Roeper Review

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Understanding resilience in diverse, talented

students in an urban high school

Sally M. Reis , Robert D. Colbert & Thomas P. Hébert

To cite this article: Sally M. Reis , Robert D. Colbert & Thomas P. Hébert (2004) Understanding
resilience in diverse, talented students in an urban high school, Roeper Review, 27:2, 110-120,
DOI: 10.1080/02783190509554299

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/02783190509554299

Published online: 20 Jan 2010.

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Understanding Resilience in
Diverse, Talented Students in an Urban High School

Sally M. Reis Ä recent article in the Hartford Courant (Gottlieb, 2004)

Robert D. Colbert ^ x c a l l e d attention to some of the issues surrounding the
development of resilience. Reacting to a stabbing of three stu-
Thomas P. Hébert dents in a Hartford high school, the principal called in crisis
counselors. Not one student, however, sought help from the
counselors. The principal was shocked, suggesting that stu-
This article summarizes findings from a 3-year study of 35 economically dents are "hardened." The newspaper reporter, however, sug-
disadvantaged, ethnically diverse, academically talented high school gested that it was not a bad thing to be hardened as "violence is
students who either achieved or underachieved in their urban high so much a part of students' lives that it permeates such deci-
school. In particular, the resilience of these two groups of high ability
students is explored. Comparative case study and ethnographic meth- sions as whether to join an after-school club and risk walking
ods were used to examine the ways in which some academically talent- home alone or whether to wear jewelry to school" (Gottlieb,
ed students develop and/or employ strategies associated with p.l). This article explores underachievement and achievement
resilience to achieve at high levels. Both risk factors and protective fac- in culturally diverse, academically talented students who
tors are examined to explore participants' pathways toward either posi-
attended an urban high school, attempting to reveal how some
tive or negative outcomes. The results of this study suggest that some
protective factors helped some academically talented students to academically talented youth learned to display the resilience
achieve at high levels. The protective factors include supportive adults; that may have enabled them to cope with adversity or difficulty
friendships with other achieving students; opportunity to take honors in their lives. This study extends the data analysis of a study in
and advanced classes; participation in multiple extracurricular activities which researchers investigated the experiences of 35 culturally
both after school and during the summer; the development of a strong
belief in self; and ways to cope with the negative aspects of their school
diverse, academically talented students who either achieved or
and urban environment; and in some cases, their family lives. Other underachieved in an urban high school (Reis, Hébert, Diaz,
protective factors include students' relationships with supportive adults Maxfield, & Ratley, 1995).
and their previous participation in a gifted and talented program.

Students who underachieved had specific risk factors, such as having Background of the Study
older siblings who dropped out of school or became involved in drugs
and/or alcohol. They also appeared to have developed fewer protective
factors. The combination of the presence of risk factors and the Little research examines the achievement or underachieve-
absence of protective factors may ha ve impeded the ability of some ment of academically talented high school students who are
underachieving students to achieve at higher levels. placed at risk because of poverty. To examine underachieve-
ment and resilience in this population, a qualitative study was
conducted to explore the achievement of some academically
Sally M. Reis is a professor and the department head of the Education- talented students and the underachievement of others of similar
al Psychology Department in the Neag School of Education at the Uni- ability and to further explore how resilience may or may not
versity of Connecticut where she also serves as principal investigator of
The National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented. She was a
have been displayed by students in both groups.
classroom teacher and teacher of gifted students in public education as
well as a gifted program director before coming to the University of Underachievement of Academically Talented Students
Connecticut. Her research interests relate to talent development and Student performance that falls noticeably short of potential
special populations of gifted and talented students, including students
with learning disabilities, gifted females and diverse groups of talented
is troubling to educators, parents, and researchers, especially
students who are often underserved. E-mail: [email protected] when it occurs in young people with high ability. After decades
of research, underachievement among high ability students is
Robert D. Colbert is an assistant professor in the Educational Psychol- still viewed as a major problem. Over four decades ago, John
ogy Department specializing in Counseling Psychology in the Neag Gowan (1955) described the gifted underachiever as "one of
School of Education at the University of Connecticut. His specialty
areas within counseling psychology include school counselor's role in
the greatest social wastes of our culture" (p. 247). According to
educational reform and counseling for at-risk populations. His research the 1990 needs assessment survey conducted by researchers at
interests involve the [academic] achievement of culturally diverse stu- The National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented, the
dents in urban high schools. E-mail: [email protected] problem of underachievement has been identified as the num-
ber one concern among educators of high ability and high
Thomas P. Hébert is an associate professor of educational psychology
in the College of Education at The University of Georgia in Athens,
potential students (Renzulli, Reid, & Gubbins, 1990). In 1983,
Georgia. Tom teaches graduate courses in gifted education and quali- the National Commission on Excellence in Education reported
tative research. He was a teacher for 13 years, 10 of which were spent in A Nation at Risk that "over half the population of gifted stu-
working with gifted students at the elementary, middle and high school dents do not match their tested ability with comparable
levels. Tom has taught in Maine, Georgia, Connecticut, Alabama, and achievement in school" (p. 8).
West Germany with the Department of Defense Dependents Schools.
His research interests relate to social and emotional needs of students, Some students underachieve or fail in school for obvious
underachievement, and talented males. E-mail: [email protected] reasons: excessive absences from school, poor performance,
disruptive behavior, low self-esteem, family problems, and
poverty (Reis & McCoach, 2000). In 1992, researchers for Phi
Manuscript submitted January 16, 2004.
Revision accepted March 31, 2004.

110/Roeper Review, Vol. 27, No. 2 Roeper Review

Winter 2005, Vol. 27, No. 2, 110-120.
Delta Kappa (Frymier) conducted a study involving 21,706 stu- arguing that educational resilience must be present for some
dents from 276 schools that identified 34 risk factors in five cat- young people to succeed. In a definition that is most aligned
egories of students who fail in school: personal pain, academic with the research discussed in this article, Wang, Haertel, and
failure, family tragedy, family socioeconomic situation, and Walberg (1994) define educational resilience as "the heightened
family instability. The major conclusion of this study was that: likelihood of success in school and other life accomplishments
children who hurt, hurt all over. Children who fail, despite environmental adversities brought about by early traits,
often fail in everything they do. Risk is pervasive. If a conditions, and experiences" (p. 46).
student is at risk in one area, that student is very likely Resilience is not a fixed attribute in individuals, and the
to be at risk in many other areas, (p. 257) successful negotiation of psychological risks at one point in a

