Diffusing Innovation in Times of Disaste
Diffusing Innovation in Times of Disaste
Diffusing Innovation in Times of Disaste
To cite this article: Alana Dillette & Sandra Sun-Ah Ponting (2020): Diffusing innovation in times
of disasters: considerations for event management professionals, Journal of Convention & Event
Tourism, DOI: 10.1080/15470148.2020.1860847
Article views: 57
ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
The COVID-19 pandemic has overwhelmed the world, with con- COVID-19; diffusion of
firmed infections threatening the health and lives of millions. innovation; event
Consequently, many hospitality and tourism organizations ceased management professio-
nals; pandemic
operations temporarily, including the cancelation or postpone-
ment of large and small events. As lockdown measures begin to
ease, events will be some of the last to re-open due to their
non-essential categorization. Utilizing the diffusion of innovation
theory from crisis management literature, nineteen in-depth
interviews were conducted with senior event management pro-
fessionals to explore how the events industry is innovating its
service offerings in response to COVID-19. As the industry is
forced to change its practices radically during the pandemic,
findings reveal an interconnected innovation web modeled
through the lens of diffusion of innovation theory. As a result,
this research implies the need to develop a new type of innov-
ation theory for the events industry that can be applied during
extraordinary unprecedented disasters.
Introduction
On December 31st, 2019, an unknown pneumonia like sickness was detected and
reported to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2020). This virus termed as
COVID-19 spread uncontrollably across the globe, and, by mid-March, it had
been established in 146 countries (G€ ossling, Scott, & Hall, 2021). In a matter of
weeks, COVID-19 had overwhelmed the world, with confirmed infections more
than doubling, threatening the health and lives of millions. Many blamed the
supersonic spread of the virus on global air transport and a number of super-
spreading events such as the ski destination Ischgl in Austria and mega cruise ships
(Anderson, Heesterbeek, Klinkenberg, & Hollingsworth, 2020; Chinazzi et al.,
2020). Consequently, countries all around the world imposed unprecedented stay-
at-home and lockdown orders, ceasing operations of many hospitality and tourism
organizations (Baum & Hai, 2020), including the cancelation or postponement of
large and small events around the world (Jamal & Budke, 2020).
CONTACT Alana Dillette [email protected] L. Robert Payne School of Hospitality and Tourism
Management, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA.
ß 2020 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
2 A. DILLETTE AND S. S-A. PONTING
Although convention and event tourism has been exposed to major crises
and disasters in the past – the September 11 terrorist attacks (2001), the
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) outbreak (2003), the global
economic crisis (2007-2009) and the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome
(MERS) outbreak (2015), none of these crises and disasters have reached
the level COVID-19 has already surpassed (G€ ossling et al., 2021; Lee &
Goldblatt, 2012; Mason, Grabowski, & Du, 2005; Smeral, 2010; Tew, Lu,
Tolomiczenko, & Gellatly, 2008). According to the United Nations World
Tourism Organization (UNWTO), evidence so far suggests that the impacts
and recovery from COVID-19 will be unprecedented as 100% of worldwide
destinations have introduced travel restrictions in response to the pandemic
(UNWTO., 2020). Impacts on the broader hospitality and tourism industry
project international tourist arrivals may decline 58-78% depending on the
speed of containment and the duration of travel restrictions (UNWTO.,
2020). Before the worldwide spread of COVID-19, the events industry had
made a significant impression on the global economy and were a draw for
business and leisure travelers alike (Getz & Page, 2020; Raj, Walters, &
Rashid, 2017). The disruption in the economy spurred on by COVID-19
will undoubtedly leave a lasting impact on the hospitality and tourism
industry, and more specifically, the event industry.
As lockdown measures begin to ease, hospitality and tourism businesses,
especially group gatherings for events will be some of the last to re-open
due to their non-essential categorization (Baum & Hai, 2020). Furthermore,
social distancing measures and other safety protocols required by many
government agencies during the pandemic will significantly impact the
operation of most events. Therefore, this paper explored how COVID-19 is
impacting event management professionals (EMPs) as they prepare to
resume operations in a pandemic and post-pandemic world. Utilizing the
diffusion of innovation (DOI) theory as a theoretical lens, in-depth inter-
views were conducted with eighteen senior EMPs to explore how they have
dealt with the impacts of the pandemic, and how they are innovating their
service offerings in preparation for reopening of the economy. Interviewees
represented multiple sectors of the industry including venues, third-party
planning, in-house corporate planning, incentive travel, event design and
production, event suppliers, convention and visitors’ bureaus, event staffing
agencies, and destination management companies.
