FORM TWO (2).

FIRST TERM

STRAND 1

OUR CULURE.

Introduction: Development of every nation is chiefly powered by its culture. If

culture becomes static, the nation loses its capacity to advance. Therefore, a nations
culture should be dynamic.
OBJECTIVES.
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
i. Explain the meaning of culture.
ii. State and explain the factors that can cause change in culture.
iii. Explain why some societies develop faster than others.
iv. Explain why societies sometimes accept or resist change in culture.
v. Explain parallel cultures and their effects on the life of people in Ghana.
vi. Examine the effects of outmoded cultures and superstition on society.

MEANING OF CULTURE.
Culture is the way of life of a particular group of people. It is not only singing and
drumming but it includes both materials and non-material things.
Material culture: It is the aspect of culture which people can see, touch, taste and
smell. For example, the kind of food, clothes, tools, utensils, buildings, drums,
artefacts and machines peculiar to a society constitute its material culture.
Non-material culture: It is the aspect of culture which is demonstrated through
interactions and social organisation. For example, the customs, festivals, beliefs,
government and the religion of a society.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE.
i. Culture is dynamic: This means that culture does not always remain the
same. It changes with time.
ii. Culture is flexible: This means that certain parts of culture which are bad
can be changed with new ones.
 iii. Culture is progressive: This means that culture brings improvement into
the lives of the people.
iv. Culture is man-made: The culture of a people should be the product of
their own normal way of life.
v. Culture is relative: This means that people’s way of life should be
determined by the kind of physical and social environment in which they
find themselves.

SOME OF THE WAYS BY WHICH GHANAIANS EXPRESS

CULTURE.
1. Language: The people speak several traditional languages among themselves.
Though the official language of Ghana is English. There are about 46
languages spoken in Ghana. The popular ones are: Akan, Dagaree, Wale, Ewe,
Dagbani and Ga.

2. Dressing: Ghanaians wear cloths made from cotton and other traditional
fabrics. Most of the people in the Northern and Upper regions wear smock and
'batakari'. People in Southern Ghana traditionally put on kente cloths and 'kaba
and sleet'.

3. Food: The people of Ghana also express their culture by preparing various
traditional dishes. Examples are akple, banku, fufu, kenkey and tuo-zaafi.

4. Games: Playing of traditional games from another way that Ghanaians express
their culture. Examples of such games are wrestling, ampe and oware.

5. Music and Dance: Ghanaian play, sing and dance to all kinds of traditional
music. Most of the songs go with drumming and dancing. Examples are
Kpanlogo, Adowa, Agbadza and Kundum.

6. Festivals: A festival is a day or a period for religious or other celebrations.

Ghanaians also express their culture through the celebration of festivals. These
festivals differ from community to community.

OF THE GHANAIAN SOME FESTIVALS ARE AS FOLLOWS:

FESTIVAL PEOPLE PERIOD OF REASON FOR
WHO CELEBRATION CELEBRATION
CELEBRATE
1 Aboakyir Winneba 1st of May In honour of Penkye
(effutu) Out Shrine
2 Bugum Mamprusi August To give thanks to the
Gods of the land and
ancestors for the years
harvest.
rd
3 Damba Dagomba and 3 month of the To remember the birth
Or Wala Islamic Calender and naming ceremony
Dumba Gonga and of the prophet
Nanumba Mohammed
4 Homowo Ga August In memory of a
bumper harvest which
saved the people from
famine when they first
settled at where they
live today
5 Hogbetsotso Anlo November In remembrance of
how they run away at
Notsie from the
wicked rule of King
Agorkoli
6 Fetu-Afahye Cape Coast September Remembrance
7 Odwira Akwamu September/October It is a time of
Akyem cleansing and
Akuapem purification
8 Kakube Nandom people Last week of To give thanks to the
November each gods of the land and
year ancestors for the years
harvest
9 Kobine Lawra people October Harvest festival
10 Kundum Ahanta Nzema August/September To give thanks to the
gods of the land and
ancestors for the years
harvest

IMPORTANCE OF FESTIVALS.
1. Remembrance: The people remember and mourn those who had died during
the year.
2. Harvest: Festivals mark the beginning or harvesting of staple food eg. Rice,
maize, yam and the beginning of new agricultural year.
 3. Marriages: It gives the youth the chance to know one another and sometimes
choose their life partners.
4. Transmission of culture: It helps to upload and continue the tradition.
5. Education: It helps to uphold and continue the tradition.
6. Festivals mark the beginning of a traditional year.
7. Purification: The people perform the customary purification of the land and
the people by the chiefs and traditional priests. The purification is to strengthen
them spiritually and socially to enable them to face the coming year
successfully.
8. Review: Festivals review the past years mistakes and plan for the future.

CULTURAL CHANGE.
Cultural change means adaptation and shifts in social, economic and general cultural
life to be able to cope with development around us. Thus, the culture of a society 100
years ago is different from the present culture due to the changes that have occurred
in the culture within the 100 years period.
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR CULTURAL CHANGE IN GHANA
ARE:
1. Changes in the physical environment: Changes in the physical environment like
deforestation, drought, increase in rainfall etc have changed the culture of
Ghanaians.

2. Trade: Trading activities lead to interaction between people from different

cultures. Interactions during trade help people to adopt cultural traits such as
language, dressing, beliefs and new ways of doing things causing changes in their
old and traditional culture.

3. Changes in the social environment: Changes in the social environment eg.

Increase population, smaller families, change in the respect for leaders contribute
to cultural change in Ghana.

4. Social upheavals: Social upheavals eg. Civil wars, conflict, revolution etc. All
these contribute to social change in Ghana.

5. Inter-marriages: Marriages among people from different cultures lead to the

adoption of new aspects of culture such as languages, religion, dress and food.
6. Research and new discoveries: Research and new discoveries eg. Plant
medicine, mineral discoveries like oil etc. contribute to change in culture.

FACTORS OF CHANGE IN CULTURE.

There are two factors of change in culture, they are internal factors of change and
external factors of change.
i. Internal factors of change in culture: These are changes that occur in the
culture due to the actions of the change themselves. Eg. Civil wars,
education, new ways of doing things, research changes in the social and
economic life of the people.

ii. External factors of changes in culture: These are changes that occur in
the culture which have their sources from outside the society. Eg. Foreign
religion like Christianity or Islam improves communication which makes it
easier to know what is from foreign countries eg. Computers, television etc.

INTERNAL FACTORS THAT HAVE BROUGHT CHANGE IN THE

LIFE OF GHANAIANS.
1. Civil wars: Civil and Tribal wars and conflict such as the Northern conflict
have changed the lives of Ghanaians. Eg. The Northern conflict costs the
government so much money on peace keeping and on relief items. This has
made Ghanaians poorer. It has also led to the movement of some people from
the North to Accra who are engaged in all sorts of jobs such as Kaayayo,
prostitution and armed robbery at Agbobloshie. It has also brought about
shortage of foodstuffs.

2. Education: It has also made Ghanaians do away with superstition and have
began assessing their culture on the scientific bases. It has also helped to
change the belief that the woman’s office is the kitchen. So now Ghanaian
women are doing the same work with male counterparts.

3. Research: Research has Made Ghanaians change most of their bad and
outmoded or old cultural practices such as Female Genital Mutilation (FGM),
Tribal marks and the Trokosi systems. It has also made Ghanaians change most
their poor farming methods. Eg. They now plant in rows hence increasing
productivity.
EXTERNAL FACTORS THAT HAVE BROUGHT CHANGE IN THE LIFE
OF GHANAIANS.
1. Inter-marriages: Marriage between people of different ethnic groups,
different cultural background, different religions or different countries can
bring cultural change. Eg. Marriages between people of different religions
involves the conversion of one of the spouses to join the other in a different
religion.

2. Travelling: Travelling also changes culture eg. Religious teachers, scholars

and travellers who travelled from Arabia and North Africa to Western Sudan
introduced Islamic religion into Western Sudan. This was done greatly by
Samori and Babatu who forced most people in the North to become Moslems.

3. Invention: The making of new things such as mobile phones and computers
have changed Ghanaians lifestyle. We now don’t have to travel to places
personally before transacting business but we just call hence saving time,
energy and resources while making our business to grow.

4. Influence of foreign religion: foreign religions such as Christianity and Islam

have made most Ghanaians changed from Traditional African religion. These
converts regard the old religion as Paganism. Foreign religions have also
changed our traditional marriages into engagement, wedding etc.

ACCULTURATION OR CULTURAL ASSIMILATION.

Cultural Assimilation is the practice or process by which societies adopt or absorb
aspects or whole of other societies or country’s cultures or ways of life. Eg.
Ghanaians using English as our official language instead of our Ghanaian local
languages.

EXAMPLES OF FOREIGN CULTURAL ASPECTS THAT HAVE BEEN

ASSIMILATED BY GHANAIANS.
i. Foreign religion: The influence of foreign religion such as Islam and
Christianity has made most Ghanaians change from African traditional
religion. Ghanaians are now Moslems and Christians.
ii. Foreign languages: Foreign languages such as French, English, Arabic and
German have replaced our local languages. Eg. In Ghana we use English as
our official language so pupils are prevented from speaking their local
languages in schools.

iii. Foreign Dress: Most people in Ghana now prefer wearing foreign clothings
to our local dresses, eg. Most Ghanaians wear lounge suit and tie instead of
our traditional wear.

iv. Foreign food: Most people in Ghana prefer eating foreign foods than the
local ones. Eg. They prefer eating perfume rice than eating our locally made
rice.

v. Foreign music

vi. Foreign marriages such as foreign wedding.

WHY SOME SOCIETIES DEVELOP FASTER THAN OTHERS.

i. Visionary leaders: Countries or societies that have visionary leaders are

able to plan for the future. They are able to draw good development plan
and implement it which makes them grow faster unlike countries which do
not have good leaders.

ii. Education: Societies that are interested in education develop faster than
societies that do not like education. This is because education makes people
to find out new ways of improving their lifestyles. Education also enables
the people to live in peace and to be law abiding which helps to do away
with wars.

iii. Cultural assimilation: Culture is never permanent. Societies that develop

faster change their cultural practices faster and absorb practices from other
cultures. On the other hand, societies that are slow in development keep
their cultures relatively permanent and are very slow to absorb or assimilate
aspects of other cultures.

iv. Investment in research: Countries that invest their resources in making

research are able to bring out new ways of doing things. They are able to
 improve upon their existing technology and are able to make new
inventions.

WHY SOCIETY SOMETIMES ACCEPT CHANGE.

i. Change does not create new problems: When the change does not create
new problems for the people.

ii. Change is in line with people’s culture: People sometimes accept change
when the change is in line with the people’s own culture. It is not too
different with their old culture.

iii. Change addresses peoples needs: People also accept change when the
change addresses the needs of the society.

WHY SOCIETIES SOMETIMES RESIST CHANGE.

i. When change fails to solve problems: when the change does not address
the needs of the society.

ii. When change differs with people’s old culture: Societies sometimes
resist change when the change is not in line with the people’s culture.

iii. When change creates problems: When the change deems to be creating
new problems for the society. They will go by their old method of doing
things.

EXAMPLES OF CULTURAL CHANGES WHICH HAVE BEEN

RESISTED AND WHY THE CHANGES WERE RESISTED.
i. The trokosi system: Which is the practice of sending young girls to the
shrine as atonement for sins committed by a member of their family. The
change was resisted in the Volta Region.

ii. Female genital mutilation: This is a system whereby the clitoris of a

young girl of adolescent age is removed from the vagina. The change was
resisted in Northern Ghana.
 iii. Tribal mark: The system whereby some societies make marks with blade
on the faces of their members during childhood. The change was resisted in
the Northern region especially among the Frafra community.