I n two recent reviews of research related to the under-

achievement of academically talented students, Reis
(1998) and Reis and McCoach (2000) summarized the follow-
person's life does not guarantee that the individual will not
react adversely to other stresses when the situations change. As
Rutter (1981) stated, "If circumstances change, resilience
ing research findings about underachievement from the last alters" (p. 317). Certain risk factors reliably predict certain
five decades of research: negative outcomes for youth. Poverty, for instance, has been
1. The beginning stages of underachievement occur in ele- identified as a specific predictor for criminality, and childhood
mentary school, perhaps due to a nonchallenging curricu- abuse was identified as a predictor for later emotional and
lum. A relationship seems to exist between inappropriate physical problems (Gordon & Song, 1994).
or too easy content in elementary school and under-
achievement in middle or high school.
2. Underachievement appears to be periodic and episodic,
S ome research has focused on how some individuals
deal with risk situations (Doll & Lyon, 1998; Luthar &
Zigler, 1991). Neihart (2001) reported that the current focus of
occurring in some years and not others and in some studies on resilience is on the transactional processes of risk
classes but not others. However, eventually increasing and protective factors in the child, family, school and commu-
episodes of underachievement will result in a more nity. Risk and protective factors are generally defined as vari-
chronic pattern for many students. ables that shift developmental pathways. Risk factors are those
3. Parental issues interact with the behaviors of some variables that increase negative outcomes and protective fac-
underachievers, yet no clear pattern exists about the types tors are those that promote positive outcomes. Protective fac-
of parental behaviors that may influence or cause under- tors such as good intellectual ability, problem-solving ability,
achievement. and engagement in productive activities (Anthony & Cohler,
4. Peers can play a major role in preventing underachieve- 1987; Doll & Lyon) can serve to deflect the harmful effects of
ment from occurring in their closest friends, making peer adversity. Protective factors may also include a relationship
groups that support achievement an important part of with a caring adult, which has been found to increase the
preventing and reversing underachievement. achievement of children who live or learn in negative environ-
5. Busier adolescents who are involved in clubs, extracur- ments (Allen, 1996; Cohen & Willis, 1985; Emerick, 1992;
ricular activities, sports, and religious activities are less Hébert & Beardsley, 2001; Masten & Garmezy, 1990; Reis,
likely to underachieve in school. 1998; Reis, Hébert, Diaz, Maxfield, & Ratley, 1995; Rhodes,
6. Regular patterns of work and practice seem to help tal- 1994; Werner & Smith, 1982). Risk factors such as the pres-
ented students develop an achievement model in their ence of a difficult temperament can actually increase the
own lives. Music, dance and art lessons, and regular time chances for poor social adjustment (Werner & Smith). Poten-
for homework and reading can be very helpful for devel- tial risk factors and the negative outcomes associated with
oping positive self-regulation strategies. them may be successfully avoided by the use of positive influ-
7. A caring adult, such as a counselor, coach or an academ- ences of protective factors (Doll & Lyon).
ic content teacher, can help to reverse the process of Neihart (2001) suggested that gifted children share com-
underachievement. mon characteristics with resilient children, such as intelligence
8. Few interventions have been tried to reverse underachieve- and curiosity (Anthony & Cohler, 1987; Garmezy & Rutter,
ment, and more research on interventions is needed. 1983; Renzulli, 1986), self-efficacy (Garmezy & Rutter, 1983;
Masten & Garmezy, 1990), sense of humor (Hébert & Beards-
Resilience Theory ley, 2001; Rutter, 1987), and problem-solving ability (Masten
The reasons that some students achieve at high levels, even & Garmezy, 1990). Academically talented children and
when they encounter difficult situations and pressures, are of resilient children often have parents who do not demand con-
great interest to both researchers and practitioners. Resilience formity but enable children to develop with some autonomy
theory attempts to explain academic achievement among stu- and a positive explanatory style (Dai & Feldhusen, 1996).
dents who encounter negative psychological and environmental Bland, Sowa and Callahan (1994) suggested the impor-
situations. No single definition of resilience exists. Rather, sev- tance of research on the resilience of high achieving students
eral different definitions and descriptions of resilience have but cautioned that although some common characteristics exist,
been offered in the research literature. Wolin and Wolin (1993) many talented students do not develop resilience. McMillan and
describe resilient individuals as hardy, invulnerable and invinci- Reed (1994) discussed the need to understand how resilience
ble. Resilience has been described as a protective mechanism promotes success in students. They describe resilient at-risk stu-
that modifies an individual's response to a risk (Rutter, 1981, dents as those who "have a set of personality characteristics,
1987) or as adjustment despite negative life events. Rutter dispositions, and beliefs that promote their academic success
(1987) defines resilience as a "positive role of individual differ- regardless of their backgrounds or current circumstances" (p.
ences in people's response to stress and adversity" (p. 316). 139). Resilient students have a strong sense of self-efficacy and
Waxman (1992) believes that attending a school that is consid- believe they are successful because they choose to be. They also
ered an "at risk" school can be considered an adverse situation, have a psychological support system both in and out of school

