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Experiment No. 1
Aim: -To determine the divergence of laser beam.

List of Equipment Used:

Table 1: List of Equipments
S.N. Equipment Range Quantity

1. Power supply/Operating voltage 5mV/3-12V 1

2. Diode laser 650nm 1

3. Stand NA 1

Introduction/Theory: The term LASER is the acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of radiation. It is a mechanism for emitting electromagnetic radiation via the process of
stimulated emission. There are lasers that emit a broad spectrum of light, or emit different
wavelengths of light simultaneously. A laser beam with a narrow beam divergence is greatly used
to make laser pointer devices. Generally, the beam divergence of laser beam is measured using
beam profiler. Like all electromagnetic beams, lasers are subject to divergence, which is measured
in mill radians (milliradian) or degrees. For many applications, a lower-divergence beam is
preferable. The divergence of a laser beam is proportional to its wavelength and inversely
proportional to the diameter of the beam at its narrowest point.

One of the chief advantages of a laser is that it produces a beam of light whose edges are parallel.
Any deviation from perfect parallelism eventually causes the beam to diverge and spread out its
energy, becoming weaker and weaker with distance.
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In this figure, Z-axis is chosen as direction of propagation of laser beam and origin is chosen at
the point where waist size is minimum. Since Gaussian beam remains Gaussian at all locations,
thus the waist size W1 of the beam at a distance Z is given by the relation:
ɵo = W1/Z or W1= ɵo Z
W12= ɵo 2 Z2
Similarly, W1, W2 and W3 are the diameters circles of the laser spot formed at distance
(Z+D) and (Z+2D) respectively from the origin, Then
ɵo = W2 / (Z+D)
orW2= ɵo (Z+D)
Or W22 = ɵo 2 (Z+D)2
And ɵo= W3 / (Z+2D)
OR W3= ɵo (Z+2D)
W3 = ɵo 2 (Z+2D) 2
2

But the laser source cannot be a point source. It has a finite size through small.
Here W1 = minimum waist size, ɵo is the angle of divergence
To find the angle of divergence ɵo, we set up three equations:

W12=ɵo2Z2 (i)
W 2
= ɵ (Z+D) = ɵ 2Z2 +2Z ɵ 2 D+ɵ 2D2
2 2
(ii)
2 o o o o
W 2
= W 2 + ɵ 2 (Z+2D) = ɵ Z +ɵ 2 (4D2) +4ZD ɵ
2 2 2 2
(iii)
3 o o o o o

From (i), (ii) and (iii), we have

W 12 -2W22 +W32= 2 ɵo2Z2
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1 2 2 2
Θ= √𝑊1 −2 𝑊2 +𝑊3
𝐷 2

Formula used: The angle of divergence is given by

1 2 2 2
Θ= √𝑊1 −2 𝑊2 +𝑊3
𝐷 2

Precautions:
(i) Spot size should be measured accurately.
(ii) Laser light should not fall directly to the eyes of the observer.

Procedure:
(i) Arrange the apparatus as shown.
(ii) Pencil, draw the circular spot on the paper and measure the vertical and horizontal
diameters of the circular spot. Calculate the mean of both values to get the accurate
value of the diameter. This is the waist size W1
(iii) Now distance screen in the direction of beam propagation by a known distance D (total
distance from laser becomes Z+D) and measure spot size W 2 as measured in previous
step.
(iv) Now displace screen further away by same value D, so the new distance becomes
(Z+2D). Measure spot size W 3
(v) Put the values in the formula and calculate laser divergence.
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Observations & Calculations:

Table2:
(i) Initial distance between laser and screen Z= ......... cm
(ii) Displacement of screen D= ........... cm

1 2 2 2
Diameter Θ= √𝑊1 −2 𝑊2 +𝑊3
𝐷 2
Distance
S. No. (cm)
Vertical Horizontal Mean (milliradian)
(cm) (cm) diameter
(cm)

1. Z= W1

Z+D= W2

Z+2D= W3

The angle of divergence of the diode laser is milliradian

Result(s): The angle of divergence of the diode laser is milliradian.

Conclusion: Since this angle is very small (in the range of milliradian), we conclude that laser
beam is highly directional as compared to ordinary light source.
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Review Questions
1. What is Divergence of a laser beam?
2. What is LASER?
3. What are the characteristics of laser radiation?
4. What is a Semiconductor Diode Laser?
5. What is the cause of divergence of a laser beam?
6. Why population inversion is essential for stimulated emission?
7. Differentiate between stimulated emission and spontaneous emission.
8. What are the components of laser?
9. What are the examples of two level, three level and four level laser?
10. What are the units of angle of divergence?

Prepared By Reviewed By Approved By

Dr. Indu Gupta Dr. Ruby Priya HOD

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Experiment No. 2
Aim: To determine the diffraction using laser beam and find the grating element of diffraction
grating.