REASONS WHY THE CHANGES WERE RESISTED.

i. The changes were resisted because they were not in line with the people’s
own culture.

ii. The people resisted because they were conservatives and wanted to
continue tradition.

iii. The people were afraid that they would be punished by the gods or
ancestors if they accepted the change.

iv. The people resisted the female genital mutilation because they thought the
change would lead to teenage pregnancy and pre-marital sex since the
presence of the clitoris increases sexual desire.

v. The people resisted because they were conservatives and wanted to

continue tradition.

PARALLEL CULTURES IN GHANA.

Parallel cultures refers to the practice whereby two ways of doing things are adopted
by a society while only one could suffice.

EXAMPLES OF PARALLEL CULTURES IN GHANA.

i. Saying traditional and Islam or Christian prayers during the same function
eg. During Independence Day Celebration.

ii. The use of orthodox and traditional medicine for the treatment of the same
disease.

iii. Performing both Traditional and Christian/Islam marriage rites in one

marriage.
 iv. Performing both traditional and Christian/Islam naming rites in the same
outdooring.

ADVANTAGES OF PARALLEL CULTURES.

i. It promotes National Integration: All the religions and ethnic groups in

the country are brought together since each groups culture is respected and
practiced. This helps to prevent conflict.

ii. It helps to enjoy freedom of worship: Parallel cultures helps to enjoy

freedom of worship in a country since each religions culture is practised at
national activities.

iii. It promotes peaceful co-existence: The practice of parallel cultures in the

country makes the different religious and ethnic groups understand and
accept one another and live peacefully together.

iv. Provision of health care delivery: the combination of both Western and
traditional medicine helps to provide good health care delivery in the
country.

OUTMODED CUSTOMS/OUTMODED CULTURAL PRACTICES

IN GHANA.
Outmoded cultural practices are those customs and traditions that have lost their
usefulness and need to be changed or abolished. Some of the outmoded customs
practiced in Ghana are:
i. Female Genital Mutilation
ii. Trokosi system
iii. Witch Camps
iv. Tribal marks
v. Cruel widowhood rites

All these cultural practices are violations to human rights and must be abolished.
 HOW THESE OUTMODED CUSTOMS ARE DONE.

TRIBAL MARKS.
They are marks made on the faces of some tribes just for identification. It is done in
most communities in Ghana, especially in the north. They use sharp knives and blade
to make long vertical lines on the faces of their babies.

PURPOSE OF TRIBAL MARKS.

i. It is done for identification purposes: That is to make one ethnic group
look different from other groups.

ii. It is done for beautification: Some people use tribal marks for
beautification purposes. That is to make them look beautiful.

iii. It is done for protection: It is done to protect babies from evil spirits. Eg.
In Akan and Ga communities, children born after dead siblings are given
three marks known as Donkor mark. The belief is that such children will not
die.

REASONS WHY TRIBAL MARKS SHOULD BE ABOLISHED.

i. It can lead to infections from the cutting objects.
ii. It infringes on their fundamental human rights.
iii. It makes the peoples faces ugly and turn to disfigure them. It denies girls of
good marriages.
iv. The identification marks can lead to tribalism. That is ethnocentrism and
other discriminatory practices.

FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION (FGM).

Female genital mutilation or female circumcision is the removal of the clitoris or part
of it from the vagina of a female genital organ. They use blade or sharp knives to do
it either when the baby girl is born or when they reach some age. It is practiced
mostly in Northern Ghana.

PURPOSE OF FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION.

 i. It is to control teenage pregnancies.
ii. It is done to continue tradition.
iii. It is done to reduce the girl’s sexual desire. This will make them remain
chaste or holy until marriage.

REASONS WHY FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION OR FEMALE

CIRCUMCISION IS BAD AND SHOULD BE ABOLISHED.
i. It denies female sexual pleasure: It denies the girl of sexual pleasure,
enjoyment and satisfaction when she later marries. The loss of sexual
sensitivity can create problems in marriage.

ii. It leads to death: It may lead to profuse bleeding which may result in the
death of the victim.

iii. It may lead to infertility: It can cause infertility because infections

associated with Female Genital Mutilation can destroy sensitive sexual
organs which may lead to barrenness and infertility.

iv. It violates the rights of women: It infringes on the fundamental human

rights of women.

v. It makes childbirth difficult: FGM results in difficulty in child birth. This

is so because it brings about complications when the woman is giving birth.
This can lead to death of both the woman and the child or either.

vi. It leads to the spread of sexually transmitted infections: The use of

crude instruments which are unsterilized eg. Blades and knives can lead to
the spread of Sexually Transmitted Diseases such as HIV/AIDS.

CRUEL WIDOWHOOD RITES.

Widowhood rites are rites performed on a widow (a woman whose husband is dead).
The widowhood is made to go through various forms of inhuman treatment such as:
i. Sleeping with the dead husband while the door is locked.
ii. Compulsory fasting for days.
iii. Forcing the widow to drink the water they used to bath the dead.
iv. Shaving the widow with a razor blade or knife.
v. Being confined in the room for days.
 vi. Sleeping with the husband’s brother.
vii. Sometimes they put pepper in the widows’ eyes.
viii. Forcing the widow to drink some concoction from native doctor.

REASONS WHY WIDOWHOOD RITES SHOULD BE

ABOLISHED.
i. It leads to mental and psychological problems; The widow goes through
a lot of mental and psychological embarrassment which can kill soon after
the rites.

ii. The practice leads to gender discrimination: It treats women differently

from men and it even treats women too cruel so it must be abolished.

iii. It infringes on the fundamental human rights of the widow: This is so

because the widow is subjected to inhuman treatment which is against
human rights.

iv. It is unproductive: It is unproductive since the woman is made to stay in

the room for a long time without working.

v. It humiliates womanhood: The practice treats women badly. Most women

even lose their dignity and life during the rite. So, it must be abolished.

TROKOSI SYSTEM.
The term "Trokosi" comes from two Ewe words, "Tro" which means deity or god and
"Kosi" which means slave girl. So Trokosi means a girl given as a slave to a god.
Trokosi system therefore, is where young girls are sent to the shrine as an atonement
of sins committed by a member of their family. This is done in the Volta Region of
Ghana. The virgin girls spend all their lifetime at the shrine and in most cases they
are married by the fetish priest. They walk bare chested and do not learn any trade.

PURPOSE OF TROKOSI.
i. It is a form of seeking protection from the shrine.
ii. It is practiced as an atonement of sins by a member of the family.
iii. It is believed that if it is not done after one has sought assistance from the
shrine one will be punished by the gods.
 REASONS WHY TROKOSI SYSTEM SHOULD BE ABOLISHED.
i. It violates the girls right to education: Most of these girls are not allowed to
go to school or to learn any form of skills training.

ii. It lowers womanhood: It reduces the dignity of womanhood in modern

society. Women are used for all forms of inhuman treatments by the fetish
priest.

iii. It is a form of human rights abuse: The constitution of Ghana does not
allow slavery. So, it must be abolished. It is a form of slavery since the girls
are not allowed to be on their own.

iv. It leads to social burden: Children born by such girls are burden to the
society because in most cases the fetish priests refuse to take care of them.#

WITCH CAMP.
This is where people accused of witchcraft by members of their communities are
bound, beaten and confined in a camp outside their traditional homes. Examples of
witches’ camps are the Gambaga witch’s village, Ngaani and Kukuo witches villages
all in the Northern Region of Ghana.

PURPOSES OF WITCHES CAMP.

i. The purpose of the witches camp is to offer custody to all persons accused
of witchcraft by members of their communities.
ii. When alleged witches are sent to the chief in the witches camp, he offers
them security and then performs rituals that are suppose to neutralise the
power of witchcraft.

SUPERSTITUOUS BELIEFS.
Superstitious beliefs are fears of the unknown, which cannot be proven. Eg. Belief in
juju, witchcraft and curses etc. all these cannot be proven scientifically or by logical
means.
EXAMPLES OF SUPERSTITIOUS BELIEFS IN GHANA ARE BELIEF IN:
Taboo Curses
Ghosts Deities
Wizards/witches Myths
Juju Magic

SOURCES OF SUPERSTITIONS IN THE SOCIETY.

1. Myths: Myths are stories from ancient times or something that many people
believe but that does not exist or is false.

2. Taboos: They contain superstition eg. Among the Akans, it is a taboo to sing
while bathing else they will die.

3. Fairy or folk tales: Fairy is a small imaginary creature with magical powers.
So, fairy stories are untrue stories usually told to children which are also
sources of superstition.

4. African films: Current African films perpetuate superstition to a greater

extent. This is because most of the Ghanaian and Nigerian films are based on
juju and witchcraft.

5. Ignorance: due to ignorance or illiteracy, sometimes we are made to believe

certain things which we cannot prove scientifically.

EFFECTS OF SUPERSTITIOUS BELIEFS IN GHANA.

1. It allows human rights abuse: The belief in superstition allows human
right abuse. Eg. Human sacrifices, witches camps etc.
2. It brings conflicts between society: Superstition instils fear in people
within the society which sometimes leads to the blame game. This can also
cause conflict within the society.
3. It slows or retards progress: It slows down progress because of the belief
in the fear of the unknown. People are always afraid to violate a taboo.
4. It brings extreme or irrational fear: The belief in superstition makes
people live in fear because they are always afraid that they might be harmed
by someone who has some supernatural powers.
5. It prevents crime: Superstition prevents crime through the maintenance of
law and order as well as preventing people from being wicked to others.
 6. It creates tension in society: Since superstition puts fear in people because
the belief cannot be proven scientifically, it always creates tension, due to
the fear of the unknown.
7. It helps maintain law and order: It helps to maintain law and order since
it instils fear in people who would have violated certain cultural practices. It
helps control their behaviour.

ADVANTAGES OF SUPERSTITION.

1. It brings social cohesion and unity: It helps to keep the people together
through observing the same beliefs, customs and taboos.
2. Preservation and conservation of forest: Superstition protects our
environment such as forest grooves by preventing people from farming in
certain areas through taboos.
3. It provides rest to farmers, fishermen and hunters: This is done through the
use of the taboos. Eg. Among the Gas, it is a taboo to go to the sea on
Tuesdays so fishermen rest on Tuesday.
4. It brings social controls and good morals: It maintains respect for law and
order and respect for authority. This is so because it instils good social habit in
the people living in a society.

DISADVANTAGES OF SUPERSTITION.
1. It leads to abuse of human rights: Individuals accused of superstitious
experience are abused against their fundamental human rights. It is not lawful
to force a person suspected to be a witch to drink concoction against his or her
wish.
2. T reduces scientific and critical thinking: It does this because people do not
question the reason behind some happenings.
3. It brings hatred: It leads to animosity and can bring ethnic conflicts. This is
especially so when some people are made to believe that their inability to
prosper is being caused by certain people. They tend to hate such people
instead of working hard.
4. It brings about irrational fear: It makes people live in fear because they are
always afraid that they may be harmed by someone who has some supernatural
powers.
5. It slows down growth and development: it prevents or slows down the
growth of scientific development. This reduces the ability of the people in the
society to solve problems in a rational manner or logical way.
 DYNAMIC CULTURE.
A dynamic culture is the type of culture that continuously re-examines it way of life
and makes constant changes to keep the culture in line with the need of modern
times. It also maintains its uniqueness by improving and emphasizing those aspects of
the culture that gives the society a difference and respectable image in the world.
It is a type of culture that learns from other cultures, adapts and associates the good
parts of other cultures to its own in order to make its own culture stronger.