Winter, 2005, Roeper Review/111

that provides encouragement to them. They use their time posi- homes and the community. Observation and interview data
tively to "provide [for themselves] a sense of support, success, were collected from the students' home, social, athletic, and
and recognition" (p. 139). Ford (1994) found that resilient academic settings. Documentation encompassed students' par-
Black youth have an internal locus of control, a positive sense ticipation in all of their subject classes as well as in a variety of
of self and feelings of empowerment. Ford also identified barri- other settings such as athletic events, after-school clubs and at
ers to the development of resilience in academically talented home with parents and siblings. These observations did not
Black youth, including peer pressures and complex socio-psy- have a rigid structure but were guided by an established proce-
chological and contextual factors such as racial identity, rela- dure. The researchers' purpose was to approach the site as one
tionships with teachers and counselors, experiences of who is new to the setting and to describe the participants' expe-
discrimination, and peer relationships. riences. Although the school was the main focus of observation,
information gained in the classroom and through interviews led
A lthough theorists have suggested various explanations
for the reasons some high potential students placed at
risk achieve in school while others do not, little research has
the researchers to other observations and interviews.
In-depth interviewing was conducted with identified stu-
examined the resilience of academically talented students who dents on a continuing basis and with their teachers, administra-
achieve in school as compared to those of similar ability who tors, school counselors, coaches, parents, siblings and other
do not achieve. Exploring what enables some individuals to relatives, community members, and other parties as they
thrive, such as social support from adults and peers, will con- emerged through data gathering techniques. These semistruc-
tribute to the limited research on resilience in academically tal- tured interviews consisted of open-ended questions designed to
ented students and will perhaps suggest strategies that may be explore a few general topics in order not only to gain informa-
implemented to help these students learn to employ resilience tion in "the subjects' own words" but to "develop insight on how
strategies as they pursue high levels of academic achievement. subjects interpret some piece of the world" (Bogdan & Bilden,
2002, p. 135). The interviews were conducted in order to gain an
understanding of the views of the participants themselves, pro-
Research Methodology viding a clear picture of the experiences of high achieving stu-
dents in an urban high school. Grand tour questions (Spradley,
In this qualitative, comparative cross-case study (Gall, 1979) were asked of all participants in order to obtain their view-
Borg, & Gall, 2002; Miles & Huberman, 1994; Yin, 1994), points on the research questions guiding the study. For example,
descriptive cross-case analysis was used to collect and analyze a student might be asked 'Tell me about the adults in this school
data from over 3 years of data collection in an urban high who have worked closely with you" as a grand tour question
school as well as background data from participants' with a more specific follow-up question of, "How has your guid-
preschool, elementary, and middle school education. Miles and ance counselor assisted or impeded your academic achieve-
Huberman believe that studying multiple cases can increase ment?" The participant's responses to the general questions
generalizability and develop more sophisticated descriptions guided the direction of the interview, with the goal of obtaining
and more powerful explanations. Composites of a number of a deeper understanding of each participant's point of view.
case studies resulted in descriptors of common characteristics Appropriate documents were also obtained from students'
of academically talented students who achieved or under- cumulative school records or requested from participants,
achieved in an urban high school (Reis et al, 1995). Case study including gifted program identification policies, as well as sam-
methodology is also appropriate when prior theory guides data ples of student work, programs from concerts, or posters adver-
collection and analysis and researchers attempt to account for tising student clubs and extra-curricular activities. The review of
and describe contextual conditions (Yin). documents while conducting observations and interviews pro-
vided a clearer picture of participants. A thick, descriptive case
Research Questions study was constructed for each participant in the study. The total
The following research questions guided this study: field study transpired across 3 years until data saturation was
1. What factors do high achieving students in an urban reached. Data saturation occurred when the information yielded
high school identify as contributing to their resilience? became redundant and no longer offered useful reinforcement of
2. What factors may contribute to the inability to display previously learned information (Bogdan & Biklen, 2002).
resilience in underachieving students placed at risk in an
urban high school? B ecause case studies involve in-depth study of a small
number of purposively selected cases, they enable
researchers to make analytical generalizations (Miles & Huber-
Procedure man, 1994; Yin, 1994) through the use of matrices of evidence,
In this comparative case study, data were gathered from data displays, tabulation of frequencies, examination of the
the 35 subjects and a comparative case study approach was complexity of tabulations and their relationships, and the
used. Miles and Huberman (1994) and Yin (1994) suggest this placement of information into chronological order (Yin, 1994).
as an appropriate methodology for in-depth study of a number Data analysis techniques included the use of a coding paradigm
of cases in order to make analytical generalizations. described by Strauss and Corbin (1990), as well as coding sug-
gested by the same researchers, including three levels: open
Data Collection and Analysis coding, axial coding, and selective coding. The initial type of
A combination of participant observation and comparative coding, known as open coding, involved unrestricted coding of
case study methods was used to collect data in this study. Par- all students responses across the four groups. In open coding,
ticipant observation is a strategy ethnographers use for listening data were analyzed and coded. As researchers verified codes
to people and watching them in their natural settings (Spradley, and determined relationships among and between codes, a
1979). The students were observed over a 3-year period by determination was made about the relationship of a code to a
three researchers for a total of 180 school days, and in their category. After initial categories were determined, axial coding

112/Roeper Review, Vol. 27, No. 2

enabled the researchers to specify relationships among the These students, for example, may not have been enrolled in
many categories that emerged in open coding, and, ultimately, any advanced level or honors courses. They were receiving
resulted in the conceptualization of one or more categories lower grades than what would be expected given their poten-
selected as the "core." A core category accounted for most of tial. Additionally, the following criteria were individually or
the variation in a pattern of behavior. In the final stage of cod- collectively examined to select underachieving students for this
ing, selective coding, the relationships among categories were study. The participant: (1) was identified and enrolled in a gift-
examined to determine the saturation of categories in the iden- ed program in elementary or middle school and had previously
tification of the core category. Each of the open-ended ques- achieved at a superior level academically as evidenced by
tions addressed in this analysis was analyzed separately. grades, teacher observation, awards or honors; (2) previously
displayed consistently strong academic performance with
Trustworthiness of the Study grades of B or better in elementary and junior high school; (3)
The following techniques discussed by Marshall and Ross- was currently maintaining a grade point average of 2.0 or
man (1989) were used to establish the trustworthiness of this lower; (4) consistently enrolled in non-college-bound or gener-
study: Research partners or persons playing "devil's advocate" al classes; (5) was no longer in school, having dropped out or
and critically questioning the researcher's analyses; constantly become truant. A brief case study of one participant is included
searching for negative instances; checking and rechecking the to provide an example of academically talented students who
data; purposeful testing of rival hypotheses; asking questions either achieved or underachieved in this high school.
of the data; and conducting an audit of the data collection and Yvellise. Wearing little make-up, gold loop earrings, which
analytic methods. In this study, the accuracy of the observa- stood out from her long chestnut hair, a long sleeved yellow
tions and the trustworthiness of this investigation were silk blouse, dark blue jeans, brown suede shoes, and manicured
enhanced by the use of: tape-recorded interviews and field long nails, Yvellise smiled shyly and spoke in a soft voice. She
notes that enabled the researchers to examine and clarify infor- explained that she lived with her parents and two older sisters
mation; photography that was used to document and study spe- and had moved several times between the States and Puerto
cific situations and/or settings that required more than a single Rico. Her family had lived in the city since 1991. Her mother
view; triangulation between methods; depth of detail; and con- was a housewife who was experiencing a difficult time because
tinuous cross-checking for accuracy. The methods, procedures, one of her brothers was hospitalized with AIDS. Her father
and strategies used to ensure accuracy included: observations owned an auto parts store in partnership with another brother-
of informants in various settings; interviews with informants, in-law. Yvellise's oldest sister was 25 years old and planned to
teachers, relatives, and others; document review; and photogra- attend college in the near future. Her older sister was 22 years
phy. In addition, to establish and maintain high data quality, all old and was currently attending a state college majoring in psy-
recorded data were monitored. To further increase trustworthi- chology. Yvellise was more comfortable with this 22-year-old
ness, all researchers kept journals during the fieldwork, and sister because they shared similar interests.
regular conversations were scheduled between researchers in
order to explore ideas and conduct data checks. A t the age of eight, when Yvellise first arrived in the
United States, her parents immediately enrolled her in
third grade and she was placed in a bilingual program. The
Participants transition was challenging for her but her fifth grade teachers
Participants in the study were 35 high ability students who described her as "a nice girl" who "likes to work hard" and
were freshmen or sophomores at the beginning of the study was "very motivated regarding school work," but still "could
which lasted 3 years. Table 1 includes descriptive information. do better work." Her fifth grade report card indicated Bs and
All students are referred to by pseudonyms. Cs and a teacher's note said: "Yvellise puede mejorar sus notas
For the purpose of this study, high ability students were ya que tiene el potencial y no lo esta usando al mâximo."
defined as those demonstrating well above average potential as (Yvellise could improve her grades because she has the poten-
measured by a score above the 90th percentile using local tial, but she is not using it to the maximum.) Then, her family
norms on standardized intelligence or achievement tests during returned to Puerto Rico. Two years later, Yvellise's family
his or her school career, as well as superior performance in one came back to the United States. This time, Yvellise began sev-
or more academic areas at some point during elementary or sec- enth grade and was again enrolled in a bilingual program. Her
ondary school. The participants were recommended by the high school performance was excellent as evidenced by consistently
school's guidance counselors and administrators and were iden- superior grades on her report card and achievement scores in
tified for the study as achievers when three of the following the top 3-5 percentile. Teachers described Yvellise as a "top
four criteria were met: (1) identified and enrolled in an academ- student" who did "outstanding work" and had "mature, excel-
ic gifted elementary or middle school program, (2) achieved at a lent behavior." Other comments included, "Her English has
superior level academically as evidenced by high grades, (3) really improved," and "I enjoy having her in class." She was
nominated for the study by a teacher/counselor and (4) received nominated for and began participating in the gifted program
various academic awards and honors. Information such as the same year. In her cumulative record, the following note
school records, test information, outstanding performance in appeared: "She was a very bright student, mature, well-
one or more academic areas, awards and honors, product infor- behaved, and developed an excellent command of English. She
mation, and teacher's anecdotal records from an academic port- had high potential." During the early years of the study, Yvel-
folio were used to document the level of high ability. lise's grades declined sharply and she was taken out of all of
For the purpose of this study, underachieving students her honors classes during her freshman year in high school.
(n=17) were defined as students with high potential, as evi- Yvellise explained the change in her academic perfor-
denced by academic achievement or intelligence test results of mance in high school by saying,
above the 90th percentile using local norms, who were not I don't have the grades that I used to have. I want to do
achieving at a level that was expected based on this potential. better, but I don't know . . . . I don't like coming to

