of the end
frame was attenuated by a factor of 2.2 compared to the horizontal velocity at the
DEHB position as measured directly on the DE bearing housing.
Likewise for the NDE velocity in the vertical direction:
NDEVB : NDEVEF = 1.2 : 0.8, 1.5:1; i.e. an attenuation by a factor of 1.5.
For this motor, mounting the accelerometers on the end frames gives a mislead-
ing result in comparison to the actual vibration on the bearing housing.
It is accepted that vibration standards, such as BS 60034–14-2004 [8.1] and NEMA
MG 1-2006 [8.2], allow vibration measurements on the end frames to assess the
vibration level during a FAT when the bearing housings are not accessible.
However, these standards do not include any reference to the diagnoses of bearing
defects identified via the bearing defect frequencies from rolling element bearings.
The bearing defect frequencies are presented in Table 8.11 using the no-load,
uncoupled speed as the reference speed.

Figure 8.57 DEHB horizontal bearing housing, Figure 8.58 DEHEF horizontal outer periphery of
vibration spectrum. end frame.
Figures 8.57 and 8.58 present the vibration spectra for the DE horizontal positions
directly on the DE bearing housing and on the outer periphery of the DE end frame
respectively.
The 1X, 2X and BPFO components are present in both spectra, but their magnitudes
on the outer periphery of the end frames are attenuated due to the mechanical stiffness
and frequency response of the DE end frame between the bearing housing and the
outer periphery of the end frame. The vibration spectra verified the following
attenuation factors for this motor caused by the mechanical stiffness and frequency
response of the end frames:
1X is attenuated by a factor of 1.8.
2X is attenuated by a factor of 2.
BPFO is attenuated by a factor of 2.5.
8.4.4 Conclusions and Final Outcome

(i) Measuring the vibration on the outer periphery of the end frames of this motor
gives false readings with respect to the actual vibration on the bearing housings.
(ii) Permanent accelerometers were not fitted to these motors and the oil company
would not retrofit them because they are required to be intrinsically safe and re-
certification from the OEM of the motor is required for any retrofits to a Zone 1,
flame-proof motor.
(iii) The costs to retrofit permanent IS accelerometers were prohibitive, particularly
the installation of cables and relevant instrumentation to suit a Zone 1.0
hazardous area.
(iv) These motors are essential for production and cannot simply be taken out of
service for retrofits. The only option is to attach temporary accelerometers on
the end frames via strong magnets.
(v) To assess the velocities of bearing defect frequencies from the bearing via
measurements on the end frames requires correction factors to be applied.

(vi) More rolling element bearing failures occurred and the outcome was that the
deep groove ball bearings (6316 C3) were unsuitable for the operational
conditions of these motors and therefore not fit for purpose.
(vii) The author recommended a revised motor design and that sleeve bearings
should be fitted. This was carried out over a period of two years during major
maintenance outages.
(viii) No failures have been reported since the sleeve bearings were installed.
References
8.1 BS 60034-14-2004, Rotating Electrical Machines, Part 14 Mechanical Vibration of Cer-

tain Machines with Shaft Heights of 56 mm and Higher – Measurement, Evaluation and
Limits of Vibration Severity, 2004.
8.2 NEMA MG 1-2006, Part 7: Mechanical Vibration-Measurement, Evaluation and Limits,
2006.
8.3 ISO 1940-1-2003, Rotor Balancing, 2003.
Cage Induction Motors, IEEE-Press Wiley, ISBN: 978-1-119-02959-5, 2017.

9 Industrial Case Histories on
Vibration Measurements and
Analysis Applied to Large Induction
Motors with Sleeve Bearings
9.1 Introduction and Basic Operation of a Sleeve Bearing
Abstract – This chapter is focused on the presentation of industrial case histories on

vibration measurements and analysis from fluid film bearings, which are referred to as
sleeve or journal bearings in large induction motors. It is not about reproducing
already-published knowledge on the design, construction and operating principles of
fluid film bearings because that is a pointless exercise. The reader wants new infor-
mation rather than already-published knowledge. There are numerous publications on
fluid film bearings and a sample of references is cited; see [9.1] to [9.10]. A thorough
tutorial paper titled Fluid Film Bearing Fundamentals and Failure Analyses by F. Y.
Zeidan and B. S. Herbage can be accessed via the Web [9.1].
This tutorial (21 pages) was presented at the 20th Turbo Machinery Symposium in
Houston, Texas, in 1991, and it can provide all the fundamental knowledge that the
reader will require to underpin the original industrial case histories presented in this
chapter. This paper [9.1] covers the following:
(1) fundamentals on hydrodynamic lubrication and bearing load
(2) common fluid journal bearings
(3) measurement of bearing clearance
(4) bearing materials and construction
(5) bearing dynamics and basic concepts
(6) bearing failure analysis.
As a lead into the industrial case histories which follow, it is appropriate to explain the
basic principle of operation of a fluid film bearing. Figures 9.1 and 9.2 show a sleeve
or journal bearing housing and bearing shells respectively [9.12].
In a fluid film bearing, a thin film of oil supports the rotating shaft and during
steady-state operation there is no contact between the rotating shaft (journal) and the
fixed white metal sleeve or Babbitt.1
1
Note that Babbitt metal is also named white metal and is a soft, white non-ferrous alloy used to provide a
bearing surface. Its composition helps to reduce friction, which makes it a good material to use in a sleeve
bearing.
175
176 Industrial Case Histories on Vibration Measurements and Analysis
Figure 9.1 Typical sleeve or journal bearing housing assembly in an induction motor.
Figure 9.2 Bearing shells removed from a sleeve bearing in an induction motor.
Figure 9.3 is a simple diagrammatic illustration of the oil film wedge in a fluid film
bearing. A rotating shaft in a fluid film bearing produces a high-pressure wedge of oil,
for example, at 10 bars or 145 pounds/square inch (p.s.i.), which lifts the shaft off the
bearing Babbitt and prevents metal-to-metal contact, and in theory the bearing should
have an infinite life-time. This oil film pressure profile naturally moves the shaft into
an eccentric operating position and there must be sufficient clearance between the
journal and the bearing sleeve to prevent a rub. For detailed information on bearing
clearances please refer to the references; however, a general rule-of-thumb guideline
that is often used for diametral journal bearing clearance is 0.0015 inches/1.5 mils-per-
inch of journal diameter. Considerable caution must be exercised because it depends
on many factors, particularly the application, in which it is being used; see references
[9.11] and [ 9.12].

Figure 9.3 Illustration of the fluid film profile in a sleeve bearing.
The oil film thickness in the operating load zone of a sleeve bearing is different for
each SCIM and depends on factors such as:
(i) bearing design
(ii) bearing clearance
(iii) shaft diameter
(iv) operating speed
(v) power rating.
Oil film thickness has a very wide range and reference [9.5] quoted the following:
Typically, minimum oil film thickness in the load zone during operation ranges from 1.0 μm to
300 µm but values of 5 μm to 75 µm are more common in midsized equipment.
Reference [9.5] also quoted that: ‘normally the minimum oil thickness is also the
operating clearance of the bearing’.
9.1.1 Illustrations of the Practical Installation of an Oil-Fed Pressure Sleeve Bearing

Many publications do not present the actual practical installation and operation of oil-
fed pressure bearings that are used in large induction motors. The following know-
ledge in Sections 9.1.1 to 9.1.2.4 was provided by Mr Alistair Carr, formerly head of
test of high voltage machines and chief trouble-shooter of on-site problems in large
SCIMs operating in industry, during his employment for 42 years with Parsons
Peebles in Scotland.

Figure 9.3a SCIM pressure-fed sleeve bearing assembly.
Mr Carr has vast technical knowledge and practical experience; he is now

employed by EM Diagnostics Ltd as a senior electrical machines engineer. The author
of this book is the Director of EM Diagnostics Ltd, and Mr Carr has given permission
to the author to present the following knowledge.
Figure 9.3a shows the NDE sleeve bearing assembly of a SCIM driving a conden-
sate export pump on an offshore oil and gas production platform.
This bearing is oil-pressure fed and has a gravity drain. It is also fitted with a
bearing bush temperature detector and, in the top cap, proximity probes for vibration
measurement.
The bearing is fitted with a loose oil ring to provide short-term lubrication in the
event of oil-supply failure. There is also provision for draining the bearing oil,
during maintenance and inspection, utilizing the drain pipe fitted into the bottom of
the sump.
The bearing supplier or motor OEM will specify the oil quantity and viscosity and
may also give examples of suitable oil types from main suppliers. The oil lubrication
system is a closed circulatory system that consists of a tank, main and standby delivery
pumps, control valves and filtration. This system may be common to other items of
plant in the drive string including pumps, gearboxes and compressors.
9.1.1.1 Oil Feed

Oil is fed to the bearing through the small stainless-steel pipe line, typically 12 mm to
20 mm bore (1/2 inch to 3/4 inch). The flanges that connect the feed line to the bearing
stub pipe have an orifice plate clamped between them.
The oil flow rate for the bearing illustrated will be of the order of 5 litres/minute
(1.3 US gallons per minute). This flow rate is achieved by taking the specified oil

Figure 9.3b Bearing bottom bush.
system feed pressure and sizing the orifice accordingly. A typical oil-feed pressure
would be 25 p.s.i. (1.724 bar). It is essential that this specified oil-supply pressure is
maintained to protect the bearing from wear and possible failure. This pressure is
usually controlled by a pressure reducing valve at the oil system and there is a gauge
in the motor supply line for monitoring purposes.
The oil-feed ports are clearly visible in the bearing’s bottom bush, as shown in
Figure 9.3b, and the area where the white metal is relieved to allow the oil to enter
the bush can also be seen. This photograph also illustrates the interface between the
white metal Babbitt and the steel bush, including the thrust faces. Wear is clearly
visible in this white metal Babbitt but, despite this, the bearing bush will still be
serviceable.
The thrust faces on the bush illustrated are designed only for limited and short-
duration axial load. This may occur during starting for example.
9.1.1.2 Oil Drainage

Oil drains from the bearing and returns to the main oil tank by gravity only. This larger
oil drain line is typically 38 mm to 75 mm (1.5 to 3 inches) bore. This line must have
adequate fall to ensure that the oil can flow freely out of the bearing housing.
The oil level in the bearing housing is determined by the height of this drain pipe
and the weir that is located inside the pipe at the bearing housing end.
It is not unusual, if the fall on the drain line is marginal, that flooding of the bearing
housing will occur. This can happen if the oil flow rate is on the high side or if the oil
is cold or at least well below the design operating temperature. For the gravity drain or
oil return to be effective, the bearing housing must be ventilated.

Looking at Figure 9.3a the breather can be seen at the 12 o’clock position at the top
of the housing. The motor internal fans produce a negative pressure in the motor
enclosure adjacent to the bearing housing and the vent ensures that this negative
pressure is not transferred into the bearing via the seals.
9.1.1.3 Bearing Housing Connections

Figure 9.3a shows that there are various access points into the bearing housing, some
are utilized, and some are plugged. On most bearings the ports provided are, starting
from the top: oil feed, bearing bush temperature detector, oil drain/ level indicator and
sump oil cooler. Jacking oil ports can also be provided when specified. These ports are
available on both sides of the housing and allow the motor manufacturer flexibility
regarding the location of pipework and the temperature detector cabling. Generally,
either side can be used for the port application. Note that the oil-level sight glass is
fitted in the opposite port to the oil drain line.
9.1.1.4 Oil Viscosity

The viscosity of the oil refers to its resistance to flow, or thickness. Lubricating oil will
fall somewhere between kerosene and treacle regarding thickness. The viscosity grade
number is the midpoint of the viscosity range, in centistokes, when the oil is at 40 C/
104 F.
For example, a VG 46 oil will have kinematic viscosity limits between approxi-
mately 41/0.064 and 51/0.079 centistokes per square inch per second when at 40 C.
In most cases, sleeve bearings for SCIMs will be specified for use with ISO VG32 or
ISO VG46 grade oil.
9.1.2 Brief Overview of Operational Problems with Sleeve Bearings

External malfunctions are the predominant reasons why sleeve bearings fail and the
following sub-sections justify this statement. A sleeve bearing that is in good order
and is correctly lubricated will last almost indefinitely. The very high resilience and
reliability of sleeve bearings has been demonstrated via numerous routine inspections
by Mr A. Carr.
The reason is that although the motor bearings were found to have been wiped 2 at
some time, these bearings were still performing well within acceptance criteria with
respect to temperature and vibration and there was no indication that the Babbitt metal
was damaged. With lubrication restored, the design of the sleeve bearing is sufficiently
forgiving to allow it to continue to function.
2
The term wiped is used to describe the situation when movement of white metal has occurred due to
localized excess surface heat from short-term loss of lubrication, which may occur during an abnormal
shutdown.

Figure 9.4 Photograph of a self-contained ring sleeve lubricated bearing to show the oil scoop
ring.
(i) External malfunctions are the predominant reasons why sleeve bearings fail.
9.1.2.1 Inadequate Lubrication

In most cases the failure of a sleeve bearing will be associated with the prolonged loss
of suitable lubricant.
(1) Pressure-Fed Bearings – Typical Causes of Failures
Blocked oil filters resulting in a severely restricted oil supply.
Oil flow rate set well below the bearing supplier’s recommended tolerance.
Water in the oil, often due to the failure of the lubrication system oil cooler.
Contaminated oil or a mix of lubricants which are not compatible. In some
instances, the motor lubrication systems are shared with other items of plant in
the drive string.
(2) Self-Contained Ring Lubricated Bearings – Typical Causes of Failure
Loss of sump oil, thus the oil ring cannot lift sufficient oil to lubricate the
bearing. This is often the result of poor seals allowing oil to be drawn into the
motor enclosure. The coupling assembly can also draw the oil past the
bearing seals.
Low oil level. Oil-level sight glasses become stained and opaque with time and
can give a false indication of the oil level in the bearing sump.
Sticking oil rings/scoops (see Figure 9.4). This is most likely to occur after
maintenance work. The ring may be oval due to poor handling or the joint can
become stepped. The rotation of the oil ring can also be restricted by an
incorrectly fitted bearing bush temperature probe.

9.1.2.2 Axial Load

Most SCIM sleeve bearings are not designed to withstand continuous axial load. The
sleeve bearing has axial clearance which allows the motor’s rotor to find its magnetic
centre. The magnetic centre is the electro-magnetic axial alignment of the rotor and
stator steel cores when the motor is energized. Axial movement of 5 mm (200 mils)
either side of the magnetic centre is a typical value.
The sleeve bearing bushes have white metal end faces (see Figure 9.3b), which are
designed to accept and limit rotor axial movement when the motor is started
uncoupled. These faces are not designed for prolonged or high loading.
Excess or continuous axial load will result in the metal faces overheating and
breaking up. This will lead to failure of the bearing particularly when the motor shaft
shoulder finally contacts the steel portion of the bearing bush.
9.1.2.3 Vibration and Alignment

Prolonged severe vibration will result in deterioration of a sleeve bearing. The shaft
movement will cause disruption of the oil film and lead to momentary metal-to-metal
contact during rotation. In extreme cases, the white metal Babbitt can separate from
the steel bearing shell.
Damage to bearing shells can be caused by misalignment of the bearing shells with
respect to the motor shaft journals or when misalignment of the coupled load is
outwith the limits of the coupling flexible spacer.
Therefore, the load will not be evenly distributed along the bearing shell; this
causes excessive loading, for example at the end of the shell, and can lead to localised
loss of oil film and resulting hot spots.
9.1.2.4 Effect on Sleeve Bearings of Starting SCIMS

Other than the very small film of oil (see Section 9.1) there is metal-to-metal contact
between the journal and the white metal Babbitt, when the SCIM is stationary.
Residual oil will sit in the wedge and as soon as the shaft starts to rotate oil is drawn
in. Flood lubrication ensures that there is ample oil available, and ring lubrication will
ensure ample oil as soon as the shaft turns. The result of each start causes negligible
wear or deterioration, but the combination of this and wear from small foreign
particles in the oil are the natural wear factors. Standby motors should be barred over
periodically, to ensure that there is some oil residue around the journal and bearing
sleeve.
9.2 Introductory Case History – Vibration Factory Acceptance Test of a New

6800 kW/9115 H.P. SCIM
Abstract – The objectives of this introductory industrial case history are as follows:
(i) To explain how vibration measurements are carried out on a large, 6800 kW/
9115 H.P. SCIM with sleeve (or journal) bearings.

9.2 Vibration Factory Acceptance Test of a New 6800 kW/9115 H.P. SCIM 183
Figure 9.5 Diagrammatic Illustration of eddy current displacement or proximity probes to

measure shaft displacement.
(ii) To present results from vibration Factory Acceptance Tests (FATs) on a new
6800 kW/9115 H.P. SCIM in accordance with the British vibration standard (BS
60034-14-2004 [9.13]), and as per the client’s requirements.
(iii) To demonstrate the distinct difference between the measured shaft and bearing
housing displacements from a sleeve bearing in this large SCIM.
9.2.1 Measurement of Shaft Displacement

The crucial parameter to measure in a sleeve (or journal) bearing is the relative
displacement (d) between the rotating shaft (journal) and the fixed, white metal Babbitt.
This is achieved by using eddy current displacement probes, and a diagrammatic
representation of the basic installation of these probes to measure the displacement of
the rotating shaft (journal) in a sleeve bearing is shown in Figure 9.5.
The photograph shown in Figure 9.5a illustrates how external access to fit and
remove the probe is achieved. The probe tip is typically positioned at a distance (d) of
50 mils/0.05 inches/1.27 mm from the rotating shaft or journal surface.
The basic principles of operation of an eddy current displacement probe are as
follows:
The coil in the probe’s tip is supplied from a high-frequency oscillator and the
current in the coil produces an alternating magnetic field, as illustrated in
Figure 9.6.

Figure 9.5a Photograph of a sleeve bearing on a SCIM with displacement probes fitted.
Figure 9.6 Illustration of the main flux from the probe’s coil and the magnetic field created by
induced eddy currents.

This high-frequency magnetic field couples with the conductive target, which in
this case is the rotating shaft (journal), and eddy currents are induced in the steel
shaft. Eddy currents are closed loops of current, which move perpendicular to the
flux produced by the coil but effectively parallel to the shaft.
The magnetic flux produced by the eddy currents opposes the main flux from the
coil. A change in the distance (d) between the shaft and the fixed probe tip in
Figure 9.5 results in a change in the resultant flux and therefore a change in
inductance and impedance.
This changing coil impedance is directly proportional to the distance (d) between
the fixed coil in the probe’s tip and the rotating shaft.
Two displacement probes, as illustrated in Figure 9.5a, are mounted 90 apart so
that polar plots, orbits and the shaft centre line position data can be produced. The
displacement probes can be fitted through the centre of the bearing cap housing
rather than via the seal housing, and the advantage of this is that the surface is
truly concentric with the bearing, thus eliminating any possible error due to
machining.
9.2.1.1 Comments on Measurement of Shaft Displacement and Bearing Housing

Vibration
In Chapters 4 to 8 the focus was on the diagnosis of faults in roller element bearings
via the measurement and analysis of vibration as measured on the bearing housings.
During a FAT of an induction motor that has sleeve bearings, the shaft displacement
and bearing housing vibration are both measured. It is emphasized that the shaft
displacement measurement as described in Section 9.2.1 is distinctly different from
the displacement derived from an accelerometer on the bearing housing of a sleeve
bearing by integrating (twice) the acceleration signal. Note that the following applies:
A direct comparison between the shaft displacement of the rotor and the displacement on the
bearing housing of a sleeve bearing in a SCIM is not valid because they are two distinctly
different measurements.
9.2.2 Motor Nameplate Data and Vibration Test Specification

The motor’s nameplate data are presented in Table 9.1, which refers to its full-load
rated output, and a photograph of the motor under test is shown in Figure 9.7.
The vibration tests were carried out in accordance with BS 60034-14-2004
[9.13], which applies to electric machines running uncoupled at rated voltage
and frequency on a solid steel base-plate (rigidly mounted), as does NEMA MG
1, Part 7 [9.14]. These standards do not apply when the motor is coupled to a
mechanical load because vibration FATs must refer to a common reference so that
all OEMs have a standard test condition. The limits set in BS 60034-14, for
this 13.8 kV, 6800 kW/9115 H.P., 2-pole, 50 Hz, SCIM during an uncoupled run
are as follows:

Table 9.1 Motor nameplate data
3-phase SCIM 6800 kW 333 A 60 Hz
3567 r.p.m. 0.89 p.f. eff 96% Frame EL710/2340JS
Enclosure CACW Rating MCR S1 Starting current, Starting torque 0.6 FLT
5 FLC
Figure 9.7 Photograph of the 13.8 kV, 60 Hz, 2-pole, 6800 kW/9115 H.P., SCIM under test.
(1) The maximum allowable shaft displacement is 65 μm peak–peak.

