Proceedings of the ASME 2012 International Mechanical Engineering Congress & Exposition

IMECE2012
November 9-15, 2012, Houston, Texas, USA

IMECE2012-86254

WASTE HEAT RECOVERY FOR OFFSHORE APPLICATIONS

Leonardo Pierobon Rambabu Kandepu

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Teknova,
Technical University of Denmark, Kristiansand, Norway
Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark

Fredrik Haglind
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Technical University of Denmark,
Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark

ABSTRACT organic Rankine cycles employing different working fluids; an

With increasing incentives for reducing the CO2 emissions optimal media is then suggested based on efficiency, weight and
offshore, optimization of energy usage on offshore platforms space considerations. The paper concludes with suggestions for
has become a focus area. Most of offshore oil and gas platforms further research within the field of waste heat recovery for
use gas turbines to support the electrical demand on the offshore applications.
platform. It is common to operate a gas turbine mostly under
part-load conditions most of the time in order to accommodate NOMENCLATURE
any short term peak loads. Gas turbines with flexibility with
respect to fuel type, resulting in low turbine inlet and exhaust Abbreviations
gas temperatures, are often employed. The typical gas turbine ABS Air bottoming cycle
efficiency for an offshore application might vary in the range DNA Dynamic network analysis
20-30%. There are several technologies available for onshore ECO Economizer
gas turbines (and low/medium heat sources) to convert the EVA Evaporator
waste heat into electricity. For offshore applications it is not HMIS Hazardous materials identification system
economical and practical to have a steam bottoming cycle to INH Intermediate heat exchanger
increase the efficiency of electricity production, due to low gas ISO International organization for standardization
turbine outlet temperature, space and weight restrictions and the ORC Organic Rankine cycle
need for make-up water. A more promising option for use SC Steam cycle
offshore is organic Rankine cycles (ORC). Moreover, several SUP Superheater
oil and gas platforms are equipped with waste heat recovery TIT Turbine inlet temperature
units to recover a part of the thermal energy in the gas turbine WHRU Waste heat recovery unit
off-gas using heat exchangers, and the recovered thermal energy
acts as heat source for some of the heat loads on the platform. Notations
The amount of the recovered thermal energy depends on the A, B, C, D Coefficients
heat loads and thus the full potential of waste heat recovery c Specific heat capacity [kJ/(kg ºC)]
units may not be utilized. In present paper, a review of the h Specific enthalpy [kJ/kg]
technologies available for waste heat recovery offshore is made. p Pressure [bar]
Further, the challenges of implementing these technologies on s Specific entropy [kJ/(kg ºC)]
offshore platforms are discussed from a practical point of view. T Temperature [ºC]
Performance estimations are made for a number of combined u Specific internal energy [kJ/kg]
cycles consisting of a gas turbine typically used offshore and ρ Density [kg/m3]

1 Copyright © 2012 by ASME

 play key role in order for any solution to be implemented.
Subscripts Hence a combined cycle using a steam bottoming cycle is not
0 Thermodynamic variable at reference state an ideal solution.
c Thermodynamic variable at critical point
The most common way of waste heat recovery from gas
INTRODUCTION turbines installed offshore is to capture the thermal energy in
the flue gas to a usable thermal energy in the form of
Energy in the form of electric/mechanical power is needed to
water/glycol or other heating transfer oil. The captured thermal
produce, process and transport oil and gas. For example, some
energy in the heating medium can be used for various
of the most energy intensive processes on an offshore
applications on the installation. The operating efficiency of a
installation are related to gas compression, pumping of
gas turbine can be substantially increased if the captured
oil/condensate, water injection and transportation. The
thermal energy is utilized completely.
corresponding power is produced by using gas turbines by
burning gas and/or diesel oil on most of the existing offshore
An example for the waste heat recovery from CiTECH Energy
installations. Much of the carbon emissions from the petroleum
Recovery Systems UK Ltd is presented here, which is shown in
sector derive from gas turbines for electricity or mechanical
Figure 1. For more information refer [2]. The research and
power. Thus to reduce the carbon emissions offshore, it is very
development challenges in this area have been the following:
crucial to increase the efficiency of energy production using gas
turbines; optimal operation of gas turbines and waste heat
recovery from gas turbine flue gas.  Weight and space specifications of the technology
 Operation and maintenance requirements
Alternative ways of avoiding carbon emissions offshore are  Robust and sensitivity issues in regard to the gas
powering an offshore installation from onshore and producing turbine operation
the required energy from renewable energy sources offshore.  Qualification and certification to install on offshore
platforms
Powering an offshore installation from shore can be an option
for future installations but it can be very expensive for existing
installations. However if the power produced onshore is based
on a fossil fuel, in effect, the carbon emissions may not be
reduced compared to the power production offshore.