Winter, 2005, Roeper Review/113

 Family and Parental Demographics
Parents' Parents' Parents'
Marital Parents' Educational Involvement in
Student Siblings Status Occupation Level Student's Life
Male Achievers (n=9)
Vaughn 2 older Divorced M-Office Manager M-High School M-Sees regularly
F-Science Teacher F-Several Degrees F-lives with
Rafael 6 younger Married M-Housewife M-Some High School M-Yes
F-unemployed F-High School F-No
Lucio 1 younger Divorced M-State Employee M-Secretarial M-Yes
1 older Step F-Laborer F-High School F-No/Step-Yes
Orlando 4 younger Married M-Teacher's Assistant M-High School M-Yes
3 older F-Guidance Counselor F-Master's Degree F-Yes
Matteo 1 younger Married M-Travel Agent M-Associate's Degree M-Yes
F-Unemployed F-Technical Training F-Yes
Wallace 1 younger Married M-Nurse's Aide M-High School M-Yes
F-Cab Driver F-High School F-Yes
Rob 1 older Married M-Food Service M-Some High School M-Yes
Supervisor
F-Machinist F-Third Grade F-Yes
Alfred 2 stepsisters Divorced M-Nurse's Aide M-No High School Splits time with
F-Electrician F-Trained in Cuba parents
Jesse 3 younger Married M-Licensed Day Care M-Bachelor's Degree M-Yes
PmwiHor
1 lUVIUCI
F-State Employee F-Master's Degree F-Yes
Female Achievers (n=9)
Nicki 1 sister Divorced M-Clerical Worker M-High School M-Yes
F-Mail Carrier F-High School F-Minimal
Jana 2 younger Divorced M-Hair Dresser M-Elementary School M-Yes
1 older F-Unemployed F-Some High School F-No
Marisa 1 older Married M-Housewife M-High School M-Yes
F-Owner Family F-High School F-Yes
Business
Mary 1 younger Married M-Teacher M-Bachelor's Degree M-Yes
F-Social Worker F-Master's Degree F-Yes
Rosa 2 younger Married M-Dietary Aide M-Did not graduate M-Yes
F-Unemployed F-High School F-Yes
Toni 3 younger Divorced M-Home Maker M-High School M-Yes
2 older F-N/A* F-N/A* F-No
Tania 1 younger Divorced M-Home Maker M-High School M-Yes
3 older F-N/A* F-N/A* F-No
(1 twin)
Ciaire 1 younger Divorced M-Library Supervisor M-High School M-Yes
F-Truck Driver F-High School F-No
Alexa 2 younger Married M-Clerical M-Attended College M-Yes
1 older F-Engineer F-College Degree F-Yes
Male Underachievers (n=12)
John 3 older Married M-Nurse's Aide M-Comm. College M-Yes
F-Truck Driver F-High School F-Yes
Benton stepbrother Divorced M-Clerical M-Adult Education M-Yes
F-N/A* F-High School F-No/Step-Yes
Mitch 1 younger Married M-Produce Clerk M-High School M-Yes
F-Auto Mechanic F-High School F-Yes
Chico 10 older Married M-Day Care Provider M-High School M-Yes
F-Unemployed F-Eighth Grade F-Yes
Morgan 1 older Married M-Teacher M-Bachelor's Degree M-Yes
F-Consultant for City F-Master's Degree F-Yes
Skip 1 older Divorced M-Unemployed M-High School M-Yes
F-Taxi Cab Driver F-High School F-Yes
Martin 1 younger Separated M-Paraprofessional M-Bachelor's Degree M-Yes
F-Unknown F-Eighth Grade F-No
Greg 5 older Married M-Hospital Technician M-Some College M-Yes
F-Owner Const. F-Associate's Degree F-Yes
Comnanv
wwi i i|jcii ly
Kevin 1 younger Divorced M-Secretary M-High School+ M-Yes
F-Health Care Worker F-High School+ F-Yes
Leo 1 younger Unmarried M-Student M-High School M-Yes
F-N/A* F-Some College F-No
Marwin 2 older Married M-Unemployed M-Some High School M-Yes
F-Unemployed F-Some High School F-Yes
Milton 2 younger Divorced M-Housewife M-N/A* M-Yes
F-N/A* F-N/A* F-No
Female Underachievers (n=5]
Mandy 2 younger Divorced M-Clerical Worker M-Some High School M-Yes
F-Unemployed F-High School F-No
Sandra 1 younger Married M-Housewife M-Fourth Grade M-Yes
1 older F-Machine Operator F-High School F-Yes
Rosa Marie 2 older Divorced M-Home Care Nurse M-Technical College M-Yes
F-Pastor F-N/A* F-No
Yvellise 2 older Married M-Housewife M-High School M-Yes
F-Owner Auto Store F-Some High School F-Yes
Ivy 2 younger Divorced M-Student M-Attending High M-No, Lives with
School grandmother
F-Unemployed F-N/A* F-No
* Information not available; father not involved in participant's life.