(2) The maximum allowable vibration levels on the bearing housings are:
Velocity: 2.3 mm/s,
Acceleration: 3.6 m/s2,
Displacement: 35 μm,
10% to allow for different tolerances in vibration instruments used by OEMs.
9.2.3 No-Load FAT Results from Vibration Measurements on the Bearing Housing
Figure 9.8 shows a photograph of the NDE sleeve bearing with the accelerometers on
the housing and the positions of the displacement probes.
Table 9.2 presents the overall r.m.s. velocity, displacement and acceleration on the
bearing housings, when the motor was run uncoupled on a rigid base-plate supplied at
rated voltage and frequency. The no-load current was 64 amperes.
From Table 9.2, all the measured r.m.s. velocity (max. 1.7 mm/s), acceleration
(max. 1.6 m/s2) and displacement (max. 5.5 μm) levels on the bearing housings are
below the allowable limit levels in the British Standard BS 60034-14-2004 [9.13].

Table 9.2 Overall r.m.s. vibration levels 10%; span: 10–1000 Hz; BS 60034-14 2004 limits:
v = 2.3 mm/s r.m.s., a = 3.6 m/s2 r.m.s., d = 35 μm r.m.s.
Motor DE bearing housing

Velocity: 1.7 mm/s Velocity: 1.0 mm/s Velocity: 1.0 mm/s
Acceleration: 1.4 m/s2 Acceleration: 1.2 m/s2 Acceleration.: 1.0 m/s2
Displacement: 3.5 μm Displacement: 1.67 μm Displacement.: 2.5 μm
Motor NDE bearing housing

Acceleration: 1.2 m/s2 Acceleration: 1.6 m/s2 Acceleration: 1.2 m/s2
Displacement: 3.4 μm Displacement: 0.9 μm Displacement: 5.5 μm
Figure 9.8 Photograph of accelerometers on the NDE bearing housing and position of shaft
displacement probes.
The displacement levels in the vertical and horizontal positions on the bearing housings
are negligible (maximum of 3.5 μm) but they do not indicate the actual displacement of the
rotating shaft (bearing journal), which must be measured by displacement probes.
Recall that there is no physical contact between the rotating journal and the white
metal Babbitt and bearing shell housing.
9.2.3.1 Sample of Vibration Spectra on the Bearing Housings – No-Load Run

During an uncoupled run the rotor of an induction motor is rotating at very close to
synchronous speed, Ns.
For a 2-pole SCIM supplied at 60 Hz, the synchronous speed, Ns = 3600 r/min,
therefore the 1X frequency component is virtually at 60 Hz, because the rotor speed in
a sleeve bearing motor will typically differ by only 1 to 2 r/min from the synchronous
speed (3600 r/min).

Figure 9.9 DE vertical bearing housing, r.m.s. displacement spectrum.
Figure 9.10 DE vertical bearing housing, r.m.s. velocity spectrum.
Figure 9.11 DE vertical bearing housing, r.m.s. acceleration spectrum.
For example, the no-load rotor speed was in fact, Nr = 3598 r/min and 1X = 59.97
Hz. The vibration spectra were taken between 10 Hz and 500 Hz using 12,800 spectral
lines, giving a line resolution of 0.0398 Hz/line, which equates to 4.6 r/min, therefore
the 1X component is displayed as being at 60 Hz.

Figure 9.12 DE peak–peak shaft displacement during Figure 9.13 DE peak–peak shaft displacement during
a 27-minute recording. a 27-minute recording.
Figures 9.9 to 9.11 show the displacement, velocity and acceleration r.m.s. spectra
respectively at the vertical position on the DE bearing housing.
The vibration spectra are perfectly normal. Note that the classical differences in
frequency profile between the displacement, velocity and acceleration are present.
Obviously the displacement spectrum is dominated by the 1X component (Figure 9.11)
whereas, considering the acceleration spectrum, the higher frequencies at 2X and 3X
are greater (Figure 9.10) in magnitude than the 1X component.
9.2.4 No-Load FAT Results from Shaft Displacement Probe Measurements

Plots of the shaft displacements at the DE and NDE are presented in Figures 9.12 to
9.15. The displacements are tabulated in Table 9.3 which also shows the position of
the probes.
Main observations from the no-load uncoupled vibration FAT results are as
follows:
(i) The highest displacement at the DE position at 45 to the right of 12 o’clock, was
38 μm peak–peak, which is only 58% of the maximum allowed of 65 μm peak–
peak in BS 60034-14-2004 [9.13].
(ii) The American Petroleum Institute’s (API) 541 vibration standard (item 6.3.3.12)
[9.15] has a limit of 38 μm peak–peak (1.5 mils peak–peak). This new 6800 kW,
2-pole SCIM manufactured by Peebles in Scotland had a maximum displacement
of 38 μm peak–peak, and would have satisfied the API shaft displacement
requirement.
(iii) The displacement measured on the DE bearing housing was 3.5 μm r.m.s. but, as
shown in the displacement spectrum (Figure 9.9), the 1X component was 3.2 μm
r.m.s., therefore the peak–peak displacement of the 1X component on the DE
bearing housing was 9 μm peak–peak. This is only 24% of the actual shaft
displacement at the DE.

Table 9.3 Displacements peak–peak (in μm)
Position of probe at DE and NDE, 45 left of Position of probe at DE and NDE, 45 right of
12.00 hours 12.00 hours
DE displacement probe: 28 μm peak–peak DE displacement probe: 38 μm peak–peak
NDE displacement probe: 20 μm peak–peak NDE displacement probe: 15 μm peak–peak
Figure 9.14 NDE peak–peak shaft displacement Figure 9.15 NDE peak–peak shaft displacement
during a 27-minute recording. during a 27-minute recording.
(iv) This demonstrates that the displacement values are vastly different and the peak–
peak displacement on the bearing housing does not indicate the peak–peak shaft
displacement of the shaft (journal) in the sleeve bearing.
9.2.5 Full-Load Shaft Displacement Results

Table 9.4 presents the shaft (journal) displacements at the end of a four-hour, full-load
heat run when the motor was delivering 6800 kW/9115 H.P. at 3566 rev/min and the
motor was supplied at rated volts (13.8 kV) and frequency (60 Hz) with an input full-
load current of 332 amperes.
At the DE the displacements of the shaft at the 45 right and left of 12 o’clock were
up to 70 μm peak–peak during the first 20 minutes of the full-load heat run. The
bearing temperatures at the DE and NDE stabilised to 45.6 C and 49 C respectively,
and after all the motor parts reached their stable and full-load operating temperatures,
these displacements dropped to 56 μm and 38 μ peak–peak respectively, as shown in
Figures 9.16 to 9.19.
9.2.5.1 Conclusions
(i) Recall that the vibration standard (BS 60034-14-2004 [9.13]) only applies to a
vibration FAT during a no-load uncoupled run.

Table 9.4 Displacements peak–peak (in μm) after a four-hour full-load run
Position of probe at DE and NDE, 45 left of Position of probe at DE and NDE, 45 right of
12.00 hours 12.00 hours
DE displacement probe: 56 μm peak–peak DE displacement probe: 38 μm peak–peak
NDE displacement probe: 35 μm peak–peak NDE displacement probe: 47 μm peak–peak
Figure 9.16 DE peak–peak shaft displacement during Figure 9.17 DE peak–peak shaft displacement during
a two-hour recording. a two-hour recording.
Figure 9.18 NDE peak–peak shaft displacement Figure 9.19 NDE peak–peak shaft displacement
during a two-hour recording. during a two-hour recording.
(ii) However, the peak–peak displacements after the four-hour full-load heat run were
still below the upper limit of 65 μm peak–peak, and this was acceptable to the
client who did not require bearing housing vibration measurements to be taken
during the full-load heat run for the following reasons:
When this motor is installed on the offshore oil and gas production platform, it
will be driving a sea-water injection pump (SWIP), which is quite different
from the load machine in the OEM’s factory.

The transmitted vibration to the SCIM’s bearing housings from the SWIP and
from adjacent rotating plant on the platform will be quite different to that
transmitted from the OEM’s load test facility, and thus comparisons would not
be valid.
9.3 Industrial Case History – Analysis of Shaft Displacement and

Subsequent Strip-Down Inspections Diagnosed Faults in a Journal
Bearing of a 6250 kW/8380 H.P. Slip Ring Induction Motor
9.3.1 Background
Abstract – The author was contacted by a major oil company to determine the root cause
of a recurrent vibration problem in a 6250 kW/8380 H.P., variable speed, Slip-Ring
Induction Motor (SRIM) that drives a centrifugal compressor. Prior to the client contact-
ing the author the motor had had its stator and rotor rewound as part of a major overhaul.
After the client (not the repair company) re-commissioned the motor, it could not be
run continuously because it tripped out on high shaft displacement at the pre-set level of
120 µm peak–peak at the DE. This occurred during uncoupled and coupled runs, and the
run times, before trip-out occurred, were typically between 5 minutes and 10 minutes.
A key feature of the shaft displacement problem was that after the motor tripped,
the shaft displacement (peak–peak) at the DE continued to increase during the initial
run-down period up to a level of 180 µm peak–peak at around half the synchronous
speed and thereafter the shaft displacement did decay to zero. Note that this was not
the result of a rotor resonance problem because the high vibration did not occur during
the controlled run-up.
This was an unusual phenomenon, and the client, the repair company that rewound
the stator and rotor and a third-party vibration CM company could not establish the
root cause of the problem. This phenomenon should not theoretically occur because
the fundamental force on the shaft is due to centrifugal force (C.F.) caused by
mechanical imbalance in the rotor:
C. F. / mw2r(Nr), (9.1)
C.F. = centrifugal force in Newtons (N)

m = unbalanced mass of the cylindrical rotor, kg
w = angular rotational speed ¼ 2πN
60 radian/s
r
Nr = rotor speed in r/min

r = radii of unbalanced mass(es); (rotor has more than one plane in comparison to a
simple rotating disc).
The mechanical imbalance m and radius r are normally constant, therefore the C.F.
should drop in proportion to the square of the speed and therefore the shaft
displacement should decrease after trip-out.

9.3 Analysis of Shaft Displacement and Subsequent Strip-Down Inspections 193
Figure 9.20 Schematic of a static Kramer slip energy recovery, speed control system.
The client reported that this shaft displacement problem had existed (for six
months) from the time that the repaired motor was re-commissioned. Fortunately, a
duplicate drive train was available to deliver the gas process.
Various parties had been involved for six months in trying to determine the root
cause of the problem with no success, despite numerous on-site test runs and vibration
measurements and analysis.
It was therefore obvious to the author that the motor had to be removed for
controlled tests at the operating speed range of the motor during uncoupled and load
runs in a factory test bed. The client agreed, and the motor was sent to an independent
OEM of large induction motors but not to the repair company that had carried out the
major refurbishment of the motor.
9.3.2 On-Site Operation and Motor Nameplate Data

This SRIM was manufactured in 1992 and is started via external rotor resistance to
limit the starting current. After it reaches operational speed, resistors are automatically
replaced by a static Kramer variable-speed electronic control system.
A basic schematic diagram of the closed-loop system is shown in Figure 9.20. The
voltage and current in the rotor are at slip frequency (sf1) and frequency conversion to
the supply frequency (f1) is necessary so that the power loss in the rotor circuit can be
returned to the 3-phase supply to the motor.
In this slip energy recovery system, the slip frequency voltage in the rotor circuit
is rectified in the bridge rectifier and smoothed before being returned to the
mains supply via a 3-phase bridge inverter. Speed control is achieved by varying
the firing angle of the controlled inverter and thus the torque-speed curve for each
firing angle.
In effect, a variable back voltage is inserted into the rotor circuit; this can change
the torque-speed characteristic as a function of the firing angle in the bridge inverter.

Figure 9.21 A photograph of the SRIM motor’s nameplate.
Power is recovered rather than wasting power by varying the rotor resistance using
external rotor resistors to obtain speed control.
In the drive string (see Figure 9.22) there was a very large coupling, of 1800 kg ,
which, in the author’s opinion, also acts as a flywheel to reduce any torsional
oscillations that may occur in this variable speed drive. This could not be confirmed
by either the original OEM or the client for the following reasons:
(1) The original OEM had been brought over by another company and original
records were not available.
(2) The motor was 22 years old when the motor vibration problem occurred, and the
personnel employed by the client when the motor was originally specified and
commissioned had retired.
Records and fundamental knowledge were therefore lost, and this is one of the real
practical difficulties that can be experienced in industry when a vibration problem
occurs in a large 22-year-old SRIM. Photographs of the motor and the motor’s
nameplate are shown in Figures 9.21 and 9.22 respectively.
9.3.3 Deliverables and Vibration Test Results

A definitive test specification was presented to the client by the author and the
following main deliverables were agreed:

Figure 9.22 Photograph of 11 kV, SRIM, 6250/4950 kW, 1490/1120 r/min.
Figure 9.23a Displacement probes at the DE.
(1) The first test would be a no-load uncoupled run of the received SRIM.
(2) The client instructed the independent OEM to discontinue the no-load run when the
shaft displacement reached 100 µm peak–peak, to avoid any damage to the bearings.
(3) The main goal of the first test run was to confirm that the vibration phenomenon
which had occurred during an uncoupled run on-site was repeated on the test bed.
The client informed the author and the independent OEM that it would be impossible
to remove the 900 kg half coupling hub without damaging the shaft and therefore no
attempt should be made to do so.

Figure 9.23b Displacement probes at the NDE.
Figure 9.24 Shaft displacements during the no-load uncoupled run versus time.
9.3.3.1 Vibration Results from the First No-Load Uncoupled Run

The motor was started on reduced voltage, which was increased in small steps until the
voltage was 11 kV at 50 Hz, and a no-load speed of 1499 r/min was reached.
Figures 9.23a and b present photographs of the positions of the displacement probes
to measure the shaft displacement at the DE and NDE as already described in the
introductory case history presented in Section 9.2. The shaft displacement plots at the
DE and NDE during the test are presented in Figure 9.24.
(a) Interpretation of Figure 9.24
(i) The slow roll run out of the shaft’s peak–peak displacement is shown in section
A to B of Figure 9.24, and is acceptable at 15 µm peak–peak, because BS
60034-14-2004 allows 16 µm peak–peak for electric motors of this speed and
shaft height.

Figure 9.25 Spectrum DEX shaft displacement versus Figure 9.26 Spectrum DEY shaft displacement versus
frequency – see position E on plot in Figure 9.24. frequency – see position E on plot in Figure 9.24.
(ii) The maximum shaft displacement from the four probes was 40 µm peak–peak at
the DEX position when the motor reached its no-load speed of 1499 r/min at
position C.
(iii) After 6.5 minutes at 1499 r/min the DE shaft displacement had risen to 65 µm
peak–peak, which is the maximum allowed as per BS 60034-14.
(iv) After a total of eight minutes running at 1499 r/min the DE shaft displacement
had reached 100 µm peak–peak at position D, and the client instructed the
independent OEM to switch off the motor. This was an increase of 150% during
a period of only eight minutes and corresponds to a rate of rise of 7.5 µm peak–
peak/min.
(v) The shaft displacements were still recording data after the switch off, but
during the deceleration period between D to E on Figure 9.24, the DEX and
DEY shaft displacements increased to a maximum of 184 µm and 177 µm
peak–peak at position E respectively, at a speed of 750 r/min. This was not due
to rotor resonance at 750 r/min because it did not occur during the controlled
run-up.
(vi) The phenomenon recorded at the client’s refinery plant was therefore replicated,
which confirmed the vibration problem was inherent in the motor.
(b) Uncoupled Run – Shaft Displacement Spectra
The vibration spectra from the displacement probes which correspond to the
displacements at position E (750 r/min) on Figure 9.24 are presented in
Figures 9.25 and 9.26. As expected the spectra are dominated by the 1X rotational
speed frequency component.
(c) Uncoupled Run – DE Bearing Housing Overall R.M.S. Velocities
Figure 9.27 shows the r.m.s. velocities on the DE bearing housing in the vertical,
horizontal and axial positions during the run-up and run-down period.

Figure 9.27 Overall r.m.s. velocities on the DE bearing housing during an uncoupled run from
start-up versus time.
The fundamental reason for presenting the bearing housing velocities is to demonstrate
that the levels are perfectly acceptable at a maximum of 1.5 mm/s r.m.s. in the
vertical position on the DE bearing housing but if shaft displacements were not being
measured the serious shaft displacement problem would not have been identified.
9.3.4 Ingress Protection (IP) Rope Seal Malfunction – Source of High Shaft
Displacement
It was Alistair Carr (senior electrical engineer), an employee of the author’s company,
who predicted that a malfunctioning IP (ingress protection) rope seal, which is used to
prevent contaminants damaging the Babbitt, was the source of the high shaft
displacement at the DE during the run-down.
Photographs of the DE bearing’s IP seal assembly and the actual rope seal and
channel are shown in Figures 9.28 and 9.29 respectively.
The reasons for suspecting that the rope seal was the possible source of the shaft
vibration problem were as follows:
The bearing seals on this SRIM consist of floating labyrinths to contain the oil and
an IP seal that also serves to retain enclosure pressure.
The IP seal consists of fibrous material (6 mm2), as shown in Figure 9.29, which is
impregnated with polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) or tallow to provide a lubricant.
Heating can be very localised and is confined to the inboard seal housing and
the motor shaft at the point of contact. As a result, this cannot be readily
detected thermally and would not be seen by the bearing bush temperature
detectors.

Figure 9.28 IP seal assembly.
Figure 9.29 Rope seal and channel in the IP assembly.
The frictional heating generated by the seal is cumulative. As the seal area heats up
the seal tightens and, in addition, the lubricant dries out. Generally, the tight area
will only be over a segment of the seal and not the full circumference. As the IP seal
binds on the shaft the shaft tends to climb in the bearing.
The shaft movement relative to the white metal Babbitt increases but the bearing
housing absolute vibration remains comparatively low as this is only influenced by
what is transmitted through the shaft seal or the oil film.
Once the IP seals have been over heated the material’s original characteristics
cannot be recovered as the lubricant has dried out and the material will no longer be
evenly distributed in the locating groove.
Note that after careful fitting of a correctly specified IP seal material it may still be
necessary to carry out a seal bedding procedure, and this may not have been
properly done by the motor repair company. There must be a balance where the seal
surface sits sufficiently close to the shaft to serve its purpose, without any contact
friction, which could generate excess heat and subsequent binding.
Seal bedding is achieved when the motor is run up to speed, in stages, from a
variable frequency supply. Shaft vibration must be closely monitored and if seen to
start to climb at a given speed, the motor speed is reduced, or the motor stopped,
until the seal area cools.