Producing energy from renewable energy sources for an

offshore installation is still at an early research and
development stage and it might take 10-15 years before it can
be implemented. In this regard, an offshore wind park located
near a group of offshore installations seems promising in future
for future/existing installations.

The present paper focuses on increasing the energy efficiency of

existing offshore installations where gas turbines are used for
Figure 1: CiBAS waste heat recovery technology from CiTECH
power production. In more specific, it focuses on the waste heat
Energy Recovery Systems UK Ltd
recovery aspect of a gas turbine for an offshore application.
However these waste heat recovery systems are not utilized to
BACKGROUND
their full potential as the heat requirement for heat loads might
The standard way of increasing the efficiency of power
be far less than the feasible heat recovery from the gas turbines
production from gas turbine onshore is to have combined cycles
operating on the platform. Hence there can still be a lot of
and district heating system depending on the location and
thermal energy which is being not used and wasted.
system specifications. A gas turbine alone has lower thermal
efficiency than that of the more traditional marine diesel engine,
As the present work focusing on the energy efficiency of
but when combined with a steam cycle, efficiencies of up to 58
existing platforms, it evaluates the options to utilize the
% have been reported for land-based units [1]. Though showing
remaining thermal energy; the most promising solution is to
great benefits in increased energy efficiency, the steam cycle is
produce electricity from the wasted thermal energy.
also a large bulky system, with a high level of complexity.
Especially for offshore platforms weight and space parameters

2 Copyright © 2012 by ASME

Table 1: Some of the ORC based technology suppliers [3].

ORC BASED WASTE HEAT TO ELECTRICITY

Among other possible alternatives Organic Rankine Cycle TECHNOLOGIES
(ORC) is selected as best promising technology. Compared to a The Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) is a topic that has received a
conventional single pressure or dual pressure Steam Cycle (SC) lot of attention the past decade, while the circumstance most
it presents the benefit of both higher simplicity and compactness considered is low-grade heat recovery such as geothermal or
although lower thermal efficiencies are obtained. Moreover gas solar thermal power plants. The ORC works in principle as a
turbine selection for off-shore applications is focused more on steam Rankine cycle, where a heat source evaporates the
fuel flexibility and reliability rather than thermal efficiency, working fluid which is then expanded through a turbine, then
meaning that turbine inlet temperature (TIT) and pressure ratio condensed and pressurized before again being vaporized. Today
are not increased up to the optimal values. For a given pressure there are manufacturers specialized in complete ORC systems,
ratio the lower the TIT (<1000 °C) the lower the off gases targeting ORC applied for waste heat recovery, geothermal and
temperature is; for a given TIT of 900 °C pressure ratios from solar power production.
10 to 15 provide turbine outlet temperatures around 350-450
°C. Conventional SC runs with superheated steam at around In this section, one of the commercially available technologies
450-550 °C; when a lower temperature is utilized, for a given based on ORC for a gas turbine waste heat recovery application
steam live pressure, steam expansion may end up inside the is briefly presented. It is to be noted that these technologies are
vapor liquid equilibrium curve causing erosion to the turbine implemented onshore and for implementing offshore the
blades at the latter stages and lower cycle performance. ORC challenges related to space, weight and certification are to be
eliminates the problem by utilizing a “dry” fluid as working met. Some of the ORC solutions available in the market are
media; in facts, starting from saturated vapor, a “dry” fluid stated in Table 1: Some of the ORC based technology suppliers
adiabatic expansion ends up in the superheated vapor (single [3].
phase) region. As concerns Air Bottoming Cycle (ABS),
problems related to complexity and space requirements are ORMAT
alleviated; however a low performance increment is normally Ormat is a pioneer in advancing Recovered Energy Generation
achieved. (REG) Power Plants for a wide array of industrial applications.
The Ormat REG power plants capture unused waste heat from
industrial processes and convert it into electricity that can be