Table 1

114/Roeper Review, Vol. 27, No. 2

 school, but I have to. I am not doing as good as I should. with alcoholism, parents' divorce, and alienation from family
I can get Bs and Cs without studying and As if I really and friends. Yet, instead of turning to drugs or giving up, the
work hard. But I can pass without studying hard. high achieving participants in this study persevered.
Her report card reflected most grades of C, with two B- grades. Nicki lived in poverty in the projects but instead of feeling
She had not qualified for any honors classes in her sophomore discouraged, she examined the nuances of her life through cre-
year, and her counselor expressed his concern about Yvellise's ative and expository writing, winning a $10,000 scholarship
academic performance: from a large company in a writing competition. Rafael, a high
I know she is a bright girl and I don't want to see her achieving student, demonstrated his resilience when he
wasting her potential as many other students [do] in this described the feelings of despair and depression he experi-
school. I want to prevent major problems. She has the enced when he returned to his home in the housing projects
potential to do excellent in mathematics but although after having attended a special summer program on a beautiful
she was not failing the class, she was getting Cs. One of college campus. Though he felt overwhelmed by the poverty in
her teachers says that she was "too easily satisfied." the projects and the growing number of young people in his
neighborhood who were "tuned out to education," he attempted
A lthough Yvellise displayed a high potential for mathe-
matics as well as other content area subjects, her
opinion about her abilities was exactly the opposite. She
to solve a small piece of the problem. He volunteered as a tutor
at an elementary school near the projects and worked with
explained, "I don't like mathematics at all. I am not good at it." bilingual students. He believed he would be able to "relate to
Yvellise planned to graduate from high school and attend col- these young people who might be having trouble with their
lege. She wanted to major in business administration or com- reading or learning English."
munications, and envisioned herself with a good career, "a Marisa and many other participants explained that they
high rank job position, a nice house, a nice car, two or three had learned in their previous years in school to stay away from
kids, and married for a long time" (Reis, Hébert, Diaz, Max- negative influences. Participants believed that community
field, & Ratley, 1995, p. 128). crime was a major problem for their city and the high achiev-
ing students described problems that developed because of
crimes in their neighborhoods and surrounding their high
Findings school. Jana explained about how recent crimes had affected
her school activities, remembering how her mother demanded
The 17 academically talented students who began to she stop her after-school activities after a murder in her neigh-
underachieve did so in high school. Prior to this, all partici- borhood had occurred after school:
pants had been students involved in gifted programs and had My mother got really upset because somebody got
achieved above average grades. The results of this study indi- killed in front of South Central. I think it was near the
cate that resilience was developed and displayed by the 18 high pharmacy. I saw the police there and everything when
achieving students in this study despite numerous obstacles I was going home, and my mother got mad because I
they encountered, including family poverty, parental divorce, walked home. She told me I had to quit managing the
drugs and violence in their high school, and peer problems. basketball team unless I got a ride home. But I man-
These culturally diverse, high achieving students acknowl- aged to talk her into letting me take the city bus.
edged their abilities and worked to achieve at a level commen-
surate with their abilities, despite the obstacles they faced and
the problems they encountered. Most of the students identified
R i eesilience may also have been developed in response to
f
^family situations and interactions. Some students
achieved despite their parents' death, divorce, imprisonment,
as underachievers failed to develop resilience. Some of the fac- alcoholism or consistent absence. Some, but not all, of the high
tors that seemed to contribute to the development or absence of achieving participants encountered negative feedback from rel-
resilience may have interacted with the underachievement of atives or friends because they are perceived to be working too
some of these high potential students. hard in school. These relatives tell them they are crazy to work
so hard in school, as Jana explained: "I have an uncle who asks
Motivation to Achieve and Belief in Self me why I am wasting my time. He tells me, 'Why don't you
The majority of the participants came from homes that had just get a job and forget about school?'"
been affected by poverty, periodic or regular unemployment of The high achieving students in the study realized that the
one or more parents, family turmoil caused by issues such as hardships faced at home by so many of the students actually
alcohol, drugs, and mental illness, and other problems. As one resulted in their emerging resilience. One participant expressed
participant indicated, "My family story is filled with eyebrow this eloquently, explaining:
raisers." All participants lived in a city where violence, drugs, There are people who come to this school every day
poverty, and crime were daily acquaintances. so they can get a warm meal and a safe place to stay.
Despite these challenges, the high achieving participants Some people come here from a house where it is
in this study overcame problems associated with their families, twenty degrees inside. They didn't sleep well that
their school, and their environments. They learned to live in night because of the yelling going on next door. These
their city and excelled in school. They ignored drug dealers, people come to school every day and they still man-
turned their backs on gangs, avoided crime in their neighbor- age to shine. They work their hardest and some of
hoods and grew up to become valedictorians, class presidents, them even excel here. So what if they don't wear the
star athletes, and scholars. Some attended Ivy League Schools, latest designer jeans.
others attended the most selective colleges in the country and These high achieving students were adamant in their beliefs
all wanted to make a contribution to their world. Some had that they were better off in an urban setting because of the cul-
family problems that might have seemed overwhelming, tural diversity and the opportunities they had to develop
including persistent family financial problems, parental battles strengths and resilience. They also believed they were better

