SOIL MECHANICS II LECTURE NOTES

TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST

Developed by Casagrande in an attempt to overcome some of the serious disadvantages of the
direct shear test. Its advantages over DST
 The soil samples are subjected to uniform stresses and strains.
 Different combinations of confining and axial stresses can be applied.
 Drained and undrained tests can be carried out (Drainage can be well controlled).
 Pore water pressures can be measured in undrained tests.
 There is no rotation of the principal stresses like the direct shear test
 Also the failure plane can occur anywhere
 Reliable method for determining shear strength parameters under controlled drainage conditions
(mainly used for research and conventional testing).
 A cylindrical specimen of soil (about 36mm in diameter and 76mm is used) is encased into a thin
rubber membrane and then placed inside a plastic-confining cylinder (with confining fluid/air
pressure/water/glycerine filled) and then loaded axially to failure.
 Carried out in a cell and is so named because the three principal stresses are assumed to be known
and are controlled.
 Two of the principal stresses are applied to the sample by a water pressure inside the confining
cell and are equal. The third principal stress is applied by a loading ram through the top of the cell
and therefore may be different to the other two principal stresses.

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General set-up of a soil specimen inside a triaxial cell.

Stress state during a triaxial test

 The confining stress σc is applied by pressurizing the cell fluid surrounding the specimen –
during shear, the major principal stress, σ1 is equal to the applied axial stress (Δσ = F/A) plus
the chamber (confining) pressure (radial stress σr), or minor principal stress σ3.
 The deviator stress q is generated by applying an axial strain εa to the soil – the deviator stress
acts in addition to the confining stress in the axial direction, with these combined stresses equal
to the axial stress σa, or major principal stress σ1. The stress state is said to be isotropic when
σ1 = σ3, and anisotropic when σ1 ≠ σ3.
 The applied axial stress, σ1 - σ3 is termed the "principal stress difference" or “deviator stress”.
 The intermediate principal stress, σ2 and the minor principal stress, σ3 are identical in the test,
and are equal to the confining or chamber pressure.

Soil shear strength under drained and undrained conditions

 Drained conditions occur when rate at which loads are applied are slow compared to rates
at which soil material can drain.
 Sands drain fast; therefore under most loading conditions drained conditions exist in sands
 Exceptions: pile driving, earthquake loading in fine sands.
 In clays, drainage does not occur quickly; therefore excess pore water pressure does not
dissipate quickly.

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 Therefore, in clays the short-term shear strength may correspond to undrained conditions.
 Even in clays, long-term shear strength is estimated assuming drained conditions
The test consists of two stages;
 Isotropic loading - Specimen is subjected to confining pressure by compression of fluid in
chamber.
 Shearing to cause shear failure in the specimen, where actual stress is applied (sometimes
called deviator stress) through a vertical loading arm.
The axial load applied by the loading arm corresponding to a given axial deformation is measured
by a proving ring or load cell attached to the arm. Connections to measure drainage into or out of
the specimen or to measure pressure in the pore water is also provided.

Types of triaxial test

There are three primary triaxial tests conducted in the laboratory, each allowing the soil response
for differing engineering applications to be observed. These are:
1. Unconsolidated Undrained test (UU)
2. Consolidated Undrained test (CU)
3. Consolidated Drained test (CD)

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σc = confining pressure or all around pressure or cell pressure = σ3

Δσ = deviatoric stress = σ1 - σ3
The unconsolidated undrained (UU) test
 It is the simplest and fastest procedure (hence called quick test), with soil specimens loaded
whilst only total stresses are controlled and recorded.
 σ3 and Δσ are applied fast so the soil does not have time to settle or consolidate.
 The test is performed with the drain valve closed for all phases of the test. (Water is not
allowed to drain)
 This allows the undrained shear strength cu to be determined, which is suitable for assessing
soil stability in the short-term (e.g. during or directly following a construction project). UU
test simulates short term shear strength for cohesive soils.
 For this test, ø = ø’ = 0
 S = cu = Su = (σ1- σ3)/2 = (σ1’- σ3’)/2
Whereas the shear box test directly gives the Mohr-Coulomb lines, the triaxial test needs us to
draw the Mohr circles corresponding to each test failure. The Mohr-Coulomb lines are tangent
to these Mohr circles.