3 Copyright © 2012 by ASME

sold to the grid or used on-site, without any additional fuel sea. The version installed on the Draugen platform is C-version
consumption and with zero emissions. Ormat has developed launched in the beginning of the 1980’s [7]. The latest version
specialized solutions for energy recovery systems on gas is named the A2-version and refer [8] for technical information.
pipeline compressor stations; these units convert waste heat
from the exhaust of gas turbine-driven compressors into In the present analysis assumptions of main ORC parameters
electricity for sale to local utilities or for additional compressor are based not only to ensure high system performance but also
station power. considering compactness and complexity. Four hydrocarbon
fluids (toluene, cyclopentane, cyclohexane and benzene) are
Based on the Ormat® Energy Converter (OEC), field-proven investigated as possible working media. Two alternatives are
solutions have generated clean, reliable, cost-effective proposed, the first (toluene) is more directed to increase system
electricity from industrial waste and accelerate financial simplicity and to decrease the space requirements while the
turnover by maximizing energy efficiency and fossil fuel other (cyclohexane) focuses to obtain the highest system
savings. The foundation of Ormat's technical advantage is based performance.
on our original power generating unit design, combined with
innovative system analysis and thermodynamic process design DNA – the simulation tool
tailored to specific heat sources. DNA (Dynamic Network Analysis) is a simulation tool used for
energy systems analyses [9]. It is the present result of an
Ormat® OEC, is a power generation unit, which converts ongoing development at the Department of Mechanical
low, medium and high temperature heat into electrical energy. A Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, which began
single OEC may range in size from 250 kW to 20 MW. The with a Master’s Thesis work in 1989 [10]. Since then the
OECs are designed for the specific conditions of a wide variety program has been developed to be generally applicable for
of heat sources and is based on ORC [4]. Its main components covering unique features, and hence supplementing other
include simulation programs.
a vaporizer/preheater, turbogenerator, air-cooled or water-
cooled condenser, feed pump and controls. It is designed for In DNA the physical model is formulated by connecting the
outdoor installations. The OEC is a field-proven, mature relevant component models through nodes and by including
commercial product used in 71 countries worldwide. One of the operating conditions for the complete system. The physical
successful implementations of Ormat® OEC is for a gas turbine model is converted into a set of mathematical equations to be
application is shown in Figure 2 [5][6]. solved numerically. The mathematical equations include mass
and energy conservation for all components and nodes, as well
as relations for thermodynamic properties of the fluids
involved.

The fluid library has been recently extended by linking DNA

with the commercial software REFPROP 9. The source code,
provided under license in FORTRAN language, is compiled
together with DNA to form unique software; in this manner
more than a hundred real media including hydrocarbon fluids
are now available. The program includes a component library
with models for a large number of different components existing
within energy systems. Components are modeled with a
number of constitutive equations representing their physical
properties, e.g. heat transfer coefficients for heat exchangers
Figure 2: Ormat® OEC at Enterprise Products’ Neptune and isentropic efficiencies for compressors and turbines. Both
gas processing plant in St. Mary Parish, Louisiana steady state (involving algebraic equations) and dynamic
generates power from recovered exhaust heat from gas (involving differential equations) simulations can be conducted.
turbines driving compressors.
Intermediate loop
PERFORMANCE ESTIMATIONS OF GAS TURBINE Conventional ORC, as the name suggests, employs the use of
AND ORC COMBINED CYCLES carbon-based working fluids. Off gases from gas turbines has
In this section, two technical solutions to recuperate the waste quite substantial oxygen content; this implies that a direct heat
heat from gas turbines in off-shore platforms are studied. The exchange with the ORC working media could increase
study will be focused on the SGT-500 gas turbine from substantially the risk of fire or explosion in case of leakage. To
Siemens, which is installed on Draugen platform in Norwegian avoid this issue an intermediate loop is placed between the
ORC

4 Copyright © 2012 by ASME

Figure 3: Plant layout including the twin-spool gas turbine Siemens SGT-500, intermediate loop and the Organic Rankine
Cycle

and the heat source; furthermore the solution increases the density and specific heat of a glycol-based fluid named
thermal inertia of the bottoming cycle facilitating start up and dowtherm Q, a heat transfer fluid containing a mixture of
part-load operations. Another advantage of having intermediate diphenylethane and alkylated aromatics and designed for use as
loop is that it avoids local overheating of the organic fluid. an alternative to hot oils in liquid phase heat transfer systems
[11]. Assuming incompressible liquid specific enthalpy and
In the present paper thermodynamic properties of the entropy are computed by means of Eqs. (1)-(2):
intermediate fluid are computed utilizing the data regarding