Winter, 2005, Roeper Review/115

individuals because of the variety of people with whom they while other participants' families provided minimal levels of
interacted, and they knew their experiences in their urban high emotional or financial support. Although the parents of all high
school, both positive and negative, prepared them with a more achieving students regarded school and learning as very impor-
realistic view for their future. tant to improving one's situation in life, they had minimal
involvement in their high school experience.
Protective Factors Contributing to the Development of
Resilience in High Achieving Students Risk Factors Experienced by Underachieving Students
Various protective factors seemed to contribute to the The high ability underachieving students experienced sev-
development of resilience in the high achieving students, eral risk factors that may have contributed to their low perfor-
including: belief in self, personal characteristics (sensitivity, mance in school. They perceive their school experiences as
independence, determination to succeed, appreciation of cul- boring and most indicated that their classes did not match their
tural diversity, inner will); support systems (honors classes, a preferred learning style. The students who underachieved also
network for high achieving students, family support, support- experienced personal and family problems, such as abusive
ive adults); participation in special programs, extracurricular parents, negative sibling issues, and absence of parental help or
activities, and summer enrichment programs; and appropriately monitoring. They also had difficulty establishing positive peer
challenging advanced classes. networks and with the constructive use of unstructured time.
The development of a strong belief in self was evident in
all high achieving participants, and was manifested in an
understanding about who they were, what they wanted to
T he risk factors that seemed to negatively affect the aca-
demic achievement of these high ability young stu-
dents included inappropriate early curricular experiences,
achieve in life, and the direction they needed to take to realize absence of opportunities to develop appropriate school work
their goals. This positive sense of self developed despite the habits, negative interactions with teachers, absence of chal-
urban environment, which surrounded them with negative cir- lenge in high school, and questionable counseling experiences.
cumstances including economic struggles and poverty, the per- The underachievers were bored with their curriculum, nega-
vasive availability of drugs, gang and community violence, and tively influenced by their peers and their dismal surroundings,
family or peer group problems. Common personal characteris- and had developed few strategies for constructively dealing
tics demonstrated by the achieving participants in addition to with these problems. These problems resulted in behavior
resilience included determination, motivation and inner will, problems and disciplinary issues, too much unstructured time,
positive use of problem solving, independence, realistic aspira- confused or unrealistic aspirations, insufficient perseverance
tions, heightened sensitivity to each other and the world around and low self-efficacy.
them, and appreciation of cultural diversity. A series of family issues also negatively affected the lives
Protective factors also included support networks that exist- of the high ability underachievers, including family dysfunction
ed within the high school to develop the achievement of these and conflict, difficult relations with family members, sibling
students, including other high achieving peers, family members, problems and rivalry, inconsistent role models and value sys-
supportive teachers in previous years, and other adults. Their tems in the family, minimal parental academic guidance and
peer support system consisted of friends who wanted to succeed support, inconsistent parental monitoring of students' achieve-
academically and were willing and able to work to achieve this ment-oriented activities, and inappropriate parental expectations.
goal, and various teachers, coaches, counselors, and administra- Again, the high achieving students also had a number of similar
tors. This network was absolutely essential to the academic suc- family issues but had learned to cope with these challenges.
cess of most of the achieving participants in this study. The findings in this study indicate that achievement and

A ll of the high achieving students were involved in

numerous activities that were held both during and
after school hours and remained in their high school for hours
underachievement in this urban high school were not disparate
concepts. In many cases, students who had begun underachiev-
ing had achieved at high levels in the previous year or semester
after school each day for a wide variety of activities. Those who in school. Some of the high achieving students also experienced
were 16 all worked part-time in jobs nearby, usually for 10-15 periods of underachievement in school; however, they were
hours each week. All participated in more than one sport and all supported in their achievement by a network of high achieving
were also involved in numerous school clubs and activities, peers who refused to let their friends falter in school. For these
including jazz band, foreign language clubs, service groups, and students, achievement was like walking up a crowded staircase.
academic competitions. These extracurricular activities had a If students started to underachieve and tried to turn and walk
major impact on these young people, as they were consistently down the staircase, many other students pushed them back up
cited as being extremely influential in the development of their the staircase. Once, however, the cycle of underachievement
resilience, their positive use of spare time, and their ability to began and a student went down that crowded staircase, it was
excel academically. Many were productively busy every day for extremely difficult to turn around and climb back up.
several hours after school, which gave them little time to fall
prey to some of the urban problems that troubled their less pro- Exploring Factors That May Have Affected the Development
ductive peers, including drugs and gangs. Another major factor of Resilience
that students believed contributed to their successful academic Personal and contextual variables and situational and envi-
achievement was their involvement in honors classes. High ronmental factors were examined to explore the resilience of
achievers believed that honors classes provided them with the the high achieving students who succeeded in school. As indi-
opportunity to work hard and to be grouped with other students cated in Table 2, some common factors, considered protective
who wanted to work and to learn. factors, occurred in participants who succeeded in school as
Most of the participants in this study appeared to have compared with those who did not. For example, the same num-
families that nurtured them in different ways and at different ber of students in each group had parents who had been
levels. Some participants had extremely supportive families divorced but achieving and underachieving students reacted to

116/Roeper Review, Vol. 27, No. 2

 Selected Factors Influencing Resilience in Discussion
High Ability Achievers and Underachievers This study explored the development of resilience in tal-
Family Issues Achievers Jnderachievers ented students who succeeded in a large urban school and the
Parents Divorced e 8 lack of resilience among talented students who did not suc-
Three or more siblings 6 3 ceed. Resilience seemed to develop from a combination of
Sibling(s) dropped out of school specific personal, environmental and social issues and, for
or involved in drug or alcohol abuse 0 6 these students, can be defined as the ability to experience
Father involved in upbringing 12 11 stress and adversity, while simultaneously experiencing pro-
Mother involved in upbringing 17 16 tective factors that may have helped them to develop positive
Father employed 12 9 personal characteristics necessary for high achievement in
Mother employed 14 10 school. These personal characteristics included belief in self,
Father graduated from high school 13 12 determination, motivation, constructive use of time, and the
Father graduated from college 6 1 ability to work hard in honors classes, extra-curricular activi-
Mother graduated from college 2 2 ties, and sports. As with other previous research, this study
Religious home environment 8 4 suggests that one necessary protective factor was the presence
Parent mentioned as positive role model 5 1 of at least one supportive adult for achievement to occur and
Teacher/counselor mentioned resilience to develop. That adult did not have to be a parent,
as positive role model 10 2
but at least one parent was needed for minimal levels of eco-
Boyfriend/girlfriend 2 4
1
nomic and family support. Peer support was also essential, as
Chose not to date (females) 6
Participated in school extracurricular activities 16
were productive activities, often after school or in the sum-
2
Participated in sports (during school year) 14 7
mer, which helped to develop talents and positive personality
Participated in summer programs 7 1
characteristics. Although faced with difficulties, the high
High level of involvement in a gifted/talented
achieving students in this study learned to persevere, become
program in elementary and middle school 10 5 strong, and succeed.
Positive peer support for Most of the underachieving students experienced some
academic achievement 16 1 unhappy childhood experiences and had little support and this
Table 2 may have contributed to their inability to develop resilience
because their risk factors overshadowed their protective fac-
the divorce very differently. Almost identical numbers had par-
tors. A careful analysis of the data suggests that the risk fac-
ents who were involved in their lives, although the level and
type of involvement varied. Some participants in both groups tors that may have thwarted the development of resilience
had a parent with whom they lived and yet who was able to were the absence of positive peer support (peers who achieved
provide only minimal levels of economic support. Differences in school); siblings who dropped out of school or were
did exist between the two groups; for example, a majority of involved in substance abuse; absence of positive parental role
those who achieved in school had parents who were employed. models or at least one supportive adult; and lack of involve-
ment in an elementary or middle school gifted program. For
O ther key factors that seemed to differ in students who
achieved as opposed to those who did not included the
following factors: the presence of positive peer support; involve-
these underachieving students who did not develop resilience,
interaction with protective factors was minimal as they had lit-
ment in extracurricular activities, sports programs, summer pro- tle to no involvement in extracurricular activities, clubs,
grams, and gifted programs; positive parental role modeling; sports, or summer programs, and far too much unstructured
type and degree of parental involvement and parental education; time after school.
participation in an elementary or middle school gifted and talent-
ed program; involvement with a teacher or a counselor as a role Applying Resilience Research to the Underachievement of
model; and to a lesser degree, participation in religious training; High Ability Students
and for girls, a conscious decision not to date. A sample of these Applying these preliminary findings to guidance and coun-
personal and contextual variables and situational and environ- seling for high ability students has several advantages. Neihart
mental factors that can be categorized as risk, protective or (2001) suggests the importance of research on resilience and
mediating mechanisms are further elaborated upon in the appen- gifted students for three reasons. First, risk and resilience in
dix with representative comments of the participants. children has been studied for more than 40 years. Second, the
In this study, some underachieving students experienced concepts are familiar to several disciplines, providing a shared
risk factors that may have proven too difficult to overcome, vocabulary to communicate ideas and further research. Third,
such as having older siblings who had either dropped out of the concepts provide a practical framework for the identifica-
school or had become involved in drugs or alcohol. Although tion and development of differentiated affective supports neces-
some family problems occurred in similar numbers of students sary to facilitate positive outcomes for gifted students.
in both groups, a different type and severity of problems were
experienced by those underachieving students who failed to
develop resilience, suggesting that these risk factors were sim-
T his study suggests that counseling and guidance
efforts for gifted children should focus on reducing
the risks of maladjustment while strengthening the factors that
ply too difficult or that the risk factors were not accompanied enhance positive outcomes. The goal should be to reduce the
by key protective factors, such as having a teacher or a coun- negative impact of some events while building resources that
selor as a role model; participation in sports, summer pro- enable the child to cope effectively. Neihart (2001) suggests
grams, or extracurricular activities; involvement in a gifted that when educators and researchers use these concepts as the
program; peer support for academic achievement; and active scaffolding on which to build affective supports for the gifted,
avoidance of romantic involvement (for females). they will ask, "What are the risk factors for gifted students?

