Chapter 1

What is Psychology?
Firstly, it evolves continuously.
Secondly, the range of phenomena it studies cannot be captured by any one definition.
Old Definition
The term psychology is derived from two Greek words psyche meaning soul and logos
meaning science or study of a subject. Thus, psychology was a study of the soul or mind.
Modern Definition
Psychology is defined formally as a science which studies mental processes, experiences, and
behaviour in different contexts.
In doing so, it uses methods of biological and social sciences to obtain data systematically. It
makes sense of these data so that they can be organised as knowledge.
Mental Processes/Cognition
The internal experiences of an experiencing person are referred to as the state of
consciousness or awareness or Mental Processes.
We use our mental processes when we think or try to solve a problem, to know or
remember something.
Mind emerges and evolves as our interactions and experiences in this world get dynamically
organised in the form of a system which is responsible for the occurrence of various mental
processes.
These mental processes are reflected in the brain activity, but we cannot say that brain
activities and mental processes are the same, although they are interdependent. Mental
activities and neural activities are mutually overlapping processes but, they are not identical.
Unlike the brain, the mind does not have a physical structure or has a location. Brain
activities provide important clues as to how our mind functions. But the consciousness of
our own experiences and mental processes are much more than the neural or brain
activities.
Experiences
Experiences are subjective in nature.
We cannot directly observe or know someone else’s experience. Only the experiencing
person can be aware or be conscious of her or his experiences. Thus, experiences are
embedded in our awareness or consciousness.
Experiences are influenced by internal and the external conditions of the experiencer. Thus,
the nature of experience can only be understood by analysing a complex set of internal and
external conditions.
Behaviour
Behaviours are responses or reactions we make or activities we engage in.
Behaviours may be simple or complex, short or enduring. Some behaviours are overt. They
can be outwardly seen or sensed by an observer. Some are internal or covert.
Overt - Outside; Covert – Inside
All behaviours, covert or overt, are associated with or triggered by some stimulus in the
environment or changes that happen internally.
Psychology as a Discipline
A discipline is defined both in terms of what it studies and how it studies.
The First Laboratory of Psychology was set up in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany.
Psychology as a discipline today has two parallel streams.
One which makes use of the method in physical and biological sciences and the other which
makes use of the method of social and cultural sciences in studying various psychological
and social phenomena.
These streams sometimes converge only to drift apart and go their separate ways.
In the first case, psychology considers itself as a discipline, which focuses largely on
biological principles to explain human behaviour. It assumes that all behavioural phenomena
have causes which can be discovered if we can collect data systematically under controlled
conditions. Here the aim of the researcher is to know the cause-and-effect relationship so
that a prediction of the behavioural phenomenon can be made, and behaviour can be
controlled if need be.
On the other hand, psychology as a social science focuses on how behavioural phenomena
can be explained in terms of the interaction that takes place between the person and the
sociocultural context of which s/he is a part. Each behavioural phenomenon is assumed to
have multiple causes.
Natural Science
Psychology was influenced by Descartes and later by the developments in physics has grown
by following what is called a hypothetico-deductive model. The model suggests that
scientific advancement can take place if you have a theory to explain a phenomenon.
Theory is nothing else but a set of statements about how a certain complex phenomenon
can be explained with the help of propositions which are interrelated.
Based on a theory, scientists deduce or propose a hypothesis, that offers a tentative
explanation of how a certain phenomenon takes place. The hypothesis then is tested and
proved true or false based on empirical data that one has gathered. The theory is revised if
data gathered point in a different direction than the one suggested by the hypothesis.
Social Science
Psychology is recognised more as a social science because it studies the behaviour of human
beings in their socio-cultural contexts. Humans are not only influenced by their socio-
cultural contexts, but they also create them. Psychology as a social science discipline focuses
on humans as social beings.
One can understand why and how individuals in communities become quite helpful and self-
sacrificing in crisis as was the case with the people in the village of Ranjita and Shabnam.
But, even in that case, not every villager was equally helpful and also under similar
circumstances not every community is so forthcoming; in fact, sometimes, the opposite is
true – people become antisocial under similar circumstances indulging in looting and
exploitation when some crisis occurs.
Mind and Behaviour
For many decades, the mind remained a taboo in psychology because it could not be defined
in concrete behavioural terms, or its location could not be indicated. If the term “mind” has
returned to psychology, we should thank neuroscientists like Sperry and physicists like
Penrose.
It is true that mind cannot exist without brain, but mind is a separate entity.
. In each of these cases, the person had suffered from damage of some part of the brain, but
his “mind” had remained intact.
It was earlier believed by scientists that there is no relationship between the mind and the
body and that they were parallel to each other. Recent studies in affective neuroscience have
clearly shown that there is a relationship between mind and behaviour.
It has been shown that using positive visualisation techniques and feeling positive emotions,
one can bring about significant changes in bodily processes.
Use of mental imagery, i.e., images generated by a person in her/his mind, have been used
to cure various kinds of phobias (irrational fears of objects and situations).
A new discipline called Psychoneuroimmunology has emerged which emphasises the role
played by the mind in strengthening the immune system.
Popular Notions
Common sense is based on hindsight. Psychology as a science looks for patterns of
behaviour which can be predicted and not explained after the behaviour occurs. Scientific
knowledge generated by psychology often runs against common sense.
One such example is a study performed by Dweck (1975).
She was concerned with children who gave up too easily when faced with a difficult problem
or failure. She wondered how they could be helped. Common sense tells us to give them
easy problems to increase their success rate so that their confidence goes up. Only later
should we give them difficult problems which they will be able to solve because of their
new-found confidence. Those who had always succeeded because they were given easy
problems, gave up much faster when they faced failure than those who had experience of
both success and failure and were taught to attribute failure to their lack of effort.
Evolution
The first experimental laboratory was established in Leipzig, Germany by Wilhelm Wundt in
1879. Wilhelm Wundt is also the father of psychology.
The second laboratory was established by Willaim James in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Structuralism
Wilheim Wundt was interested in the study of conscious experience and wanted to analyse
the constituents or the building blocks of the mind. They analysed the structure of the mind
through introspection.
Introspection was a procedure in which individuals or subjects in psychological experiments
were asked to describe in detail, their own mental processes, or experiences.
However, introspection as a method did not satisfy many other psychologists. It was
considered less scientific because the introspective reports could not be verified by outside
observers.
Functionalism
William James believed that instead of focusing on the structure of the mind, psychology
should instead study what the mind does and how behaviour functions in making people
deal with their environment.
According to William James, consciousness as an ongoing stream of mental process
interacting with the environment formed the core of psychology.
Gestalt Psychology
It focused on the organisation of perceptual experiences. Instead of looking at the
components of the mind, the Gestalt psychologists argued that when we look at the world
our perceptual experience is more than the sum of the components of the perception. In
other words, what we experience is more than the inputs received from our environment.
Behaviourism