Table 2: Design point specifications for the Siemens SGT-500 twin-spool gas turbine [12].
Gas Turbine data
Model Siemens SGT-500
Low pressure compressor stages 10 [-]
High pressure compressor stages 8 [-]
Low pressure turbine stages 1 [-]
High pressure turbine stages 2 [-]
Power turbine stages 3 [-]
Turbine inlet temperature (TIT) 850 [˚C]
Exhaust off gases temperature 376 [˚C]
Exhaust mass flow 93.5 [kg/s]
Net power output 17.014 [MW]
Heat rate 11312 [kJ/kWh]
Fuels Naphtha, crude oil, heavy fuel oil, bio oil,
natural gas, syngas

5 Copyright © 2012 by ASME

 𝑇 present analysis focuses on the single gas turbine without
ℎ = 𝑢 =
𝑇 𝑐 𝑇 𝑑𝑇 + ℎ0
0 (1) looking at the overall system in the platform. As indicated in
Figure 3, the plant is constituted by the Siemens SGT-500 twin
𝑇 𝑑𝑇 spool gas turbine, the intermediate loop and the ORC. The low
𝑠 =
𝑇 𝑐 𝑇 + 𝑠0
0 𝑇 (2) and high pressure axial compressors are mechanically coupled
by two distinct shafts with the low and high pressure turbines
where T0, s0, h0 are the temperature, entropy and enthalpy at the while the power turbine drives the electric generator. The fuel is
reference state. In the present model h0 and s0 are set to zero at a assumed to be natural gas. Waste heat from the off gases is
temperature T0 of 15 °C. The data acquired from [3] show that transferred trough dowtherm Q in the internal heat exchanger
the specific heat c in Eqs. (1)-(2) and the density ρ are a linear (INH); here the circulation pump compensates the pressure
function of temperature in the range between -35 and 360 °C; losses within the circuit. The heat is then provided to the
this tendency is expressed mathematically by Eqs. (3)-(4): bottoming cycle in the waste heat recovery unit (WHRU) where
additional power is produced by the ORC turbine. After the
𝑐 𝑇 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑇 = 0.7281 + 0.0032𝑇 (3)
expansion process the fluid is cooled down to increase the
economizer (ECO) inlet temperature. Low temperature heat is
then released to the condenser; the fluid is then pumped up to
𝜌 𝑇 = 𝐶 + 𝐷𝑇 = 1187 − 0.756𝑇 (4) the maximum pressure and heated up in the internal recuperator
before entering the WHRU. The fluid is first heated up to
System layout saturated liquid in the ECO, vaporized in the evaporator (EVA)
In the Draugen platform three Siemens SGT-500 gas turbines and finally superheated (SUP).
are utilized for electricity production; two share 50% of the load
while the other is on standby for maintenance periods. The

Table 3: Plant specifications assumed for the DNA model.

Ambient conditions (ISO)
Pressure 1.013 [bar]
Temperature 15 [˚C]
Gas Turbine
Low pressure compressor polytrophic efficiency 0.89 [-]
High pressure compressor polytrophic efficiency 0.89 [-]
Compressors mechanical efficiency 0.98 [-]
Combustion chamber pressure drop 6 [%]
Low pressure turbine polytrophic efficiency 0.89 [-]
High pressure turbine polytrophic efficiency 0.885 [-]
Power turbine polytrophic efficiency 0.88 [-]
Electric generator efficiency 0.98 [-]
INH outlet off gases temperature 145 [˚C]
Intermediate loop
Fluid dowtherm Q
INH pinch point 15 [˚C]
INH outlet dowtherm Q temperature 335 [˚C]
Dowtherm Q pump efficiency 0.8 [-]
Pressure drops dowtherm Q side 0.15 [bar]
Pressure drops off gases side 0.01 [bar]
Organic Rankine cycle
ORC turbine isentropic efficiency 0.8 [-]
Electric generator efficiency 0.98 [-]
Condenser outlet temperature 25 [˚C]
EVA pinch point 15 [˚C]
Recuperator pinch point 15 [˚C]
ORC pump efficiency 0.8 [-]