Winter, 2005, Roeper Review/117

What are the protective factors? And what are the mediating
mechanisms that help keep a gifted child on the developmen-
tal trajectory for positive outcomes?"
T his research study was exploratory in nature and pro-
vided some preliminary data suggesting that certain
risk factors can increase negative outcomes and certain protec-
tive factors can promote positive outcomes in talented urban
School Counseling Programs to Promote Positive Outcomes students. The protective factors for the high ability students
This study provides a rationale for the development of who achieved despite encountering obstacles were supportive
comprehensive developmental school counseling programs that families, peers and adults, caring teachers and counselors, chal-
can address the questions about protective factors and mediat- lenging classes, and participation in numerous in-school and
ing mechanisms raised by Neihart (2001). In the past, school extracurricular activities. The risk factors shifted developmen-
counselors worked most often with students one-on-one or in tal pathways toward negative outcomes. In this study, these
small groups. Contemporary school counselors can be encour- variables were both individual and contextual. For example,
aged to work in collaboration with teachers, administrators, underachieving students had few peers who were achieving in
parents, and other stakeholders to ensure that students follow a school, had relatively few positive adult role models and par-
positive developmental path (American School Counselor ticipated in few after-school or summer activities. They had
Association [ASCA], 2003; Gottlieb, 2001). The primary goal siblings who had dropped out of school or had problems with
of a school counseling program is consistent with the central drugs. These potential negative outcomes associated with risk
findings of this study, and the means through which this goal is factors may have been successfully avoided by the presence of
one or more of the protective factors that were experienced by
accomplished are consistent with programs and strategies that
the high achieving students, such as positive peer support for
might have helped underachieving students in this study. An
achievement or participation in a summer program for gifted
appropriate counseling program during middle and high school
and talented students.
might help to explore their developmental status within the
personal/social, career, and academic domains (ASCA). For These findings may suggest that more proactive counsel-
example, students who underachieved might participate in dis- ing services might have helped students who were under-
cussion groups in which they analyzed how they spend their achieving in this high school. Another important contributor to
after school time (personal/social) and how the decision to use resilience might have been a different school schedule for the
their time in a certain way affects their academic goals and per- underachieving students, one that began at the same early hour
formance. but ended later in the day, enabling the incorporation of many
of the activities that were beneficial to the high achieving stu-
W ith a better knowledge of students' developmental
status, school counseling team members may be
able to gain a clearer idea of students' developmental needs
dents as required activities for underachieving students. These
students regularly left school at 1:50 each afternoon and spent
the next several hours in unproductive use of their time. The
and could develop appropriate program activities that might school day was too short for these high ability students who
reduce risk factors of maladjustment while simultaneously often chose not to engage in productive activities after school.
strengthening the factors that enhance positive outcomes. The This after-school time could have been used for participation in
monitoring of students' development might include guidance sports, extracurricular activities, counseling and other positive
lessons and small groups for helping students make the con- study strategies that might have helped these talented young
nection between what they do in school and later life. Also, people to develop their potential.
collaborative efforts with administrators and community mem-
bers could provide after-school activities for these talented stu-
dents at risk for underachievement, and help to prevent them
M any talents remained unrecognized in this urban high
school where many high ability students were under-
achieving. While some academically talented students devel-
from establishing the habit of unproductive activities during oped the work habits and resilience they needed to either
unstructured times. survive or excel, others withered quietly, forgotten and anony-
Also, school counselors and teachers could work closely mous in a large high school where few teachers realized their
to ensure that academic experiences are commensurate with potential. These students did not encounter the protective fac-
students' abilities and learning styles. For instance, students tors that may have helped their high achieving peers to succeed
who are underachieving could be placed in academically chal- in their school environments with optimism and courage.
lenging classes. The school counselors could gain access to Based on this research, high school counselors or gifted coor-
students' learning assessment results and combine that with dinators may consider including the following components that
knowledge gained through school counseling program activi- may act as protective factors to help facilitate the development
ties to help inform all teachers of students' unique learning of resilience: after-school and summer programs, time with
styles. Such experiences might help prevent some students additional adult counselors and positive role models, more
from underachieving in school. challenging classes, gifted programs, and peer support pro-
With strengthened academic experiences, the underachiev- grams. Without more conscious efforts to provide intervention
ing students in this study might have entered high school with for these talented students, many more may experience under-
enhanced academic self-concepts, continued motivation for achievement in school that may, unfortunately, lead to under-
learning, and stronger beliefs in themselves. These school achievement later in life. Matteo eloquently summarizes the
counseling program activities could have been an essential resilience displayed by so many of the achieving students and
component of an ongoing program, and we can only speculate the pain many of them feel despite their ability to achieve in
that if these students had the opportunity to participate in this this environment:
type of school counseling program, they would have had a You can never be prepared for it. When someone
mediating mechanism for remaining on an appropriate devel- kicks you down, it hurts just as bad. I was talking to a
opmental trajectory to realize their high potential and achieve friend yesterday who is a diabetic. He said, "You
their goals. can't tell me that you can learn to deal with pain. I am