FACTORS THAT MAKE A CULTURE DYNAMIC.

i. Effective work ethics: A dynamic culture requires effective work ethics.
These are the principles of work with which a business is operated. Eg. No
lateness, no absenteeism, no laziness, no corruption etc. hardwork,
commitment and dedication help to build a good and dynamic culture.
ii. Development and use of technology: A dynamic culture requires how to
develop a technology and use it.
iii. Education and professional training: Apart from identifying and
harnessing other resources, it helps to examine the culture and improve
upon it.
iv. Life long learning: Learning helps to appreciate the good aspects of other
cultures and remove the wrong perception and attitude in the mind.
v. Constant research and investigation and application of results of
research: The culture must be re-examined always. Outmoded parts should
be changed and new methods applied. It must be able to copy the good
aspects of other cultures through research.
vi. Scientific thinking and application of science: This makes culture
dynamic because it tries to do away with superstition and to find root causes
and solutions to all problems in the society.

ESSAY TEST.
1. What is culture?
2. Mention and explain the factors that have brought about change in the life of
Ghanaians.
 STRAND 2
OUR CONSTITUTION

TEACHING AND LEARNING OBJECTIVES.

1. Explain the meaning of constitution.
2. Identify three main organs of government.
3. Explain the concept of separation of powers.
4. Explain the rights, freedom and obligations under the 1992 constitution.

A constitution is a set of rules for governing a country. A constitution may be a

written document. That is, all the laws may be codified into a single document. In
that case we call it a written constitution. Or it may be an unwritten set of
conventions and legal documents. That is, all the laws may not be written or codified
into a single book as in Britain. We call this an unwritten constitution.
All organizations such as clubs or associations need rules. These rules tell the
members how they should behave, what happens if someone breaks the rules, who
the leaders are and how leaders are chosen. These set of rules are called constitution.

FEATURES OF CONSTITUTIONS.
1. The constitution contains rules for becoming a citizen of a country.
2. The constitution sets out the rights and freedoms of the people in the country.
3. The constitution is the highest law of the land. All other laws have to follow it
or agree with it.
4. The constitution contains a list of National goals.
5. It also contains details of how the president and other leaders of the country
should be chosen.
6. The constitution explains the type of political system of a country.

TYPES OF CONSTITUTION.
The four main types of constitution are:
 1. Written constitution: It is where all the laws or rules for governing a country
are written or codified into a single document or book as in the case of Ghana.
2. Unwritten constitution: It is where all the laws are not written into a single
document but consists of a set of conventions and legal documents as in the
case of Britain.
3. Flexible constitution: It is the type of constitution whereby the rules or laws
can easily be amended or changed. The procedure is just two-thirds majority
approval from parliament eg. Britain.
4. Rigid constitution: It is the type of constitution that cannot be easily amended.
The procedure for changing the laws is very difficult. It needs two-thirds
majority approval from both parliament and the people in the country eg. The
entrenched clauses in Ghana’s 1992 constitution.

IMPORTANCE OF THE CONSTITUTION TO THE COUNTRY.

i. Establishment of organs and institutions: the constitution establishes the
organs and institutions which are used to rule the state.
ii. Making government accountable: The constitution states the methods or
procedures for making the government accountable and responsible to the
needs of the people.
iii. Easier maintenance of law and order: It is easier to maintain law and order
because the procedures for governance are written and known.
iv. Setting the political direction of the country: It contains the list of National
goals, aims and aspirations of the people.
v. Helping prevent human rights abuse: The constitution provides avenues for
fighting rights abuse hence preventing human rights abuses in the country.
vi. Determining the functions and powers of state institutions: The constitution
shows the functions and powers of state institutions eg. It shows the
functions of the legislature, judiciary and executive.

ORGANS OF GOVERNMENT.

There are three main arms or organs or branches of government. They are
i. Executive
ii. Legislature
iii. Judiciary

THE EXECUTIVE.
The executive is the arm of government, which executes the laws passed by the
legislature. It is also called the administration. The executive or policy making and
implementation body is made of the president, the vice president, cabinet ministers
and other ministers of state, the civil service etc.

FUNCTIONS OF THE EXECUTIVE.

i. Formulation of policies: The executive formulates policies or prepares
bills to be passed into law which are necessary for running the country.
They then send these policies or bills to parliament for approval before they
become laws.
ii. Implementation of approved laws: The executive executes, implements or
enforces the laws that are passed by parliament.
iii. Ceremonial functions: The executive also performs ceremonial functions
such as the Independence Day celebration etc.
iv. Assenting to bills: The executive assents to bills passed by parliament
before they become law. That is, when parliament approves the laws, the
president must sign his signature to approve the laws before they become
effective.
v. Exercise prerogative of mercy: The executive through the president
exercises the prerogative power of mercy. That is, the president has the
power to pardon criminals and to set them free.
vi. Preparation of National budget: It prepares the National budget, that is
the estimated income and expenditure of the country.
vii. Nomination of judges and ministers: The executive nominates Judges and
Ministers eg. The chief justice and ministers of state and send them to the
legislature or parliament for approval.

THE LEGISLATURE.
It is the arm of government that has the sole authority to make laws for the country.
In Ghana, the legislature or law-making body is called Parliament. It is made up of
the speaker of parliament, the two deputy speakers and the 275 elected members of
Parliament.
FUNCTIONS OF THE LEGISLATURE/PARLIAMENT.
i. Approving budgets or control finance: The legislature approves the
county’s budgets. It also controls the raising and spending of the country’s
money. This is why the National budget is always presented to parliament
for approval before it becomes effective.
 ii. Making and amending laws for the whole country: The first most
important function of parliament or the legislature is to make laws for
governing the whole country. The legislature also changes existing laws
which are no longer useful to the country.
iii. A forum for debating issues of National interest: The legislature or
parliament is a place where issues of National interest or importance are
debated.
iv. Declaration of war: The legislature agrees with the executive before a
country can go to war against any nation.
v. Vetting nominated Judges and Ministers: The legislature vets judges and
ministers of state nominated by the president to see whether they qualify for
their post, give them their approval before they assume office.
vi. Impeachment of presidents and Judges: The legislature can impeach the
president, vice president, judges of the supreme court and others if they
violate their constitutional duties.

THE JUDICIARY.
It is the arm of government that interprets the laws or the constitution in the country.
It is made up of the law courts ie the supreme court, the court of Appeal, the High
court, the Regional Tribunals and Judicial officers. It is headed by the Chief Justice.

FUNCTIONS OF THE JUDICIARY.

i. Interpreting the constitution or the laws: The supreme court interprets
the laws and constitution of the state. When the meaning of a law is not
clear the supreme court explains what the law means.
ii. Settlement of cases: The judiciary settles cases or dispenses justice and
ensures fair play between individuals and between individuals and state.
iii. Punishing offenders or sanctioning criminals: The courts or the judiciary
punishes offenders who break the laws of the country. Eg. The court fines
those who are found to be breaking the laws.
iv. Judicial review: The judiciary uses judicial review to strike down or
override or change decisions of the legislature and the executive if they are
found to be unconstitutional.
v. Custodian of the constitution: It keeps and protects the constitution from
being treated with disrespect by those in power.
vi. Case laws or precedents: Sometimes the judiciary makes laws by using
past ruling of a case to pass judgement on a similar case. This is known as a
case law or judicial precedents.
 SEPARATION OF POWERS.
Separation of powers refers to the practice by which each of the three organs of
government, namely; the executive, the legislature and the judiciary is made separate
and independent of the others in terms of personnel and functions.
This means that no organs of government can perform the functions of another organ
or control it. No person can be a member of more than one organ of government.
Which means that a member of legislature cannot be a member of the executive nor
the judiciary at the same time, nor a judge being a minister at the same time.
Finally, each organ of government must perform only their traditional functions. The
legislature should only make laws. The executive should only implement laws and
the judiciary should only interpret laws. This type of independence and separate
existence is referred to as "Separation of powers".

RATIONALE FOR THE CONCEPT OF SEPARATION OF POWERS.

The concept of separation of powers was brought by a French Philosopher, Baron de
Montesquieu in his book – The spirit of the laws published in 1748. According to
Montesquieu, the rationale for the concept was:
1. To check government tyranny or dictatorship.
2. To enhance the freedom and liberty of the citizens.
3. To limit the powers and functions of government.

ADVANTGES OF SEPARATION OF POWERS.

i. It helps to prevent dictatorship: It prevents dictatorship because power is
never vested in one organ or concentrated in the hands of one person or
group of people.
ii. It helps in the fair administration of the Country: Separation of powers
sets out the duties and powers of each organ of government and this brings
fairness in the administration of the country.

iii. It preserves the Constitution: It ensures that all arms of government

respect and abide by the constitution. This helps to protect the constitution.

iv. It helps to protect the rights and liberty of the individual: It protects the
 rights or freedoms of citizens against abuse by forcing the arms of
government to comply with the laws and provisions on fundamental human
rights and freedoms under the 1992 constitution.

v. It leads to efficiency and Specialization: It leads to efficiency and

Specialization due to many years of carrying out the same functions. That
is, since each organ performs only the work assigned to them
by the constitution, again and again it makes them specialize in it which
increases their efficiency.

vi. It reduces or limits the powers of the executive and the legislature:
Separation of powers limits the powers of the executive and the legislature.
For example, persons nominated as ministers need approval from
parliament before they assume office.

DISADVANTAGES OF SEPARATION OF POWERS.

i. The concept is only theoretical: It cannot be practiced anywhere. What is
practiced is checks and balances which makes each organ to check the
other.
ii. It slows down government work: A watertight or total separation of
powers will make the work of government very slow since one organ will
have to wait for the other before it continues its work.

iii. Functions of government overlap: In practice, the functions of

government overlap with one another. Eg. The executive makes laws by
assenting to bills and the legislature also approves major decisions of the
executive.

iv. It is too expensive: This is because different people will have to be

employed, elected or appointed to perform only separate functions.
Eg. A minister cannot at the same time be a member of parliament.
Meanwhile ministers who are parliamentarians at the same time collect only
one salary and not double saving government revenue.

WHAT THEN IS THE CONCEPT OF "CHECKS AND BALANCES"?

Definition: Checks and balances can be defined as an arrangement for the working of
governmental organs in such a way that each of the three organs exercises some
degree of checks on the powers of the others in their functions.
The theory of checks and balances emphasises on the power of any of the three
Organs checking the activities of the others. Eg. The ability of the legislature,
executive and judiciary, checking the activities of one another.
 OPERATION OF CHECKS AND BALANCES IN GHANA.
Even though the traditional functions of the three organs of government are:
Legislature or Parliament solely responsible for law making.
Executive (President and Ministers) solely responsible for policy Implementation and
execution. Judiciary (headed by the chief Justice) responsible for interpretation of
laws.
However, the principle of checks and balances has made it possible for members of
one branch or organ to check and balance the functions and powers of the other
organs.
1. For example, although law making belongs to the legislature or parliament, the
executive also makes laws by assenting to bills before they become laws. So the
executive can refuse to sign a bill or it can veto it if it finds out the bill is not in the
interest of the state.