6 Copyright © 2012 by ASME

Table 4: Thermodynamic state at critical point and hazard rating for the four ORC working fluids under investigation.
Hazard classification is based on HMIS (Hazardous Materials Identification System) developed by the American Coatings
Association.
Fluid Tc [K] Pc [bar] ρc [kg/m3] Health Hazard Fire Hazard Physical Hazard
Benzene 562.02 49.06 304.8 2 3 0
Cyclopentane 511.69 45.15 267.9 2 3 1
Cyclohexane 553.64 40.75 273 1 3 0
Toluene 591.75 41.26 292 2 3 0

Table 5: Main results from the DNA simulations: for toluene maximum ORC pressure is 16.4 bar while cyclopentane, benzene
and cyclohexane maximum ORC pressure is set to 30 bar.
Gas Turbine (SGT500)
Gas turbine efficiency 31.44 [%]
Gas turbine net power output 16.83 [MW]
Fluid Toluene
Overall plant
Thermal efficiency 43.74 [%]
Net power output 23.50 [MW]
Organic Rankine cycle
Condenser outlet pressure 0.038 [bar]
ORC efficiency 28.48 [%]
ORC net power output 6.67 [MW]
Fluid Cyclohexane
Overall plant
Thermal efficiency 44.33 [%]
Net power output 23.92 [MW]
Organic Rankine cycle
Condenser outlet pressure 0.13 [bar]
ORC efficiency 29.88 [%]
ORC net power output 7.089 [MW]
Fluid Cyclopentane
Overall plant
Thermal efficiency 43.68 [%]
Net power output 23.57 [MW]
Organic Rankine cycle
Condenser outlet pressure 0.423 [bar]
ORC efficiency 29.04 [%]
ORC net power output 6.745 [MW]
Fluid Benzene
Overall plant
Thermal efficiency 43.66 [%]
Net power output 23.52 [MW]
Organic Rankine cycle
Condenser outlet pressure 0.1269 [bar]
ORC efficiency 28.31 [%]
ORC net power output 6.695 [MW]

The design point specifications for the Siemens SGT-500 model the system reliability making the power production independent
currently running in the Draugen platform are assumed as inputs from the quantity of natural gas extracted from the reservoir.
for the model; data are listed in Table 2. The SGT-500 TIT was
selected in order to achieve high fuel flexibility; this enhances The other parameters assumed for the calculations are listed in
Table 3. Pressure drops are the setting values for the program,

7 Copyright © 2012 by ASME

Figure 4: ORC efficiency vs. maximum pressure for the four different media. Toluene analysis is performed up to 16.4 bar
since the saturated vapor state is reached.

Figure 5: Temperature vs. heat exchanged inside the waste heat recovery unit. Toluene analysis is performed at 16.4 bar since
the saturated vapor state is reached. Other working fluids maximum pressure is set to 30 bar.

however, pressure drops are function of channel size and mass changed. No pressure drops are assumed in the ORC
flows and the channel geometry is not known. Calculations components. The terminal temperature of the off-gases exiting
show that the final values in terms of power output and the waste heat recovery unit is assumed to be 145°C; the value
efficiency do not differ significantly if these values are slightly is selected to prevent the condensation of corrosive compounds

8 Copyright © 2012 by ASME

in the case that other fuels (crude oil, heavy fuel oil and performance is achieved. Moreover cyclohexane presents the
naphtha) than natural gas are combusted. Dowtherm Q stability lowest health hazard among the analyzed fluids according to the
is guaranteed up to 360 ˚C [11]; hence a prudential value of HMIS, as can be noted in Table 4.
335°C at the INH outlet is assumed. EVA and internal
recuperator pinch points are set to 15°C. ORCs for on-shore
applications usually employ lower minimum temperature
differences (5-10°C) requiring wider heat exchange areas.
Designing the bottoming cycle with higher pinch points
diminishes space requirements even though a lower
performance is obtained.