Figure 9.30 Shaft displacements (unfiltered) at the DE and NDE during a four-hour
uncoupled run.
9.3.5 Shaft Displacement with the IP Rope Seals Removed from the DE and NDE
The tests were being carried out on a factory test bed; therefore the IP rope seals from
the DE and NDE could be removed and the vibration measurements repeated during a
no-load run.
This procedure was used to verify whether the IP rope seals were the source of the
problem. Figure 9.30 presents the shaft displacements at the DE and NDE during a no-
load run of four hours from start-up.
The shaft displacements were not greater than 40 µm peak–peak throughout the
complete run period, which therefore confirmed that the rope seals were not fit for
purpose.
Figure 9.31 presents the shaft displacement spectrum for the DEx position and this
confirms that the displacement is normal with the 1X frequency component at 25 Hz
being only 22 µm peak–peak compared to 160 µm peak–peak when the operationally
unfit for purpose rope seal was in the DE bearing.
9.3.6 Shaft Displacements with New IP Rope Seals at the DE and NDE – Full-Load
Heat Run
9.3.7 Conclusions
(i) New IP seals were fitted into the DE and NDE bearing assemblies and the seals
were subsequently bedded-in.

Figure 9.31 Spectrum of DEx shaft displacement versus frequency.
Figure 9.32 Shaft displacements versus time during a 12-hour load run with different supply
frequencies but with an approximately constant V/f ratio to keep the flux constant.
(ii) Because the SRIM had an operational speed range between 1192 r/min and
1490 r/min, the shaft displacements were measured at full-load current covering
this speed range.
(iii) Figure 9.32 presents the shaft displacements during a 12-hour load run and the
V/f ratio was kept constant at the different operating speeds to ensure the main
airgap flux was constant.

3-phase SCIM 6800 kW 326 A 60 Hz
3570 r.p.m. 0.89 p.f. eff 97.2% Frame 710/2-2
Enclosure CACW Rating MCR S1 Is = 5 FLC Ts = 0.7 FLT
Insulation class F, 900 C by temperature rise by resistance
(iv) The results of Figure 9.32 show that the maximum shaft displacements (DEX and
DEY) were at the DE, but they were perfectly acceptable at 40 µm peak–peak.
The new seals were fit for purpose and the motor was successfully returned to
service.
9.4 Industrial Case History – Excessive Shaft Displacement during First

100 Minutes of a Five-Hour Heat Run of a Re-Furbished 2-Pole 6800 kW/
9115 H.P. SCIM – Function of Temperature Change and Rotor Design
9.4.1 Summary
Abstract – The author of this book diagnosed broken rotor bars using Motor Current
Signature Analysis (MCSA) in a 13.8 kV, 6800 kW, SCIM.
The rotor cage winding was re-barred, and the motor was Factory Acceptance
Tested (FAT) for vibration levels during a no-load uncoupled run and a full-load heat
run. It was found during the heat run that shaft displacement was abnormally high
(130 µm peak–peak) for 30 minutes during the first 40 minutes after switch on but it
settled down to a normal level of 30 µm peak–peak during the last 2.5 hours of a five-
hour full-load heat run.
The results will verify that this phenomenon was a function of the rotor design and
rate of change of temperature. The motor’s nameplate data are presented in Table 9.5,
which refers to its full-load rated output, and a photograph of the motor under test is
9.4.2 Shaft Displacements at the NDE during the Full-Load Heat Run
The motor was supplied at rated volts and frequency for the full-load heat run at the rated
input current of 326 amperes. Figures 9.34 and 9.35 present the shaft displacements at the
NDE at 45 left and 45 right of the 12 o’clock position respectively.
9.4.2.1 Interpretation of Shaft Displacements

With reference to Figure 9.34, the key observations are as follows:
(i) During the first 10 minutes on full load, after start-up, the vibration levels (shaft
displacement) were low at, for example, a maximum of 30 µm peak–peak at

9.4 Industrial Case History – Excessive Shaft Displacement 203
Figure 9.33 Motor under test.
Figure 9.34 NDE shaft displacement, 45 left of 12 o’clock versus time of full-load run.
the NDE, but there was a dramatic rise up to 130 µm peak–peak at the NDE
which lasted for 30 minutes. This magnitude of shaft displacement was initially
not acceptable to the client.
(ii) The refurbished rotor was balanced to grade 1.0 before the tests. The shaft
displacement trip level was previously set at 125 µm peak–peak when the motor
was operating on the offshore oil production platform.
(iii) After 100 minutes on full load, the vibration at the NDE was still 100 µm peak–
peak (alarm level) but it then dramatically dropped down to 30 µm peak–peak

Figure 9.35 NDE shaft displacement, 45 right of 12 o’clock versus time of full-load run.
and remained at that level for the remainder of the full-load run – a further
2.5 hours.
(iv) A second full-load heat run was carried out two days after the first heat run so that
the motor had cooled down to the ambient temperature of 20 C, and the
vibration measurements were repeated and the same phenomenon occurred.
9.4.2.2 Shaft Displacement as a Function of Stator Winding Temperature

Figure 9.36 presents the stator winding temperature and shaft displacement at the
NDE (45 left of 12 o’clock) versus time during the full-load heat run.
The temperatures of the bearings were perfectly normal throughout the full-load
heat run because at start-up the NDE and DE bearing temperatures were both 14 C
and they steadily increased to 55 C after five hours, which in effect rules out a
bearing fault.
The plots in Figure 9.36 indicate the temperature of the rotor and stator assemblies
were a function of time between start-up until the temperatures of all parts of the motor
stabilised during the full-load heat run.
The rotor temperature is never measured in a SCIM, but the temperatures of
different parts of the stator windings are measured via RTDs (resistance temperature
detectors) and that was the reference used to plot temperature versus time so that cross
correlation can be made with shaft vibration versus time.
The average temperature of the nine RTDs in the stator winding was 27 C at the
start of the full-load heat run. Figure 9.36 indicates the following:
The shaft displacement increased dramatically during the highest rate of rise of
stator winding temperature.

9.4 Industrial Case History – Excessive Shaft Displacement 205
Figure 9.36 Vibration and stator winding temperature versus time of full load heat run.
Figure 9.37 Squirrel cage rotor before replacement of the cage winding.
When the temperature reached its steady-state value of 80 C the vibration

dramatically dropped to 25 µm peak–peak. The vibration and stator winding
temperatures remained constant thereafter, as shown in Figure 9.36.
This result confirmed a correlation between the rate of change of stator winding
temperature and shaft displacement.

9.4.3 Conclusions
The rotor with broken rotor bars prior to it being re-barred is shown in Figure 9.37.
The rotor core is a heat shrink fit onto the shaft, and of particular significance is the
fact that there are no radial cooling ducts in this rotor from a 6800 kW SCIM.
The likely reasons for the vibration phenomenon were as follows:
(i) During the tests the temperatures of the copper cage winding, laminated steel
core and solid steel shaft will all be different and, in particular, the copper bars
and end ring will heat up much more quickly than the rotor core, and the former
will expand external to the rotor core ends.
(ii) There will, of course, be a re-distribution of the rotor’s mechanical imbalance due
to temperature differentials between start-up from cold and the motor reaching its
steady-state temperature after four to five hours. The rotor’s mechanical
imbalance then takes up a steady-state value, after all parts of the rotor reach their
full-load temperatures and the vibration returns to normal.
(iii) It was subsequently found that this was a characteristic of the rotor design, and
carrying out a trim balance of the rotor did not reduce the high shaft displacement
(130 µm peak–peak) during a period of 30 minutes, as shown in Figure 9.36.
(iv) The client required the motor to be returned for operational service as soon as
possible, and therefore the only option was to set the vibration trip level on the
offshore platform to 135 µm peak–peak to prevent the motor tripping out during
this early running period after start-up.
(v) The client approved this increase in the vibration trip level and. despite this
higher level of displacement, after start-up, the motor has run without incident
since its return to service in 2010.
References
9.1 F. Y. Zeidan and B. S. Herbage, Fluid Film Bearing Fundamentals and Failure Analyses,
Proceedings 20th Turbo Machinery Symposium, Texas A&M University, College Station,
Houston, TX, 1991, pp. 161–86. Can be accessed via: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/
676e/8d91559fc3a6275f2924b436767d957c73e3.pdf.
9.2 W. R. Finley and M. M. Hodowanec, Sleeve vs. Anti-Friction Bearings: Selection of the
Optimal Bearing for Induction Motors, Record of Conference Papers, IEEE Incorporated
Industry Applications Society, Forty-Eighth Annual Conference, 2001 Petroleum and
Chemical Industry Technical Conference (Cat. No.01CH37265), 2001, pp. 305–17.
9.3 M. E. Leader, Understanding Journal Bearings, Proceedings 25th Turbo Machinery
Symposium, Texas A&M University, College Station, Houston, TX, 2001.
9.4 H. P. Bloch and F. K. Geitner, Machinery Failure Analysis and Trouble Shooting:
Practical Machinery Management for Process Plants, fourth edition, Elsevier, 2012.
9.5 R. Scott, Journal Bearings and their Lubrication, Machinery Lubrication Magazine, July
2005.
9.6 G. J. Willis, Lubrication Fundamentals, Marcel Dekker Inc., ISBN 0-8247-696-7, 1980.

References 207
9.7 M. M. Khonsani and R. E. Booser, Applied Tribology – Bearing Design and Lubrication,
John Wiley & Sons Inc., ISBN 0-471-28302-9, 2001.
9.8 A. Muszynska, Rotor Dynamics, CRC Press/Taylor and Francis, FL, USA, 2005.
9.9 J. M. Vance, Rotordynamics of Turbo Machinery, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 0-471-
80258-1, 1988.
9.10 B. J. Hamrock, S. R. Schmid and B. O. Jackson, Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication,
Marcel Decker, New York, 2004.
9.11 C. Yung, Sleeve bearing clearance depends on many factors, www.plantengineering.com/
single-article/sleeve-bearing-clearance-depends-on-many-factors.html.
9.12 Type E Slide Bearings – RENK AG, http://www.renk.biz/download.php, Slide_Bearings_
Type_E_Series_EF.pdf.
9.13 BS 600 34-14-2004, Rotating Electrical Machines, Part 14 Mechanical Vibration of
Certain Machines with Shaft Heights of 56 mm and Higher – Measurement, Evaluation
and Limits of Vibration Severity, 2004.
9.14 NEMA MG 1-2006, Part 7: Mechanical Vibration – Measurement, Evaluation and
Limits.
9.15 American Petroleum Institute (API), 541 Vibration Standard, item 6.3.3.12.

10 Industrial Case Histories on
Magnetic Forces and Vibration
from Induction Motors
10.1 Electromagnetic Forces and Vibration in Induction Motors
10.1.1 Twice Supply Frequency Vibration

It is well known – see references [10.1] to [10.9] – that the fundamental electromag-
netic force and consequential radial vibration in an induction motor is at twice the
supply frequency = 2f1.
The mathematical derivation is given in Appendix 10A and it is also shown that
vibration harmonics of 2f1 can occur at 4f1, 6f1, 8f1, etc. Electromagnetically induced
stator core vibration therefore occurs at 2f1 and its harmonics and this is verified via
vibration measurements presented in case histories in this chapter, for example see
Figure 10.1.
It is also well known – see references [10.4] and [10.5] – that the electromagnetic
force at 2f1 has a mode wave number equal to twice the number of pole-pairs and this
is illustrated in Figure 10.1a [10.5], and to quote:
Figure 10.1a shows the developed airgap of an induction motor with 2-poles of the
revolving flux wave.
The magnetic flux exerts a radial pull across the airgap, proportional at each point to
the flux density squared (B2 / Φ2).
The force wave is therefore a fully displaced sine wave of double the frequency of
the magnetic flux wave as shown in Figure 10.1a [10.5].
A brand new SCIM will therefore inherently produce stator core vibration at 2f1,
but an increase in magnetic asymmetry will change the characteristics of the vibration
measured on the stator core back and will normally increase its magnitude. However,
this increase will only occur at specific positions on the core back as shown in the case
history in Section 10.4, later in this chapter.
The causes of an increase in magnetic asymmetry include, for example:
(i) Thermal bowing of the rotor, which causes a change in dynamic airgap
eccentricity.
(ii) Soft foot that may cause frame or stator core distortion in certain designs
of SCIMs.
(iii) Single phasing or an increase in supply voltage unbalance.
208
10.1 Electromagnetic Forces and Vibration in Induction Motors 209
Figure 10.1 Schematic diagram of stator core and winding and positions of vibration
measurements.
Figure 10.1a Illustration of the radial magnetic flux and force wave; see reference [10.5],
Transactions AIEE, 73 (IIA), 1954, pp.118–25.
Different designs and ratings of SCIMs will have different stator cores and frame
dimensions and different flux densities, therefore the magnitude of vibration on the
stator core at 2f1 is different for each design of motor.
Unless the client specifically requests such measurements, the vibration on the
actual stator core is not normally measured during Factory Acceptance Testing (FAT)

210 Industrial Case Histories on Magnetic Forces and Vibration
of large induction motors (e.g. 1000 H.P./746 kW and above). There are no vibration
standards or guidelines that cover acceptable levels of velocity or acceleration directly
on the stator core back.
Acceptable vibration criteria on the bearing housings are published in vibration
standards by NEMA, IEEE, API and BS, which are in fact different; please refer to
references [10.10] to [10.13] for full details.
Twice supply frequency vibration at 2f1 when it is measured on the bearing
housings does not reflect the actual stator core back vibration at that frequency. The
former will normally be less than that which exists on the stator core back as
demonstrated in the first industrial case history (Section 10.2).
In 2014, The American Petroleum Institute published the following criterion:
The API 541 standard recommends [10.11] that the vibration on the outer frame, in line with
support brackets [10.14] for the stator core should not be greater than twice the permitted
velocity on the bearing housings.
10.1.2 Vibration Components Caused by Rotor Slotting

It has been known for many years that rotor slotting results in additional radial
electromagnetic forces between the rotor and stator of a SCIM and the frequencies
of the consequential vibration are given by Equation 10.1; see references [10.3] to
[10.5] and [10.15] to [10.20]:

R
f rv ¼ f 1 ð1 sÞ nrv : (10.1)
p
This equation can be expressed in the form given by Equation 10.2:

RN r
f rv ¼ f 1 nrv , (10.2)
60
where:
frv = classical and inherent rotor slot vibration frequency components
f1 = supply frequency
R = number of rotor slots
p = pole-pairs
s = operating slip in p.u., where s ¼ ðN sNN
s
rÞ
nrv = integers 0, 2, 4, 6
Nr = rotor speed in r/min
NS = synchronous speed in r/min.
Example: consider a 4-pole, 60 Hz, 1782 /min SCIM with 56 rotor slots. Substituting
these values in Equation 10.2, and with nrv = 0, frv can be calculated as

RN r 56 1782
f rv ¼ f 1 nrv ¼ 60 0 ¼ 1633 Hz,
60 60

10.2 Industrial Case History – Magnetic Forces and Vibration 211
where: frv(nrv = 0) = the principal rotor slot passing vibration component.

With nrv = 2, 4, 6, 8 the rotor slot passing vibration components can also occur at:
nrv = 2, frv = 1633 2f1 = 1513 and 1753 Hz
nrv = 4, frv = 1633 4f1 = 1393 and 1873 Hz
nrv = 6, frv = 1633 6f1 = 1273 and 1993 Hz
nrv = 8, frv = 1633 8f1 = 1153 and 2113 Hz.
That is, a series of rotor slot passing frequency components equally spaced apart at
twice the supply frequency from each other.
Important points
The electromagnetic forces at these rotor slot passing frequencies are normal and
inherent in a SCIM and are not due to a fault; see references [10.3] to [10.5].
Their magnitudes in mm/s or m/s2 are a function of load current taken by the motor,
for example as the load current increases the current in the rotor bars also increases.
The leakage flux from each rotor bar therefore increases and likewise the magnitude of
the rotor slot passing flux components and hence the rotor slot vibration
components.
Their magnitudes in mm/s or m/s2 can increase with an increase in airgap eccentricity,
but they are not unique frequency characteristics which can be used to truly
diagnose an airgap eccentricity problem. The reason is that their magnitudes in
mm/s change as a function of the rotor current and load applied to the motor.
10.2 Industrial Case History – Magnetic Forces and Vibration on the Stator
Core and Outer Frame of a New 4000 kW/5362 H.P. SCIM
Abstract – This investigation had the following objectives, which were carried out and
achieved by the author in 1986:
(i) To measure and analyse the vibration on the stator core back and at strategic
positions on the outer box frame of a new 6.6 kV, 4000 kW/5362 H.P., 60 Hz,
2-pole, SCIM.
(ii) To compare the vibration measurements and analysis from item (i) with the
measurements and analysis of vibration on the housings of the journal bearings.
This was carried out during FATs of the motor, and accelerometers were mounted
directly on the stator core back.
The results of the investigation have not been previously published by the author of
this book, but he did carry out the vibration measurements and analysis as part of a
research and development project, which was sponsored by BP Exploration, Aber-
deen, Scotland. At that time he was a senior lecturer at Robert Gordon University,
Aberdeen, Scotland, and leader of the electrical machines monitoring research and
development team.

Type of motor 3-phase SCIM
Voltage 6.6 kV
Power 4000 kW/5362 H.P.
Current (full-load) 404 A
Frequency (nominal) 60 Hz
Full-load speed 3540 r/min (2-pole)
p.f. 0.89
Efficiency 95.4%
In 2014, the American Petroleum Institute’s standard API 541 [10.11] was
amended to include vibration limits on the frame of an electrical machine with
guidelines as to where the vibration measurements should be taken. This was 28 years
after the author carried out the tests presented in this case history.
10.2.1 Vibration Measurement and VSA during Factory Acceptance Tests

The motor’s nameplate data are presented in Table 10.1.
The motor was supplied at rated voltage and frequency. A schematic diagram of the
motor without its external box frame is shown in Figure 10.1.
Additional data
No-load current: 75 A (i.e. 18.6% of If.l.).

Number of stator and rotor slots: 60 and 46 respectively.
The overall r.m.s. velocities were measured on the bearing housings at the DE and NDE
in the vertical, horizontal and axial positions. Accelerometers were mounted directly on the
stator core building bars, one (SC1) at 36 clockwise and the other (SC2) at 36 anticlock-
wise with respect to the 12 o’clock position, looking from the NDE – see Figure 10.1.
Table 10.2 presents the overall r.m.s. velocities and accelerations measured on the
stator core back and on the bearing housings. Because the motor was Factory Accept-
ance Tested in the UK, the OEM proposed to the oil company that the vibration standard
to be used was BS 60034-14-2004 [10.12] and the client accepted this proposal.
The upper velocity limit for this motor is 2.3 mm/s r.m.s. (10%) on the bearing
housings. From Table 10.2 the r.m.s. velocities are perfectly acceptable, with the
highest level being 1.5 mm/s r.m.s.
With respect to the velocity and acceleration levels which were measured directly
on the stator core back there were no vibration standards in 1986 that covered limits
on the stator core vibration, and that is still the case at the time of writing this book
(from 2016 to 2019).
However, in 2014 the American Petroleum Institute (API) amended its API
541 standard to include vibration measurements on the outer frame of electrical
machines but that is not the same as measuring on the stator core back [10.14].