2. Although signing of treaties is a function of the executive, the legislature or

parliament also interferes and balances
the executive by approving of the treaties that the executive enters into with foreign
states.
3. Parliament or the legislature checks the functions of the executive by giving
approval of the parliament of top officials like ministers appointed by the president.
4. Parliament or the legislature also controls the executive powers and function
through the control it exercises over finance such as giving approval for the National
budget.
5. The judiciary checks and balances the executive and the actions of the legislature
through judicial review. It examines the actions of the executive and laws made b
the legislature and declares them unconstitutional if it detects that they are not
conformity with the tenets of the constitution.
6. The executive also checks the powers of the judiciary by appointing the Chief
Justice
and other justices of the supreme court.
7. The executive also interferes with the work of the judiciary by granting of
Amnesty to convicted criminals through the exercise of its prerogative
power of mercy.
8. The legislature also checks and balances the functions of the judiciary by giving
approval of the appointment of the chief justice and other justices of the supreme
court.

ADVANTAGES OF CHECKS AND BALANCES.

Some of the advantages of checks and balances are:
1. It prevents the possibility of the emergence of a dictatorship government.
2. It helps in controlling power among the three arms of government.
3. It promotes the enhancement of the freedom and liberty of individuals in the
country.
4. It makes for a good and proper decision-making process in the country.
5. It prevents the excessive use of power by any of the three organs of government.
6. It ensures orderliness and efficiency in running of the country.

DISADVANTAGES OF CHECKS AND BALANCES

1. Excessive interference through checks and balances can affect the running of the
country.

3. The power of impeachment given to the legislature makes the executive a

puppet to the legislature.

3. The power of veto given to the executive or president can affect the working of
checks and balances.

4 The powers of the president such as granting of amnesty are counter to the
workings of checks and balances.

HUMAN RIGHTS AND FREEDOM.

A constitution is a set of rules and regulation which is used to govern a country. A
constitution may be may be written eg. The 1992 constitution of Ghana or unwritten
as in a case of Britain.
RIGHTS.
They are the privileges or benefits a citizen or an individual is entitled to under the
constitution.
BASIC RIGHTS UNDER THE 1992 CONSTITUTION OF GHANA.
1. Rights to life
2. Rights to personal liberty
3. Right to freedom from slavery
4. Right to legal work
5. Equality before the law.
 STRAND 3
LAW AND ORDER IN OUR COMMUNITY.
Law is the rules of conduct established and enforced by authority, legislation or
custom of a given community, state or other groups.
Order is a situation or condition is which people obey the law and follow the accepted
rule of social behaviour. Law and order is needed to promote peace in a society,
institution and family.

1. Closure of schools: Disruptions of law and order at schools lead to those

schools being closed down.
2. Destruction of lives and properties: When there is disruption of law and
order at school, sometimes the students destroy the school buildings, break the
glasses and even kill people during demonstrations.
3. Dismissal from schools: Disruption of law and order results in the ring
leaders being dismissed from schools.
4. Chaos and Confusion: The absence of law and order leads to confusion and
disturbances in schools and homes.
5. Lack of progress: Disruption of law and order leads to retrogression or
everything going back.

HOW TO PREVENT CONFLICT AT HOME, AT SCHOOL AND

IN THE COMMUNITY.
i. Observing rules and regulations: Conflict can be prevented when
members obey rules and regulations since the rules will control their
behaviour and ensure that they follow proper ways for doing things.

ii. Having respect for authority: Conflict can be prevented when members
respect authority. This is because the authority may first advise and at worst
sanction offenders who break the laws.

iii. Performing roles assign to them: When members perform the roles
assigned to them, there will be no conflict.

iv. Advising law breakers: Conflict can be prevented when those who break
the law are advised to desist from that negative habit.

v. Removing barriers of communication: Conflict can be prevented when

we remove barriers of communication by:
a. Listening to the views, remarks and comments of each other.
b. Respecting the views of each other and
c. Avoiding making cynical (wicked) remarks about others
 vi. Using negotiations and dialogue: Conflict can be prevented when we use
negotiations instead of strikes and other forms of conflict
vii. Our Moral Conscience: Our moral conscience can also help to prevent
conflict by us to do what is right as well as respecting the rights of others.
THE MEANING OF OUR MORAL CONSCIENCE

It is the ability to know the moral law or the natural law of right and wrong. In other
words, our ability to know whether what we are doing is right or wrong.

IMPORTANCE OF OUR MORAL CONSCIENCE

1. It helps us to do things in the proper way whether people are watching us or
not.
2. It is easily enforceable since everybody looks down upon those who break the
moral law based on their moral conscience.
3. hit is known to everybody except madmen eg. Everybody in the society knows
that stealing, killing, raping and fornication are morally bad at birth.
4. It helps to promote peace and order since people are controlled by their brains
through their moral conscience to respect one another and to live in harmony
with others.

HOW LAW AND ORDER IS MAINTAINED IN YOUR SCHOOL, HOME

AND COMMUNITY.

1. Assigning roles to members of school, home and community: Members

must be given work to do according to their age, gender, seniority, special abilities or
skills. This helps to maintain law and order.

2. Observing rules and regulations: Law and order is maintained when

members obey rules and regulations of school, home and community.

3. Recognising the hierarchy of authority: Law and order is maintained when

we recognize the hierarchy of authority eg. Father and mother, elder brothers
and sisters and in that order at home. The headmaster, teachers, senior prefect in
that order at school. In the traditional community, the order of authority
(hierarchy) is the chief, elders of the chief, elderly people and those other than
oneself. In the modern Ghanaian society, law and order is maintained by the
police and the law court.

4. Desisting from bad or negative habits: Law and order is maintained when
members who break the laws desist from those bad behaviours.

WAYS BY WHICH LAW AND ORDER IS ENFORCED AT HOME, IN

SCHOOL AND IN THE COMMUNITY.
Enforcement of law and order at school
In school, law and order is enforced by:
1. Appointment of authorities: Law and order is enforced by appointing
authorities such as school prefects who have the power to enforce rules and
regulations.
2. Assurance of compliance: Law and order is enforced by authorities making
sure that all rules and regulations are complied with.

3. Application of sanctions: Authorities apply sanctions such as punishments,

suspension and dismissal from the school to those who break the laws. This is
to deter others from breaking the law.

4. Threat of punishment: Authorities sometimes threaten students with

punishment to enforce law and order.

ENFORCEMENT OF LAW AND ORDER AT HOME.

1. Recognized hierarchy of authority ensures compliance: A recognized

hierarchy of authority such as father and mother, elder brothers and sisters in
that order is given power to enforce rules and regulations and to ensure
compliance at home. This helps to enforce laws in the home.

2. Application of sanctions: Authorities in the homes enforce laws by applying

sanctions such as scolding and withdrawal of privileges.

3. . Giving of Advice: Parents sometimes advise members in the home to obey

rules and regulations hence helping to enforce law in the home.

4. Threat of corporal punishment: Authorities sometimes threaten members in

the home with corporal punishment such as caning.

ENFORCEMENT OF LAWS IN THE COMMUNITIES.

1. Chiefs and elders: Chiefs and elders enforce laws in the community by
ensuring compliance of rules and regulations in the community.

2. The courts: The court enforces laws in the community by ensuring

compliance of rules and regulations and applying sanctions such as fines and
imprisonment.
3. Taboos: In the traditional community, certain things are forbidden by religion.
 custom or tradition known as taboos. This helps to enforce law and order
4. Fear of being punished: Fear of being punished is also used to enforce
obedience to rules and regulations.
5. The Police: The Police helps to enforce laws. Their existence deters people
from breaking the laws.

THE IMPORTANCE OF LAWS AT HOME AND AT SCHOOL

AT HOME:

1. At home, laws help to prevent conflict by controlling and regulating the

behaviour of members at home.
2. Laws help to protect lives and properties at home by promoting peace and
deterring thieves from stealing.

AT SCHOOL:
1. The laws help to promote peace and order
by regulating and controlling the behaviour of students.

2. Laws help to maintain discipline by deterring students to ensure compliance

and applying sanctions on law breakers at school.

3. Laws help to protect lives and properties in schools by punishing law

breakers and dismissing thieves.

HOW RULES AND REGULATIONS ARE MADE FOR

SCHOOLS.

1. Rules and regulations are made for schools by the Ghana Education Service
(GES) acting on policy development by the Ministry of Education.

2. Other rules for schools are made by the Parent-Teacher-Association (PTA)

and Headteacher for improving the operation and administration of specific
schools.

3. Regulating bodies such as Ghana Private Schools Association or churches

for Mission schools also make rules and regulations for schools.

4. The Board of Governors for schools also make rules and regulations for
schools.
HOW LAWS ARE MADE FOR THE COUNTRY (GHANA)
Laws are made in Ghana by Parliament during civilian government era (time). These
laws made by parliament are called Acts of parliament. A law made by military
government is called a Decree.

THE STAGES OF MAKING LAW BY PARLIAMENT IN GHANA ARE

AS FOLLOWS:

1. A proposal or bill is read to parliament by the clerk of parliament.

2. The speaker refers the bill to an appropriate committee to study and make
recommendations.
3. The chairman of the committee presents the bill to the house.
4. Amotion is put to the house for the bill to be read the second time.
5. The bill is debated and voted upon.
6. At the consideration stage, only the details of the bill are discussed. Parliament can
make changes which are considered necessary.
7. The House votes to approve or reject the bill by a simple majority.
8. Parliament can make changes which are considered necessary.
9. The bill then goes to the Attorney General's Department to be written in a legal
language called drafting.
10. The Speaker sends the bill to the president for his signature. It now becomes a
law.
11. The law is then gazetted.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD LAW.

1. Interest of the people:

A good law must meet the needs and aspiration of the people for who it is made. "
must for example meet their educational, health, economic and social needs.

2. Publicized:
A good law must be made known to all in the society in order to eliminate
ignorance. This can be done through meetings, on radio, television, conferences
and any other means possible.

3. Unambiguous:
A good law must be clear, straight forward and understandable. It must be in
such a way that the people would not need a specialist to explain it to them and
must also erase all forms of doubts from the people's mind.

4. Reasonable:
A good law must be one that is justifiable to the people. This means that it must
not be too harsh or too lenient with the people when applying it.

5. Enforceable:
A good law must be one that can be enforced without any hindrance or difficulty.
Sanctions and punishment must be clear to the people.
 6. Understandable:
The law is made for the people, therefore, it must be one that is clear and should
not confuse the people. It should not be unduly difficult to understand.

7. Fair to all/equality:
A good law must not be discriminating, it must be fairly and equally applied to all
in the society. Everybody must be equal before the law regardless of your status,
race, gender, political or religious affiliation.

8. Acceptable:
A good law must be one that is readily acceptable to the people due to its good
nature.
9. Meets moral Code of People:
Every society thrives and survives on its values and norms, therefore every law
must satisfy /meet the people's moral code.

10. Backed by authority:

A good law must be one that has a legal backing. Authority is meant to be
obeyed, therefore every law must be backed by an authority in the society/state which
cannot be disputed.

11. Written down to give its definiteness:

In order not to create confusion and also create room for different interpretations,
a good law must be in written form. When it is written, it gives its definiteness
making it clear and straight forward.

12. Relates to the Sovereignty of the People:

A good law must apply to the powers, rights and freedom of the people to rule
themselves. It must not be one that would take the powers to rule from the people
to anybody elsewhere.

13. Created and maintained by the state:

The sovereign will of the people must be applied. The power to create a law and
also to maintain it should be the preserve of the people.