Literature review
Disaster management in events
Humanity has lived through crises and disasters, whether it be economic,
environmental, social, or political for all of eternity. The complex nature of
JOURNAL OF CONVENTION & EVENT TOURISM 3
Diffusion of innovation
Diffusion of innovation (DOI) is nonlinear and complex, especially during
times of disasters (Robertson, Swan, & Newell, 1996; Van de Ven, Polley,
6 A. DILLETTE AND S. S-A. PONTING
Garud, & Venkataraman, 1999; Wolfe, 1994). This study uses DOI as a the-
oretical lens to offer a structure for the themes related to the innovation
process derived from the data. Originally developed by Everett Rogers
(1962), the theory of DOI provides a framework for exploring how innova-
tions are communicated within organizations. DOI clarifies the process and
factors influencing the adoption of new innovations. Diffusion is defined as
“the process in which an innovation is communicated through certain
channels over time among the members of a social system” while commu-
nication is described as “the process in which participants create and share
information with one another in order to reach a mutual understanding”
(Rogers, 2003, p. 5). More specifically, there are four dimensions that make
up DOI: the innovation; communication channels; time; and social systems
(Rogers, 2003).
An innovation is an idea, thing, procedure or system that is new, or per-
ceived to be new by whoever is adopting it. Characteristics of an innovation
include relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observabil-
ity (Rogers, 2003). Communication channels refer to the process by which peo-
ple share information about an innovation and include the unit of adoption
(an individual or organization) that is familiar with the innovation as well as
other units of adoption who are not familiar with the innovation. The element
of time refers to three components, the innovation decision process, adopter
categories and the rate of adoption (Rogers, 2003). The innovation decision
process incorporates the timeframe when an individual or organization
becomes aware of an innovation until they either adopt or reject the innov-
ation. Five steps within this process include knowledge, persuasion, decision,
implementation, and confirmation (Rogers, 2003). Adopter categories refer to
the level of inclination an individual or organization has toward the innovation.
Categories of adoption include innovators, early adopters, early majority, late
majority and laggards. Finally, the rate of adoption considers the speed at
which an innovation is adopted in a social system. According to Rogers (2003),
the rate of adoption tends to occur following an S-shaped curve, in that, early
on only a few will adopt the innovation, with numbers growing as time pro-
gresses and eventually declining. The final element of DOI is the social system.
All diffusion occurs within social systems. The social system may be individu-
als, groups, organizations or sub-systems that all share a common goal (Rogers,
2003). In the case of this research, the social system includes EMPs in the
United States. Within organizations specifically, the characteristics of an organ-
izational structure will have significant impacts on its ability to innovate. These
characteristics include centralization, organizational complexity, levels of formal-
ity, interconnections within an organization, and the size of the organization
(Lundblad, 2003). Centralization refers to the amount of power that resides
with a small number of people – which is most often negatively correlated with
JOURNAL OF CONVENTION & EVENT TOURISM 7
Methodology
A qualitative investigation was deemed appropriate to understand the
impact of COVID-19 on the EM industry and how EMPs are preparing for
post-pandemic events. The interpretive nature of qualitative research
enabled an exploration of innovation directly with industry professionals
(Creswell & Creswell, 2017). By conducting 18 semi-structured interviews,
rich descriptive accounts of EMPs’ experiences were collected and inter-
preted to unpack the ways innovation is diffused over communication
channels, time, and social systems (Rogers, 2003).
Interview protocol
The interview protocol followed a four-phase framework to strengthen reli-
ability (Castillo-Montoya, 2016). Interview questions were structured to fol-
low the literature on disaster management in events and the DOI theory,
8 A. DILLETTE AND S. S-A. PONTING
including: “What was your work like before the pandemic?” to evaluate the
participants’ work environment prior to the pandemic; “What does your
work look like now?” to grasp how individuals and organizations are deal-
ing with the pandemic; and, “How are you or your organization preparing
for a post-pandemic world?” to explore EM innovations. In order to create
an inquiry-based conversational setting, the researchers (faculty members
in EM education) used their knowledge of industry contexts and work
practices to develop interview questions. To enhance reliability and trust-
worthiness (Castillo-Montoya, 2016), the interview protocol was evaluated
by one industry expert and one other academic in EM. Necessary amend-
ments were made to ensure that the interview questions were clear and
relevant for participants. Finally, two interviews with EMPs were conducted
to pilot the interview protocol. These pilot interviews led to editing the
sequence of questions.