Table 10.2 Overall r.m.s. vibration levels 10%; span: 10–1000 Hz
BS 60034-14 2004 [6.12]

Limits on the bearing housings:
Velocity = 2.3 mm/s r.m.s., acceleration: 3.6 m/s2 r.m.s.
Motor DE bearing housing

Motor NDE bearing housing

Velocity: 1.2 mm/s Velocity: 1.0 mm/s Velocity: 1.2
Stator core back
Position SC1 Position SC2

Velocity: 5.2 mm/s Velocity: 5.2 mm/s
Acceleration: 5 m/s2 Acceleration: 5 m/s2
The key conclusions from the measured overall velocities and accelerations on the
bearing housings and stator core back are as follows:
(i) The overall velocities and acceleration levels on the bearing housings are all
perfectly acceptable and well within the upper limits in BS 60034-14-2004, as
shown in Table 10.2.
(ii) The overall velocity and acceleration levels on the stator core back are up to
3.5 times greater than in the radial directions on the bearing housings.
(iii) The bearing pedestals are separate from the end frames in this motor and the
vibration transmitted from the stator core to the bearing housings will be
attenuated. The attenuation would be less if the bearing housings were an integral
part of the end frames.
The reasons for the vibration being much higher (see item (ii) above) on the stator core
back of this 2-pole SCIM require an analysis of the time domain waveforms and
vibration spectra.
10.2.2 Time Domain and VSA of Vibration on the Stator Core Back
Figures 10.2 and 10.3 present the time domain velocity waveforms on the core back at
positions SC1 and SC2, and it is very clear that there is a dominant pattern with a
complete time cycle of period, T = 8.33 ms, which corresponds to 120 Hz.
The peak velocity was 8 mm/s at position SC1 on the core back, which is 0.3
inches/s peak. The NEMA MG1 standard [10.10] allows up to 0.15 inches/s peak on
the bearing housings when mounted on a rigid base, which was the case with this

Figure 10.2 Velocity time waveform at position SC1 on the stator core back.
Figure 10.3 Velocity time waveform at position SC2 on the stator core back.
motor, thus the core back vibration was twice the NEMA limit for the bearing housing
vibration.
The API 541 [10.11] standard only allows a maximum of 0.1 inches/s peak on the
bearing housing, therefore the core back vibration at 0.3 inches/s was three times
larger in this motor: an interesting result.
There are also numerous higher frequencies superimposed on the 120 Hz time
domain waveform. The velocity spectrum on the stator core back at SC1, as shown in
Figure 10.4, is given as a sample using a dB versus frequency display so that all the
components can be simultaneously displayed on the same spectrum.
With respect to Figure 10.4 the following nomenclature applies:
A = 1X rotational speed frequency = 60 Hz at 92 dB (i.e. 0.76 mm/s r.m.s.)
B = 2f1 = 120 Hz at 108 dB (i.e. 4.8 mm/s r.m.s.)
C = 4f1 = 240 Hz at 88 dB (i.e. 0.48 mm/s r.m.s.)
D = 6f1 Hz
E = 8f1 Hz
F = frv(nrv = 0)= 2760 Hz at 78 dB (i.e. 0.15 mm/s r.m.s.).

Figure 10.4 Velocity spectrum, position SC1 on the stator core back.
The key observations from the velocity spectrum on the stator core back are as follows:
(i) The spectrum is dominated by the 2f1 component at 120 Hz at a velocity of
4.8 mm/s r.m.s. (overall 5.2 mm/s r.m.s.).
(ii) As predicted, there are harmonics of 2f1 at 240 Hz, 360 Hz and 480 Hz of
magnitudes at 0.24 mm/s, 0.48 mm/s and 0.5 mm/s r.m.s. respectively.
(iii) As predicted, there is a series of rotor slot vibration components spaced at 2f1
apart, and from Equation 10.2, and with nrv = 0, we have:

RN r 46 3600
f rv ¼ f 1 nrv ¼ 60 0 ¼ 2760 Hz:
60 60
The motor was running uncoupled; therefore the rotor speed was very close to the
synchronous speed of 3600 r/min, and for the calculation Nr is taken to be 3600 r/min.
This is often termed the principal rotor slot passing vibration component. There are
also additional and inherent rotor slot passing frequencies, which are spaced 2f1 apart,
as shown in Figure 10.4:
With nrv = 2, 4, 6, 8 the rotor slot passing vibration components occur for this motor as
nrv = 2, frv = 2760 2f1 = 2880 and 2640 Hz
nrv = 4, frv = 2760 4f1 = 3000 and 2520 Hz
nrv = 6, frv = 3120 6f1 = 3120 and 2400 Hz
nrv = 8, frv = 2760 8f1 = 3240 and 2280 Hz.
This proved the previous predictions and was in line with numerous publications by
eminent electrical machine designers and academics; see references [10.1] to [10.5].

Figure 10.5 Velocity time waveform on stator core back at position SC1.
Figure 10.6 Velocity time waveform in the horizontal direction on the NDE bearing housing.
These results were from a brand new 2-pole SCIM that had an airgap eccentricity
(static plus dynamic) of 8% of the radial airgap, which is normal and was confirmed
by the OEM.
The electromagnetic forces and consequential vibration on the stator core back at
these frequencies were inherent in this brand new SCIM and were not the result of
a fault.
10.2.3 Bearing Housing Vibration – Comparison with Stator Core Vibration

Figures 10.5 and 10.6 show the time domain velocity waveforms from the NDE
bearing housing and the stator core back at SC1 respectively. The bearing housing
velocity is only 10% of the stator core back velocity; this is evident by comparing

Figure 10.7 Vibration spectrum, NDE horizontal on the bearing housing.
Figure 10.7a Velocity spectrum, position SC1 on the stator core back.
D = 6f1 Hz
The velocity spectrum at the NDE horizontal position on the bearing housing is shown
in Figure 10.7, and Figure 10.7a is a repeat (for a direct comparison between the two
spectra) of the spectrum shown in Figure 10.4, which was from the stator core back at
position SC1; the key observation is as follows:

Figure 10.8 Overall r.m.s. velocities and accelerations on the outer frame at the side without the
terminal box.
(i) The twice supply frequency vibration component at 120 Hz was only 0.48 mm/s
r.m.s. on the bearing housing; this was one tenth that at the SC1 and SC2 positions
(see Figures 10.1 and 10.7a) on the stator core back.
With respect to Figure 10.7a the following nomenclature applies:
A = 1X rotational speed frequency = 60 Hz at 92 dB (i.e. 0.76 mm/s r.m.s.)
D = 6f1 Hz
E = 8f1 Hz
10.2.4 Outer Frame Vibration and Analysis at Full Load

In 1986, the author measured and analysed the vibration on the outer frame of this new
motor during a full-load heat run test. The motor was supplied at rated voltage and
frequency, and at the full-load current of 404 amperes.
Figures 10.8 and 10.9 show the positions where the vibration was measured and the
corresponding overall r.m.s. velocities and acceleration levels.
The velocities and acceleration overall r.m.s. levels at positions ‘1’ to ‘6’ in
Figure10.8 were as follows:
1: 5.5 mm/s and 6 mm/s2 (0.61 g)
2: 5 mm/s and 6 mm/s (0.61 g)
3: 9 mm/s and 8 mm/s2 (0.82 g)

Figure 10.9 Overall r.m.s. velocities and accelerations on the outer frame at the side with the
terminal box.
4: 5 mm/s and 6.5 mm/s2 (0.66 g)

5: 5 mm/s and 3.6 mm/s2 (0.37 g)
6: 2 mm/s and 4 mm/s2 (0.41 g).
The velocity and acceleration overall r.m.s. levels at positions ‘7’ to ‘9’ in Figure 10.9
were as follows:
7: 2 mm/s and 4 mm/s2 (0.41 g)
8: 5 mm/s and 6 mm/s2 (0.61 g)
9: 4 mm/s and 5.5 mm/s2 (0.56 g).
Before concluding on the measurements, recall that these measurements were taken in
1986, which was 28 years before API 541, in 2014, recommended the following limits
of vibration on the outer frame of an electrical machine:
The limit of frame vibration at the shaft centre-line level, on a loaded structure, is twice the
velocity allowed for the bearing housings.
Figure 10.10, as reported in reference [10.14], illustrates one mode of excitation along with
an example of why it is important to measure the vibration on a loaded structural member.
10.2.4.1 Conclusions
The key observations from the velocities and accelerations are presented in Fig-
ures 10.8 and 10.9 in comparison to the velocities measured on the stator core back
at positions SC1 and SC2 (see Table 10.1).
(1) From Figure 10.8, which is on the side without the terminal box, the overall r.m.s.
velocities and accelerations at positions ‘1’ and ‘2’ were 6 mm/s at each position
and 5.5 m/s2 and 5 m/s2 respectively.

Figure 10.10 Stator frame vibration should be measured on a loaded structure as shown in the
illustration [10.14].
Note the following:

(a) At positions ‘1’ and ‘2’ there is a direct transmission path to the stator core
via the stator core support brackets, which are structurally loaded members.
(2) The overall r.m.s. velocities at both positions (SC1 and SC2 – see Section 10.2 and
Figure 10.1) on the stator core back were 5.2 mm/s, and at positions ‘1’ and ‘2’ on
the outer frame the velocities were 6 mm/s, which is 15% higher (see Figure 10.8).
(3) The measurements at positions ‘1’ and ‘2’ on the stator frame give a reasonably
good correlation with the actual vibration measured on the stator core back at
positions SC1 and SC2 for this motor.
(4) From Figure 10.9, on the side with the terminal box, the overall r.m.s. velocities at
positions ‘8’ and ‘9’ were 5 mm/s and 4 mm/s, which are lower than at positions
‘1’ and ‘2’ on the opposite side.
Note the following:
(a) Positions ‘8’ and ‘9’ are on the side that is mechanically stiffer and has a
greater mass due to the terminal box being bolted to the panel. This is in
comparison to the side panel without the terminal box.
(5) From Figure 10.8, the overall r.m.s. velocity at position ‘3’ was 9 mm/s on the
side without the terminal box, which was on the panel mid-way between the stator
support brackets. This is 73% higher than the stator core back velocity of 5.2 mm/s
at the SC1 and SC2 positions on the core back, which is in fact in-line with position
‘3’ on the outer frame at that side.
(6) This verified that vibration measurements on a panel that does not have a direct
structural and stiff transmission path to the stator core do not reflect the actual
stator core vibration and normally amplify it.
(7) The vibration measurements verified that vibration measurements should not be
taken on unsupported panels of an outer frame of a SCIM.

10.3 Industrial Case History – False Positive of Cage Winding Breaks 221
10.3 Industrial Case History – False Positive of Cage Winding Breaks by a

Vibration Condition Monitoring (CM) Sub-Contractor – Identified the
True Cause as Normal and Inherent Stator Core Vibration at a Rotor Slot
Passing Frequency
10.3.1 History and Summary

Abstract – In 2009, an end user employed a vibration condition monitoring sub-
contractor to assess the mechanical condition of a SCIM driving a reciprocating
compressor operating in an LNG processing plant. However, the sub-contractor did
not have the required theoretical knowledge of the design, construction and operation
of cage induction motors to reliably identify the cause of the vibration characteristic,
which they measured on the motor’s frame.
The vibration that they measured was due to electromagnetic forces that were
inherent to its design. The sub-contractor reported that this motor had broken rotor
bars. The end user removed the motor from service and sent it to a repair workshop,
who reported that the aluminium, die cast rotor cage winding seemed to be normal
based on a thorough visual inspection.
The motor was returned to site and 12 months later a different technician from the same sub-
contractor reported that the motor had broken rotor bars.
In 2010, the end user called in the author to carry out vibration measurements and
analysis and Motor Current Signature Analysis (MCSA) – see references [10.21] to
[10.30] – to check the operational integrity of the cage winding.
This case history shows that the sub-contractor, on two instances, erroneously
deduced that the vibration component at the principal rotor slot passing frequency
(see Section 10.1.2) measured on the motor’s frame at the NDE was caused by broken
rotor bars. This prediction resulted in unnecessary costs for the end user, because the
motor was removed from the LNG plant for strip-down and an independent inspection
at a motor repair workshop.
To quote the electrical team leader at the LNG site, the total cost was of the order of
£10,000.00 because removal and inspection involved the following:
(i) Lifting equipment to remove the motor shown in Figure 10.11a.
(ii) Time for personnel to remove the motor.
(iii) Transportation to repair shop.
(iv) Strip-down cost.
(v) Inspection of rotor.
(vi) Fitting of new bearings which is normal practice and a requirement by the end
user when a motor is stripped down.
(vii) Transport back to site.
(viii) Re-installation.
The vendor’s diagnosis was false because, as explained in Section 10.1.2, electromag-
netic forces caused by rotor slotting produce consequential vibration at the rotor slot

vibration frequencies on the motor’s stator core and frame. The consequential vibra-
tion caused by rotor slotting is not due to broken rotor bars; see [10.15] and [10.17].
The first and crucial oversight by the sub-contractor was to not obtain information
on the type of cage rotor in this induction motor, because it was an aluminium die cast
rotor that had been in operation for 17 years.
It is well known [10.21] that broken rotor bars in aluminium cage rotors are rare events.
They either exist due to flaws in manufacture, such as porosity in the die casting process or
when the rotor has been subjected to excessive overheating from, for example, a stall.
There were no reported incidents of severe overloading or a stall.
The relatively high overall vibration of 6.3 mm/s r.m.s. on the outer frame compared
to the highest velocity on the DE bearing housing at 1.8 mm/s r.m.s. was due to an
electromagnetic force at the principal rotor slot passing frequency (defined in Section
10.1.2).
This caused vibration at that frequency on the outer frame, which has an interfer-
ence and keyed fit to the stator core back. It will be shown that MCSA verified that
there were no 2sf sidebands (or pole-pass frequencies) around the supply component
of current [10.21], and the aluminium die cast cage winding was perfectly healthy. As
of 2020 this motor was still running normally without any incidents of cage winding
defects.
The motor’s nameplate data are as follows:
3-phase SCIM, 415 V, 132 kW/177 H.P.

237 A, 50 Hz, 592 r/min, p.f. = 0.85, eff = 91%
DE bearing: N324 C3 and NDE bearing: 6316-C3.
The author obtained the number of rotor bars (84) from the OEM, who also confirmed
that it was an aluminium die cast cage winding.
The motor was driving a reciprocating cold gas compressor.

This is a 10-pole SCIM supplied at 50 Hz, and the nominal full-load speed (Nr) and
slip (sf.l.) are 592 r/min and 1.33% respectively at a full-load current of 237 amperes.
The operational current was 220 amperes during the vibration and MCSA measure-
ments, therefore the motor was running close to full load. Figures 10.11 and 10.11a
show the positions of the accelerometers. As is very often the case, there is an external
fan in this design of LV SCIM, which means that neither the NDE bearing housing nor
the NDE end frame was accessible.
Placing an accelerometer on a thin fan cowl can be futile because the vibration from
the bearing defect frequencies may well not be detectable and, in addition, the fan
cowl often acts as a resonating source of vibration and swamps other vibration from
within the motor. The closest position to the NDE end frame and bearing housing is on
the stator outer frame at the NDE as shown in Figure 10.11a.

Figure 10.11 Positions of accelerometers on DE bearing housing.
Figure 10.11a Position of accelerometer on the frame at the NDE.
Table 10.3 Overall r.m.s. velocity mm/s 10%, span 10–1000 Hz
Motor full-load current = 237 A; operating current = 220 A
Position: bearing housing Vertical Horizontal Axial
DE 1.4 mm/s 1.8 mm/s 1.0 mm/s
NDE F motor outer frame 6.3 mm/s or 0.25 inches/s
The overall r.m.s. velocities at the DE were normal, but the overall velocity at the
NDE F position on the outer frame of the motor was up to 3.5 times higher than from
any of the positions on the DE bearing housing; see Table 10.3. Spectrum analysis
was required to explain the reason for this result.

From Figure 10.12 the 2X component at 19.76 Hz is evident, which means that the 1X
component is 9.88 Hz and hence the rotor speed is 593 r/min, which gives a

Figure 10.12 Vibration spectrum, bearing housing on DEV, coupled to the compressor, base-
band frequency span was 10–1000 Hz, 7.9 mHz/line.
Figure 10.13 Vibration spectrum, NDE F stator frame position, coupled to the compressor, base-
band frequency span was 10–1000 Hz, 7.9 mHz/line.
corresponding slip of 0.0117 (1.17%). This is in line with the expected operational slip
at a current of 96%If.l. Particular features of the spectrum are two velocity components
at 830 Hz and 930 Hz on the DE bearing housing. They are at a very low velocity
level; for example, the 830 Hz component is only 0.15 mm/s.
In comparison, Figure 10.13 shows the velocity of the 830 Hz and 930 Hz
components on the frame at the NDE F position on the motor’s outer frame are
5.7 mm/s and 1.4 mm/s respectively, compared to 0.15 mm/s and 0.17 mm/s on the
DE bearing housing.
The components at 830 Hz and 930 Hz are not harmonic integer multiples of the 1X
component, nor are they at any of the predicted bearing defect frequencies and integer
multiples from the DE or NDE bearings as predicted in Table 10.4.