118/Roeper Review, Vol. 27, No. 2

 diabetic. I have a fear of needles. I take a shot three Hébert, T. P., & Beardsley, T. M. (2001). Jermain: A critical case study of a gifted Black
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Appendix
Examples of Protective and Risk Factors and Mediating Mechanisms of
Academically Talented Students Who Either Achieved or Underachieved in High School
Siblings Involved in Drug or Alcohol Abuse as a Risk Factor for Underachieving Students
Tense relationships with siblings negatively influenced some students' disposition to learn and may have contributed to their
underachievement. Participants reported that discord with their siblings occurred because of the use of drugs, a risk factor. Chico
explained:
He i s . . . up. He's an addict. He's just hurting my mother. I don't care about him. Today, I had an argument with him. I
told him I was going to hit him. I had hit him. I don't respect him for nothing. My brother ain't nothing. Some of my older
brothers, they lecture me and I don't like it. "Don't mess up in school. Don't start selling drugs. Don't join a gang. Don't
do this. Don't do that."

Lack Of Teachers as Role Models or Support Systems as a Risk Factor for Underachieving Students
John described classrooms where he felt the apathy squelching class discussions and he personally stopped responding to
teachers, explaining:
Teachers never know the talent of the students here because they don't want to answer questions. I know a lot of times,
we'll be having open discussions and the teacher will ask questions. I know the kids know the answers. They just don't
bother to answer. They look at the teacher as though they are stupid. My English teacher is always asking a lot of ques-
tions and they are so simple. They are so simple! I know they learned this simple stuff in elementary school. Nobody
wants to admit it. Continued on page 120

Winter, 2005, Roeper Review/119

 continued
Appendix
Examples of Protective and Risk Factors and Mediating Mechanisms of
Academically Talented Students Who Either Achieved or Underachieved in High School
Lack of Participation in After-School or Summer Activities as a Risk Factor for Underachieving Students
The majority of the underachievers were not involved in any activities related to school. They saw the environment as part of
their problem and many admitted they chose a peer group that negatively influenced them and led them into disciplinary trouble.
Because of their unstructured time, their school environment became a place to seek adventure in inappropriate ways. Several of
them placed the blame for their lack of success on school-related issues. One student captured this feeling when he said:
It's a place to hang out. Everybody like me stays in school for social reasons cause we get to see friends here every day.
The surroundings rub off on me and I get into bad stuff that I know hurts my chances of success. But I just do it.

Parental Involvement as a Mediating Mechanism for Achieving Students

Jana, a high achieving student, explained the impact of both of her parents' involvement in her success. Jana explained that she
and her siblings received support from their mother to do their homework each night as described in the following family scenario:
I work on my homework for three or four hours every night. I am not athletic, but I have been the manager of two athletic
clubs here. However, due to recent shootings, my mother made me hold off on my after-school activities for safety rea-
sons. Now she tells me that I can spend even more time on my homework and be a good role model for my siblings.

Teacher/Counselor as Role Model as a Mediating Mechanism for Achieving Students

Rosa often spent 5 hours a night on homework and described herself as a hard worker. She participated in an elementary
school gifted and talented program and many special programs within the state. She acknowledged the help and encouragement of
some of her elementary and high school teachers and also indicated that her counselor was extremely supportive of her. "He is
always looking for me to fill out something for a special program, award, or scholarship." In Rosa's case, these opportunities may
have enabled her to increase her chances for an Ivy League university and she attended Brown University.

Participation in Summer Enrichment Programs as Mediating Mechanisms for Achieving Students

Mandy described her change in attitude after participating in a summer program for academically talented students:
Part of that came out too because I started writing. I started writing and learning things about myself. Now I know that I
could write before and that I could express myself without anybody going like "what are you talking about" or "that's stu-
pid." I write down what I think and what I feel. Before this program, I had very low self-esteem, and lacked confidence in
myself. I used to think, me? Go to college? Yeah, right! Me, I don't think so. After this program, I learned that I can make
it in college.

Religious Home Environment as a Protective Factor for Achieving Students

Orlando's inner will, according to him, developed from his strong religious convictions, explaining:
I believe in the Lord. I believe that I have to put forth my part also, but there is no doubt about it. If you help yourself,
God will help you. My gifts and talents come from the Lord. My success is through Jesus Christ.

Girls Deciding Not to Date as a Protective Factor for Achieving Students

Jana was extremely determined to be independent. She said she did not want to be like her mother who had given birth to three
children with three different fathers, two of whom she had not married. Jana said although she loved her mother, she did not want
to be like her. She also explained that she had seen too many Hispanic men who want to be "in control of everything."

Participation in School Extracurricular Activities and Sports as a Protective Factor for Achieving Students
Marisa and most other participants explain how they removed themselves from problems by keeping busy with other activities:
No, I have learned not to get involved with anybody that has to do with gangs. I may be their associate, but I stay away
from that because it just brings trouble. Instead, I focus on my clubs and my sports.
All of the high achieving students participated in athletics or management of athletic teams and this also seemed to help develop
their protective behaviors and resilience. Mary described her coach and the relationships that she encouraged:
Swim team, for some reason—I don't understand it—they're all honors kids. I mean it. There's really no relation there,
but they're all. Both of our coaches push very highly for, "Go home and do your homework," and that's important. That's
very important. Most of the people on the swim team are either honors or academics. Those are probably my best friends
and then I have a lot of others just from classes and a few from softball.

Positive Peer Support for Academic Achievement as a Protective Factor for Achieving Students
Jana was ultimately identified as a high achiever in this study and yet her academic experiences were inconsistent in her earlier
years of high school. Several times during the course of this study, Jana's work began to falter and her high grades were in jeop-
ardy. Often, other high achieving peers would call her at night to encourage her to complete her homework or study for a test,
invite her to join a study group, remind her to study for a test, and keep her on track. Her female high achieving peers also brought
her to see members of the research team, believing that if she discussed her aspirations, she would be more committed to achieving
excellence. She explained that, "My female peer network was the major factor that kept me achieving this way."

120/Roeper Review, Vol. 27, No. 2