BENEFITS DERIVED FROM LAW AND ORDER IN A COUNTRY.

1. Reduces crime:
Laws are made to control human behaviour in excess. Law and order is important
because it puts in place punishable measures for people who violates or commits
crime.
 2. Protects Property:
Law and order is beneficial because it helps to protect property (both public and
private) by punishing individuals who try to destroy such property.

3. Protects human rights:

Law and order is beneficial because ensures the rights of the vulnerable in
society (children, women, sick, aged) are protected from being abused. It
punishes those who violate them and also serve as a deterrent to others.

4. Social order/Conformity:
It promotes social order by ensuring that people conform to or follow the proper
ways of doing things in the society.

5. Social Progress:
Social progress is achieved due to law and order. Law and order brings about
enhanced human relationships, unity and peace leading to development.

6. Economic Progress/Improves national development/Improves national

productivity:
Economically, law and order promote growth and progress as acts of
lawlessness, anarchy and conflicts are eliminated. Law and order ensure that
individuals have the freedom to go about their economic activities without fear or
intimidation.

7. Discipline: the moral standards of the society.

8. Law and order helps the individual to discipline himself/herself so as to

live up to Moral Uprightness: Their daily actions are guided by societal
norms and values. Individuals are able to put up a morally upright behaviour.

9. Peace and stability: No society can experience peace and stability without
maintenance of law and order. Law and order regulates and control the
behaviour of the people, thereby
promoting peace and stability.

ESSAY TEST.
1.(a). Explain the terms "Law" and "Order"
(b). Describe the stages of law-making by parliament in Ghana.
(c). State three features of a good law.
2. Give four reasons why law and order is needed at home, school and in the
community.
3. (a). Mention four institutions that help to maintain law and order in your
community.
(b). Suggest four ways on how to maintain law and order in the school, home and
community.
4.Give three suggestions on how to prevent conflict in the community.
5. List two ways by which law and order can be disrupted at home and at school.
6.Write two reasons each for the importance of laws at home and at school.
7.Suggest any four ways by which the individual can help reduce lawlessness in
society.

STRAND 4
TOURISM, LEISURE AND DEVELOPMENT.
Teaching and learning objectives:
After learning this chapter, you should be able to:
1. explain the terms "tourism" and "leisure".
2. name some attractive places or sceneries in the locality.
3. give reasons why people go on tour to different places.
4. suggest ways for promoting people's interest in visiting different sceneries in
Ghana.
5. describe the economic importance of tourism to the nation's development.

EXPLANATION OF SOME TERMS

i Tourism: Tourism is an activity involving travelling to see and enjoy facilities and
sceneries in other places.

i. Leisure: Leisure means taking time off normal duty for relaxation, games and rest.

iii. Scenery: Scenery refers to beautiful general appearance of man-made and

natural features of a landscape.
TOURIST MAP OF GHANA.
 SOME ATTRACTIVE SCENERIES IN GHANA.

BEACHES IN GHANA.
KAKUM NATIONAL PARK.
AKOSOMBO DAM ADOMI BRIDGE
SOME ATTRACTIVE SCENERIES IN GHANA AND WHERE THEY CAN
BE FOUND.
SCENERY LOCATION REGION
Gambaga scarp Gambaga Northern Region
Takoradi Harbour Takoradi Western Region
Tema Harbour Tema Greater Accra Region
Bui National Park Bui Brong Ahafo Region
Kakum National Park Cape Coast Central Region
Kumasi Zoological Kumasi Ashanti Region
Garden
Accra Zoological Garden Accra Greater Accra Region
Bui Dam Bui near Banda Ahenkro Brong Ahafo Region
Keta Lagoon Keta Volta Region
Boti falls Boti Eastern Region
Lake Bosomtwi Abono or Kuntanase Ashanti Region
Forte Orange Sekondi Western Region
Kumasi Fort Kumasi Ashanti Region
Cape Coast Castle Cape Coast Central Region
Christianborg Catle Osu-Accra Greater Accra Region
James Fort Accra Greater Accra
Elmina Castle Elmina Central Region
Kwahu Scarp Kwahu Eastern Region
Mole National Park Damango Northern Region
The Big Tree Oda Eastern Region
Keta Lagoon Keta Volta Region
Kintampo falls Kintampo Brong Ahafo Region
Mountain Afadjato Volta Volta Region
Wli falls Wli near Hohoe Volta Region

REASONS WHY PEOPLE EMBARK ON TOURS TO DIFFERENT

PLACES.
i. For sight-seeing: People travel to beautiful sceneries to see the beauty of
those places and also have a first time experience of the places they visit.
For example, people visit the various castles in the country to see its beauty
and also have a first time experience.

ii. To learn new things: People travel to visit places of interest to learn new
things about nature and culture of other people. For example, people travel
 to Ghana to learn our culture during festivals like Odwira, Aboakyir and
many other festivals.

iii. For enjoyment and relaxation: People after a long period of work travel to
tourist sites for enjoyment and also relax the human body and mind to avoid
breakdown. For example, people visit swimming pools to swim to enable
them relax the mind.

iv. To acquire new artifacts: People also travel to other places just to acquire
new artifacts from foreign places to decorate their homes.

v. To appreciate and interact with nature: People visit places to watch and
appreciate the great wonders of nature. For example, people travel to see the
Boti Falls to appreciate how wonderful nature is.

vi. For religious purposes: People travel to places to fulfil their religious
obligation. For example, Christian’s travel to prayer camps like Edumfa
(Central Region), Atwea mountains in the Eastern Region to pray to fulfil
their religious commitment.

vii. For health reasons: Most people visit tourist sites to obtain fresh air,
sunshine and to exercise their bodies. For example, people go to any of the
stadia in the country to jog or do some weight lifting to exercise their bodies
to stay healthy.

viii. To engage in economic activities: People also tour different places

sometimes for business purposes. They go either to sell or buy products
from these areas. Eg. Foreigners come here to buy and sell goods and we
also go there to do the same.

ix. For education and research: People embark on tours to study for facts.
Many also visit places to obtain information in order to enable them write
their projects in the tertiary institutions. For example, many researchers
have visited the Aburi Botanical Gardens to study the bio diversity, history
and importance of some of the tress in the garden.

BENEFITS A TRAVELLER GETS FROM OUR SCENERIES

i. Educational Benefits: The traveller learns so many things from visiting
the sceneries. This helps to build their level of understanding about nature.
 They also learn about some historical facts from visiting preserved
historical sceneries.

ii. Entertainment: The traveller gets enjoyment and pleasure from the
sceneries and this helps them to appreciate nature. It also helps to relieve
them of most of their problems especially those who are mentally
depressed.

iii. Cultural Benefits: Our sceneries help travellers to learn about the cultures
from the areas where the attractive sceneries are located. This helps the
travellers to develop their own culture.

REASONS WHY MANY GHANAIANS DO NOT SHOW

INTEREST IN VISITING SCENERIES AND PLACES IN THE COUNTRY.

i. Lack of Financial resources: Many Ghanaians are poor and do not,

therefore have money to visit other places. Some people even do not have
money to buy food let alone to go to an excursion.

ii. Lack of appreciation for beauty: Some people are not interested in
visiting attractive sceneries because they do not appreciate or admire the
beautiful places or creation of nature.

iii. Lack of appreciation for value of leisure: Most Ghanaians do not know
the importance of taking time off normal duty for relaxation or rest.

iv. Lack of information and poor advertisement about the sceneries: Most
Ghanaians do not have information about the attractive sceneries. This is
because of the inability of the managers of the sceneries to advertise these
sceneries.

v. Poor maintenance of Tourist Sites: Most of our tourist sites like Castle,
Game Reserves are not well maintained. Our beaches are treated as places
of convenience for some people. All these do not make Ghanaians show
interest in visiting other places in the country.

WAYS FOR PROMOTING THE TOURISM INDUSTRY IN

GHANA
To promote tourism:
1. Tourist sites must be advertised: Tourist sites like castles, game reserves,
hotels and restaurants, waterfalls and other attractive sceneries must be
advertised on the television and FM stations. Advertisements can also take the
form of production of magazines and brochures showing sceneries in Ghana
and sent to foreign embassies in Ghana and overseas. Tourist sites sceneries in
Ghana and sent to foreign embassies in Ghana and overseas.

2. Tourist sites must be beautified and kept clean: Tourist sites like our
beaches, airports, lorry stations, street gutters etc. must be beautified and kept
clean to make them attractive to tourists. So we should not defecate on our
beaches.

3. Tourist sites must be well maintained: Tourist sites like the castles, game
reserves, hotels etc must be well maintained.

4. Tour guides must be well trained: Tour guides must be well trained to
consider that the tourist is a guest and must be treated with honesty and
respect. Taxi drivers, market sellers, lorry stations, bookmen and hotel
receptionists must all treat tourist with must be beautified and kept clean:
Tourist sites like our beaches, airports, lorry stations, street gutters etc. must be
beautified and kept clean to make them attractive to tourists. So we should not
defecate on our beaches.

5. Tourist sites must be well maintained: Tourist sites like the castles, game
reserves, hotels etc must be well maintained.

6. Tour guides must be well trained: Tour guides must be well trained to
consider that the tourist is a guest and must be treated with honesty and
respect. Taxi drivers, market sellers, lorry stations, bookmen and hotel
receptionists must all treat tourist with honesty and respect.

7. Security ensured: The security in the country must be assured. Thieves should
not rob tourists at airports and lorry stations. There must be security provided
at our sceneries to make tourists feel free and comfortable. In the beaches,
there must be life-saving guides to save people from being drowned.

8. Provision of restaurants and hotels: Restaurants and hotels must be made

available to provide shelter for the tourists. This will convince tourists that if
they visit Ghana, they will get food and shelter.
 9. Resourcing the Ghana Tourist Board: We must resource the Ghana Tourist
Board to promote tourism in the country. They must have the capacity to
develop and promote the tourist industry.

10. The infrastructure or social amenities should be of acceptable

international standards: Our hotels, beaches, monkey sanctuary, waterfalls,
roads, portable water, etc must be developed to meet international standards to
attract tourists. Treating tourists as guests with respect and honesty: We must
learn to treat tourists as guests with honesty and respect. That means we must
show the Ghanaian hospitality.

THE ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF TOURISM TO THE NATION

OR YOUR COUNTRY.

Ways in which Tourism contributes to the Economy of Ghana are:

i. It brings in foreign exchange earnings: Tourists or people who visit the

country spend money on artifacts, payment of hotel bills, buying of food,
souvenirs, rooms, taxis etc. It is the fourth foreign exchange earner in the
country.

ii. Tourism brings about infrastructural development in the country: It

helps in the promotion of infrastructural development eg electricity, water,
good roads, hotels etc to the sceneries. Eg. La Palm Beach Hotels,
Akosombo Hotel was to serve the tourists to the Akosombo Dam.

iii. It creates employment in the country: It serves as a source of

employment for people eg. Tourist guides, others are employed as chefs,
waiters, cleaners, hotel managers, accountants, etc in the hotels that
accommodate these tourists.

iv. It helps to promote local industries: It promotes the development of local

crafts which are bought as souvenirs by tourists.

v. It attracts foreign investors to invest in the country: It helps to attract

foreign investments to the country because those who visit the country from
other countries sometimes end up investing in the country.

vi. It generates revenue to the government: Tourism generates revenue to

the government in the form of taxes eg. Airport tax.
vii. It exposes or advertises the country to the outside world: Tourists who
visit the country send good news about Ghana back to their countries. This
has made Ghana one of the most popular countries in the world eg Ghana is
branded to Africa.

viii. It helps in the diversification of the economy: The country through

tourism moves away from dependence on the traditional raw materials of
minerals, cocoa and timber to revenue from our tourist attraction sceneries.