List of Equipment Used:

Table 1: List of Equipments

S.N. Equipment Range Quantity

1. Power supply/Operating voltage 5mV/3-12V 1

2. Diode laser 650nm 1

3. Grating element 500,15000 L.P.I. 2

4. Stand NA 2

Introduction/Theory:
Diffraction is the slight bending of light as it passes around the edge of an object. The amount of
bending depends on the relative size of the wavelength of light to the size of the opening.
Diffraction grating is a set of thousands of narrow, closely spaced parallel slits; typically the
distance between the lines is comparable to the wavelength of light. Distance between two
consecutive slits (lines) of a grating is called grating element (d)
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Light rays that pass through such a surface are bent as a result of diffraction, related to wave
properties of light. The diffraction angle depends upon the wavelength of the light, for a given
Grating light with larger wavelength has larger diffraction angle. More precisely a single wavelength
can simultaneously have multiple discrete diffraction angles called diffraction orders.

For normal illumination, the grating equation is given by

(a+b) sin θ =n λ
d sin θ = n λ ................................................................. (1)
Where θ is the angle of diffraction, (a+b) is the grating element n =0, ±1, ±2,……….and λ is the
wavelength of light used.

Diagram:

Fig. 1

Fig.2
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Formula Used:
d=nλ/Sinθ
Where, θ is the angle of diffraction,
d is the grating element

λ is the wavelength of light incident on grating

n is the order of maxima
Precautions:
1. Laser light should not fall on eyes of observer directly.

2. All lengths should be measured in same unit.

3. Distance between the spots should be measured accurately

Procedure:

1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in fig.1

2. Fix the graph paper on the screen and place it at appreciable distance D from grating so that
distinct maxima are seen as in fig 2.
3. Mark the central brightest spot and maxima on both side of central
4. Using a scale find the distance between first maxima on either side of central spot.
5. Find the sine of angle of diffraction θ by formula given in observation table.
6. Repeat the steps 4 and 5 for 2nd and 3rd maxima. Then use these values to calculate grating
element d from equation (1).
7. Then calculate % error in grating element d.

Observations &Calculations:
Wavelength of Diode laser, λ=650 nm
Distance between diffraction grating and screen. D= cm

Standard Grating element, d (cm) =2.54/N, where N is no. of lines per inch in diffraction grating
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a. if we were having diffraction grating of 15000 lines per inch, then standard grating
element will be
d= 2.54/15000=0.000169 cm
b. if we were having diffraction grating of 500 lines per inch, then standard grating
element will be

d=2.54/500=0.00508 cm

Table 2:

Position of nth Mean

order maxima distance of Distance
between Sinθ
Order of nthorder
On Grating = OP1 d=nλ/Sinθ
S.No. diffraction On left maxima √𝑂𝑃12 +𝐷2
right and (cm)
(n) (OPn) from zeroth
(OPn′) screen (D)
(cm) order OPn
(cm) (cm)
(cm)
1.

2.

3.

Mean value of grating element, d= cm

Result(s): Grating element, d= cm

Conclusion: - We found out a diffraction grating has a very large number of equally spaced slits.
When parallel light is incident on a diffraction grating each slit acts as a source of diffracted waves.
Those waves therefore interact with one another. Diffracted lights shine on a distant screen which
has a central bright spot labelled m=0 and a higher order bright fringes that can also be observed.
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Review Questions
Q1. What is diffraction?
Q2. Define Grating?

Q3. What is Bragg’s law of diffraction?

Q4. How does diffraction differ from interference?

Q5. Define dispersive and resolving power of grating?

Q6. How many orders of spectra possible for grating of 15000 lines per inch?
Q7. How replica of diffraction grating formed?

Q8. What is the condition for the second order of spectra?

Prepared By Reviewed By Approved By

Dr. Indu Gupta Dr. Ruby Priya HOD

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Experiment No. 3
Aim: - To determine numerical aperture of an optical fibre.

List of Equipment Used:

Table 1: List of Equipments

S.N. Equipment Range Quantity

1. Power supply 0-12V 1

2. Diode laser 650nm 1

3. optical fibre cable 1m 1

4 Stand NA 2

5 Detector NA 1

6 Angular deflection 0-3600 1

Introduction/Theory: Numerical aperture is a basic descriptive characteristic of a specific fiber. It

is represents the size or degree of openness of the input acceptance cone. Mathematically it is
defined as the sine half angle of the acceptance cone.

Using Snell’s law, the maximum angle within which light will be accepted into and guided through
fiber is

NA = Sin a = ( n1 – n 2 )
2 2 1/2

Where a is the numerical aperture and n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the core and the
Cladding. If the incident angle <a, the ray undergoes multiple internal reflections at core and
cladding interface and it is called the guided ray. If a<, the ray undergoes only partial reflection
at core cladding interface.
In short length of straight fiber, ideally a ray launched at angle  at the input end should come out
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at the same angle  from output end. Therefore, the far field at the output end will also appear as a
cone of semi angle a emanating from the fiber end.

Diagram:

Fiber

Formula Used: NA= Sin θ

Precautions:
1. Optical source should be properly aligned with the cable.
2. Distance of the launch point from cable should be properly selected to ensure that maximum
amount of optical power is transferred to the cable.
3. The optical fiber provided should be handled carefully so as to prevent cracks.