Table 10.4 Predicted defect frequencies for bearings
N324 C3
Contact angle: 0 No. of balls: 12 Full-load speed: 592 r/min
BPFO: 48 Hz BPFI: 70.5 Hz FTF: 4 Hz 2 BSF: 50.3 Hz
6316 C3
Contact angle: 0 No. of balls: 12 Full-load speed: 592 r/min
BPFO: 48.6 Hz BPFI: 30.5 Hz FTF: 4.64 Hz 2 BSF: 41 Hz
The fundamental source of the components at 830 Hz and 930 Hz on the frame of
the motor is caused by inherent and normal components due to vibration rotor slot
slotting from electromagnetic forces, as explained in Section 10.1.2. Using Equation
10.2 to predict the rotor slot vibration components gives:

RN r
f rv ¼ f 1 nrv ,
60
where:
R = number of rotor slots = 84
nrv = integers 0, 2, 4, 6
Nr = rotor speed in r/min.
Using these values in Equation 10.2, and with nrv = 0, frv can be calculated as

RN r 84 593
f rv ¼ f 1 nrv ¼ 60 0 ¼ 830 Hz,
60 60

nrv = 2, frv = 830 2f1 = 730 and 930 Hz
nrv = 4, frv = 830 4f1 = 630 and 1030 Hz
nrv = 6, frv = 830 6f1 = 530 and 1130 Hz
nrv = 8, frv = 830 8f1 = 430 and 1230 Hz.
The stator frame and core of this particular motor were dynamically responsive to
vibration caused by the electromagnetic force at the principal rotor slot passing
frequency of 830 Hz in comparison to the relatively low dynamic response to that
frequency on the DE bearing housing. In other words, the mechanical impedance at
the position on the outer frame of the motor will be less at that high frequency,
compared to the mechanical impedance between the DE bearing housing position and

Figure 10.14 Current zoom spectrum base-band span 0-–120 Hz, 12,800 spectral lines.
the origin of the rotating electromagnetic force wave that produced the principal rotor
slot passing vibration at 830 Hz.
10.3.4 Conclusions
(i) The vibration condition monitoring sub-contractor misunderstood the source of
the frame vibration and assumed that because it was a function of the number of
rotor bars and was at a relatively high magnitude it must be due to broken rotor
bars.
(ii) Figure 10.14 shows the current spectrum produced by the author via MCSA and
there are no 2sf1 sidebands (or pole-pass) frequencies around the supply
component f1 and this categorically proves that the aluminium die cast cage
winding was perfectly healthy.
(iii) The vibration condition monitoring sub-contractor did not offer MCSA services
to check for broken rotor bars.
(iv) For full details on the industrial application of MCSA to diagnose broken rotor
bars, the reader is referred to reference [10.21], which contains 50 industrial case
histories on MCSA.
10.4 Case Study – Measurement of the Stator Core Vibration Proved that
Broken Rotor Bars in a SCIM Modulate the Vibration Rotor Slot Passing
Frequencies at Twice the Slip Frequency
10.4.1 Background
Abstract – The author of this book, when he was leader of the electrical machine
monitoring research group at Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, Scotland, initiated
a research and development (R&D) project in 1980 on condition monitoring to
diagnose faults in 3-phase induction motors. The author’s approach to research and

10.4 Case Study – Measurement of the Stator Core Vibration 227
Figure 10.15 Special SCIM test rig for monitoring and analysing vibration and current during
normal and fault conditions.
development was to design and build special test rigs [10.21], to introduce different
faults in them and to analyse signals such as vibration and current. The latter, known as
MCSA – see references [10.21] to [10.30] – is now extensively used by industry, and
the author published reference [10.21], which contains 50 industrial case histories on the
application of MCSA.
The objective of this study is as follows:
(i) To verify via controlled experiments that broken rotor bars modulate the vibration
rotor slot passing frequency components at twice the slip frequency (2sf1).
10.4.2 Measurement of Vibration Rotor Slot Passing Frequencies on the Stator Frame
A special SCIM test rig, shown in Figure 10.15, was designed and constructed in
1981. The outer frame of the motor had mounting studs installed to secure accelerom-
eters on the frame’s outer periphery.
The first objective, during normal operation and with no faults introduced into the
motor, was to measure the vibration rotor slot passing frequency components on the
stator frame, which is in direct contact with the stator core back.
Motor details
3-phase, SCIM, 415 V, 11 kW/14.75 H.P., 21 A, 50 Hz, 1430 r/min

Aluminium die cast rotor with 51 slots.
The motor was operated at full-load current (21 amperes) and speed (1430 r/min) and
the predicted rotor slot vibration components from Equation 10.2 are as follows:


RN r
f rv ¼ f 1 nrv ,
60
where:
R = number of rotor slots = 51
nrv = integers, 0, 2, 4, 6. . .
Nr = rotor speed in r/min;

RN r 51 1430
f rv ¼ f 1 nrv ¼ 60 0 ¼ 1215 Hz,
60 60

nrv = 2, frv = 1215 2f1 = 1115 and 1315 Hz
nrv = 4, frv = 1215 4f1 = 1015 and 1415 Hz
nrv = 6, frv = 1215 6f1 = 915 and 1515 Hz
nrv = 8, frv = 1215 8f1 = 815 and 1615 Hz.
A brand new 51 slot skewed cage rotor was used for the tests, and the airgap
eccentricity (combination of static and dynamic) was only 5% of the design value for
the radial airgap length of 0.6 mm (0.024 inches).
Figures 10.16 and 10.17 show the dB versus frequency acceleration spectra at
positions 12 o’clock and 3 o’clock on the outer frame (see Figure 10.15). The stator
core is in direct contact with the outer frame and there were no faults in the motor. The
key observation from Figures 10.16 and 10.17 is as follows:
The vibration rotor slot passing frequency components, as predicted from Equation
10.2, are present in both spectra at 100 Hz apart.
There were differences between the acceleration magnitudes at different positions on
the stator frame. For example, the magnitudes of the principal rotor slot passing
frequency (1215 Hz) at full load, were 76 dB and 70 dB at positions 12 o’clock and
3 o’clock respectively (i.e. a difference factor of 2).
This is because of the complex vibratory response of a stator core assembly and the
magnitudes of vibration components are a function of position around the frame.
A = 2f1 = 100 Hz at 80 dB
B = 1015 Hz at 69 dB
C = 1115 Hz at 76 dB
D = 1215 Hz at 76 dB
E = 1315 Hz at 72 dB
F = 1415 Hz at 86 dB
G = 1515 Hz at 72 dB.

Figure 10.16 Acceleration spectrum, dB versus frequency, at 12 o’clock on the stator frame as
Figure 10.17 Acceleration spectrum, dB versus frequency, at 3 o’clock on the stator frame as

A = 2f1 = 100 Hz at 86 dB
B = 1015 Hz at 72 dB
C = 1115 Hz at 76 dB
D = 1215 Hz at 70 dB

Figure 10.18 No broken rotor bars, acceleration zoom spectrum, dB versus frequency at
12 o’clock on the outer frame – see Figure 10.15.
Figure 10.19 One broken rotor bar, acceleration zoom spectrum, dB versus frequency at
E = 1315 Hz at 68 dB
F = 1415 Hz at 78 dB
G = 1515 Hz at 70 dB.
10.4.3 VSA of the Stator Frame Vibration with Broken Rotor Bars
A zoom acceleration spectrum of the frame vibration at 12 o’clock from a perfectly
healthy 51 slot aluminium cage rotor is shown in Figure 10.18, and Figure 10.19
shows the zoom acceleration spectrum at the same position with one broken rotor bar
introduced into the same cage rotor.
At the full-load speed of 1430 r/min, the operational slip is given by:
N s N r 1500 1430
s¼ ¼ ¼ 0:0467 pu
Ns 1500
and 2sf1 = 4.67 Hz.

Figure 10.20 Two broken rotor bars, acceleration zoom spectrum, dB versus frequency at
It is very well known that broken rotor bars in a squirrel-cage rotor cause the
following – see references [10.21] to [10.30]:
(i) Modulation of the rotor’s speed and torque at twice the slip frequency (2sf1).
(ii) Amplitude modulation of the airgap flux and supply frequency current at twice
the slip frequency (2sf1), which is the correct terminology. These sidebands are
sometimes referred to as pole-pass frequencies (but only in the USA) by vibration
condition monitoring companies but induction motor experts do not use that term
[10.21] and use the correct terminology.
(iii) Equation 10.3, which gives the vibration rotor slot passing frequencies, is a
function of the rotor speed, Nr; therefore the rotor slotting vibration components
are also modulated at twice the slip frequency (2sf1).
Figure 10.20 shows the acceleration spectrum with two broken rotor bars. The
principle rotor slot vibration component is still at 74 dB but the lower (–2sf1) and
upper (+2sf1) sidebands aroundfrv(nrv = 0)= 1215 Hz are 16 dB and 18 dB down on frv
(nrv = 0). The lower sideband relative to frv(nrv = 0) has increased by 6 dB, which equates
to a factor increase of 2.
10.4.4 Conclusions on Motor Current Signature Analysis (MCSA) versus Vibration

Analysis to Diagnose Broken Rotor Bars in SCIMs
The previous sections in this case study were a very small part of a major R&D project
which commenced in 1982 on condition monitoring for SCIMs. For the avoidance of
doubt, due cognizance of the following must be borne in mind:
(i) Since 1982, MCSA has become the established diagnostic technique to diagnose
broken rotor bars in SCIMs; see references [10.21] to [10.30].
(ii) Dedicated MCSA instruments have been in the market place for 30 years, but that
is not the case with the application of VSA to detect broken bars.

(iii) Vibration from a SCIM is a second-order effect compared to MCSA (a first-order

effect) that detects the 2sf1 sidebands around the supply current component.
The condition of the cage winding can now be estimated via MCSA; this is not
the case via VSA.
(iv) To diagnose broken rotor bars requires VSA of the frame vibration to identify the
2sf1 sidebands around the vibration rotor slot passing frequencies. However,
there is a disadvantage with this analysis because the number of rotor slots is
required, but that information is not on the nameplate and must be obtained from
the OEM.
(v) There are now many industrial case histories on the diagnosis of broken rotor
bars in SCIMs [10.21] using MCSA, but that is certainly not the case with
vibration monitoring to detect broken rotor bars.
(vi) However, with, for example, 440 V and 660 V SCIMs that have starters, it is
normally impossible, due to safe operation interlocks, to open the starter and clip a
current transformer (CT) around the secondary side of an existing CT while the
motor is running. The starter door cannot be left open for an MCSA cable to exit for
the MCSA measurement. Also, the supply cable to the motor is normally always a 3-
core cable and an external clip-on ammeter around one phase cable is not an option
[10.21]. Therefore, in this situation permanent MCSA CTs would need to be
installed at a PM outage or, alternatively, vibration analysis could be applied.
10.5 Case Study – Vibration Monitoring to Identify Changes in the Stator

Frame Vibration of a SCIM due to Supply Voltage Unbalance
10.5.1 Introduction
Abstract – This study reports on research work carried out in 1983 as part of the R&D
project that was described in Section 10.3.1. A special SCIM test rig designed and
constructed in 1981 is shown in Figure 10.21. The outer frame of the motor had
mounting studs installed to secure accelerometers on the frame’s outer periphery. The
nameplate data of the test motor shown in Figure 10.21 are as follows:
3-phase, SCIM, 415 V, 11 kW/14.75 H.P., 21 A, 50 Hz, 1430 r/min.
The objectives of this experimental study were as follows:
(i) To verify that the magnitude of the acceleration and velocity of the twice supply
frequency vibration component (2f1) is a function of position on the outer
circumference of the stator frame.
(ii) To measure the magnitude of the acceleration and velocity of the twice supply
frequency vibration component (2f1) at no load and full-load.
(iii) To verify that the magnitude of the velocity and acceleration of the twice supply
frequency component around the stator frame is highly sensitive to an increase in
voltage unbalance and that there are optimum positions on the frame that must be
selected for measuring the velocity to identify that change.

10.5 Vibration Monitoring to Identify Changes in the Stator Frame Vibration 233
Figure 10.21 Special SCIM test rig for monitoring and analysing vibration and current during
normal and fault conditions.
10.5.2 Measurement of the Velocity and Acceleration of the Twice Supply Frequency
Component on the Stator Frame as a Function of Position during No-Load and
Full-Load Operation
It has already been shown in Section 10.1.1 that the fundamental vibration due to
electromagnetic forces in a SCIM is at:
twice the supply frequency = 2f1.
Note that the stator core and outer aluminium frame are in direct contact in this
11 kW/14.75 H.P. SCIM because the core is pressed into the frame under a very high
pressure. The outer frame and the stator core act as a solid body to the magnetic force
and consequential vibration at 100 Hz (2f1). Owing to the foot mounting it was
impossible to measure the vibration around the complete circumference of the outer
frame as is clear in Figure 10.21, and as also illustrated in the schematic diagram of the
stator core and frame, which is shown in Figure 10.22.
The r.m.s. velocity and acceleration levels around the stator frame at no load and
full load are presented in Figure 10.23 and the key observations are as follows:
(i) The r.m.s. velocity of the 100 Hz component is low at no load and full load, with
the maximum being only 0.4 mm/s (0.57 mm/s peak) or 0.022 inch/s peak at the
–125 position; this is anticlockwise from the zero reference position, which is
taken as 12 o’clock (i.e. the 0 position on Figure 10.23) looking from the NDE of
the SCIM shown in Figure 10.21.
(ii) The maximum difference between the magnitudes of the velocities at no load and
full load is only 13% at the –100 position. This is expected since the flux density

Figure 10.22 Schematic diagram of the construction of the stator core and outer frame.
Figure 10.23 Vibration (r.m.s.) levels of the 100 Hz component at no load and full load versus
position around the frame of the 4-pole SCIM shown in Figures 10.21 and 10.22.

and flux per pole are virtually constant between no load and full load and are also
a function of the applied voltage and frequency.
(iii) The electromagnetic force equation for an induction motor (see references [10.1]
to [10.5]) is given by Equation 10.3:
E = 4.44f1ΦNphkskd, (10.3)
where:
E = volts/phase, V
f1 = supply frequency, Hz
Φ = flux/pole, Webers
Nph = number of turns/phase
ks = coil span factor of the 3-phase winding
kd = distribution factor of a group of series connected coils.
At constant voltage and frequency, the flux/pole and therefore the motor’s flux density
is constant because the number of turns/phase and the coil span and distribution
factors are constant.
(iv) It is well known – see references [10.4] and [10.5] – that the electromagnetic
force wave at 2f1 has a mode wave number equal to twice the number of pole-
pairs. The vibration distribution of the 100 Hz (2f1) component around the frame
of the motor has nodes (minimum vibration) and anti-nodes (maximum vibration)
and this reflects the 4-pole electromagnetic force wave, at 100 Hz.
(v) The results from the tests provide the base-line vibration at 100 Hz around the
frame of this motor; this can be used as the reference for vibration measurements
on the core as a function of unbalanced voltage.
10.5.3 Measurement of the Velocity and Acceleration of the Twice Supply

Frequency Component on the Stator Frame at Full Load as a Function
of Unbalanced Voltage Supplies
The operation of induction motors fed from an unbalanced voltage supply was
reported in references [10.31] and [10.32], and it is unnecessary to repeat here basic
information that has already been published.
An informative paper on the application of monitoring and analysing the 2f1
component as a vibration diagnostic tool [10.33] is very worthwhile reading in
conjunction with this case history.
Of further interest is a relatively recent, and very informative paper, which was
published in 2018, presented results on the effect of motor voltage unbalance on motor
vibration via tests and evaluation [10.34].
The results that follow were taken by the author in 1983, and the objective at that
time was to demonstrate that the stator core vibration was highly sensitive to changes

Figure 10.24 Vibration (r.m.s.) levels of the 100 Hz component at full load as a function of
voltage unbalance and position around the frame of the 4-pole SCIM.
in voltage unbalance. The supply voltage unbalance as a percentage is normally

expressed as:

Maximum voltage deviation from the average voltage
%Unbalance ¼ 100 :
Average voltage
10.5.4 Conclusions
The key observations from the velocity plots shown in Figures 10.23 and 10.24 are as
follows:
(i) The nodes and anti-nodes are obvious and resemble the expected distribution from
the 4-pole electromagnetic force wave profile at 100 Hz, as shown in Figure 10.1a
and reference [10.5]. For this 4-pole motor the velocity of the 100 Hz component
at the node at 12 o’clock is as expected, a minimum, and there is a negligible
change in the velocity at that position as the voltage unbalance increased in
comparison to the increase in velocity of 100% at the –100 position with only
0.84% voltage unbalance.
(ii) With a voltage unbalance of 3.45% the velocity of the 100 Hz component
increased by a factor of three at the –100 position.
The main conclusion is that a small voltage unbalance (e.g. of 0.84%) at full load caused
a doubling in the velocity of the 100 Hz component on the stator core and frame, but the
optimum position for sensing that velocity increase must be correctly selected.

Appendix 10A Derivation of Twice Supply Frequency Vibration
It has been known for many years that the fundamental electromagnetic force is
proportional to the flux density squared, see references [10.1] to [10.5], i.e.:
Fem(θ, t) / B2 (10.4)
B / Φ,
Fem = electromagnetic force (N) – a function of time and space
B = flux density (Tesla) – a function of time and space
Φ = magnetic flux (Webers) – a function of time and space
B ¼ ΦA
A = cross-sectional area, m2.
Let the fundamental flux in the time domain =Φ = Φp1 sin ω1t.
The frequency of the fundamental electromagnetic force (Fem(θ, t) / B2 / Φ2), see
references [10.6] to [10.9], is therefore given by:
1
Φ2 ¼ Φ2p1 sin 2 ω1 t ¼ Φ2p1 ð1 cos 2ω1 t Þ,
2
where ω1 = 2πf1.
Therefore, the fundamental flux produces an electromagnetic force at:
10.A.1 Harmonics of Twice Supply Frequency Vibration

The airgap flux waveform will in fact contain odd harmonics (such as the third,
fifth, seventh. . .) of the fundamental flux at the supply frequency and will
therefore produce even harmonics of the fundamental twice supply frequency vibra-
tion (2f1). As an illustration, let the airgap flux waveform include a third time
harmonic:
Φ(1, 2)t = Φp1 sin ω1t = Φp3 sin ω3t.
Therefore, the electromagnetic force wave will now contain additional frequency
components. Let
2 2
F em / Φ2 / Φð1;3Þt ¼ Φp1 sin ω1 t þ Φp3 sin ω3 t
¼ Φp1 sin ω1 t þ Φp3 sin ω3 t Φp1 sin ω1 t þ Φp3 sin ω3 t (10.5)
¼ Φ2p1 sin 2 ω1 t þ 2Φp1 sin ω1 tΦp3 sin ω3 t þ Φ2p3 sin 2 ω3 t,
where: ω1 = 2πf1 and ω3 = 2πf3.

Expanding Equation 10.5 and using the trigonometric identities

1
sin 2 ω1 t ¼ ð1 cos 2ω1 t Þ
2
1
sin 2 ω3 t ¼ ð1 cos 2ω3 t Þ
2
2 sin ω1 t sin ω3 t ¼ cos ðω3 t ω1 t Þ cos ðω3 t þ ω1 t Þ
gives additional electromagnetic forces and consequential vibration at the following

frequencies:
4f1; 6f1; 8f1. . .
References
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and Application, London, UK, 1982, pp. 216–20.

10.30 F. Filippetti, G. Franceschini, M. Martelli and C. Tassoni, An Approach to a Knowledge

Representation about Induction Machine Diagnostics in Expert Systems, International
Conference on Electrical Machines ICEM’88, Pisa, Italy, Sept. 1988.
10.31 J. H. Dymond, Operation on Unbalanced Voltage: One Motor’s Experience and More,
IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, 43 (3) May/June 2007, pp. 829–37.
10.32 J. E. Williams, Operation of 3-Phase Induction Motors on Unbalanced Voltages, AIEE
Transactions, 73 pt III-A, April 1954, pp. 125–33.
10.33 M. Tsypeakin, Induction Motor Condition Monitoring: Vibration Analysis Technique – a
twice line frequency component as a Diagnostic Tool, IEEE International Conferences
on Electrical Machines and Drives, 2013, pp. 117–24.
10.34 M. Campbell and G. Arce, Effect of Motor Voltage Unbalance; Test and Evaluation,
IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, 54 (1), 2018, pp. 905–11.