PROBLEMS OF TOURISM IN GHANA

i. Lack of Manpower and Training Facilities: The tourism industry in
Ghana does not have efficient or adequate skilled workers to man it. It also
lacks enough facilities.
ii. Poor Publicity: There is no proper publicity or advertisement about our
attractive sceneries in Ghana to make potential tourists aware and patronize
it.
iii. Poor or absence of infrastructural facilities: Some of the tourist
attractive areas do not have good roads, electricity, proper hotels, good
drinking water etc. This tends to scare people from patronizing them.
iv. Low patronage by local people: Many people in the country do not
appreciate the beauty of nature. Others also do not value the importance of
taking off normal duty for relaxation, rest and as such they do not patronize
our tourist industries.
v. Lack of finance: The government does not have enough money to develop
our potential tourist centres because of the many problems facing her. So,
our tourist centres are poorly developed.

THE NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF TOURISM IN GHANA

i. Adulteration of indigenous Culture: Tourism adulterates indigenous

culture in Ghana. E.g., Ghanaians now prefer foreign culture to their local
culture. They prefer foreign clothing, language, dressing and food to the
local ones.
ii. Introduction of diseases: Tourism promotes new diseases such as
Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) e.g., HIV etc. into the country.

iii. Tourism promotes social vices such as pick pocketing, armed robbery and
prostitution in the country. Tourists sleep with prostitutes in hostels which
sometimes leads to attracting STDs.
 ESSAY TEST.
1.(a). Explain the differences in meaning of the terms "tourism" and "leisure".

(b). Mention sceneries in Ghana and state where they can be found.

2 (a). Name four areas of tourist attraction in Ghana.

(b). State four benefits of tourism in Ghana.

(c). Describe two negative effects of tourism in Ghana.

3.(a). Give four reasons why people go on tour to different places.

(b). Suggest four benefits we can derive from some of our sceneries.

4.(a). Suggest four ways of promoting the tourist industry in Ghana.

(b). Write on the economic importance of tourism to the economy of Ghana.

5.(a) State four reasons why people embark on tours to different places.

b. Explain four ways in which tourism is important to the development of Ghana.

SECOND TERM.
STRAND 5
MANAGING AND PREVENTING CONFLICT.
Introduction
Human beings are rational, we do not think alike always. It is therefore normal to
disagree with someone's decision or ideals. Such disagreements usually bring about
change which is necessary for progress and development. But if disagreements are
not well managed, they can degenerate into violent conflicts which could be life
threatening if left unresolved for a long time.
We need to learn how to prevent, manage and resolve conflicts, if we want to
progress in life. Sometimes a conflict could be described as quarrel, dispute or
feud.

OBJECTIVES
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Explain the meaning of conflict, conflict prevention and conflict management.

2. Identify the sources of conflicts in our community.
3. Explain the effects of conflicts on the individual and community.
4. Describe the attitudes and values needed to prevent conflict in the community.
5. Suggest ways to manage conflict situations in the community.

MEANING OF CONFLICT, CONFLICT PREVENTION AND CONFLICT

MANAGEMENT.
Conflict is any serious disagreement among individuals or groups of people which
affect peace, stability and development of the individual, group or state.

Conflict prevention is the process of identifying possible signals of conflict and

Taking necessary steps to encourage people to work out their differences to avoid
clashes.

Conflict management is the use of various actions or initiatives and methods to

reduce tension during periods of conflict to facilitate resolution.
It involves taking measures to prevent conflict from escalating so that the issues of
disagreement could be resolved quickly.

SOURCES OF CONFLICTS IN OUR COMMUNITIES.

a. Disagreement over location or siting of public facility: Anytime two
traditional areas under same local government fail to agree on the location of a
public facility like District or Regional capital, peaceful coexistence is
disrupted.

b. Unlawful claim of property: Whenever different people or communities

claim ownership over same property at the same time, conflict occurs. For
example, land is largely owned by families and clans in Ghana and though
family or clan heads are supposed to supervise such lands on behalf of the
group, sometimes different members of a family could claim ownership of
same parcel of land at same time. Because of this, land ownership is a common
source of conflict in Ghana.
 c. Suspicion among people: Conflict may occur when an individual makes
assumption and accuse the suspect have a feeling that other individual have
done something wrong unlawfully. Such behaviours often result in
confrontations.

d. Intolerance over controversial issues: When people are unable to come into
compromise with opposing views, it results in conflicts. For example, many
people of opposing political parties in Ghana clash among themselves due to
intolerance.

e. Using unacceptable ways to choose leaders: Whenever chiefs are chosen for
communities without the consent of the people, they may revolt against such
leaders.

f. Human right abuses: Vulnerable people in society often develop defensive

attitudes against those who deprive them of their due. For example, students
engage in violent demonstrations whenever they are deprived of good diet by
school authorities.

g. Discrimination: When an individual is given unfair treatment by another

person.

h. Injustice: When a person is denied what is due him and his rights are not
respected.

i. Irresponsible journalism: Conflicts may arise when media personnel make

enflaming comments or allow other people to make inciting remarks on a
public media platform.

j. Stereotyping/Misconception: Holding bad opinion about someone out of

generalisation.

k. Ethnocentrism: Considering one's ethnic group or culture as superior to that of

others.

EXAMPLES OF RECENT CONFLICTS IN GHANA:

1. Bawku ethnic conflict between the Kusasi and the Mamprusi tribes.
2. The chieftaincy dispute in Yendi between the Abudu and the Andani gates.
3. The religious conflict between the Ga Traditional Council and some Charismatic
churches on the ban on noise making preceding celebration of Homowo in Accra.
4. The political conflict between supporters of New Patriotic Party and National
Democratic Congress in various communities.
5. The tribal Conflict between the chiefs of Takyiman and Tuobodom.
6. The land dispute between the people of Nkonya and Alavanyo.

EFFECTS OF CONFLICT ON THE INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIETY.

1. Loss of lives:
When a conflict becomes violent or war, parties attack one another to kill opponents.

2. Destruction of property:
Sometimes, as a conflict intensifies, it results in burning of houses, vehicles, farms
and other properties of opponents.

3. Insecurity:
Conflict situations raise tension and fear among people who work or live in the
community. Those who live in conflict zones cannot go about their economic
activities freely due to the fear of being caught up in clashes.

4. Abuse of human rights and freedoms:

During conflict situations, law enforcement agencies deploy various methods like
curfews to prevent clashes. This denies people the freedom of free movement.

5. Suspension of social and economic activities:

Conflict situations may cause communities or businesses to refrain from certain
social and economic activities that pose threat to peaceful resolution of the conflict.

6. Closure of educational institutions and disruption of academic calendar:

Whenever violent conflicts occur in schools or in the communities in which they are
situated, authorities are forced to close down the school.

7. Retardation of development:
Conflicts raise tensions between friends and among business partners. Violent
conflicts lead to destruction of social infrastructures.

8. Displacement of people:
Violent clashes as a result of conflicts force people to run away and seek refuge
outside their homes under harsh conditions. Sometimes, people become refugees in
other countries.
9. Environmental pollution:
During conflicts, our surroundings are left unkempt as people stay indoors and cannot
move about freely to tidy up compounds. Animal droppings and other waste materials
decay to produce stench.

10. Outbreak of diseases:

There is often poor sanitation during periods of violent conflicts because of
insecurity. This eventually causes outbreak of insanitary diseases like cholera.

IMPORTANCE OF PEACE (ABSENCE OF CONFLICT) IN

COMMUNITY.
1. Peace in society provides security for people to go about their economic activities
without fear. This increases productivity and rapid development of individuals and
the society in general.

2. Peace among people in society encourages individual and group initiatives.

People pool their resources together for business projects.

3. Peace promotes community and national co-existence and development. Absence

of conflicts is a motivation for the public to collaborate with state agencies to bring
about and protect development projects.

4. Peace is an important attraction to investment. Every investor prefers a con

peace. For example, many foreigners prefer Ghana as better alternative destination in
Africa because of the peaceful atmosphere existing in the country.

WAYS OR ATTITUDES AND VALUES NEEDED FOR PREVENTING

CONFLICTS.
1. By showing respect for one another:
If we respect one another's views and culture then we could easily resolve our
differences and prevent violent clashes.

2. By tolerating dissenting views:

Tolerance involves accepting the opposite ideals, beliefs and practices of other people
in religious, ethnic or political matters.

3. By forgiving those who offend us:

If we learn to let go the wrongs others do unto us in a friendly manner, retaliation
Would be avoided and peace will prevail in our societies.

4. By showing love to all people:

Those who love do not take record of the wrongs of their offenders. They do not also
intend hurting others.

5. By being honest in our relationship with people:

Honesty is the attitude of telling the truth and standing for it. Honest life is devoid of
cheating, stealing and corruption. In the absence of these vices among people in
society, conflicts prevail.

6. By being fair to people:

Fairness is the attitude of treating all people according to merit without fear or favour.
It ensures justice in the community hence prevents conflicts.

7. By living life of trustworthiness:

Trustworthiness is the attitude of a person that makes others respect and put
confidence in him. When people build trust relationships among themselves,
suspicion is eliminated and conflict is prevented.

WAYS OF MANAGING CONFLICT IN THE COMMUNITY OR METHODS

OF CONFLICT RESOLUTION.
1. Law Enforcement:
This is the rightful application of laws and rules in society to regulate the behaviour
of people so that conflicts are forestalled at the initial stages. This may involve
imposition of curfews, banning of socio-economic activities and withdrawal of
privileges for the purpose of restoring peace.

2.ligitation:
It is the process where conflicts are settled at the law court through discussions and
passing of judgement on cases according to the constitutional provisions.
3. Negotiation:
This is a give and take and win-win resolution method which involves giving the
disputing parties the opportunity to exchange promises with the aim of bringing about
reasonable settlement of their grievances.

4. Arbitration:
This is the method of resolving conflicts where both parties designate a particular
person referred to as arbitrator whose ruling they will accept formally. The arbitrator
listens to both sides for the purpose of having the disagreement resolved.
5. Reconciliation:
This is the process of exploring various avenues to bring factions in a conflict
Together to co-exist after the period of misunderstanding.
6. Mediation:
This is the process where an impartial party or person referred to as the mediator
intervenes in a conflict for the purpose of bringing about a settlement.

7. Compromise:
This is the method of settling differences by consent reached by mutual concession
by the disputing parties. It requires that the factions involved in the conflict reduce or
rescind their demands in order to give way for peace.

8. Alternative Dispute Resolution Mechanism:

This is community-based mechanism for addressing disputes by chiefs, elders and
other prominent people in society. The ADR is preferred among the other methods
because it is very transparent and less costly.

PEACEFUL WAYS OF RESOLVING CONFLICTS INCLUDE:

1. Amicable settlement of disputes.
2. The use of alternative dispute resolution methods eg. negotiation and mediation.
3. Using the law court to seek redress.
4.With settlement comes a period of reconciliation and reconstruction and a return to
development activities.

IMPORTANCE OF PEACE BUILDING.

1. Peace building avoids conflict.
2. When there are no conflicts, people work together.
3. People see themselves as one people.
4. Everybody contributes to development etc.