This school of psychology was proposed by John Watson who viewed Psychology as a
science of behaviour in terms of stimuli and responses.

Watson emphasized on observable and verifiable response to stimuli and he was profoundly
interested in the study of learning.
Psychoanalysis

It was purposed by Sigmund Freud who viewed human behaviour as a dynamic

manifestation of unconscious desires and conflicts. While Freudian psychoanalysis viewed
human beings as motivated by unconscious desire for gratification of pleasure-seeking
desires.

He founded psychoanalysis as a system to understand and cure psychological disorders.

Humanistic Perspective

It was purposed my Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow and they emphasised the free will of
human beings and their natural striving to grow and unfold their inner potential.

Cognitive Perspective and Constructivism

It was purposed by Jean Piaget and Vygotsky.

Cognition is the process of knowing. It involves thinking, understanding, perceiving,

memorising, problem solving and a host of other mental processes by which our knowledge
of the world develops, making us able to deal with the environment in specific ways.

Some cognitive psychologists view the human mind as an information processing system like
the computer. Mind, according to this view is like a computer and it receives, processes,
transforms, stores and retrieves information.

Modern cognitive psychology views human beings as actively constructing their minds
through their exploration into the physical and the social world.

Vygotsky went even further to suggest that the human mind develops through social and
cultural processes in which the mind is viewed as culturally constructed through joint
interaction between adults and children.

In other words, while for Piaget children actively construct their own minds, Vygotsky took a
view that mind is a joint cultural construction and emerges as a result of interaction
between children and adults.