11 Miscellaneous Industrial Case
Histories on Vibration Analysis
Applied to Induction Motor Drives
11.1 Industrial Case History – Structural Resonance in a Vertically

Mounted 265 kW/355 H.P. SCIM Driving a Fire-Water Pump
11.1.1 Background
Abstract – The fire pump motor is a strategic unit at an LNG plant, and it must
always be operationally available with minimum risk of failure. A vibration condition
monitoring (CM) sub-contractor had monitored the motor for 14 years from 1992 to
2006. A poorly presented trend plot of the velocity at the NDE of the motor was
produced by the sub-contractor; the plot indicates wide variations in the overall r.m.s.
velocities, as shown in Figure 11.1. The author was appointed by the owner of the
LNG plant to carry out an independent investigation into the results produced by the
sub-contractor.
Figure 11.1 shows a random variation of the velocity levels.
Between June and December of 1998 the velocity increased by a factor of seven,
from 2 mm/s to 14 mm/s. The end user disputed that result. By March 2006, the
velocity had decreased to 8 mm/s r.m.s. but no actions were taken by the end
user during that period. Five months later, in August 2006, it had increased to
16 mm/s r.m.s.
The sub-contractor did not attempt to explain to the end user the dramatic variations in velocity
levels, and this was a gross omission by the sub-contractor.
The author provided further critical comments on Figure 11.1, to the end user, which
were as follows:
The time spans between the dates when the velocities were actually measured are
unequal on the x-axis and correspond to the actual velocity points (in mm/s on the
y-axis!) on the graph. This is not the conventional method that should be used to
draw a graph, because the reader must work out the dates on which the
measurements were taken.
There were no annotations on the velocity trend plot by the sub-contractor, but the
author has added dates when the velocities were widely different.
It is a vertical motor, and the actual position of the accelerometer at the NDE on the
motor was not specified by the sub-contractor who simply stated NDE velocity.
241
242 Miscellaneous Industrial Case Histories on Vibration Analysis
Figure 11.1 Velocity at the NDEH position during a period of 14 years produced by the vibration
CM sub-contractor (not the author) for the oil and gas company.
A crucial factor is that the operating current and pump flow rate were not recorded
by the vibration CM sub-contractor for each velocity measurement. It is well known
that operating conditions can change the vibration levels, but this was ignored.
Figure 11.1 shows a random variation of the velocity levels; for example, in June
1998, the value was 2 mm/s r.m.s. but six months later, in December 1998, it was
14 mm/s r.m.s. but then decreased to 8 mm/s r.m.s. in March 2006. Five months
later, in August 2006, it had increased to 16 mm/s r.m.s.
The oil and gas company requested the author to establish the fundamental reasons for
the variations presented in Figure 11.1 because the vibration CM sub-contractor had
not done so but had simply advised the client to stop the motor on 14th August 2006.
The fire-water pump system (Figure 11.2) operates as follows:
(i) An induction motor (15 kW/20 H.P.) driven pump, which the client refers to as
the jockey pump, operates continuously to keep the water pressure at 10 bar in the
water distribution pipes and at the outlets, but it was not operational due to a
major malfunction.
(ii) In its normal mode of operation the main fire-water pump motor (415 V, 265 kW/
355 H.P.) automatically comes into operation if the pressure drops to 9 bar when
hose outlets are opened. However, because of the faulty jockey pump the main
motor was required to continuously drive the fire-water pump to maintain the
pressure in the pump system at 10 bar.
(iii) There is also a standby diesel engine fire-water pump which comes into operation
if the pressure drops to 8 bar when a high usage of water is required.
Because of the vital necessity for the fire-water pump to be operational at all times, the
end user was very concerned that the vibration CM sub-contractor had reported that

11.1 Industrial Case History – Structural Resonance 243
Figure 11.2 A 3-phase, SCIM, 415 V, 265 kW/355 H.P. 438 A, 50 Hz, 1480 r.p.m.,1990.
Aluminium die cast rotor cage winding.
Note the total vertical length of the drive train is 2.86 metres/9 feet 4.5 inches.
the vibration at the NDE of the main fire-water pump motor was 16 mm/s. This was
much too high and was deemed to be in the high-risk category for a potential motor
failure.
The author was commissioned to deliver the following objectives:
(1) To determine the root cause of the wide variation in magnitude of the r.m.s.
velocities (as reported by the vibration CM sub-contractor) in the horizontal
direction at the NDE of the motor.

Figure 11.3 Overall r.m.s. velocities during phase (1) – coupled to the pump, operating current
was 300 amperes.
(2) To ascertain the fundamental cause of the last velocity, recorded by the sub-
contractor in August 2006, being very high at 16 mm/s r.m.s., when five months
prior to that date it was 8 mm/s r.m.s. Both readings were taken in the horizontal
direction at the NDE of the motor.
11.1.2 Phase One – Vibration Measurements During On-Site Coupled Run

The operating current was 300 amperes compared to the full-load current of 435
amperes. The water flow rate was 150 m3/hour. The DE and NDE bearing housings
were not accessible.
The positions of the accelerometers, which were 180 apart on opposite sides of the
motor, are shown in Figures 11.3a and b with their overall r.m.s. velocities.
Note that the reference accelerometer position (R1) is at 12 o’clock when viewed
by an observer looking downwards from the top of the vertical SCIM at the NDE and
facing the opposite side of the outer frame from the side with the terminal box.
The key observations from the overall velocities as presented in Figure 11.3 are as
follows:
(i) The highest overall r.m.s. velocity on the motor at this operating current (300
amperes, If.l. = 438 amperes) and flow rate of 150 m3/hour on 24th August 2006

Figure 11.4 Velocity spectrum, position R1 at the NDE, 10–1000 Hz.
(measured by the author), was 16 mm/s r.m.s. at position R4 (Figure 11.3b) at the
NDE of the SCIM. This was the same magnitude as reported by the vibration
sub-contractor on 14th August 2006.
(ii) The overall velocity at position R1 in Figure 11.3a (180 from R4) was 14.5 mm/s
at the NDE.
(iii) The overall velocity at position R2 in Figure 11.3a was 4 mm/s r.m.s. at the DE
of the SCIM, which was at a position of 1000 mm/40 inches vertically
downwards from R1 (at 14.5 mm/s r.m.s.).
The velocity spectrum for position R1 at the NDE is presented in Figure 11.4, and
shows that the 1X rotational speed frequency component at 24.766 Hz (Nr = 1486 r/min)
was at a velocity of 14.2 mm/s (overall velocity – 14.5 mm/s r.m.s.).
This is the fundamental frequency of vibration due to the centrifugal force from the
rotor (i.e. C.F. / mw2r (N)) and its magnitude in mm/s is normally due to mechanical
imbalance in the rotor. All the vibration spectra from the other positions were also
dominated by the 1X rotational speed frequency component. There was no evidence of
any harmonics at 2X, 3X.
The predicted bearing defect frequencies for the NDE and NDE bearings are
presented in Table 11.1. The sample velocity spectrum shown in Figure 11.4 for
position R1 at the NDE confirms that there were no bearing defect frequencies.
A rolling element bearing at an advanced stage of degradation can exhibit multiple
harmonics of the 1X component.
11.1.3 Phase Two – Vibration Measurements – On-Site Uncoupled Run

The key observations from the overall r.m.s. velocities recorded during the on-site uncoupled
run (see Table 11.2), compared to the coupled run (see Figure 11.3) were as follows:
(a) The velocity at position R4 at the NDE of the motor was 15.6 mm/s compared to
16 mm/s during the coupled run. This is a negligible change in the velocity.

NDE bearing type: 6316 C3 deep groove ball bearing
Motor speed: 1486 r/min
Bearing frequencies
BPFO BPFI FTF 2 BSF
121.7 Hz 76 Hz 9.6 Hz 102.7 Hz
DE bearing type: 6324 C3 deep groove ball bearing
Motor speed: 1486 r/min
Bearing frequencies
BPFO BPFI FTF 2 BSF
120.6 Hz 77.6 Hz 9.7 Hz 108.6 Hz
Table 11.2 Phase Two – Overall r.m.s. velocities 10% – span 10–1000 Hz
Date of uncoupled run: 25th August 2006
Operational current on no load = 64 amperes
Reference accelerometer position: 12 o’clock as viewed from a top-down plan view at the NDE
of the vertical motor at the side of the motor’s frame without the terminal box
NDE DE DE
Radial position 12.00 Radial position 12.00 on motor frame R2 Radial position
on motor frame R1 12.00 on motor flange
R3
13.8 mm/s 4 mm/s 3.5 mm/s
Reference accelerometer position: 12 o’clock as viewed from a top-down plan view at the NDE
of the vertical motor at the side of the motor’s frame with the terminal box.
NDE On motor frame Terminal box

Radial position 12.00 Midway down the motor frame under and 12.00
on motor frame R4 in line with lifting hook 12.00 R5 R6
15.6 mm/s 10 mm/s 9 mm/s
(b) The velocity at position R1 at the NDE of the motor was 13.8 mm/s compared to
14.5 mm/s during the coupled run. This is a negligible change in the velocity.
(c) These results confirm that there was an insignificant amount of vibration being
transmitted from the pump to the motor during the coupled run.

11.1.3.1 Interim Conclusions and Way Forward

Based on the results and analysis so far, the author predicted that there was a structural
resonance of the motor on its mounting.
This is often referred to as a motor ‘reed’ mounting frequency, whereby the rotational
speed frequency of the rotor (1X in Hz) equals, or is close to, a structural natural frequency
of the motor on its mounting. The author recommended that the client should hire a
structural vibration expert to carry out vibration bump testing to determine if a natural
frequency existed on the motor that was close to/within its operating speed range.
This was carried out by an independent structural vibration specialist and it was estab-
lished that there was a natural frequency of the motor’s structure at 24.38 Hz with a first-order
mode shape, which would produce the maximum velocity at the NDE during resonance.
In summary:
(i) Natural frequency of the motor on its mounting = 24.38 Hz (1463/r/min).
(ii) The nominal operating speed range of the motor is between 1480 r/min (full load)
to its no-load speed of 1499 r/min (1X ffi25 Hz). Therefore, the frequency range
of the C.F. is between 24.66 Hz and 25 Hz. Note that the nominal full-load speed
can be up to 5 r/min less than the nameplate speed [10.21].
(iii) This is certainly within the frequency range that could excite a resonance of the
motor on its mounting.
To reduce the vibration at resonance there were two courses of action, namely:
(1) Change the structural natural frequency so that it was, for example, 10 Hz higher
than the operating rotational speed frequency range of the motor.
(2) Reduce the magnitude of the C.F. (forcing function) at the 1X rotational
speed frequency produced by the rotor to as low a magnitude as was practically
possible.
The first option was unacceptable to the client because major structural changes
to the motor mounting set-up were required.
The second option was selected because the motor, which was manufactured in
1990, had had its rotor balanced to the ISO G6.3 grade. Thus, there was plenty of
scope to reduce the mechanical imbalance in the rotor, with the goal being to achieve
an ISO balance grade of G0.4.
11.1.4 Phase Three – Motor FAT Vibration Measurements – Rotor Re-balanced to ISO
G0.4 Grade – New Bearings Fitted
The motor was sent to a repair shop and the rotor was balanced to G0.4; this was a
challenging and lengthy task with this size of rotor – the balance certificate is
presented in Appendix 11A. New bearings were fitted. The repair shop could not
run this vertical motor because they did not have a suitable vertical mounting set up.
The on-site motor mounting stool was delivered to the repair shop (at the author’s
insistence) and it was bolted to a solid steel base-plate of 200 mm/8 inches thickness
with a surface area of 7.5 m2/81 feet2.

Figure 11.5 Overall r.m.s. velocities from phase (1).

*Coupled to the pump before re-balancing the rotor.
**FAT vibration tests uncoupled at the repair shop after the rotor was re-balanced to ISO grade G0.4
with the motor mounted on its mounting stool, which was bolted to a large, solid steel base-plate.
The repair shop could only carry out a no-load uncoupled run of the motor because
they did not have a loading test facility for vertical motors.
The refurbished motor was supplied at rated voltage and frequency and the no-load
current was 64 amperes. The overall r.m.s. velocities are presented in Figure 11.5. The
key observations from the vibration Factory Acceptance Test (FAT) test are as follows:
(1) The velocities at the NDE at positions R1 and R4 were only 0.25 and 0.3 mm/s r.m.s.
respectively due to the very low balance grade of ISO G0.4.
(2) The velocity at position R5 was only 0.23 mm/s r.m.s.
(3) The overall r.m.s. velocities after the refurbishments were all very low with the
maximum being on the terminal box (R6) at 0.4 mm/s.
11.1.5 Phase Four – On-Site Vibration Measurements on the Refurbished Motor during
a Coupled Run – Operating Current of 300 Amperes
Figure 11.6 presents the accelerometer positions and overall velocity levels. The key
differences between the overall velocities during the coupled run before and after re-
balancing the rotor to ISO G0.4, and with the motor operating at the same current and
flow rate in both cases, were as follows:

Figure 11.6 Overall r.m.s. velocities.

*Coupled to the pump before the rotor was re-balanced.
**Coupled to the pump after the rotor was re-balanced and new bearings were fitted with the
motor operating at 300 amperes.
NDE R1: before 14.5 mm/s and after 6 mm/s – dropped by a factor of 2.4.
NDE R4: before 16 mm/s and after 6 mm/s – dropped by a factor of 2.7.
DE R2: before 4 mm/s and after 1.7 mm/s – dropped by a factor of 2.4.
These results verified that the motor can be operated at loads up to 300
amperes; this was achieved by re-balancing the rotor to ISO G0.4.
11.1.6 Phase Five – On-Site Vibration Measurements on the Refurbished Motor during
a Coupled Run – Operating Current of 400 Amperes
The load on the motor was increased to 400 amperes at the maximum flow rate of
175 m3/hour.
The key observations were as follows:
(i) The speed dropped from 1482 r/min at 300 amperes to 1476 r/min at 400
amperes, and therefore the 1X rotational speed frequency component was
24.6 Hz.
(ii) At a load current of 400 amperes the rotor speed frequency was 24.6 Hz, which is
1476 r/min, and was obtained from the spectrum analysis presented in

Table 11.3 Overall r.m.s. velocities 10%, span 10–1000 Hz
Refurbished motor that was fitted with new bearings and the rotor was balanced to the ISO
standard of G0.4
On-site date of coupled run: 4th October 2006

Operational current of 400 amperes; delivery of 175 m3 of water/hour
NDE DE DE
Radial position 12.00 Radial position 12.00 on motor frame R2 Radial position 12.00
on motor frame R1 on motor’s flange R3
10 mm/s 2.7 mm/s 1.0 mm/s
NDE On Motor Frame Terminal box

Radial position 12.00 Midway down the motor frame under and 12.00
on motor frame R4 in line with lifting hook 12.00 R5 R6
10 mm/s 6.6 mm/s 3.0 mm/s
Figure 11.8. This is the excitation forcing frequency due to the centrifugal force
(C.F.) produced by the rotor. Thus the frequency (24.6 Hz) of the C.F. is now
closer to the first natural frequency (24.38 Hz) of the motor on its mounting.
Consequently the velocity at the motor’s NDE at 400 amperes will be higher
compared to a load current of 300 amperes. This was indeed the case, and
Table 11.3 presents the overall r.m.s. velocities for the motor loaded to
400 amperes and the pump delivering a flow rate of 175 m3/hour.
(iii) The differences between the velocities with a load of 300 amperes and
400 amperes with flow rates of 150 m3/hour and 175 m3/hour respectively were
as follows:
NDE R1: velocity increased from 6 mm/s to 10 mm/s – a factor increase of
1.67.
NDE R4: velocity increased from 6 mm/s to 10 mm/s – a factor increase of
1.67.
The velocity spectra at position R1 and R4 with operating loads of 300 amperes and
400 amperes respectively are presented in Figures 11.7 and 11.8. The spectra are
dominated by the 1X rotational speed frequency component.
11.1.7 Conclusions
(i) The overall r.m.s. velocity measurements and VSA carried out by the author
confirmed that the high velocity of 16 mm/s r.m.s. at the NDE of the motor was
due to resonance of the motor on its mounting–pump stool (see Figure 11.2).
(ii) The magnitude of the vibration is a function of load and operating speed of
the motor.

Figure 11.7 Velocity spectrum, position R1, operating current of 300 amperes.
Figure 11.8 Velocity spectrum, position R4, operating current of 400 amperes.
(iii) Re-balancing the rotor to ISO G0.4 to reduce the high vibration (NDE: 16 mm/s),
which was caused by resonance, was successful because the vibration at the
NDE of the motor was reduced from 16 mm/s to 6 mm/s, when the motor was
operating at 300 amperes and a flow rate of 150 m3 of water/hour.
(iv) The motor can be operated from 300 amperes down to light load because the
vibration drops as the rotational speed frequency moves away from the resonant
or reed frequency.
(v) When the motor was operated at 400 amperes with a flow rate of 175 m3/hour,
the rotational speed frequency (24.6 Hz) was closer to the resonant or reed
frequency (24.38 Hz), and the velocity at the NDE increased from 6 mm/s (at
300 amperes) to 10 mm/s at 400 amperes. The client was advised not to operate
the motor above 300 amperes.
(vi) The vibration CM sub-contractor obtained widely different velocities (see
Figure 11.1) because vibration measurements were taken when the motor was
operating at different operating currents and pump flow rates.

(vii) This case history reinforces the need for vibration CM companies to record the
operational load current of an induction motor and the actual mechanical load
being delivered at the time when vibration measurements are being taken.
(viii) In many cases, the personnel employed by vibration CM sub-contractors do not
record the operational currents of motors or the mechanical load conditions
when measuring vibration on electric motors. This observation is based on the
author’s experience of reviewing hundreds of reports produced by vibration CM
companies on behalf of end users.
Appendix 11A Rotor Balance Certificate
11.2 Industrial Case History – Investigation into the Cause of Loud Acoustic
Noise from an Inverter-Fed 3.3 kV, 4500 kW/6032 H.P. Vertically
Mounted SCIM Driving a Multi-Phase Pump
11.2.1 Background
Abstract – A major oil company had received reports from personnel on one of its
offshore oil and gas production platforms that an unexplained and loud acoustic noise

11.2 Industrial Case History – Investigation into the Cause of Loud Acoustic Noise 253
Table 11.4 Nameplate data
Type of motor 3-phase SCIM
Voltage 3.3 kV
Power 4500 kW/6032 H.P.
Current (full-load) 2 457 amperes; this means two parallel paths in the stator winding,
each carrying 457 amperes with an input line current = 914 amperes
Frequency (nominal) 50.33 Hz
Speed (maximum) 1510 r/min (4-pole)
p.f. 0.89
Efficiency 96.8%
Motor full-load rated 28,650 Nm
torque
Inertia 265 kg m2
Method of cooling IC86W
Mounting IP55
arrangement
DE bearing 6316 M C3 – deep groove ball bearing
NDE bearing 7330 B MP – angular contact ball bearing
(as perceived by offshore personnel but not measured) was emanating from an
inverter-fed, vertically mounted 3.3 kV, 4500 kW/6032 H.P. SCIM when running at
approximately 950 r/min. The motor, which drives a multi-phase pump at different
speeds, had previously operated between 1110 r/min and 1510 r/min and the end
user confirmed that no acoustic noise problem was ever reported. The process now
required the motor to operate from 900 r/min up to 1500 r/min. At the lower speed of
950 r/min, the client was now concerned that the acoustic noise might be indicative of
a malfunction that only manifested itself at that speed.
The oil company commissioned the author to determine the root cause of the loud
acoustic noise, occurring in the region of an operational speed of 950 r/min.
A photograph of the motor is shown in Figure 11.9, and Table 11.4 gives its relevant
nameplate data.
It is well known – see references [11.1] to [11.3] – that inverter-fed SCIMs can be
the source of unwanted acoustic noise but such noise does not necessarily mean that
there is a fault in the motor – see references [11.4] and [11.5].
11.2.2 On-Site Vibration Measurements and Analysis

11.2.2.1 Introduction
The objective was to measure and analyse the vibration at the operational speed of 950
r/min, at which it was reported that an unexplained loud acoustic noise was being
produced by the motor. That noise did not exist when the motor was operating within
the previous speed range of 1110 r/min to 1500 r/min.
The vibration at 1110 r/min was measured and analysed to provide a comparison
with the vibration at 950 r/min. This should verify whether there are unique vibration
components that exist only in the vibration spectrum at 950 r/min. If that is the case,

Figure 11.9 Photograph of the 3.3 kV, 4500 kW/6032 H.P. variable-speed, vertically mounted
SCIM driving a multi-phase pump on the oil and gas production platform.
these vibration components could be the source that excites the outer frame of the
motor, which can then act as an acoustic radiator.
11.2.2.2 Overall Velocities on the Motor

Figure 11.10 shows a schematic layout of the main SCIM as installed on the
offshore oil and gas production platform. The cooling fan motors (415 V, 4-pole,
1485 r/min) are fed from a fixed-frequency supply that is independent of the
inverter, and they can therefore be discounted as the source of the high acoustic
noise at 950 r/min.
Table 11.5 presents the overall r.m.s. velocities on the motor’s DE flange and on
the NDE bearing assembly at the operational speeds of 950 r/min and 1110 r/min.
The key observations from the overall velocity measurements at 950 r/min and
1110 r/min are as follows:
(i) The overall r.m.s. velocities are all below 1.0 mm/s (0.04 inches/s) r.m.s. at both
speeds, and are perfectly acceptable.
(ii) The differences between the overall r.m.s. velocities at the two speeds are
insignificant.
However, it is the frequency content of the velocity spectra at the different speeds that
is the key factor with respect to specific vibration components exciting the stator core
and/or outer box frame to produce acoustic noise. A very brief explanation on the
response of the human ear is presented in Appendix 11B. This is necessary because it

Figure 11.10 Schematic layout of the main SCIM with supporting photographs.
will be shown that the two major factors that caused the offshore personnel to report a
high acoustic noise from the motor were as follows:
(i) The ear is highly responsive to sound pressure levels in the range of 800 Hz to
4 kHz.
(ii) The unique production of a vibration component on the motor at 827 Hz at
950 r/min – see Figure 11.15).