Selection of participants
The target population was comprised of professionals with significant work
experience in the EM sector within the United States. Specifically, a past-
president of a professional association was solicited for participation and
access to a purposeful sample. Based on the past-president’s years of indus-
try experience and network, ten professionals were initially contacted via
email to participate in the research project. Seven professionals in in-house
corporate planning, third-party corporate planning, venue management,
and event design agreed to be interviewed. These professionals were pur-
posefully selected to ensure access to a thorough description of the phe-
nomenon under study by exploring a variety of perspectives from EMPs
across the industry (Yardley, 2015). Eleven additional EMPs were inter-
viewed based on snowball sampling recommendations. Thus, a total of
eighteen interviews were completed. Participant descriptions are illustrated
in Table 1. To maintain confidentiality, participants are identified
using pseudonyms.
Data collection
All interviews were conducted using Zoom due to health and safety con-
cerns resultant from the pandemic, a video/audio communications soft-
ware, in May and June 2020, a time when the U.S. events industry was
dealing with the aftermath of event cancelations and postponement. During
this time, the employment status of participants varied. Twelve EMPs were
employed, four were furloughed, and two were recently laid-off. Those that
were employed spoke about the work they were doing and strategies to
JOURNAL OF CONVENTION & EVENT TOURISM 9
Findings
To provide context on how innovation emerged among EMPs, a timeline
of how the pandemic influenced the participants must be explained.
Participants explained that EM businesses dealt with the impact of the pan-
demic in “two big waves”. First, in March 2020, when the majority of states
in the United States enforced measurements to prohibit the gathering of
groups, many EMPs dealt with cancelations and postponement of events
originally scheduled between March and May. Immediate actions mainly
involved revisiting the force majeure clauses to protect clients. As Emily
reflected, “March was a disaster”, as many EMPs exhaustively worked on
“revising clauses and renegotiating contracts” (Bailey). The second wave
was in May when event businesses started to work with clients and indus-
try partners to strategize for and reimagine future events. As some states
were planning to re-open venues for small gatherings as early as June 2020,
innovation was brewing within and across event organizations to prepare
for EM in a pandemic and post-pandemic world. The following findings
guided by the theory of DOI, are structured to showcase innovation strat-
egies and the ways these strategies were communicated over time within a
social system. Divergent from the traditional DOI theory, Figure 1 high-
lights the unique nature of the events industry that diffuses innovation
through an interconnected cyclical web during a global pandemic.
Innovations
Shifting from dealing with event cancelations to preparing for events dur-
ing the pandemic, three significant innovation strategies emerged: content
design, safety protocol, and professional growth. Many EMPs have turned
JOURNAL OF CONVENTION & EVENT TOURISM 11
Further, many EMPs played an empathetic role given the time and
money their clients had put into their events. Continuously communicating
and sharing information was a key component in cultivating relationships.
A crowdsourced document spearheaded by MPI emphasized that working
toward a resolution rather than defending each other’s position was a way
to build a more resilient industry (MPI., 2020).
Communication
Roger’s (2003) original DOI theory includes communication as a social
process of sharing the innovation between people (innovation user to non-
user) via a communication channel (mass media or interpersonal). Given
the extreme circumstances resulting from the pandemic, participants
explained all communication was through virtual platforms (e.g., e-mails,
webinars, virtual meetings, etc.). The social processes of communicating
innovation were unique to the EM industry. Rather than innovation being
communicated from users to non-users, as described in DOI theory
(Rogers, 2003), the process was one of collaborative real-time innovation.
Firstly, when the industry was seeking innovative strategies to succeed in a
pandemic environment, Sabrina explained that they turned to each other,
rather than trying to create solutions within their organizations.
“I think it’s been a mixture of great minds coming together. We aren’t necessarily
food and beverage experts. So, we’ve outreached to our catering partners who are
and said, "What are you seeing that needs to be done from a food safety standpoint?
Does it need to be fully enclosed only? Do we need to go bento boxes only for food
service?" So, we’re the puzzle pieces. We’re the event producers that can get all the
different components of an event together, the experts in each arena, share those
ideas and then have kind of created what we then would consider our standards
moving forward because that’s what we do so well. We put all of these pieces of an
event together and we have the capability to think about all of the different
scenarios. And therefore, we can be that trusted resource that’s talked to everybody
collectively.”