India and Psychology

The Indian philosophical tradition is rich in its focus on mental processes and reflections on
human consciousness, self, mind-body relations, and a variety of mental functions such as
cognition, perception, illusion, attention and reasoning, etc. Unfortunately, philosophical
roots in the Indian tradition have not influenced the development of modern psychology in
India.
The modern era of Indian psychology began in the Department of Philosophy at Calcutta
University where the first syllabus of experimental psychology was introduced, and the first
psychology laboratory was established in 1915. Calcutta University started the first
Department of Psychology in the year 1916 and another Department of Applied Psychology
in 1938. The beginning of modern experimental psychology at Calcutta University was
greatly influenced by the Indian psychologist Dr. N.N. Sengupta who was trained in USA in
the experimental tradition of Wundt.
Professor G. Bose was trained in Freudian psychoanalysis, another area which influenced the
early development of psychology in India. Professor Bose established Indian Psychoanalytical
Association in 1922.
Departments of Psychology in the Universities of Mysore and Patna were other early centres
of teaching and research in psychology. From these modest beginnings, modern psychology
has grown as a strong discipline in India with a large number of centres of teaching, research
and applications.
There are two centres of excellence in psychology supported by the UGC at Utkal University,
Bhubaneswar and at the University of Allahabad.
Durganand Sinha in his book Psychology in a Third World Country: The Indian Experience
published in 1986 traces the history of modern psychology as a social science in India in four
phases.
According to him, the first phase till independence was a phase with emphasis on
experimental, psychoanalytic, and psychological testing research, which primarily reflected
the development of the discipline in western countries.
The second phase till the 1960s was a phase of expansion of psychology in India into
different branches of psychology. During this phase Indian psychologists showed a desire to
have an Indian identity by seeking to link western psychology to the Indian context. They did
this by using western ideas to understand the Indian situation. However, psychology in India
sought to become relevant for Indian society in the post 1960s phase of problem-oriented
research.
Leading psychologists emphasised the significance of research, which is of relevance to our
situation. The search for a new identity of psychology in India led to the phase of
indigenisation, which started during the late 1970s. Thus, this phase is characterised by
development in indigenous psychology, which originated from the Indian cultural context
and was relevant for society and Indian psychology based on the Indian traditional
knowledge system.
Branches of Psychology
Cognitive Psychology
It investigates mental processes involved in acquisition, storage, manipulation, and
transformation of information received from the environment along with its use and
communication. The major cognitive processes are attention, perception, memory,
reasoning, problem solving, decision-making and language.
Some of them also follow an ecological approach, i.e. an approach which focuses on the
environmental factors, to study cognitive processes in a natural setting.
Biological Psychology
It focuses on the relationship between behaviour and the physical system, including the
brain and the rest of the nervous system, the immune system, and genetics.
Neuropsychology has emerged as a field of research where psychologists and neuroscientists
are working together. Researchers are studying the role of neurotransmitters or chemical
substances which are responsible for neural communication in different areas of the brain
and therefore in associated mental functions. They do their research on people with normal
functioning brain as well as on people with damaged brain by following advanced
technologies like EEG, PET and fMRI, etc.
Developmental Psychology
It studies the physical, social and psychological changes that occur at different ages and
stages over a life-span, from conception to old age. The primary concern of developmental
psychologists is how we become what we are. For many years the major emphasis was on
child and adolescent development. However today an increasing number of developmental
psychologists show strong interest in adult development and ageing. They focus on the
biological, socio-cultural and environmental factors that influence psychological
characteristics such as intelligence, cognition, emotion, temperament, morality, and social
relationship.
Social Psychology
It explores how people are affected by their social environments, how people think about
and influence others. Social psychologists are interested in such topics as attitudes,
conformity and obedience to authority, interpersonal attraction, helpful behaviour,
prejudice, aggression, social motivation, inter-group relations and so on.
Cross – Culture and Cultural Psychology
It examines the role of culture in understanding behaviour, thought, and emotion. It
assumes that human behaviour is not only a reflection of human-biological potential but
also a product of culture.
Environmental Psychology
It studies the interaction of physical factors such as temperature, humidity, pollution, and
natural disasters on human behaviour. The influence of physical arrangement of the
workplace on health, the emotional state, and interpersonal relations are also investigated.
Current topics of research in this field are the extent to which, disposal of waste, population