Table 11.5 Overall r.m.s. velocities (10%); frequency span of 5–1000 Hz
Motor speed: 950 r/min Motor speed: 1110 r/min

Accelerometer positions – on the NDE bearing Accelerometer positions – on the NDE
assembly – see Figure 11.11 bearing assembly – see Figure 11.11
(mm/s r.m.s.) (mm/s r.m.s.)
NDE 0 NDE 90 NDE A NDE 0 NDE 90 NDE A
Motor speed: 950 r/min Motor speed: 1110 r/min

Accelerometer positions – on the motor’s DE Accelerometer positions – on the motor’s DE
flange – see Figure 11.12 flange - see Figure 11.12
(mm/s r.m.s.) (mm/s r.m.s.)
DE 0 DE 90 DE A DE 0 DE 90 DE A
Figure 11.11 Presentation of the overall r.m.s. velocities on the NDE bearing housing at the
operational speeds of 950 r/min and 1110 r/min.
11.2.3 Current Spectrum – Magnetic Flux and Electromagnetic Forces

Before carrying out any vibration measurements it was essential to measure the
frequency content of the current supplied to the motor from the inverter when the
motor was producing the loud (as perceived by offshore engineers) acoustic noise at a
speed of 950 r/min.

Figure 11.12 Presentation of the overall r.m.s. velocities on the DE mounting flange at the
operational speeds of 950 r/min and 1110 r/min.
Figure 11.13 Current spectrum – fundamental frequency from the inverter.
Figure 11.13 shows that the fundamental frequency of the current waveform from
the inverter with the motor operating at 950 r/min and an input current of 400 amperes
(If.l. = 914 amperes), was f1 = 31.8 Hz. Recall that the synchronous speed of the
rotating magnetic field in this 4-pole (two pole-pairs) SCIM is given by:

Figure 11.14 Current spectrum to confirm multiple harmonics of the fundamental frequency from
the inverter.
Ns = (60 f1)/pole - pairs = (60 31.8)/2 = 954 r/ min .

Figure 11.14 shows the frequency content of the current spectrum up to 1000 Hz
and, as expected, the inverter supply current has multiple harmonics of the fundamen-
tal frequency, f1.
From Appendix 10A it was mathematically proven that the fundamental flux
produces an electromagnetic force at:

With the motor supplied at a frequency of f1 = 31.8 Hz, the fundamental electromag-
netic force will be at a frequency of:
2f1 = 63.6 Hz.
The corresponding vibration due to this force will be at a frequency = 63.6 Hz.
This is normally referred to as the vibration at twice the supply frequency and is the
fundamental vibration component due to electromagnetic forces. Figure 11.14 shows
the current spectrum produced by the inverter up to 1000 Hz and, as expected, there
are numerous odd harmonics.
Each of these current components produces a corresponding flux component and,
by applying the previous analysis, this means electromagnetic forces can be produced
at twice the frequency of each of these odd harmonic flux components.

Figures 11.15 and 11.16 show the velocity spectra at the DEO position at 950 r/min
and 1110 r/min respectively. The velocity component at 827 Hz is due to the
electromagnetic force (Fem) at 2(13f1). Its velocity is 0.3 mm/s r.m.s. and its acceler-
ation is 1.6 m/s2. It is accepted that high frequencies should be measured in
acceleration.

Figure 11.15 Vibration spectrum: DE0 overall Figure 11.16 Vibration spectrum: DE0 overall
velocity level 0.6 mm/s. velocity level 0.47 mm/s.
(i) The overall r.m.s. velocities measured at the DE and NDE are perfectly normal.
(ii) Electromagnetic rotating force waves act directly on the stator core and outer
frame structure, and are also transmitted to the bearings and flanges of
the motor.
(iii) When operated at 950 r/min the motor’s vibration spectrum contains a
unique component at 827 Hz that is due to an electromagnetic force at that
frequency and is a by-product of the complex supply current waveform from the
inverter.
(iv) When operated at 1110 r/min, no significant vibration components from
electromagnetic forces were evident in the velocity spectrum, and it can be
concluded that the stator core or frame were not responsive (negligible
vibration, no vibration at 2(13f1)) to the electromagnetic forces at that
higher speed of operation, hence no acoustic noise problem was previously
reported.
(v) It is concluded from the analysis of current and vibration spectra that the
acoustic noise from the motor at a speed of 950 r/min is due to an
electromagnetic force (proportional to flux2) at 2 (13f1), which causes vibration
of the stator core and outer frame of the motor at that frequency.
(a) This noise was of concern to the end user because the motor had only
recently been operated at this speed, and had not been heard at the higher
operating speeds, which were previously used.
(vi) The fundamental inverter supply frequency was f1 = 31.8 Hz, with a corresponding
rotor speed of 950 r/min, thus the thirteenth current harmonic and corresponding
flux component in the airgap flux waveform is 13f1 = 413.5 Hz. An
electromagnetic force, Fem (due to flux2), occurs at 2(13f1) = 827 Hz, and this is
clearly seen in the vibration spectrum from the DE.

(vii) Acoustic pressure waves at a frequency of 827 Hz are perceived to be much

louder than those in lower frequency ranges for the same acoustic sound
pressure level (SPL) in N/m2 or in dB – see Figure 11.A and associated
explanation.
(viii) The motor can be operated continuously in the range 900 r/min to 1100 r/min
and at higher speeds up to a maximum of 1510 r/min, as specified on the
motor’s nameplate, because the vibration and acoustic noise at 827 Hz were not
due to a fault but were induced due to the inverter supply.
Appendix 11B Human Perception of Acoustic Noise
(i) The physical and neural mechanisms of hearing are extremely complex. The
human ear has a logarithmic response and can detect sounds spanning six decades
of intensity and in fact is a very non-linear transducer.
(ii) In terms of frequency, the audible range extends over three decades, from 20 Hz
to 20 kHz for a teenager, but the upper limit of frequency declines as humans age
and, for example, by the age of 70 it has typically dropped to 12 kHz.
(iii) For a given constant sound pressure level (SPL), the perceived loudness of a
sound is not constant over the audible range because it is frequency dependent,
with sounds of equal SPL appearing to be much louder to the human ear in
the 800 Hz to 4 kHz range than the sound at lower frequencies, as shown in
Figure 11.A.
(iv) The variability of loudness perception with frequency is formalized in ‘equal
loudness contours’ as shown in Figure 11.A. These contours were developed
from original plots known as ‘Fletcher–Munson curves’, named after early
researchers in the field.
(v) As an example of loudness perception variability, the contours show that a sound
at a given sound pressure level is perceived as twenty-five times louder at 1 kHz
than at 100 Hz.
11.3 Industrial Case History – VSA of a Repaired 1000 kW/1340 H.P. SRIM
Diagnosed a High Twice Supply Frequency Vibration and Cracks in the
Concrete Mounting Plinth
11.3.1 Background and Objectives

Abstract – The author was contacted by a cement factory to carry out a vibration
investigation into a repaired 1000 kW/1340 H.P. SRIM during a FAT followed by
vibration measurements and VSA during on-site re-commissioning. The motor was
originally removed from service because of an unacceptably high velocity of the 2f1
vibration component (the magnitude was not provided to the author). A photograph of
the SRIM during re-commissioning is shown in Figure 11.17.

11.3 Industrial Case History – VSA of a Repaired 1000 kW/1340 H.P. SRIM 261
Figure 11.A SPL (sound pressure levels) and loudness level contours in Phons versus frequency.
Figure 11.17 SRIM during re-commissioning in the cement factory.

The motor repair shop found cracks at the fixing positions of the stator frame to the
main frame, but no photos were provided to the author. The radial airgap was
measured via feeler gauges, and it was confirmed that the airgap eccentricity was
28% at the NDE. This is a very high level of airgap eccentricity when compared to 5%
airgap eccentricity, which OEMs aim to achieve in a brand-new motor. The cement
factory required the motor to be back in service as soon as practically possible, and
therefore the cracks from the stator frame to main frame were temporarily repaired by
welding. Also, the airgaps were set to within 10% of the radial airgap length at the
NDE and DE.
The author’s objectives were as follows:
(i) To carry out vibration measurements and analysis on the repaired SRIM during a
FAT programme.
(ii) To determine, based on the FAT results, whether the motor was fit for purpose
with respect to vibration levels.
(iii) To carry out VSA during no-load and coupled runs of the SRIM after re-
commissioning.
(iv) To advise the client if the motor could continue to run and recommend any future
actions.
11.3.2 Vibration Measurements and Analysis – Uncoupled Run at Repair Shop
Motor nameplate data were as follows:

3-phase SRIM (slip-ring induction motor); Year of manufacture: 1988
3.3 kV, 1000 kW/1340 H.P., 217 A, 50 Hz, 987 r/min (6-pole)
Star connected, insulation class: F
Frame size: DW 450; enclosure: IP55, CACA
DE bearing: NU6332E M C3 (E = extra capacity, M = brass cage)
NDE bearing: 6332 M C3
Rotor amperes: 400 A, open circuit rotor volts: 1530 V.
The following data were obtained from the OEM:
Nominal airgap length: 2 mm (10%) or 80 mils/thou (10%)

Number of rotor slots: 54
Number of stator slots: 72.
The motor’s cooler had been removed and full access to the stator core back (see
Figure 11.18) and the DE and NDE bearing pedestals were accessible – see Fig-
ures 11.19 and 11.20, which also show the positions of the accelerometers.
The motor was not bolted to the large base-plate because it was running uncoupled
and the only torque developed is to overcome windage and friction, therefore the
reaction torque at the feet is negligible. It was not bolted down so that a comparison
could be made between the tests in the motor shop on no load with a no-load

Figure 11.18 Stator core assembly.
Figure 11.19 NDE bearing housing.
Figure 11.20 DE bearing housing.
uncoupled run when bolted down to the large concrete plinth at the cement factory, as
The motor repair shop could not supply the motor at 3.3 kV due to supply
limitation, but the client accepted the 3 kV, which was available at a supply frequency
of nominally 50 Hz. Thus, it was operating below its rated flux density, therefore the

Table 11.6 Overall r.m.s. velocities (10%), span 5–1000 Hz and the velocities of the 2f1 component
on the bearing housings
DE overall r.m.s. velocities
DE bearing housing DEV: 1.2 mm/s DEH: 1.4 mm/s DEA:1.9 mm/s
DE velocity r.m.s. 2f1 component
DE bearing housing DEV: 0.9 mm/s DEH: 1.2 mm/s DEA:1.7 mm/s
NDE overall r.m.s. velocities
NDE bearing housing NDEV:2.0 m/s NDEH: 0.6 mm/s NDEA:1.0 mm/s
NDE velocity r.m.s. 2f1 component
NDE bearing housing NDEV:1.8 mm/s NDEH: 0.4 mm/s NDEA: 0.8 mm/s
velocity of the 2f1 vibration component was slightly reduced in magnitude compared
to its value at 3.3 kV.
The no-load currents for the red, yellow and blue phases were 49 amperes,
48 amperes and 54 amperes; this unbalance can be expressed – see references [11.6]
to [11.8] – as:

Maximum current deviation from the average current
% Unbalance ¼ 100
Average current
¼ 7:3%:
11.3.2.1 Overall R.M.S. Velocities and Magnitude of the 2f1 Component on the
Bearing Housings – Uncoupled Run in Repair Shop
Table 11.6 presents the overall r.m.s velocities in the vertical, horizontal and axial
positions on the bearing housings. The vibration standard, BS 60034-14-2004 [11.9],
was used as the criterion for assessing the velocity and the maximum allowable for
this motor is 2.3 mm/s r.m.s. The velocities of the 2f1 component are also presented in
the same table.
A sample of the velocity spectra is presented in Figures 11.21 and 11.22 for the
NDE and DE bearing housing in the vertical direction.
The key observations of the vibration measurements on the bearing housings
during the uncoupled run in the repair shop are as follows:
(i) The overall r.m.s. values on both bearing housings were normal and below the
acceptable limit of 2.3 mm/s r.m.s.
(ii) Figures 11.21 and 11.22 show that the 2f1 component dominates the spectra, for
example, at the NDE in the vertical direction the 2f1 component is 90% of the
overall value. This is unusual for a 6-pole induction motor.

Figure 11.21 NDE vertical bearing housing, velocity spectrum, uncoupled in repair shop.
Figure 11.22 DE vertical bearing housing, velocity spectrum, uncoupled in repair shop.
The stator core back overall r.m.s. velocity at position X in Figure 11.18 was 4.2 mm/s
and the 2f1 component was 4 mm/s, as shown in Figure 11.23.
11.3.3 Vibration Measurements and Analysis – Uncoupled and Coupled Runs at the
Cement Factory
It was not possible to measure the vibration on the NDE bearing housing due to the
restricted access imposed by the totally enclosed slip ring assembly. Figure 11.24
illustrates the positions of the accelerometers during the uncoupled and coupled runs
at the cement factory, and Table 11.7 presents the overall r.m.s. velocities.
11.3.3.1 Key Observation from the On-Site Uncoupled and Coupled Runs
The velocity at position 5 was 4 mm/s r.m.s., and it was observed that there were
cracks in the concrete mounting plinth directly below the motor’s fixing bolts, as

Table 11.7 Overall r.m.s. velocities (10%), span 5–1000 Hz
On-site uncoupled run

No-load currents: IR = 62 A, IY = 58 A, IB = 58 A
Position 1 Position 2 Position 3 Position 4 Position 5 Position 6 Position 7
0.5 m/s 1.9 m/s 0.7 m/s 1.0 m/s 4 mm/s 0.9 m/s 0.3 m/s
On-site coupled run

No-load currents: IR = 130 A, IY = 135 A, IB = 130 A
Position 1 Position 2 Position 3 Position 4 Position 5 Position 6 Position 7
1.0 m/s 1.9 m/s 1.2 m/s 0.7 m/s 4 mm/s 0.9 m/s 0.5 m/s
Figure 11.23 Stator core back, velocity spectrum, uncoupled run in repair shop.
Note that the repair shop could not load test this 1000 kW/1340 H.P. SRIM.
shown in Figures 11.25 and 11.26. This was the first time the author had been on-site
at the cement factory.
One of the holding-down bolts was slackened at position 1 and the acoustic noise
dramatically increased. The overall velocity at position 5 increased from 4 mm/s to
8 mm/s r.m.s., which was not normal.
This increase was dominated by the 2f1 component as shown when Figures 11.27
and 11.28 are compared; this reveals that the 2f1 component increased from 3.8 mm/s
to 6.2 mm/s r.m.s., an increase of 63%.
(i) The results presented in Section 11.3.3 verified that the velocity at 2f1 is highly
sensitive to the tightness of the motor’s fixing-down bolts.

Figure 11.25 Cracked concrete mounting plinth.

Figure 11.26 Cracked concrete mounting plinth.
Figure 11.27 Velocity spectrum, position 5; all holding-down bolts were tight.
Figure 11.28 Velocity spectrum, position 5; bolt at position 1 was slackened.

References 269
(ii) Cracks were identified in the concrete plinth directly under the holding-
down bolts.
(iii) Cracks were also found by the repair shop between the fixing positions of the
stator core assembly to the main base of the motor.
(iv) Items (i) and (ii) indicate that there are abnormal levels of force and vibration
being transmitted to these positions within this motor.
(v) The client should remove the motor at the next major outage to establish the
extent and depth of the cracks under the fixing-down bolts. Carry out repairs as
required.
References
11.1 M. Liwschitz-Garik and C. C. Whipple, Electric Machinery Vol. II, A-C Machines, Van
1976.
11.3 P. L. Alger, Induction Machines – Their Behaviour and Uses, Gordon and Breach Science
Publications Inc., second edition, published by OPA Amsterdam, third printing with
additions, 1995.
11.4 S. J. Yang, Low Noise Electric Motors, Monographs in Electrical and Electronic Engin-
eering, IEE, Savoy Place, London, 1981.
11.5 P. L. Alger Magnetic Noise in Poly-phase Induction Motors, Transactions AIEE, 73 (Part
IIA), 1954, pp. 118–25.
11.6 J. H. Dymond, Operation on Unbalanced Voltage: One Motor’s Experience and More,
IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, 43 (3), May/June, 2007, pp. 829–37.
11.7 E. Williams, Operation of 3-Phase Induction Motors on Unbalanced Voltages, AIEE
Transactions, 73, pt III-A, April 1954, pp. 125–33.
11.8 M. Campbell and G. Arce, Effect of Motor Voltage Unbalance; Test and Evaluation, IEEE
Transactions on Industry Applications, 54 (1), 2018, pp. 905–11.
11.9 British Standard (BS) 60034-14, Rotating Electrical Machines, Part 14 Mechanical

12 Overview of Key Features of Vibration
Monitoring of SCIMs
Abstract – An appraisal is presented on VSA to diagnose faults in rolling element

bearings. A discussion is provided on the key outcome that end users hope to achieve
from vibration monitoring, which is the prognosis of remaining operational life of a
SCIM after a fault is diagnosed.
It will also be reiterated, via more photographic evidence, that access to mount
temporary accelerometers directly on the bearing housings of rolling element bearings
used in induction motors can be very difficult.
Guidelines are given for grease management of rolling element bearings because of
the predominance of failures being caused by incorrect greasing practices.
12.1 Appraisal on VSA to Diagnose Faults in Rolling Element

Bearings Used in SCIMs
Rolling element bearing faults, which constitute the largest percentage of failures in
SCIMs – see references [12.1] to [12.6] – can be diagnosed by measuring the
combination of the overall r.m.s. velocities and velocities of the bearing defect
frequencies. To achieve this, the trending of overall velocities and velocities of the
bearing defect frequencies is essential to reliably diagnose bearing faults.
Trending is the taking of repeatable measurements under the same conditions at
regular intervals so that change, particularly a sudden major increase in vibration
levels, in any of these values can be readily and accurately seen.
Key points to be applied when trending vibration measurements are as follows:
(i) When no permanent accelerometers are fitted, it is vital that temporary
accelerometers are put in exactly the same positions every time measurements
are taken.
(ii) Ideally, the motor should be operating at the same loading (input current) each
time vibration measurements are taken.
(iii) If possible the time interval between the taking of sets of measurements should be
constant.
(iv) Trending only the overall velocity levels very often does not indicate a high rate
of rise of the velocities of bearing defect frequencies because the 1X component
dominates the overall velocity.
270
12.2 Predictions and Prognosis of Remaining Run Life 271
(v) If the overall velocity level doubles, this can be used as a practical guide to
indicate that a problem exists in a SCIM; and likewise for the velocity level of a
bearing defect frequency, this is a good indicator that the fault has increased in
severity. This is verified in a number of the case histories (e.g. see the case
histories in Sections 5.1 and 7.1).
(vi) As the percentage velocity levels of any of the bearing defect frequencies
increases with respect to the overall velocity levels, this can also be used as an
indicator of bearing faults. This is verified in the case histories (e.g. see the case
history in Section 6.4).
Note that a similar vibration monitoring and VSA strategy can be applied to the
diagnosis of shaft misalignment (see the case histories in Chapter 1), faults in sleeve
bearings (see the case histories in Chapter 9) and vibration problems caused by
abnormal electromagnetic forces (see the case histories in Chapter 10).
One-off measurements of the overall velocities on the bearing housings and
vibration spectrum analysis (VSA) with no historical records are an inefficient appli-
cation of vibration monitoring.
12.2 Predictions and Prognosis of Remaining Run Life
When VSA and the vibration analyst predict that a specific fault exists in a SCIM, the
end users often require answers to the following:
(i) How severe is the fault?
(ii) How long can the motor operate with this type of fault?
(iii)How quickly will the severity of the fault increase?
(iv) How long will the motor run with this fault before it fails?
(v) What is the risk of a rolling element bearing fault causing a bearing collapse and a
consequential rotor to stator rub?
(vi) Should the motor be immediately switched off and removed from service to
eliminate a catastrophic motor failure and a risk to the health and safety of
personnel and other items of plant?
The author’s opinions with respect to VSA and the vibration analyst being able to
provide definitive and quantifiable answers to items (i) to (vi) are as follows:
(i) The application of trending vibration measurements when analysed by a
knowledgeable and professional vibration analyst can provide an answer to item
(i), and sometimes an answer to item (vi).
(ii) It is not technically or practically possible to provide a definitive and quantifiable
prognosis for items (ii) to (v) because of the many variables that can subsequently
affect the rate at which the fault severity increases in, for example, a rolling
element bearing with continued use of the motor.