ESSAY TEST.
1. Explain the terms:
(a). Conflict
(b). Conflict Prevention
(c). Conflict Management

2. State six sources of conflict in the community.

3. Give four effects of conflict on the community.

4.Explain six attitudes and values needed to prevent conflict in the community.

5.Explain four ways of managing conflict in the community.

6. Mention four importance of peace building in the community.

7. State four ways of preventing conflict in your community.

STRAND 6
MAPPING OUR ENVIRONMENT.

Teaching and Learning Objectives

After learning this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Show Direction using the Cardinal Points and Outstanding landmarks.
2. Explain the scale of a map.
3. Differentiate between a "sketch" and a "map".
4. Draw a sketch of the neighbourhood indicating the major landmarks.
5. Draw a map of the school compound to scale.

INTRODUCTION
Finding one's way in the environment needs knowledge of the cardinal points as well
as an idea of the landmarks in the environment and knowledge of the meaning of the
symbols for representing important landmarks. Without the knowledge of how
the environment is represented physically and on paper, one necessarily wastes a
whole lot of time in dealing effectively with one's environment. Many people,
therefore, find it difficult finding their way around because of inadequate knowledge
of cardinal points, landmarks and symbols. Knowledge of the cardinal points is,
therefore, necessary for all of us.

SHOWING DIRECTION USING THE CARDINAL POINTS AND THE

OUTSTANDING LANDMARKS.
There are two main ways of showing direction of places or objects on maps. These
are Cardinal Points and Angular Bearings.

THE FOUR CARDINAL POINTS

The cardinal points are the principal points of the compass. That is, we have four
names to describe directions - East, West, North and South. These four main
directions are known as The Cardinal Points of the Compass. So the four main
cardinal points of the compass are: North, South, East and West.
 What then is a compass?
A compass is an instrument which shows directions. It has a needle which turns
round. The compass is made in such a way that when the needle is at rest, it always
points to the north. The face of the compass looks like a wall clock. The compass has
cardinal points: North, South, East and West.

Compass.
However, the compass does not only show four directions. This means we can get
more directions from the compass. The direction in the middle of the North and East
can be described as North-East. The direction between South and West can be said to
be South-West.

Therefore, South-West is the opposite of North-East.

In the same way, the direction in the middle of the North and West must also be
called opposite to South - East. What we must always remember is that the north and
south points are always mentioned first before the East and West.

HOW DO WE DETERMINE THE CARDINAL POINTS WITH THE

POSITION OF THE SUN.?
To determine the cardinal points, we first look for the position of the Sun. The East is
the direction from where the sun rises. The West is the opposite of East. This means
that the West is the direction where the sun sets.

Having determined your East and West, stand so that your right arm is towards where
the sun rises. Stretch your arms.
You can see that your right hand is towards the East and your left hand towards the
West. The direction you are facing is the North and the direction to which your back
is turned is the South. Remember that when you have a map or a plan before you, the
top is usually the north, the bottom is the south, the west is to the left and the east is
to the right.

FACTORS YOU WILL CONSIDER IN FINDING YOUR WAY HOME

AFTER GETTING LOST.

(i). The Direction of the Sun: Remember the sun rises from the East and sets in the
West. If you stand straight and stretch your right arm to the East (where the sun
rises) and your left arm to the West (where the sun sets) then you will be facing
North and your back will be facing South. You can now know whether to go
Northward, Southward, Eastward or Westward.

(ii). The use of the Compass: The compass can show us the cardinal points and
where to go. To use the compass, we turn it until the compass needle and the line
North is together and the needle is pointing to the North (0°). This will let you know
the North direction then you can find the rest and your way home.

(iii). Landmark or the characteristics of the environment from where you came
to the next: Landmarks are important features which are easily identifiable. They
can be seen from a distance so we can use them to give direction e.g., One can use
a mountain from a far distance to locate a town which is nearer to that mountain.

(iv). We can use bearings to find our way home: Bearing is the direction or
position of a place in relation to a fixed point measured in degrees e.g., if your town
is in the North-East of another town then its bearing is 45° from that town.

(v). Shouting for help: We can shout for help from people nearby.

BEARING.

"Bearing" is the direction or position in relation to a fixed point measured in

degrees. Bearings are taken from North in a clockwise direction. By clockwise
direction we mean moving from North 0° to East 90° to South 180° to West 270°.
Then back to North again 360°. So, you move as the clock moves.

Bearing is a more accurate way of locating places because it can be measured by

means of a protractor on paper and the Prismatic Compass on the ground. E.g., If you
are standing at Kumasi (fixed point), the bearing of Accra from Kumasi is 128°. The
bearing of Bolgatanga from Kumasi is 15°, the bearing of Wa from Kumasi is 350⁰.

A compass rose: It is a symbol usually placed at one corner of a map. It shows the
four cardinal points. Mostly the North is shown. With this, you can find the rest.

Remember the direction is always given from one point to another point. It is always
measured from the North and the answer given in degrees.
 HOW TO FIND BEARINGS OF TOWNS OR OBJECTS FROM
ANOTHER
Eg. Find the bearing of the town "A" from "B".

i.) Rule a North to South line through town B. This line should be
perpendicular to the North direction of the map.
ii.) Rule another line to join town A and town B.
iii.) Place the 0° line of the protractor on the North and South line.
(iv). Let the mid-point of the protractor be on town B.
iv.) Measure the angle formed by the North to South line and the line joining
town A and B in a clockwise direction reading from 0° North.

Conventional signs: They are symbols used to represent certain features or

landmarks which are not landforms on maps.
 IMPORTANCE OF CONVENTIONAL SIGNS.
They are symbols used to represent certain features or landmarks which are not land
forms on maps.

Symbols are convenient way of representing many features onto a limited space.
They are the cartographer’s shorthand which ensure clearness and legibility of
features on the maps. Symbols and words are very important on a map. They help us
to know what are on the maps. They also help us to know the names of the objects on
maps. If the objects like mountains, rivers, lakes etc were to appear in their true forms
on a map, they will be so crowded that it will be very difficult to read, understand and
interpret it. To avoid this confusion, we use conventional signs.

GROUPING OF CONVENTIONAL SIGNS

Conventional signs are grouped into relief symbols, drainage symbols, colour
symbols, route symbols, vegetation symbols, settlement symbols and functional
symbols.
1. Relief Symbols: Some of the universal relief symbols are:

a. Contours: Contours are used to show heights of local areas on maps. Contours
are the lines that join places of equal height above sea level. Remember the
measurement of the height of land surface always starts from the level of the sea.
The sea-level is taken to be zero (0)m. So, all places of the same height are
joined by a line known as contour.

Contours are represented by brown lines joining places of equal height above
sea-level. The heights are either inserted or written on the line.

ii. Spot Height: They show the exact height of a particular point above sea-level. It
is represented by a dot or a small circle with the height written against it.

iii. Trigonometrical station or Trigonometrical point: They show the exact

height of a place above sea level. They are represented by a triangle with a dot
in it and the height written against it.

2. Colour Symbols: Colours are very important on maps. They are used to show
a variety of features. On topographical maps, the colour blue stands for water bodies
or drainage.
i. Brown stands for highlands.
 ii. Green stands for vegetation and lowlands.
iii. The colour Pink stands for hills.

3. Drainage Symbols: All drainage or water bodies are represented by the colour
blue.
Eg.
i. Wide River: It is represented by two blue lines with small dots infillings
with the name boldly written on it.

ii. Small River: It is represented by a thin blue line with the name written on
it.

iii. Marshy Areas: It is represented by short bars with v symbols on them.

iv. Area liable to flood: It is represented by a group of packed blue lines.

4. Route Symbols: This refers to all forms of transport lines.

Railway Lines: It is represented by two parallel lines with broken black infillings.

i. First Class Road: It is represented by two parallel lines with red infillings.
It refers to road which is motorable throughout the year i.e. tarred road.

ii. Second Class Road: It also refers to road which is motorable throughout
the year. It is untarred but good road. It is represented by two parallel lines
with broken red infillings.

iii. Third Class Road: It refers to road motorable throughout the year. It is
untarred and bad road. It is represented by two parallel lines with nothing
inside.

iv. Foot Path: It is represented by broken black lines.

v. Path for Cycling: It is represented by one black line.

vi. Hunters Trails: It is represented by broken dots.

vii. Bridge: There are about three symbols for bridge.

5. Vegetation Symbols: These are represented by the colour green.
i. Savanna
ii. High Forest
iii. Heavy Forest

6. Functional Symbols: These are also referred to as literal symbols. The most
common ones are:
 USING COMPASS TO SHOW DIRECTION.

If you stand in the field and hold the compass in your hand, the direction of the
needle is North. If you face the North direction, your back is to the South. If you
remain in this direction and stretch your arms, your right arm will point to the East
and your left arm to the West.

THE SCALE OF A MAP.

A map is usually, many times smaller than the area it shows. Usually, the objects and
places shown on maps and plans are not the exact sizes. This is because, if you
want to draw the exact sizes you may have to put large pieces of paper together. You
may not have enough space on which to spread your paper. And you may have to fold
your map or plan many times before it can be stored. Because of these difficulties
every map has a scale. The scale of a map tells us how much an area has been
reduced in order to show it on the map. For example, what do you do if you are asked
to draw a plan of a football pitch 120 metres long and 100 metres wide on a page of
your book?

It will be a difficult thing to do. You know that the size of your page is not the same
as the size of the football pitch. Again, you cannot get 120 metres or 100 metres on
your page. Because of this the measurement for the football pitch on your page will
not be the exact size as the one on the ground. The one in your book will be smaller.
Therefore, we must use a scale of 1 centimetre on your paper to represent 10 metres
on the ground. Since on the ground the football pitch is 120 metres long, on your
paper it will be 12cm. Again, since on the ground the football pitch is 100 metres
wide, on your paper it will be 10 centimetres.

WHAT THEN IS THE SCALE OF A MAP?

A scale of a map is defined as the relationship between distance measured between
two points on the map and the actual distance on the ground.

A scale can also be defined as the ratio or proportion of what is on the map to what is
actually on the ground. In other words, the scale shows the relationship between
distance on paper that is on a map, and actual distance on the ground. The distance on
the map is always a proportion or a ratio of the actual distance on the ground. It
means that a certain distance measured on paper may be taken to represent a certain
limit of length on the ground.

TYPES OF SCALES.
There are three(s) types of scale. These are:
 i. Linear Scale eg.
ii. Statement Scale eg. 1 cm to 2 km
1
iii. Representative fraction or Ratio Scale eg. 200 or 1:200

Now let us describe the three (3) main types of scale in detail.

i. Linear Scale or Graphic Scale: This is a scale drawn in a line. So, when a
scale is shown in a line form, it is known as the linear scale or graphic scale. The
line is divided into equal parts to represent distances in kilometres, miles or any other
distance. The intervals indicating the distance should be equal. Zero (O) on the scale
is always placed one step to the left. The divisions to the right of the zero (O) are
called primaries.

HOW TO USE THE LINEAR SCALE.

Step 1: Use a ruler or piece of thread to measure the distance between the two places
on the map.

Step 2: Put your ruler or thread measurement on the scale, starting from the point
Zero(O) towards right wherever it ends, then that is your ground distance. For
instance, if it ends on 3km then that is your ground distance.

Step 3: If the length is longer than 3km, say 4 km, first record 3km and then measure
the remaining 1km also starting from point zero (O) to the right. Add both the first
reading and the second reading to get your final answer.