explosion, conservation of energy, efficient use of community resources are associated with
and are functions of human behaviour.
Health Psychology
It focuses on the role of psychological factors (for example, stress, anxiety) in the
development, prevention and treatment of illness. Areas of interest for a health psychologist
are stress and coping, the relationship between psychological factors and health, patient-
doctor relationship and ways of promoting health enhancing factors.
Clinical and Counselling Psychology
It focuses on the role of psychological factors (for example, stress, anxiety) in the
development, prevention and treatment of illness. Areas of interest for a health psychologist
are stress and coping, the relationship between psychological factors and health, patient-
doctor relationship and ways of promoting health enhancing factors.
A clinical psychologist has a degree in psychology, which includes intensive training in
treating people with psychological disorders. In contrast, a psychiatrist has a medical degree
with years of specialised training in the treatment of psychological disorders. One important
distinction is that psychiatrists can prescribe medications and give electroshock treatments
whereas clinical psychologist cannot.
Industrial/Organisational Psychology
It deals with workplace behaviour, focusing on both the workers and the organisations that
employ them. Industrial/organisational psychologists are concerned with training
employees, improving work conditions, and developing criteria for selecting employees.
Educational Psychology
It studies how people of all ages learn. Educational psychologists primarily help develop
instructional methods and materials used to train people in both educational and work
settings. They are also concerned with research on issues of relevance for education,
counselling and learning problems. A related field, school psychology, focuses on designing
programmes that promote intellectual, social, and emotional development of children,
including those with special needs. They try to apply knowledge of psychology in a school
setting.
Sports Psychology
It applies psychological principles to improve sports performance by enhancing their
motivation. Sports psychology is a relatively new field but is gaining acceptance worldwide.
Basic and Applied Psychology
There is no sharp cleavage between research and application of psychology.
For example, basic psychology provides us with theories and principles that form the basis of
application of psychology and applied psychology provides us with different contexts in
which the theories and principles derived from research can be meaningfully applied.
On the other hand, research is an integral part of even those fields of psychology that are
mainly characterised by or subsumed under the category of application.
Newly emerging disciplines like applied experimental psychology, applied social psychology,
and applied developmental psychology indicate that in fact all psychology has the potential
of application and is basically applied in nature.
Thus, there is seemingly no fundamental difference between research and application of
psychology. These activities are highly interrelated and mutually reinforcing.
Psychology and Other Disciplines
Any discipline, which deals with people, would definitely recognise the relevance of the
knowledge of psychology. This trend has led to the emergence of interdisciplinary approach
in the field of psychology.
In studying brain and behaviour, psychology shares its knowledge with neurology,
physiology, biology, medicine and computer science.
In studying human behaviour (its meaning, growth and development) in a socio-cultural
context, psychology shares its knowledge with anthropology, sociology, social work, political
science and economics.
In studying mental activities involved in creation of literary texts, music and drama,
psychology shares its knowledge with literature, art and music.
Philosophy
There are certain concerns that are now part of contemporary psychology like, what is the
nature of the mind or how do humans come to know their motivations and emotions were
the concerns of philosophers. Wundt and other psychologists adopted an experimental
approach to these questions and contemporary psychology emerged. Despite the
emergence of psychology as a science, it greatly draws from philosophy, particularly with
respect to methods of knowing, and various domains of human nature.
Medicine
Doctors have realised that the maxim, healthy body requires a healthy mind, is actually true.
The role of psychologists in preventing people from engaging in health hazardous behaviours
and in adhering to the prescribed doctors’ regimen are some of the important areas where
the two disciplines have come together.
Economics, Political Science and Sociology
Psychology has contributed a great deal to the study of micro-level economic behaviour,
particularly in understanding consumer behaviour, savings behaviour and in decision-
making. American economists have used data on consumer sentiments to predict economic
growth.
Political Science too draws considerably from psychology, particularly, in understanding
issues related to exercise of power and authority, nature of political conflicts and their
resolutions, and voting behaviour.
Sociology and psychology come together to explain and understand the behaviour of
individuals within different socio-cultural contexts. Issues related to socialisation, group and
collective behaviour, and intergroup conflicts gain from both these disciplines.
Computer Science
One can see it in terms of how a ‘computer’ is structured, its memory organised, sequential