Procedure:

1. Light from the laser is coupled into the given optical fiber by using microscope objective.
2. Place the output end of the fiber on the rotating stage.
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3. A detector, whose output is connected to the voltmeter, is mounted on the base and aligns it
for maximum intensity (Imax) such that the pinhole is at the same horizontal level as the fiber
end.
4. Connect the output of the detector to Multimeter using wire provided with the apparatus
having BNC socket at one end and banana plugs at other end (with red wire V+ socket and
black wire to Com socket) and select Imax mode.
5. Without disturbing the input coupling, rotate the output fiber end spot in suitable steps and
at each angular position the detector output is recorded.
6. Plot and extrapolate graph showing the output of detector vs. angular position.
7. From the graph, find out the angle 2a corresponding to the 0.05 Imax below from the
maximum detector reading and hence obtain a..

8. Find NA = Sin a

Observations & Calculations:

Table2:

S.No. Angular Deflection Detector Reading

Numerical aperture of Optical fiber =

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Graph:

-1 0. 1, 0.345
0.35 imax/2.71=0.38/ .71=
2, 0.28 0.14
0.
DETECOR READING

.2
-3, 0.175 0. 3, 0.18

.1

.0 0. , 0 07

-5, 0.025 .0 5, 0.02

-6 -4 -2
ANGULAR DEFLECTION

Result(s): Numerical aperture of the given Optical fiber =

Conclusion: - A high numerical aperture allows light to propagate down the fiber in rays both close
to the axis and at various angles, allowing efficient coupling of light into the fiber. However, a high
numerical aperture increases the amount of dispersion as rays at different angles have different path
lengths and therefore take different times to traverse the fiber. A low numerical aperture may
therefore be desirable.
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Review Questions
1. What do you mean by numerical aperture?
2. What could be the maximum value of numerical aperture?
3. What should be the numerical aperture of the fiber used for short distance
communication?
4. What are the advantages of using optical fiber over conventional communication
systems?
5. Is numerical aperture always constant for a particular optical fiber?
6. What are the different components of an optical fiber?
7. What is the relation between acceptance angle and numerical aperture of an optical
fiber?
8. What do you understand by the term LASER?
9. What is the principle of light propagation in an optical fiber?
10. Is it possible to find numerical aperture of an optical fiber with any ordinary source of
light?

Prepared By Reviewed By Approved By

Dr. Indu Gupta Dr. Ruby Priya HOD

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Experiment No. 4
Aim: To determine the attenuation loss in optical fibre.

List of Equipment Used:

Table 1: List of Equipments

S.N. Equipment Range Quantity

1. Power supply 0-12V 1

2. Diode laser 650nm 1

3. Power meter 3mW 1

4 optical fiber 3&5m 2

5 Stand NA 5

6 Detector NA 1

Introduction/Theory: Attenuation or transmission loss in an optical fiber is the loss of optical

power as light travel through it. Attenuation can occur because of impurities in the glass during the
manufacturing process or due to the losses at bends or curve in the fiber.
In optical fiber communication, the attenuation is usually expressed in decibels per kilometre
(db/Km). If Pi is the input (transmitted) optical power into a fiber and Po as the output (received)
optical power from the fiber, the attenuation, α, is given as
10 𝑃
α= log10 𝑃 𝑖
𝐿 𝑜
Where L is the length of the optical fiber in Kilometres
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10 𝑃
Formula Used: Attenuation loss α= log10 𝑃 𝑖
𝐿 𝑜

Precautions:
1. The optical fibre provided should be handled carefully so as to prevent cracks. The cracks
produced in the fibre may lead to higher losses.
2. Connections should be made neat and tight.
Procedure:
1. Measure the length of the optical fiber with the measuring tape.
2. Arrange the microscopic objective in front of the laser source and place the photo detector in front
of it so that the light from the laser source falls normally on the photo detector after passing through
the microscopic objective. Note down the reading Pi in the powermeter. Re-arrange the three and
again such readings.
3. Remove the photo detector and mount the optical fiber on fibre chucks. Arrange the apparatus and
taking care that the lasers source, the microscopic objective, the input and output ends of the fiber
and the photo detector are all the same horizontal level. The photo detector now receives light from
the output end of the fiber.
4. Note down the reading P0 in the powermeter. Take three such readings.
Diagram:
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Observations & Calculations:

Length of the optical fiber, L= m
= Km
Table2:

S.no Length of cable Pi Po Attenuation

(milliwatt) (milliwatt) loss α=
10 𝑃𝑖
log10
𝐿 𝑃𝑜

(dB/Km)

1.
2.

The attenuation loss in optical fibre= dB/km

Result(s): The attenuation loss in optical fibre= dB/km

Conclusion: Optical fibers are essential for optical communication. It is important to understand the
characteristics of the fiber especially with how power is lost as light propagates down the fiber. Withan
understanding of the attenuation characteristics of the fiber, an efficient communication system can be
realized.