272 Overview of Key Features of Vibration Monitoring of SCIMs
What is normally achievable by a vibration analyst is to indicate that either an inner or

outer race fault, a rolling element fault or a faulty cage exists.
However, the analyst can only provide a generalised categorisation of the fault
severity with recommendations, such as:
Very early stages of a bearing fault: check the greasing records.

Low level of fault severity: repeat vibration measurements at least once/month and
check the greasing records.
Medium level of fault severity: repeat vibration measurements at least every
two weeks.
Severe level of fault severity: repeat vibration measurements on a daily basis.
Very severe level of fault severity: remove the motor from service.
It is again emphasised that trending of the velocities of the bearing defect frequencies
is essential after the initial estimate of fault severity via VSA to indicate subsequent
degradation of a rolling element bearing.
12.2.1 Variables that Affect the Remaining Run Life of Faulty Rolling
Element Bearings in SCIMs
Vibration spectrum analysis (VSA) or any other vibration analysis technique, such as
envelope analysis, cannot quantify the actual severity of the fault, which can only be
reliably done by removing the bearing for a forensic inspection.
The following are typical examples of variables that prevent the prognosis of the
remaining run life of faulty rolling element bearings:
(i) Under or over greasing the bearing after the fault is diagnosed.
(ii) Abnormal mechanical load dynamics, which transmit high forces to the bearing.
(iii) Cyclic and transient load dynamics from the driven load.
(iv) Forces due to airgap eccentricity in a SCIM, in particular rotating forces wave
due to an increase in dynamic airgap eccentricity.
12.3 Difficulties of Access to Measure Vibration Directly on the Bearing

Housings of Rolling Element Bearings in Induction Motors
To diagnose faults in rolling element bearings by using VSA it is strongly recom-

mended that the vibration is measured directly on the bearing housings.
However, induction motors with rolling element bearings and power ratings up to
for example 1000 H.P./746 kW (Figure 12.1) are normally cooled by an external fan at
the NDE, as shown in the case histories and further illustrated in the photographs in
Figures 12.1 to 12.4. While the motor is running, access to the NDE bearing is
impossible.
As shown in the case histories, these motors do not normally have permanently
mounted accelerometers on the bearing housings. For example, the end users carry out

12.3 Difficulties of Access to Measure Vibration 273
Figure 12.1 A 6.6 kV 746 kW/1000 H.P. SCIM with rolling element bearings.
Figure 12.2 A 415 V 185 kW/250 H.P. SCIM with rolling element bearings.
Figure 12.3 A 415 V 132 kW/175 H.P. SCIM with rolling element bearings.

Figure 12.4 A 3.3 kV 400 kW/540 H.P. SCIM with rolling element bearings.
vibration measurements on a monthly sequence while the motors are running, using
temporary accelerometers mounted via strong magnets or fixing studs. However,
access to the NDE bearing housings is often not possible. This is a major constraint,
because the vibration can only be measured on the outer frame close to the fan cowl at
the NDE, or alternatively on the bolts that secure the fan cowl to the end frame, which
houses the bearing.
The latter (i.e. the bolt) does provide a direct transmission path for the vibration on
the bearing housing to the bolt that is bolted into the outer periphery of the NDE end
frame as shown in Figures 12.5a and b.
The mechanical stiffness and frequency response of the end frame in the radial
direction between the bearing housing and the outer periphery of the end frame, where
the vibration can be measured, will normally attenuate the vibration produced by the
bearing. Consequently, the very early stages of bearing faults are difficult to detect
by outer frame vibration measurements, but the case histories verified that as the
bearing faults become more serious the bearing defect frequencies can be detected
via VSA.
The measurement of vibration on the DE bearing housing requires the use of a
small accelerometer because the surface area is often limited, as shown in Figure 12.6.
The coupling guard can also prohibit access to the DE bearing housing, as shown in
Figure 12.7.
With respect to the use of envelope analysis or shock pulse techniques to detect the
inception of bearing defects the special accelerometers should be mounted directly
on the bearing housings. If not a false diagnosis of a bearing fault can occur (see the
case history in Section 8.2).

12.3 Difficulties of Access to Measure Vibration 275
Figure 12.5a Illustration of accelerometer positions.
Figure 12.5b Position of accelerometers on the bolts holding down the fan cowl to the NDE
end frame.

Figure 12.6 Photograph showing the small surface area that can exist on the DE bearing housing.
Figure 12.7 Photograph showing a coupling guard which prohibits access to the DE bearing
housing.

12.4 Guidelines for Successful Grease Management 277
It is strongly recommended to not apply envelope analysis or SPM to diagnose

bearing faults by measuring the vibration on the outer frame.
12.4 Guidelines for Successful Grease Management of Rolling Element

Bearings in Induction Motors
In many cases, as shown in Figure 3.1 and in the case histories, the major cause of
rolling element bearing failures is due to greasing issues such as:
over greasing
under greasing
mixing of greases
incompetent re-greasing of rolling element bearings
lack of a stringent planned maintenance procedure for greasing of bearings.
Approximately 50% of faults in induction motors are caused by bearing failures, of
which a significant proportion are the result of greasing problems in rolling element
bearings, as demonstrated in the case histories. Many of these could be eliminated by
personnel with proper knowledge who have been trained on the correct greasing
procedures. The following points are the author’s guidelines for successful greasing
of rolling element bearings in induction motors:
(i) The starting point is the OEM’s operation and maintenance manual for the motor.
It should state the type of grease, the re-greasing interval based on actual run
hours of the motor, and the volume of grease to be inserted.
(ii) It is normal for manual grease guns to be used. One pump of the grease gun will
release one shot of grease and the weight of that one shot for that grease gun
should be measured and clearly marked on the grease gun.
(iii) The type of grease to be used in each grease gun should be clearly specified on
the gun, and different greases should never be mixed in a grease gun or applied to
a bearing.
(iv) Re-greasing of rolling element bearings should be done when the motor is running.
(v) Grease relief apertures may exist at the 6 o’clock position in the bearing housing in
horizontal motors and they should be checked when greasing the bearing.
(vi) It is essential that end users have proper training schemes for personnel who are
assigned to grease bearings in electrical machines. It is the author’s experience
that not enough serious attention is given to training by end users and they
wrongly assume that anyone can properly grease bearings – that is NOT the case.
Normally there are no automatic run counters fitted to motor drives, and therefore
there is a lack of accurate records on the number of run hours. End users often re-
grease the bearings every three months irrespective of run hours, but this does not
follow the OEM’s guidelines.
Accurate records should be kept of run hours; this should be the responsibility of
operations and maintenance personnel, and re-greasing carried out as per the operation
and maintenance manual.

It is often the case that, with vertically mounted induction motors (see Figure 12.4),
the end user has retrofitted extension grease pipes so that the bearings can be greased
by maintenance personnel standing at ground level so that temporary scaffolding is
unnecessary. The author has seen cases where the extension pipes have several right-
angled bends (the worst case was six), which is bad practice for successful re-greasing
and should be avoided. If it is not possible to avoid this then the extension pipes
should be cleaned out at least every six months to remove the possibility of blockages.
12.5 Incorrect Bearings Fitted by Motor Repair Shop
When new bearings are fitted to induction motors, the end user should insist that the
repair shop fits identical bearings in accordance with the information on the motor’s
nameplate.
It can be the case that certain repair shops do not keep diligent records and
photographs of the removed faulty bearings, or of the actual new bearings that were
fitted. The author requires a repair shop to photograph the bearing numbers on the new
bearings that they have fitted. The reasons for this are as follows:
(i) The OEM of the motor selected the bearings (as stamped on the nameplate)
to suit the motor’s design, operational speed and dynamic loading on the bearing.
(ii) Two major manufacturers, who supply bearings worldwide, have replaced
certain off-the-shelf, stock items of steel cage bearings with extra capacity
(E rated), brass cage bearings. For example, they have replaced an N324 C3 with
an N324 E M C3, and other cylindrical roller bearings are now E rated as
standard off-the-shelf cylindrical roller bearings. It may seem that an E rated
cylindrical roller element bearing is better than a non-E rated bearing, but the
crucial point is that an E rated bearing is unnecessary and will be overrated in a
motor that was designed for a non-E rated bearing. Excessive skidding can occur
(e.g. see case history in Section 7.2) because the dynamic loading on the bearing
is insufficient to effectively rotate the rolling elements.
(iii) An N324 E MC3 has 13 rollers and an N324 C3 has 12 rollers, and the vibration
analyst will not know that an E rated bearing has been fitted, unless the repair
shop has updated the nameplate, and that is very unlikely indeed. The prediction
of the bearing defect frequencies will be based on the nameplate information, and
the vibration analysis no longer becomes valid to detect bearing defects in an
E rated bearing. This is based on the author’s knowledge of what can happen in
practice.
References
12.1 A. H. Bonnett, Root Cause Methodology for Induction Motors; A Step-by-Step Guide to
Examining Failure, IEEE Industry Applications Magazine, 18 (6), 2012, pp. 50–62.

References 279
12.2 http://new.abb.com/docs/librariesprovider53/about-downloads/motors_ebook.pdf?sfvrsn=4.
Commercial Installations, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, 1A-21 (4), Parts
I and II, July/Aug. 1985.
Commercial Installations, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, 1A-23 (1), Part
III, Jan./Feb. 1987.
12.5 O. V. Thorson and M. Dalva, A Survey of Faults on Induction Motors in Offshore Oil
Industry, Petrochemical Industry, Gas Terminals and Oil Refineries, IEEE Transactions
on Industry Applications, 31 (5), Sept./Oct. 1995.
12.6 https://www.efficientplantmag.com/2012/03/large-electric-motor-reliability-what-did-the-
studies-really-say/ Large Electric Motor Reliability: What Did The Studies Really Say?,
EP Editorial Staff March 23, 2012; Efficient Plant Magazine formerly Maintenance
Technology: https://www.efficientplantmag.com/.

Index
abnormal misalignment, 9, 23 condition monitoring, 1, 6–7, 11, 27, 31–2, 76, 79,
acoustic noise, 2, 88, 112, 135, 137, 140, 144, 92, 160–1, 221, 226, 231
252–4, 256, 259, 266 contact angle, 55, 58, 110
alignment, 9, 19, 25, 36, 126, 182 corrosion, 9, 36, 68, 152, 167
aluminium die cast, 31, 222, 226–7 coupling guard, 20, 79, 81, 115, 153, 274
American Petroleum Institute, 189, 210, 212 cylindrical roller element bearing, 47, 53, 55, 78,
angular contact bearing, 55, 57, 76, 90, 95, 103 90, 103, 127, 152, 158, 278
angular misalignment, 8
API, 189, 210, 212, 214, 219 damaged ball, 115
attenuation, 116, 171, 173, 213 decibel, 86
auxiliary sea water lift pump, 120 deep grove ball bearing, 52
axial clearance, 49, 182
axial load, 52, 54, 58, 90, 103, 179, 182 eddy current displacement probe, 183
axial misalignment, 8 electromagnetic force, 2, 6, 17, 19, 208, 210–11,
216, 221, 225, 233, 235–7, 258, 271
Babbitt, 175, 179–80, 182–3, 187, 198–9 electrostatic discharge, 71–2
ball diameter, 81 envelope analysis, 76, 78–9, 152, 154, 159, 274
ball pass frequency inner race, 115 equivalent bearing load, 65
ball pass frequency outer race, 115 excessive load, 66, 182
ball spin frequency, 79, 115 extra capacity bearing, 54, 82, 133, 136, 138, 154,
Bearing Analysis Handbook, 6 159
bearing clearances, 4, 49, 176
bearing defect frequency, 83, 116, 271 Factory Acceptance Test, 28, 68, 90, 163, 183, 185,
bearing degradation, 75, 78, 161 202, 209, 211–12, 262
bearing dynamic capacity, 65 false brinelling, 66, 120, 127, 132, 140, 163, 166–7
bearing housing vibration, 185, 191, 214, Fast Fourier Transform, 15
216 fatigue failure, 65, 67, 79, 133
bearing insulation, 162 fluid film bearing, 175
bearing life, 63–5 flux density, 208, 233, 235, 237, 263
bearing load zone, 49 4-point contact ball bearing, 55
bearing shells, 175, 182 FPSO, 109
boiler forced draft fan, 115 frequency conversion, 193
Bow Thruster, 109–10, 114 frequency spectra, 11, 84, 86, 107
brass cage, 12, 49, 54, 57, 83, 90, 95, 103, 138, frequency spectrum, 87, 103, 107
158–9, 262, 278 fretting, 68, 167
British Standard, 15, 156, 186 fundamental train frequency, 81
broken rotor bars, 2, 202, 206, 221–2, 226–7, 231
broken shaft, 75, 159, 161, 166 gas recirculating fan, 19
grease lubrication, 50, 95
cement factory, 260, 263, 265–6 grease management, 270, 277
centrifugal force, 10, 35, 133, 136, 146, 164, 192,
245, 250 ingress protection, 198
coil span factor, 235 inner race, 80
280
Index 281
inner race defects, 119 shaft alignment, 7

inverter, 72, 193, 253–4, 256, 258–9 shaft currents, 68
shaft displacement, 4, 75, 185–6, 189, 192, 197–8,
journal bearing, 4, 175–6, 192, 211 200–2, 204
shaft displacement probe, 189
Kramer, 193 shaft misalignment, 7–8, 10–11, 17, 19, 32, 35–6,
39, 41, 106, 271
magnetic force, 208, 211, 233 shielded ball bearing, 141
MCSA, 222, 226–7, 231 skidding, 68, 80, 108, 133, 135–7, 158, 278
mechanical imbalance, 10, 15, 25, 31, 106, 192, sleeve bearing, 3, 20, 27, 75, 161, 174, 177–8, 180,
206, 245, 247 182–3, 185–6, 190, 271
mechanical impedance, 6, 225 slip energy recovery, 193
mechanical stiffness, 90, 103, 116, 171, 173, 274 slip frequency, 193, 227, 231
mechanical unbalance, 118, 146, 151, 164 Slip Ring Induction Motor, 192–3
misalignment, 7–8, 10, 25, 31, 53, 59, 72, 124, 182 slipping, 67
Motor Current Signature Analysis, 202, 221, soap, 52, 95
226–7, 231 soft foot, 9, 11, 19, 32, 36–7, 39–42, 208
spalling, 65, 163
NEMA, 16, 28, 172, 185, 210, 213 spherical roller bearing, 59
spike energy, 79
offshore installation manager, 27 SRIM, 195, 198, 201, 260, 262
oil drainage, 179 SRP, 165, 167
oil-fed pressure bearing, 177 stator core, 2, 114, 142, 208, 210
oil feed, 179–80 stator core back, 208, 210–14, 216, 219–20, 222,
oil film wedge, 176 227, 262, 265
oil scoop ring, 181 stator frame vibration, 230, 232
oil viscosity, 180 stator winding temperature, 204
OIM, 27, 31 structural resonance, 241, 247
sulphate removal pump, 160, 166
parallel misalignment, 7 supply voltage unbalance, 208, 236
pitch diameter, 81 SWIP, 192
pitting, 65, 72, 163
tapered roller bearing, 58
QJ, 57–8 TEFC, 78
Tesla, Nikola, 1
radial clearance, 12, 49 thickener, 52
RCFA, 141, 160 time domain, 13, 213, 216, 237
resonance, 12, 83, 192, 197, 250 true brinelling, 67
ring lubricated bearing, 181 twice supply frequency, 17, 210, 218, 232,
roller bearing, 37, 82, 117, 133 237
rolling element bearing, 3–4, 6–7, 47, 49–50, 52,
61, 63, 75, 78, 122, 154, 174, 270–2, 277 vibration spectrum analysis, 1, 7, 10, 15, 37, 105,
rotational speed frequency, 11, 13, 29, 81, 83, 92, 129, 232, 258, 271
110, 113, 124, 163, 197, 214, 245, 247, 249,
251 white metal, 175, 179–80, 182–3, 187,
rotor slot vibration, 211, 215, 222, 225, 227, 231 199
rotor slotting, 210, 221, 231
RTD, 204 zoom spectrum, 131, 136–7, 157


Vibration of Induction Motors

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Vibration Monitoring of Induction Motors

William T. Thomson is the Director of EM Diagnostics Ltd, and a former Professor of

Published online by Cambridge University Press

Published online by Cambridge University Press

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

ISBN 978-1-108-48997-3 Hardback

Published online by Cambridge University Press

William T. Thomson is the Director of EM Diagnostics Ltd, and a former Professor of

Published online by Cambridge University Press

Published online by Cambridge University Press

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

ISBN 978-1-108-48997-3 Hardback

Published online by Cambridge University Press

William T. Thomson is the Director of EM Diagnostics Ltd, and a former Professor of

Published online by Cambridge University Press

Published online by Cambridge University Press

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

ISBN 978-1-108-48997-3 Hardback

Published online by Cambridge University Press

1 Vibration Monitoring of Induction Motors and Case Histories on Shaft

2 Rolling Element Bearings for Induction Motors 47

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3 Types of Defects in Rolling Element Bearings 63

4 Introduction to Vibration Spectrum Analysis to Diagnose Faults in Rolling

5 Industrial Case Histories on VSA to Diagnose Cage Faults in Rolling Element

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Appendix 5A – Photos of the Faulty Bearing Parts 96

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7 Industrial Case Histories – VSA Diagnosed False Brinelling and Problems

8 Industrial Case Histories on VSA to Diagnose Miscellaneous Faults in Rolling

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8.4.3 Attenuation of Bearing Defect Frequencies 171

9 Industrial Case Histories on Vibration Measurements and Analysis Applied

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10 Industrial Case Histories on Magnetic Forces and Vibration from

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11 Miscellaneous Industrial Case Histories on Vibration Analysis Applied to

12 Overview of Key Features of Vibration Monitoring of SCIMS 270

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12.3 Difﬁculties of Access to Measure Vibration Directly on the Bearing

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Industrial end users, motor manufacturers, condition monitoring companies and

https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108784887.001 Published online by Cambridge University Press

1953–55: Telecommunications Engineering training.

Dr G. W. D. M. Gunawardene BSc, MSc, PhD

1973–74: Gresham Lion Electronics, Twickenham, Middlesex, Test Technician.

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Acceleration a Metres per second squared m/s2

Power factor p.f. Number –

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API American Petroleum Institute, USA

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Metric/SI units Imperial

1.0 m 39.4 inches

This book avoids duplicating material already published on the theory of

1.1.1 Overview of Causes of Vibration Problems in Induction Motors

the dynamic behaviour of the rotating rotor

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1.1.1.1 Brief Review of Vibration Monitoring to Diagnose Faults in Rolling