The consolidated drained (CD) test

 Also called slow test.
 Drainage valves OPEN during consolidation as well as shearing phases.

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 Complete sample drainage is achieved prior to application of the vertical load.

 The load is applied at such a slow strain rate that particle readjustments in the specimen do
not induce any excess pore pressure. (can take up to 2 weeks)
 Since there is no excess pore pressure; total stresses will equal effective stresses.
 This test simulates long term shear strength for cohesive soils (applicable to describing
long-term loading response), providing strength parameters determined under effective
stress control (i.e. ϕ΄ and c΄).

Some practical applications of CD analysis for clays

1. Embankment constructed very slowly, in layers over a soft

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2. Earth dam with steady state seepage

3. Excavation or natural slope in clay

Note: CD test simulates the long term condition in the field. Thus, cd and ϕd should be used to
evaluate the long term behavior of soils

The consolidated undrained (CU) test

 It is the most common triaxial procedure, as it allows strength parameters to be determined
based on the effective stresses (i.e. ϕ΄ and c΄) whilst permitting a faster rate of shearing

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compared with the CD test. This is achieved by recording the excess pore pressure change
within the specimen as shearing takes place.
 Apply σ3 and wait until the soil consolidates
 Drainage valves are open during consolidation phase but closed during the shearing phase
 (Drainage and consolidation is allowed to take place during the application of the confining
pressure σ3)
 Loading does not commence until the sample ceases to drain (or consolidate).
 This test can simulate long term as well as short term shear strength for cohesive soils if
pore water pressure is measured during the shearing phase.
 For this Test, cT ≠ c’ and ϕT = ϕ’
 From this test we obtain;
 c’, ϕ’ and u (Effective stress)
 cT, ϕT (Total stress)

Some practical applications of CU analysis for clays

1. Embankment constructed rapidly over a soft clay deposit

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2. Rapid drawdown behind an earth dam

3. Rapid construction of an embankment on a natural slope

Note: Total stress parameters from CU test (Ccu and Φcu) can be used for stability problems where,
Soil have become fully consolidated and are at equilibrium with the existing stress state; Then for
some reason additional stresses are applied quickly with no drainage occurring

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Examples:
Question one
Enumerate the types of laboratory triaxial test you would specify to be carried out in connection
with the following field problems:
i) the stability of a clay foundation of an embankment, the rate of construction being such
that some consolidation of the clay occurs;
Answer:
Since there is some consolidation during construction of the embankment, a
consolidated undrained triaxial test with pore water pressure measurements would be
appropriate in this case.

ii) the initial stability of a footing on saturated clay;

A footing on saturated clay will initially increase the pore water pressure of the clay
and only gradually, as consolidation occurs, will the effective stresses increase. The
appropriate test in this case, therefore, would be an unconsolidated undrained
triaxial test.
iii) the long-term stability of a slope in stiff fissured clay.
The long-term stability of a slope in a stiff fissured clay would depend on the effects
of consolidation and water seepage.
A consolidated drained test would give the necessary information about the long-
term shearing resistance of the clay.