Review Questions
1. What are the different types of losses that occur in Optical fibre?
2. What do you mean by Attenuation?
3. How Attenuation loss varies with distance?
4. Explain Power in Optical Fibre?

Prepared By Reviewed By Approved By

Dr. Indu Gupta Dr. Ruby Priya HOD

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Experiment No.5
Aim: To calculate the velocity of ultrasonic sound through different liquid media.

List of Equipment Used:

Table1: List of Equipments

S.N. Equipment Range Quantity

1. Ultrasonic interferometer 2MHz 1

2. Sample liquids 20ml 1

3. Power supply 220V 1

Introduction/Theory:

Ultrasonic interferometer is a simple device which yields accurate and consistent data, from which
one can determine the velocity of ultrasonic sound in a liquid medium. Ultrasonic sound refers to
sound pressure with a frequency greater than the human audible range (20Hz to 20 KHz). When
an ultrasonic wave propagates through a medium, the molecules in that medium vibrate over very
short distance in a direction parallel to the longitudinal wave. During this vibration, momentum is
transferred among molecules. This causes the wave to pass through the medium.

Generation of ultrasound:
Ultrasonic can be produced by different methods. The most common methods include

Piezoelectric generator: This is the most common

method used for the production of ultrasound.
When mechanical pressure is appliedto opposite
faces of certain crystals which are cut suitably,
electric fields are produced. Similarly,
when subjected to an electric field, these crystals contract or expand, depending on the direction
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of the field. Thus, a properly oriented rapid alternating electric field causes a piezoelectric crystal
to vibrate mechanically. This vibration, largest when the crystal is at resonance, is used to produce
a longitudinal wave, i.e., a sound wave.

Magnetostriction generator: In this method, the magnetostriction method is used for the production
of ultrasonic. Frequencies ranging from 8000 Hz to 20,000Hz can be produced by thismethod.

Ultrasonic Interferometer:

The schematic diagram of an ultrasonic interferometer is shown in the figure.

In an ultrasonic interferometer, the ultrasonic waves are produced by the piezoelectric method. In
a fixed frequency variable path interferometer, the wavelength of the sound in an experimental
liquid medium is measured, and from this one can calculate its velocity through that medium. The
apparatus consists of an ultrasonic cell, which is a double walled brass cell with chromium plated
surfaces having a capacity of 10ml. The double wall allows water circulation around the
experimental medium to maintain it at a known constant temperature. The micrometre scale is
marked in units of 0.01mm and has an overall length of 25mm. Ultrasonic waves of known
frequency are produced by a quartz crystal which is fixed at the bottom of the cell. There is a
movable metallic plate parallel to the quartz plate, which reflects the waves. The waves interfere
with their reflections, and if the separation between the plates is exactly an integer multiple of half-
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wavelengths of sound, standing waves are produced in the liquid medium. Under these
circumstances, acoustic resonance occurs. The resonant waves are a maximum in amplitude,
causing a corresponding maximum in the anode current of the piezoelectric generator. If we
increase or decrease the distance by exactly one half of the wavelength (λ/2) or an integer multiple
of one half wavelength, the anode current again becomes maximum. If d is the separation between
successive adjacent maxima of anode current, then,

d=λ/2

The velocity (v) of a wave is related to its wavelength (λ) by the relation v=λf, where f is the
frequency of the wave.

Then v=λf=2df

The velocity of ultrasound is determined principally by the compressibility of the material of the
medium. For a medium with high compressibility, the velocity will be less.

Formula Used: The velocity (v) of a wave is related to its wavelength (λ) by the relation

v=λf=2df

Where, d is the separation between successive adjacent maxima of anode current

Precautions:

1. The middle portion of the ultrasonic interferometer should be thoroughly cleaned and
filledwith the liquid, say water.
2. Do not use acidic medium for performing the experiment.
3. Wait for five minutes, after the instrument is switched ON, and then start making the
adjustments, and noting down readings with the apparatus.
4. Lower side reading is to be taken on the micrometer scale.
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Procedure:

1. Insert the quartz crystal in the socket at the base and clamp it tightly with the help of a
screw provided on one side of the instrument.
2. Unscrew the knurled cap of the cell and lift it away. Fill the middle portion with the
experimental liquid and screw the knurled cap tightly.
3. Then connect the high frequency generator with the cell. The cell is filled with the given
liquid and the frequency of the generator is set at a desired value.
4. There are two knobs on the instrument- “Adj” and “Gain”. With “Adj”, position of the
needle on the ammeter is adjusted. The knob “Gain” is used to increase the sensitivity of
the instrument.
5. Then ultrasonic waves are reflected back from the movable plate, and standing waves are
formed between the quartz crystal and the reflector plate.
6. The micrometer screw is moved till the anode current reaches maximum.
Micro ammeter readings are noted for ‘n’ number of maxima / minima.
7. The distance ‘d’ between two successive maxima and minima is obtained from the
readingstaken.
8. The wavelength of the ultrasound is calculated using the ‘d’ value and hence velocity of
the ultrasonic wave can be calculated using the known frequency.
Observations and Calculations:

Least count of the main scale = ……… mm

Least count of circular scale = ……… mm

Least count of Vernier scale = ……… mm

Frequency of the ultrasound used (f) = 2MHz

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Table 2:

S.NO Micrometre Reading Difference

Corresponding to between
maxima/minima(mm) consecutive
Maxima/Minima
d=λ/2 (mm)
1 N1 N2-N1
2 N2 N3-N2
3 N3 N4-N3
4 N4 N5-N4
5 N5 Mean d=

The velocity of ultrasonic waves is calculated as v=λ f=2df

=………ms-1Standard velocity of ultrasonic waves is =1480m/s

Result (s): The velocity of ultrasonic waves is = ………ms-1

Conclusion: Ultrasonic waves move with a very high speed.

Review Questions

(i) What is ultrasonic wave?

(ii) Why ultrasonic waves are inaudible to humans?
(iii) Give important applications of ultrasound.
(iv) What is the principle used for finding ultrasonic velocity using acoustic grille?

Prepared By Reviewed By Approved By

Dr. Indu Gupta Dr. Ruby Priya HOD

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Experiment No. 6
Aim: To study the magneto resistance of a material.
List of Equipment Used:
Table 1: List of Equipments
S.N. Equipment Range Quantity

1. Constant current Power supply 4A &50V 1

2. Hall probe NA 1

3. Digital gauss meter 2-20K gauss 1

4 n-type Germanium crystal 0.7eV 1

5 Electromagnet NA 1

6 Power supply for crystal 0-8mA &0-200mV 1

Introduction/Theory: The magnetoresistance is defined as the ratio of change in resistance of a

substance due to application of magnetic field to its resistance in zero field. Under the influence
of a magnetic field, the electrons in a solid material do not follow the exact direction of
superimposed electric field, instead take a curved path. This results in effective decrease of the
mean free path and hence an increase in the resistivity of the sample. When magnetic field is
applied normal to the current flow, the effect is termed as transverse magnetoresistance and when
field is applied parallel to the current flow, it is termed as longitudinal magnetoresistance. For
small field we can write transverse magnetoresistance as
∆R/R α H2 (1)
R represents resistance. However, in higher field the dependence is quite often linear. In case of
longitudinal magnetoresistance.
the Eq. (1) holds except that the constant of proportionality between ∆R/R and H2 is much smaller
than that of the transverse case.
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Diagram:

Formula Used:
∆R/R=(Rm-R)/R
Precautions:
1. Ge crystal is very brittle. Use only the minimum pressure required for proper electrical contacts.
2. Do not use the instrument in wet environments.
3. Connect the outer pair of probes (red/black) to current terminals and inner pair (yellow/green)
leads to the probe voltage terminals.
Procedure:
1. Set the pole piece distance of the Electromagnet, to nearly 19mm.
2. Now place the Hall probe of Gaussmeter the magnetic field and switch on the electromagnet
power supply and set it to maximum (4A). Rotate the Hall probe till it become perpendicular to
magnetic field. Magnetic Field will be maximum in this adjustment.
3. Now lower the current to minimum and slowly increase the current and tabulate the magnetic
field as in Table-1.
4. Next unscrew the screws given at the top of probe to lower the base plate. Put the sample on the
base plate of the four probe arrangement. Slowly screw both screws evenly to apply a very gentle
pressure on the four spring probes. Check the continuity between the probes for proper electrical
contacts
5. Connect the outer pair of probes (red/black) leads to the current terminals and the inner pair
(yellow/green leads) to the probe voltage terminals.
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6. Switch on the mains supply of Magnetoresistance Setup, and put the digital panel meter in the
current measuring mode through the selector switch. In this position LED facing mA would glow.
Adjust the current to a desired value (Say 4mA).
7. Now put the digital panel meter in voltage measuring mode. In this position LED facing mV
would glow and the meter would read the voltage between the probes.
8. Now place the probe in the magnetic field and switch on the electromagnet power supply and
set it to maximum (4A). Further rotate the Magnetoresistance probe till it become perpendicular
to magnetic field. Voltage will be maximum in this adjustment.
9. Vary the magnetic field by varying the current step by step and note the change in Voltage
reading as in Table-2.

Observations &
CalculationsTable 2:
S.No Current(I) A Magnetic Field(H) KG

2
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Table 3:
Probe Current I = 4.0 mA (Constant for the whole set of readings), Resistance R without
magnetic field H=……..
S.No Current Magnetic Voltage Rm=Vm/I ∆R/R*10-3 Log(H*10-2) Log(∆R/R*10-3)
(I) Field(H) Vm KG
(A) kG (mV)

Graph: H Vs. ∆R/Rand log H Vs. log ∆R/R as per table -1 and 2
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35.00

30.00

25.00

20.00
∆R/R*10-3

15.00

10.00

5.00

0.00
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Magnetic field KG
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1.60
1.40
Log(∆R/R*10-3)

1.20
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
0.5 1.5 2.5

Log(H*10-2)…
Result(s): The graph increases linearly
Conclusion: It is noticed that the resistance of a sample changes when the magnetic field is turned
on. This phenomenon is known as Magnetoresistance. This is due to the fact that the drift velocity
of all the carriers is not same. With the magnetic field on; the Hall voltage compensates exactly
the Lorentz force for carriers with average velocity; slower carriers will be over compensated and
faster ones undercompensated, resulting in trajectories that are not along the applied field.This
results in an effective decrease of the mean free path and hence an increase in resistivity.
Review Questions
1. What do you understand by magnetoresistance?
2. What is Hall voltage?
3. What is the relation between magnetic field and resistance of the materials?
4. What is Lorentz force?
5. Can all materials have magnetoresistance?
6. What is the application of this phenomenon?