and simultaneous (read parallel) processing of information. Computer scientists and
engineers are seeking to make computers not only more and more intelligent but also
machines which can sense and feel.
Law and Criminology
A skilled lawyer and a criminologist requires knowledge of psychology in answering
questions. a number of psychologists are involved in research on such issues, the answers to
which would help the legal system of the country in the future.
Mass Communication
The print and the electronic media have entered in our lives in a very big way. They have a
major influence on our thinking, attitudes and our emotions. The impact of media on the
formation of attitudes of children and their behaviour is a domain where both these
disciplines come together. Psychology also helps in developing strategies for better and
effective communication.
Music and Fine Arts
Music and emotions is another area in which a number of studies have been carried out.
Musicians in India have recently started experimenting with what they call ‘Music Therapy’.
In this they use different ‘Ragas’ for curing certain physical ailments.
Architecture and Engineering
Any architect, s/he must satisfy her/his clients by providing mental and physical space
through her design and satisfy aesthetically. Engineers must also take into account human
habits in their plans for safety, for example, on streets and highways. Psychological
knowledge helps in a big way in designing of all mechanical devices and displays.
Types of Psychologists
Mental processes, such as remembering, learning, knowing, perceiving, feeling are of
interest to psychologists. They study these processes to try to understand how the mind
works and to help us improve the uses and applications of these mental capacities.
Some psychologists study behaviour as an association between stimulus (S) and response
(R). Both stimulus and response can be internal or external.
Psychologists have also been considerably influenced by the evolutionary approach which is
dominant in biological sciences. This approach has also been used to explain diverse kinds of
psychological phenomenon such as attachment and aggression to mention just a few.
Clinical Psychologist
Clinical psychologists specialise in helping clients with behavioural problems by providing
therapy for various mental disorders and in cases of anxiety or fear, or with stresses at home
or at work. They work either as private practitioners or at hospitals, mental institutions, or
with social agencies. They may be involved in conducting interviews and administering
psychological tests to diagnose the client’s problems and use psychological methods for their
treatment and rehabilitation.
Counselling psychologist
Counselling psychologists work with persons who suffer from motivational and emotional
problems. The problems of their clients are less serious than those of the clinical
psychologists. A counselling psychologist may be involved in vocational rehabilitation
programmes or helping persons in making professional choices or in adjusting to new and
difficult situations of life.
Community psychologist
Community psychologists generally focus on problems related to community mental health.
They work for mental health agencies, private organisations and state governments. They
help the community and its institutions in addressing physical and mental health problems.
In rural areas they may work to establish a mental health centre. In urban areas they may
design a drug rehabilitation programme. Many community psychologists also work with
special populations such as the elderly or the physically or mentally challenged.
School Psychologist
School psychologists work in educational systems, and their roles vary according to the levels
of their training. They also help in the formulation of school policies. They facilitate
communication between parents, teachers and administrators, and also provide teachers
and parents with information about the academic progress of a student.
Organisational Psychologist
Organisational psychologists render valuable help in dealing with problems that the
executives and employees of an organisation tend to face in their respective roles. They
provide organisations with consultancy services and organise skill training programmes in
order to enhance their efficiency and effectiveness. Some organisational psychologists
specialise in Human Resource Development (HRD), while others in Organisational
Development and Change Management programmes.
Everyday Life
Many of these problems are largely of psychological nature and they result from our
unhealthy thinking, negative attitude towards people and self and undesirable patterns of
behaviour.
Media has played a vital role in this respect. You may have seen on television counsellors
and therapists suggesting solutions to a variety of problems related to children, adolescents,
adults and the elderly people. You may also find them analysing vital social problems relating
to social change and development, population, poverty, interpersonal or intergroup
violence, and environmental degradation.
The principles and methods of psychology that you will learn in this course should be made
use of in analysing and understanding yourself in relation to others. It is not that we do not
think about ourselves. But very often, some of us think very highly of ourselves and any
feedback that contradicts our opinion about ourselves is rejected because we engage in
what is called a defensive behaviour. Thus, the knowledge of psychology is quite useful in
our everyday life and is rewarding from personal as well as social points of view.