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Question two

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Question 3

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SLOPE STABILITY
An exposed ground surface that stands at an angle () with the horizontal is called slope. Slopes
are required in the construction of highway and railway embankments, earth dams, levees and
canals. These are constructed by sloping the lateral faces of the soil because slopes are generally
less expensive than constructing walls. Slopes can be natural or man-made. Natural Slopes are
those that exist in nature and are formed by natural causes. Such slopes exist in hilly areas. Man-
Made Slopes are artificially formed slopes e.g. sides of cuttings, the slope of embankments
constructed for roads, railway lines, canals, etc. and the slopes earth-dams constructed for storing
water.
The slopes whether natural or artificial may further be classified as;
1. Infinite Slopes - Designate a constant slope of infinite extent. They have dimensions that
extend over great distances and the soil mass is inclined to the horizontal, e.g. the long
slope of the face of a mountain.

2. Finite Slopes – A finite slope is one with a base and top surface, the height being limited,
e.g. the slopes of embankment s and earth dams. The slope length depends on the height of
dam or embankment.
When the ground surface is not horizontal a component of gravity will try to move the sloping soil
mass downwards. Failure of natural slopes (landslides) and man-made slopes has resulted in much
death and destruction. Some failures are sudden and catastrophic; others are widespread; some are
localized. Civil Engineers are expected to check the safety of natural and slopes of excavation.
Slope stability analysis consists of determining and comparing the shear stress developed along
the potential rupture surface with the shear strength of the soil. Attention has to be paid to geology,
surface drainage, groundwater, and the shear strength of soils in assessing slope stability.

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Sloping Face

β – Slope Angle
Definition of Key Terms

 Slip or failure zone: It is a thin zone of soil that reaches the critical state or residual state
and results in movement of the upper soil mass.
 Slip plane or failure plane or slip surface or failure surface: It is the surface of sliding.
 Sliding mass: It is the mass of soil within the slip plane and the ground surface.
 Slope angle (β): It is the angle of inclination of a slope to the horizontal. The slope angle
is sometimes referred to as a ratio, for example, 2:1 (horizontal: vertical).

Slope Failure Triggering Mechanisms

 Intense Rain-Fall  Volcanic Eruption
 Water-Level Change  Earthquake Shaking
 Seepage Water Flow  Human activity
Causes of slope failure
The failure of a soil mass occurs along a plane or a curved surface when a large mass of soil slides
with respect to the remaining mass. In general, there is a downward and outward movement of the
soil mass. A slope failure occurs when the forces causing failure are greater than the shearing

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resistance (shear strength) developed along a critical surface of failure. The factors leading to the
failure of slopes may be classified into two categories:
 Factors which cause an increase in the shear stresses: The stresses may increase due to;
weight of water causing saturation of soils, surcharge loads, seepage pressure or any other
cause or steepening of slopes either by excavation or natural slopes.
 The factors which cause a decrease in the shear strength of soil: the loss of shear
strength may occur due to; increase in pore water pressure, cyclic loads/shock or
weathering etc.
Most of natural slope failures occur during rainy seasons, as the presence of water causes both
increased stresses and the loss of shear strength.
The main causes of slope failure are discussed below:
1. Gravitational force: The component of gravity that acts in the direction of probable
motion.
2. Erosion: The wind and flowing water causes erosion of top surface of slope and makes the
slope steep and thereby increase the tangential component of driving force.
3. Steady Seepage: Seepage forces in the sloping direction add to gravity forces and make
the slope susceptible to instability. The pore water pressure decreases the shear strength.
This condition is critical for the downstream slope.
4. Sudden Drawdown: in this case there is reversal in the direction flow and results in
instability of side slope. Due to sudden drawdown the shear stresses are more due to
saturated unit weight while the shearing resistance decreases due to pore water pressure
that does not dissipate quickly.
5. Rainfall: Long periods of rainfall saturate, soften, and erode soils. Water enters into
existing cracks and may weaken underlying soil layers, leading to failure, for example,
mud slides.
6. Earthquakes: They induce dynamic shear forces. In addition there is sudden buildup of
pore water pressure that reduces available shear strength.
7. External Loading: Additional loads placed on top of the slope increases the gravitational
forces that may cause the slope to fail.