Prepared By Reviewed By Approved By

Dr. Indu Gupta Dr. Ruby Priya HOD

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Experiment No. 7

Aim: To measure the value of ‘g’ using Kater’s pendulum.

List of Equipment Used:

Table 1: List of Equipments

S.N. Equipment Range Quantity

1 Kater’s pendulum 120cm 1

2 Stop watch NA 1

3 Meter rod 100cm 1

Introduction/Theory: Kater’s pendulum consists of a long metallic rod R of circular cross section
weighted at one end so that the centre of mass is much nearer to one end. To do this, a heavy
metallic cylinder W1 and an identical wooden cylinder W2 are placed at the two ends of the rod. It
has two movable knife edges K1 and K2. A much smaller metallic cylinder W is kept at the middle
of the rod. All the five can be moved along the rod and fixed at any position using screws. This
configuration ensures that the centre of gravity lies near one of the knife edges.

Kater’s pendulum is a compound pendulum based on the principle that the centre of suspension
and centre of oscillation are interchangeable. The movable cylinders, knife edges and the metallic
weight are so adjusted such that the time periods of the pendulum about the two knife edges
situated asymmetrically with respect to the centre of gravity are exactly equal. Then, the distance
between the knife edges is equal to the length of equivalent simple pendulum whose time period
is given by

T=2π√𝑙/𝑔

And hence, g may be calculated. We resort to Bessel’s approximation where we do not require
making the two time periods to be exactly equal because it is quite difficult and time-consuming
to set the Kater’s pendulum for this configuration.
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If T1 and T2 represent two nearly equal time periods (in sec) for positions of K1 and K2 distant Ɩ1
and Ɩ2 (in cm) from C.G.

Formula Used: The following formula is used for the determination of acceleration due to gravity
‘g’:

Here, T1: time periods of the oscillating pendulum from knife-edge K1

T2: time periods of the oscillating pendulum from knife-edge K2

Ɩ1: distances between knife-edges K1 and CG of the pendulum

Ɩ2: distances between knife-edges K2 and CG of the pendulum

When T1 and T2 are very close to each other (difference less than 1 percent),
2
The above expression becomes as: 8𝜋
𝑇12+𝑇22
…………………………….(2)
𝑙1+𝑙2
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Precautions:

1. The two knife-edges should be parallel to each other.

2. The amplitude of vibration should be small so that the motion of the pendulum satisfies the
condition of simple harmonic motion.

3. To avoid any irregularity of motion the time period should be noted after the pendulum has
made a few oscillations.

4. To avoid friction there should be glass surface on rigid support.

Procedure:

1. Suspend the pendulum from the knife edges K1 and K2 in turn and oscillate it. Find for 20
oscillations and obtain the time periods.

2. The time periods are made nearly equal as much as possible by moving M either upward or

downward and finally using the micrometre screw for the final adjustment of mass m.

3. Measure the time periods T1 and T2 about K1 and K2.

4. Measure the distance (l1 + l2) between the two knife edges K1 and K2.
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5. by knowing the value of (l1 + l2) and time periods T1 and T2 the value of g can be calculated by
applying the formula in equation (1).

6. Change the distance between two knife edges and again repeat the experiment.

Observations &Calculations:

1. Least count of stop watch=…….sec

2. Distance between K1 and CG (Ɩ1) =…….cm

3. Distance between K2 and CG (Ɩ2) =…….cm

4. Table for time period T1(oscillation about K1)

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Table 2:

For the determination of T1 and T2

S. No. of Time about the knife Time of Mean Time about the Tim Me Dista
No. oscillati edge K1 one T1 knife edge K2 e of an nce
ons oscillati Secs. one T2 betwe
on T1 oscil Sec en
secs. latio s. two
n T2 knife
secs. edges
i.e.

meter

Min. Secs Total Min. Secs Total

. .
1 20 … … … … … … … … … … …

2 25 … … … … … … … … …

1 20 … … … … … … … … … … …

2 25 … … … … … … … … …

1 20 … … … … … … … … … … …

2 25 … … … … … … … … …

Acceleration due to gravity ‘g’= ............ m/s2

Standard value of ‘g’ = 9.8 m/s2

Result (s): Acceleration due to gravity ‘g’= ............. m/s2

Conclusion: kater’s pendulum gives a very accurate value of gravity.