Basing on the temperature level of the off gases exiting gas

turbines fluids with a high critic temperature are required [4].
Among the possible ORC working fluids four media, i.e.
toluene, cyclohexane, cyclopentane and benzene are selected as
candidates. Table 4 lists the thermodynamic states at critical Figure 6: SGT-500 and overall thermal efficiency for
point and hazard properties of the fluids investigated in the toluene case A) and cyclohexane case b) as ORC working
present work. fluid

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Previous works considered as maximum pressure for the
Table 5 reports the results of the simulations utilizing the working fluid 20 bar [13]. The 20 bar limit arose from legal
parameters listed in Table 2 and Table 3. For cyclohexane, prescriptions in some countries known as
cyclopentane and benzene the maximum ORC pressure is set to “Dampfkesselverordnung (steam boiler code)” [13]. Higher
30 bar. For toluene the analysis is conducted at 16.4 bar due to pressure can be utilized in off-shore applications proving a
the fact that at this pressure level the saturated vapor condition more compact waste heat recovery system due to an increase in
is reached and no power for superheating is available. For this the density of the working fluid. However when maximum
media a higher pressure forces the expansion process to start pressure is increased and dowtherm heat input and temperature
with a partially vaporized fluid leading to corrosion and low profile are unvaried the area requirements for the waste heat
performance of the ORC expander. As listed in Table 3 a recovery unit are higher. In this sense toluene at 16.4 bar
temperature of 25°C is imposed at the condenser outlet; hence represents a valid alternative since it avoids additional
for each fluid a different minimum pressure in the cycle is superheating and it exhibits a lower inlet ORC turbine
obtained (see Table 5). The lower the pressure the more temperature leading to lower stress on materials and higher
problematic and expensive is to avoid the introduction of air components life.
inside the organic loop. It can also be noted that SGT500 net
power output is diminished with respect to the nominal value The organic cycle efficiency with toluene (case A) is 1.5%-
(Table 2) due to the pressure losses in the intermediate heat points lower with respect to cyclohexane (case B); therefore a
exchanger; this leads to a higher pressure at the power turbine higher net power output is obtained when cyclohexane is
outlet and therefore a lower mechanic power output is obtained. utilized. However in terms of complexity and space
requirements toluene is the preferable solution. Figure 6 shows
To assess the influence of the maximum pressure in the organic that SGT500 efficiency at design point (31.4%) can be
cycle a sensitivity analysis is carried out. The variables, listed in increased up to 43.74% and 44.33% for case A and B
Table 2 and Table 3, are maintained constants when varying the respectively with the suggested configurations; an increase of
ORC turbine inlet pressure. Figure 4 shows the results of the around 39.1 and 40.9% is achieved. Net power output is raised
simulations for the four different media for a pressure range up to 23.9 MW meaning that, with a modified schedule for the
between 5 and 30 bar. three SGT500 gas turbines available in the Draugen platform,
fuel consumption and pollutant emission can be lowered down
Increasing ORC maximum pressure enhances the efficiency of consequently.
the bottoming cycle; for the pressure range between 5 to 15 bar
toluene provides the best performance while for higher CONCLUSION
pressures cyclohexane becomes the most attractive working ORC is a promising solution that can be developed further to
fluid. Figure 5 shows the waste heat recovery temperature meet the challenges for implementing it on an offshore
profiles vs. heat exchanged for the four different fluids; platform. Two possible fluids, toluene and cyclohexane, are
maximum pressure is set to 16.4 bar for toluene and 30 bar for evaluated for an ORC in the combination with a SGT-500 gas
the other fluids. The area between the dowtherm and ORC turbine from Siemens. The results show that the overall energy
working fluid is lowest for cyclohexane meaning that a higher efficiency can be substantially increased. In the view of

9 Copyright © 2012 by ASME

complexity and space requirements, toluene fluid seems 005f/0901b8038005f2c1.pdf?filepath=heattrans/pdfs/noreg/176
promising to be used in an ORC. -01467.pdf&fromPage=GetDoc.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS [12] Alstom, GT35 PERFORMANCE & TECH. INFO.,

The funding from the Norwegian Research Council through Nominal Performance 50/60 Hz
Petromaks with project number 203404/E30, which is led by
Teknova, is acknowledged. We also acknowledge the kind [13] Lai, N. A., Wendland, M., Fischer, J., 2011, “Working
support from Siemens Industrial Turbomachinery AB, Finspång fluids for high-temperature organic Rankine cycles,” Energy 36
for providing necessary technical documentation. 199-211.

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Turbomachinery AB 2010

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http://www.energy.siemens.com/hq/en/power-generation/gas-
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based on network theory (in Danish),” M.Sc. thesis, Technical
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[11] DOW Chemical Company, June 1997, “Dowtherm Q Heat

Transfer Fluid”,
http://msdssearch.dow.com/PublishedLiteratureDOWCOM/dh_

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