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8. Construction activities at the toe of the slope: Excavation at the bottom of the sloping
surface will make the slopes steep and thereby increase the gravitational forces which may
result in slope failure

Types of slope failures

A slope may have any one of the following types of failures.
1. Rotational failure: This type of failure occurs by rotation along a slip surface by downward
and outward movement of the soil mass. The slip surface is generally circular for homogeneous
soil conditions and non-circular in case of non- homogeneous conditions. Rotational slips are
further divided into 3 types.

a) Toe failure, in which the failure occurs along the surface that passes through the toe.
b) Slope/Face failure, in which the failure occurs along a surface that intersects the slope
above the toe.
c) Base failure, in which the failure surface passes below the toe.

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The slope failure occurs when a weak plane exists above the toe. The base failure occurs when
a weak stratum lies beneath the toe. If a strong stratum exists below the toe, the slip surface of
the base failure is tangential to that stratum. In all other cases the failures are generally toe
failures. Toe failures are most common.
2. Translational Failure: A constant slope of unlimited extent and having uniform soil
properties at the same depth below tile free surface is known as an infinite slope. In practice,
the slopes which are of considerable extent and in which the conditions on all verticals are
adequately represented by average conditions are designated as infinite slopes.

3. Compound Failure: A Compound failure is a combination of translational slide and rotational

slide. In this case, the slip surface is curved at two ends like rotational slip surface and flat at
central portion like in translational failure. The slip surface becomes flat whenever there is a
hard soil layer at a considerable depth from toe.

4. Wedge Failure: Wedge failure, also known as block failure or plane failure, generates a failure
plane that is inclined. This type of failure occurs when there are fissures, joints, or weak soil
layers in slope, or when a slope is made of two different materials. It is more similar to

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translational failure but the difference is that translational failure only occurs in case of infinite
slopes but wedge failure can occur in both infinite and finite slopes.

5. Flow Slide: A flow slide occurs when internal and external conditions force a soil to behave
like a viscous fluid and flow down even shallow slopes, spreading out in several directions.
The failure surface is ill-defined in flow slides. Multiple failure surfaces usually occur and
change continuously as flow proceeds. Flow slides can occur in dry and wet soils.
6. Lateral spreads: Are distinctive because they usually occur on very gentle slopes or flat
terrain. Failure is usually triggered by rapid ground motion, such as that experienced during an
earthquake, but can also be artificially induced. When coherent material, either bedrock or soil,
rests on materials that liquefy, the upper units may undergo fracturing and extension and may
then subside, translate, rotate, disintegrate, or liquefy and flow. Lateral spreading in fine-
grained materials on shallow slopes is usually progressive. The failure starts suddenly in a
small area and spreads rapidly.

Basis of analysis of slope stability

The soil mass must be safe against slope failure on any conceivable surface across the slope.
Although the methods using the theory of elasticity or plasticity are also being increasingly used,
the most common methods are based on limiting equilibrium in which it is assumed that the soil
is at the verge of failure. The methods of limiting equilibrium are statically indeterminate. As the
stress-strain relationships along the assumed surface are not known, it is necessary to make
assumptions so that the system becomes statically determinate and it can be analyzed easily using
the equations of equilibrium. The following assumptions are generally made:

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1. The stress system is assumed to be two-dimensional. The stresses in the third direction
(perpendicular to the section of the soil mass) are taken as zero.
2. It is assumed that the Coulomb equation for shear strength is applicable and the strength
parameters c and ø are known.
3. It is further assumed that the seepage conditions and water levels are known, and the
corresponding pore water pressure can be estimated.
4. The conditions of plastic failure are assumed to be satisfied along the critical surface. In
other words, the shearing strains at all points of the critical surface are large enough to
mobilize all the available shear strength.
5. Depending upon the method of analysis, some additional assumptions are made regarding
the magnitude and distribution of forces along various planes.