JOURNAL OF CONVENTION & EVENT TOURISM 15
Time
The third element of Roger’s (2003) DOI theory is time which encompasses
the innovation-decision process, adopter categories, and the rate of adop-
tion. All participants were well-informed on the innovation strategies that
were being planned and proposed by major hotel brands, audio-visual com-
panies, virtual event management companies, professional associations, and
within their own companies. According to the DOI theory, the information
gathered by stakeholders creates a platform for organizations to either
adopt or reject the innovation (Lundblad, 2003). Interestingly, unlike an
organization experiencing the DOI process in theory, the pandemic was
positioning many EMPs to accept the innovation strategies. Thus, the
adoption of innovation was not a process, but working with what is pro-
posed in the industry. As a result, some businesses are forced into
16 A. DILLETTE AND S. S-A. PONTING
situations where they must reevaluate their service offerings. Melanie, who
works for an incentive travel company stated:
“We definitely were not doing virtual meetings before. It was kind of the opposite,
and I’m sure you’ve heard that from anyone else you’ve talked to. It was the opposite
of what our business was. We believe in, in-person meetings, experiences and
connections, and a virtual meeting just isn’t that, but right now that’s the space we
have to think about.”
The next discussion in the time element of DOI is the adopter categories.
Large organizations such as hotels and audio-visual companies fit into the
innovators category as these organizations are leading the changes in their
operations. Some third-party planning companies and in-house corporate
planners (Darlene, Callie and Andrea) were also considered innovators as
they were spearheading innovative strategies and have partnered with vir-
tual event and production companies to drive sales. Smaller business own-
ers, such as Emily and Dana, are identified as early adopters as they are
planning to extend their business services to include virtual events. Emily
explained that some events will be virtual and further stated:
“So, there are some events that I think can completely pivot to virtual and they’ll be
okay. A board meeting. Yeah, maybe people don’t all sit around the table and have a pad
of paper in front of them. You can have a small board meeting in this avenue, a keynote
lecture. If you’re just sitting in a seat and you’re just watching a keynote, sure why not.
Put it up on your big screen and have that same keynote deliver that same message. So,
there are some things that can be done virtually, and be done okay.”
The day-to-day changes and the “fear of the unknown” (Darlene) made
it difficult for EMPs to predict the effect of EM innovation.
JOURNAL OF CONVENTION & EVENT TOURISM 17
Social systems
The final element of DOI theory is the element of social systems which
accounts for systems of individuals, groups, organizations or sub-systems
(Rogers, 2003). The findings revealed that social systems included profes-
sional associations, government agencies, and business organizations. This
may be due to the unique composition of sectors that need to come
together to produce event services and products. For instance, a corporate
event often requires an event planner, venue, accommodation, transporta-
tion, audio-visual, food and beverage, and more. There are numerous large
and small organizations that make up the events industry. Therefore, the
use of professional associations as a central space for EMPs to virtually
gather, learn, connect and discuss innovations was paramount. Established
professional associations served as a platform for crowdsourcing, a space
for content creation and an educational tool for helping EMPs pivot into
virtual and hybrid event design and production. Maya shared:
“It’s been really helpful to be a part of SITE SoCal where I have industry peers and
mentors that I can bounce ideas off of. And ultimately, I’m so thankful for our
industry all being in this together. I know we’re all remaining as flexible as
possible … we can try something and have a little bit more grace if it doesn’t work.
So, we’re kind of working through this all together and figuring it out as we go.”
Both examples highlight the unique ways in which EMPs utilized their
organizations as well as their connections with other EMPs and EM
JOURNAL OF CONVENTION & EVENT TOURISM 19
hotels are also warranted. Although the topic of this research is novel, it is
not without limitations. Due to the ongoing nature of this pandemic, and
the status of the EM industry at the time of data collection, results from
this study should be explored further once EMPs are fully engaged in EM
again. Specifically, following up with EMPs to understand exactly how they
operationalized the innovations discussed in this study would be beneficial.
The process of innovation in response to COVID-19 will be ongoing and
complex. Approaching the new normal with a dynamic mindset that
embraces change will be key to the survival and success of EM. This holis-
tic approach steeped in collaboration and empowerment will assist in the
development of the continued innovation of EM in a post-pandemic world.
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