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Review Questions:

2. What is a kater’s pendulum?

3. Why do you place heavy mass at one end?

4. How will you find the value of g if the two time periods are not exactly equal?

Prepared By Reviewed By Approved By

Dr. Indu Gupta Dr. Ruby Priya HOD

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Experiment No. 8
Aim:-To determine Hall Voltage and Hall Coefficient using Hall Effect.
List of Equipment Used:
Table 1: List of Equipments

S.N. Equipment Range Quantity

1. Constant current Power supply 4A &50V 1

2. Hall probe NA 1

3. Digital gauss meter 2-20K gauss 1

4 n-type Germanium crystal 0.7eV 1

5 Electromagnet NA 1

6 Power supply for crystal 0-8mA &0-200mV 1

Introduction/Theory:- Hall Effect: If a current carrying conductor placed in a perpendicular

magnetic field, a potential difference will generate in the conductor which is perpendicular to both
magnetic field and current. This phenomenon is called Hall Effect. In solid state physics, Hall
Effect is an important tool to characterize the materials especially semiconductors. It directly
determines both the sign and density of charge carriers in a given sample.
Consider a rectangular conductor of thickness t kept in XY plane. An electric field is applied in X-
direction using Constant Current Generator (CCG), so that current I flow through the sample. If
w is the width of the sample and t is the thickness. There for current density is given by

Jx=I/wt (1)
If the magnetic field is applied along negative z-axis, the Lorentz force moves the charge carriers
(say electrons) toward the y-direction. This results in accumulation of charge carriers at
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the top edge of the sample. This set up a transverse electric field Ey in the sample. This develop a
potential difference along y-axis is known as Hall voltage VH.
A current is made to flow through the sample material and the voltage difference between its top
and bottom is measured using a volt-meter. When the applied magnetic field B=0, the voltage
difference will be zero.
We know that a current flows in response to an applied electric field with its direction as
conventional and it is either due to the flow of holes in the direction of current or the movement
of electrons backward. In both cases, under the application of magnetic field the magnetic Lorentz

force, causes the carriers to curve upwards. Since the charges cannot escape from
the material, a vertical charge imbalance builds up. This charge imbalance produces an electric
field which counteracts with the magnetic force and a steady state is established. The vertical
electric field can be measured as a transverse voltage difference using a voltmeter. In steady state
condition, the magnetic force is balanced by the electric force. Mathematically we can express it

as
(2)

Diagram:-
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Circuit diagram:-

Fig.1:- Schematic representation of Hall Effect in a conductor.

Where 'e' the electric charge, 'E' the hall electric field developed, 'B' the applied magnetic field and
'v' is the drift velocity of charge carriers.
And the current 'I' can be expressed as,

(3)

Where 'n' is the number density of electrons in the conductor of length l, breadth 'w' and
thickness‘t’.
Using (1) and (2) the Hall voltage VH can be written as,

(4)

By rearranging equation (4) we get

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(5)

Where RH is called the Hall coefficient.

Formula Used:
Hall voltage

Where RH is called the Hall coefficient.

Graph1:
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Graph2:

Precautions:
1. There should be no magnet, magnetic substances and current carrying conductors near the
apparatus.

2. The plane of the coil should be set in the magnetic meridian.

3. Current should remain constant and should be reversed for each observations
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4. To avoid error due to parallax, the eye should be placed such a way that pointer covers its
image in the mirror below.

Procedure:
1. Connect ‘Constant current source’ to the solenoids.
2. Four probes is connected to the Gauss meter and placed at the middle of the two solenoids.
3. Switch ON the Gauss meter and Constant current source.
4. Vary the current through the solenoid from 1A to 5A with the interval of 0.5A, and note the
corresponding Gauss meter readings.
5. Switch OFF the Gauss meter and constant current source and turn the knob of constant
current source towards minimum current.
6. Fix the Hall probe on a wooden stand. Connect Constant Current Generator and milli
voltmeter in the Hall Effect apparatus
7. Replace the Four probes with Hall probe and place the sample material at the middle of the
two solenoids.
8. Switch ON the constant current source and CCG.
9. Carefully increase the current I from CCG and measure the corresponding Hall voltage VH.
Repeat this step for different magnetic field B.
10. Thickness t of the sample is measured using screw gauge.
11. Hence calculate the Hall coefficient RH
Observations & Calculations:-
Thickness of the sample (t) = 0.70 (mm)
Table 2:

Sr. No. Current I, Magnetic Field H,

(A) (Tesla)

3
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Table 3: DEPARTMENT OF ACADEMIC UNIT-1, 3 & 4

PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS (SPH-141)

Magnetic Field Hall Hall
Sr. (Tesla) current, Voltage
No. (mA) (mV)
(volt m/amp tesla)
1

The observed Hall voltage VH= ............... volt

Hall coefficient of the material RH =………volt m/amp tesla

Result (s): The observed Hall voltage VH= ................ volt
Hall coefficient of the material, RH = ........... volt m/amp tesla
Conclusion: In conclusion, the Hall effect was verified. As long as the magnetic field and the
current stayed below some threshold, there was a linear relationship between the voltage measured,
and the current and B field applied.