In the analysis, the resultant of all the actuating forces trying to cause the failure is determined. An
estimate is also made of the available shear strength. The factor of safety of the slope is determined
from the available resisting forces and the actuating forces.

Factors of Safety Considered in Slope Stability Analysis.

Factor of safety of a slope is defined as the ratio of average shear strength (f ) of a soil to the
average shear stress (d) developed along the potential failure surface.
f
FS 
d
FS = Factor of safety
 f = average shear strength of the soil

 d = average shear stress developed along the potential surface.

The following are the factors of safety considered in slope stability analysis:
1. Factor of safety with respect to shear strength (Fs) - It is defined as the ratio of shear strength
to the shear stress along the surface of failure. Therefore can be given as;

Where τm=Mobilized shear strength.

It can be written in terms of cohesion and the angle of shearing resistance as;

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Where Øm is the angle of mobilized resistance.

2. Factor of Safety with respect to Cohesion (Fc) - This is the ratio of available and the
mobilized cohesion.

3. Factor of safety with respect to Friction (Fø) - Ratio of available frictional strength to the
mobilized frictional strength.

In the analysis of slopes, the three factors of safety are taken to be equal. However, when greater
reliance is placed on parameter Ø, the factor of safety with respect to Cohesion is taken greater
than with respect to friction. In such a case, the factor of safety with respect to friction is usually
taken as unity.

When FS = 1, then the slope is said to be in a state of failure.

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Example 1

A laboratory test gave the following soil parameters c=40kN/m2, Φ=300. The expected parameters
of the mobilized shearing resistance are cm=25kN/m2, Φm=220. The average effective pressure on
the failure plane is 150kN/m2. Find factors of safety with respect to average shearing strength,
cohesion and internal friction. [6 Marks]

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Example 2
What will be the factors of safety with respect to average shearing strength, cohesion and
internal friction of a soil, for which the shear strength parameters obtained from the laboratory
tests are c' = 32 kN/m2 and ϕ' = 18°; the expected parameters of mobilized shearing resistance
are c'm = 21 kN/m2 and ϕ'm = 13° and the average effective pressure on the failure plane is
110 kN/m2. For the same value of mobilized shearing resistance determine the following:
1. Factor of safety with respect to height;
2. Factor of safety with respect to friction when that with respect to cohesion is unity;
3. Factor of safety with respect to strength. [9 Marks]

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Methods of slope stability analysis

1. Total stress analysis for purely cohesive soil.
2. Total stress analysis for cohesive-frictional (c-) soil – (Swedish method of slices or
Method of slices)
3. Effective stress analysis for conditions of steady seepage, rapid drawdown and
immediately after construction.
4. Friction circle method
5. Taylor’s method.

Improving stability of slopes

The slopes-which are susceptible to failure by sliding can be improved and made usable and safe.
Various methods are used to stabilize the slopes. The methods generally involve one or more of
the following measures, which either reduce the mass which may cause sliding or improve the
shear strength of the soil in the failure zone.
1. Slope flattening reduces the weight of the mass tending to slide. It can be used wherever
possible.
2. Providing a berm below the toe of the slope increases the resistance to movement. It is
especially useful when there is a possibility of a base failure.
3. Drainage helps in reducing the seepage forces and hence increases the stability. The zone
of subsurface water is lowered and infiltration of the surface water is prevented.
4. Densification by use of explosives, vibroflotation, or terra probe helps in increasing the
shear strength of cohesionless soils and thus increasing the stability.
5. Consolidation by surcharging, electro-osmosis or other methods helps in increasing the
stability of slopes in cohesive soils.
6. Grouting and injection of cement or other compounds into specific zones help in increasing
the stability of slopes.
7. Sheet piles and retaining walls can be installed to provide lateral support and to increase
the stability. However, the method is quite expensive.
8. Stabilization of the soil helps in increasing the stability of slopes.
In the interest of economy, relatively inexpensive methods, such as slope flattening and drainage
control, are generally preferred.

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