Review Questions

1. How is Hall’s Coefficient related to carrier concentration?

2. On what factors do the sign of the Hall Coefficient depend?
3. Is it possible to measure Hall’s coefficient for metal?
4. In what units is hall’s coefficient measured?

Prepared By Reviewed By Approved By

Dr. Indu Gupta Dr. Ruby Priya HOD

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Experiment No. 9

Aim: Determination of value of Planck’s constant ‘h’ using photo cell.

List of Equipment Used:

Table 1: List of Equipments

S.N. Equipment Range Quantity

1 Digital Voltmeter (DVM) to measure the 0-20V 1

voltage across the L.E. D. s

2 Micro-ammeter to determine the current 30𝑀A 1

through L.E.D.s.

3 Jack J to connect the L.E.D.s Different 4

colors

Introduction/Theory: The objective of this experiment is to determine Planck's constant using

light emitting diodes (LED's) by observing the ’reverse photo-electric effect’. In the case of the
photoelectric effect, an electron is emitted from a metal if the energy of the photon is greater than
the work function of the metal. If the energy of said photon is greater than the work function of a
given material then the electron emitted possesses a voltage, which equals the difference in these
energies. In the case of an LED's the opposite is true. If an electron of sufficient voltage is passed
across a material, then a photon is emitted whose energy is equivalent to the work function of that
material. The voltage at which this effect is first observed is the 'turn on voltage'.

When a semiconductor is doped with impurities of the III periodic group elements it then has a
lack of electrons in the valance band. Similarly doped semiconductors with V periodic group
elements so as to have excess electrons, which then overpopulate the valance band and form a
conduction band. These are P and N type semiconductors respectively, P for positive, and N for
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negative. When coupled we have what is called a P-N junction. In this system the bands don’t
always line up and there then exists a barrier potential. If a bias voltage is passed across the diode,
which is equal or greater than the difference in the energy of the bands, i.e. the barrier

potential, then the bands will ’line up’ and a current will flow. When current flows, electrons flow
from the conduction band of the N type conductor and are forced up into the conduction band of
the P type. Since the P type conductor’s valance band is lacking in electrons and we are
overpopulating its conduction band with the bias voltage the electrons readily fall into the ’holes’
in the valance band of the P type conductor. When they fall this energy is released in the form of
a photon. The energy of this photon is equal to the band gap energy of the diode. It follows that if
the linear portion of the voltage vs. current graph is extrapolated back to the x-axis the intercept
should be the point at which the voltage equals the barrier potential. The energy of the photons
emitted should then be the same as the energy of a given electron.

Diagram:

Formula Used:

E= hʋ (1)

E=eV (2)

Where e = 1.6 × 10-19 C

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We then solve equation (1) for h and replace the E term with the equivalent of E in equation (2),
as well as replace υ with:

υ=c/ λ

Where c = 3 × 108 m/sec

We then get:

h=eV λ/c (3)

this equation can be rewritten as

V=hc/e λ (4)

It is this equation that we will use to determine Planck's constant.

Where h is Planck’s Constant

ʋ is the frequency of light

Precautions: -

1. The experiment should be performed such that the glow of LEDs is properly visible.

2. Smooth graphs should be plotted.

Procedure: 1. Connect the L.E.D. to the jack provided on the front panel and switch ON the unit.

2. Take the different voltage and current measurement of LED (as tabulated below) for V-I
characteristic of LED:

3. Take different LEDs and follow step 2.

4. Now plot the V-I characteristics of all the LEDs on graph paper and take voltages corresponding
to a constant current as shown on graph in next page.
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Observations & Calculations:

Table 2:

S. No L.E.D. Wavelength 1/ λ Stoppage Energy(J) Frequency h=

Colour λ (nm) Voltage E=eV υ = c/ λ
V (volts) eV λ/c

1 Red 650

2 Green 510

3 Yellow 570

4 Blue 475

Now plot a graph between voltage (V) vs. 1/λ and determine the slope of the line.

Graph:

Chart Title
2.5
y = 0.5117x - 1.1481
2 R² = 0.7357

1.5
Voltage

1 Series1
Linear (Series1)
0.5

0
0 2 4 6 8
1/λ*106

Slope of the curve between V vs. 1/λ =hc/e.

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Substitute the values of c = (3×108 m/s) and e = (1.6×10-19 C) and determine the value of
Planck’s constant h.

Standard value of Planck’s constant’ h’ is = 6.63 x 10 -34

Js

Result (s): The value of Planck’s constant ‘h’= Js

Conclusion: Our experimental value of Planck’s constant was well within the limits set by
experimental uncertainty.

Review Questions

1. What is the value of Planck’s constant?

2. What is the relation between energy of a photon and its wavelength?

3. What are the units of Planck’s constant?

4. Does the violet light have more energy or the red light?

Prepared By Reviewed By Approved By

Dr. Indu Gupta Dr. Ruby Priya HOD