2. STATEMENT SCALE OR WORD SCALE.

In other words, when the scale or the relationship between the map size and actual
distance is given in a statement form; it is known as statement of scale eg.
centimetre to 10 metres. This means that 1 centimetre on the map represents
metres on the ground or 1 cm to 1 km. It also means that 1 centimetre on the map
represents 1 kilometre on the ground.

Step 1: First note the two points involved.

Step 2: Use your ruler or a piece of thread to measure the distance between the two
points.

Step 3: Relate the distance measured to the given scale.

 3. REPRESENTATIVE FRACTION (R.F) SCALE.
It expresses the ratio of the map size to the actual size of an area in the form of a
fraction or ratio. Here the scale is given as a ratio or fraction and the numerator is
always one (1). So, when a scale is written as a ratio or fraction, it is called
Representative Fraction (R.F) eg. 1:1000 or 1/1000

Note that in writing the scale in the R.F., both the numerator and the denominator
must be in the same units. The distance on paper is always written as one (unit) and it
is the numerator of the fraction or the first figure in the ratio while the actual distance
on the ground is the second figure after the ratio sign (:).
For instance, a scale of 1:100 or 1/100 means that 1 centimetre on the map
represents 100 centimetres on the ground.

Again, a scale of 1:1000 or 1/1000 means that 1 unit on a map represents 1000
units on the ground. This means that 1 centimetre on the map represents
1000 centimetres on the ground Or 1 millimetre on the map represents 1000
millimetres on the ground.

Finally, the numerator or left side of the ratio represents the map distance and
the denominator or right side of the ratio represents the ground distance.
Lenght on the map
R. F = Atual distane on the ground

HOW TO USE THE REPRESENTATIVE FRACTION (R.F.) SCALE.

Step 1: Note the two points involved.

Step 2: Use a ruler or a piece of thread to measure the distance between the two
points. Remember we use a ruler if the distance is straight and a piece of thread if the
distance is curved or is not straight.

Step 3: Relate the distance measured to the scale. eg. Using a scale of 1:100,000,
calculate the ground distance between Badu and Tainso, if the two towns are 5 cm
apart on a map.

SOLUTION
Measured distance from map = 5 cm
Map Scale = 1:100,000

Ground distance = 5 cm 100, 000 = 500, 000 cm

But every 100,000cm = 1km

Therefore, ground distance = 500,000 cm = 5km
100,000 cm

CONVERSION OF SCALES.

We can always convert or change one type of scale to another. We can change a
statement scale to a fraction scale. We can also change a fraction scale to a statement
scale.

HOW TO CHANGE STATEMENT SCALE TO R. F. SCALES.

Procedure: State both sides of the statement scale in the basic unit. We can
do this by converting or changing the kilometres (km) side of the statement scale to
centimetres (cm). Remember that the basic unit for the kilometre (km) is the
Centimetres (cm) = (Note that 1 Km = 100,000cm)

Example 1
Change the statement scale 1 cm to 1 km into R.F

Solution: State both sides of the statement scale in the basic unit. This is done by
changing the km side of the statement scale to cm. So, 1 cm to 1km = 1 km to
100,000cm.
Remember 1 km = 100,000 cm. The cm unit on both sides of the scale cancel out.
The ratio then becomes 1:100,000 and the R. F Scale becomes
1
100,000

Example 2
Change the statement scale 1 cm to 2 km into R.F. or ratio scale.

Solution
State both sides of the statement scale in the basic unit. We can do this by changing
the km side of the statement scale to cm. So, 1 cm to 2 km.
1cm to 2 x 100,000 cm = 1 cm to 200,000 cm
The centimetres (cm) unit on both sides cancel out. The ratio form becomes
1:200,000 and the fraction scale becomes
1
200,000
or change 2km into cm
but 1 km = 100,000 cm
therefore, 2km = 100,000 cm x 2 = 200,000 cm
1
The ratio form is 1:200,000 and the R.F. scale is 200,000
Example 3
Change the statement scale 1 cm to 10km into Representative Fraction Scale.

Solution:
State both sides of the statement scale in the basic units. This is done by changing the
km side of the statement scale to cm. So 1 cm to 10km
1cm to 10 x 100,000cm
1cm to 1000,000cm

The centimetres sides cancel out.

The RF scale then becomes
1
1000,000
and the ratio then becomes 1:1000,000.

HOW TO CHANGE FROM REPRESENTATIVE FRACTION SCALE TO

STATEMENT SCALE.
Step 1: State the basic unit of measurement that is cm on both sides of the fraction or
ratio scale.

Step 2: Change the right side of the ratio to km

Step 3: Replace the ":" sign with "to"

Example 1
Change the R.F scale 1:200,000 to a statement scale.

Solution
1. State the cm on both sides of the ratio scale 1:200,000 = 1cm:200,000cm.
2. Change the right side of the ratio scale to km.

This is done by dividing the right side of the ratio scale by 100,000
(Note that 100, 000 cm = 1 km).
So 1cm:200,000cm = 2km
100,000cm

2. Replace the " sign with "to" 1cm to 2km. The statement scale = 1cm to 2km.

Example 2

Change the Representative Fraction scale 1:100,000 to the statement scale.

Solution.
Step 1: Indicate cm on both sides of the ratio scale 1:100,000 = 1cm:100,000 cm

Step 2: Change the right side of the ratio scale to km. This is done by dividing the
right side of the ratio scale by 100,000. (Note that 100,000 cm = 1km)
2km
The cm unit cancel out
therefore, 1cm: 1km
Step 3: Replace the ":" sign with "to" i.e. 1cm to 1km. So, the statement scale is 1cm
to 1 km.

MAPS.
WHAT IS A MAP?

A map is a representation of the earth's surface or part of it drawn to scale. The map
could be just an outline of a small part of the earth such as a school compound, a
village or a town. Such maps are called plans. They show even buildings and roads.
A person who makes maps is called a cartographer. A larger area of the earths surface
can also be drawn on paper, for instance the map of Ghana, West Africa, Africa or
even the whole world. A book which contains such maps is called an Atlas.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD MAP.

Every good map must have certain features, these features tells us more about the
map.

i. Title: The title of the map shows the information on the map. eg. A map with the
title "Relief map of Ghana" will show the highlands and lowlands in Ghana. Again, a
map with the title "Drainage Map of Ghana' will also show the rivers and lakes in
Ghana.

ii. Date: The date shows the year or the time the map was drawn. This helps to know
whether the map is current or not.

iii. Scale: The scale helps us to compare distances measured on the map with actual
distances on the ground. This is because the scale shows the relationship between
distances measured on the map and actual distances measured on the ground.

iv. Key or legend: The key also called legend explains the symbols and conventional
Signs used on the map.

v. Direction: direction helps us to turn the map. The north point will face the north
direction of the earth and compass.

vi. Conventional signs: Conventional signs are symbols which are used to represent
certain features or landmarks which are not land forms on maps.

A SKETCH.
 A sketch on the other hand is a roughly drawn map usually not to scale. Therefore a
map which is not drawn to scale is called a sketch eg. The map of Ghana which your
class teacher roughly draws on the board to show some parts of Ghana is a sketch
map of Ghana.

DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN A MAP AND A SKETCH.

MAP SKETCH
A map is carefully drawn using special A sketch is roughly drawn and it
instruments. requires no special instruments.
A map is drawn to scale. So it has a A sketch is not drawn to scale. So it has
scale. no scale.

HOW TO DRAW A SKETCH OF YOUR NEIGHBOURHOOD INDICATING

THE MAJOR LANDMARKS.
To draw a sketch, we need the following tools: a piece of paper on which to draw, a
paper clip, a pencil and an eraser as well as colour pencils or crayons for painting our
sketch.

Having gotten your tools let us follow the procedure below:

i. First decide on the boundaries for the sketch of the neighbourhood as well
as the features you want to show on your sketch.

ii. Stand close to one of the boundaries and face the area to be sketched.
iii. Draw out the boundaries on the sheet of paper.

iv. Watch the position of each feature on the neighbourhood very carefully and
try to Put it at its correct place on the sketch and draw them on the sheet of
paper.

v. Use your crayon or colour pencil to paint the features.

vi. Give your sketch a title or a name.

STEPS TO BE TAKEN TO DRAW A SCHOOL COMPOUND.

i.Do a reconnaissance or a survey: This will help you to identify the place, features
or landmarks as well as the landscape of the place you want to draw.

ii.Do a rough sketch map: You must make a sketch. A sketch is a roughly drawn
map usually not to scale. Your sketch must include the landmarks of the compound.

iii. Revisit the compound for correction: You must revisit the compound and
compare it with your sketch to make sure whether you are on track or not.
iv. Measure the length and breadth of your compound: Stand close to one of the
boundaries and face the area to be sketched. Take your measurement using a
measuring tape.

iv Choose and state the scale: After taking measurement of the school compound, it
will enable us to determine the scale we can use taking into consideration the size of
paper we have and the size of the school compound.

vi Draw the outline of the compound using the scale: Using a ruler and a set
square, draw out the outline of the map. Remember to convert all ground distances
to map distances.

vii Insert the outline of the features on the compound: We must watch the position
of each feature on the map(compound) very carefully and try to put it at its correct
place on the plan. We must also find out the distance between one landmark and the
other.

viii Label the features inside the frame of the compound: Having determined the
locations of the features and inserting them into the map, we must now label them
inside the frame of the compound.

ix Show the North pole: The True North or the North Pole shows the position of the
map. So, it must be shown. The North point will face the North direction of the earth
and compass.

x Show the Key/Legend: This explains the symbols and conventional signs used on
the map (compound).

xi Write the title of the map: The title of the map shows the information on the
map. So in our case it can be "THE MAP OF VIRTUOUS JUNIOR HIGH
SCHOOL".

ESSAY TEST.
1. What is a scale of a map?
2. Describe the three ways of indicating a scale on a map.
3. With a scale of 1 cm to 20 km, draw a plot of 200 kilometres long and 120
kilometres wide.
 STRAND 7

EDUCATION AND PRODUCTIVITY

Teaching and learning objectives

After learning this chapter, you should be able to:
1. explain the meaning of education, training and productivity.
2. describe some of the factors that improve productivity.
3. outline the advantages of technology in work.
4. suggest some areas of work for which technology is vitally needed.
5. suggest ways for improving productivity in workplaces in Ghana.

THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EDUCATION AND TRAINING?

Education: It is the process of learning geared or directed towards assisting the
individual to acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes that will help him/her to improve
his or her life. Education is not only acquired in schools. It is acquired at home and in
variety of other places outside the school.

Training: On the other hand, training is a form of education except that training is
more specific and geared or directed towards acquisition of expertise in a particular
vocation, trade, work or profession. Eg. One can be trained to be a medical doctor, a
mechanic, teacher or accountant.

WHAT IS MEANT BY PRODUCTIVITY?

Productivity simply means output per man-hour. In other words, it refers to the
amount of goods or services produced by man within given time.

Productivity is said to be high when a person, within a given time produces more
goods or services than another person.
FACTORS THAT IMPROVE PRODUCTIVITY OR WAYS OF INCREASING
PRODUCTIVITY.

i. Public education on negative practices that lower productivity.

ii. Emphasis should be laid on technical education to train middle-level

manpower.

iii. Workers should be motivated by improving service conditions and other

benefits.

iv. Workers should be given on-the-job training and should attend refresher
courses to improve their skills.

v. In agriculture, irrigation projects should be set up to increase agricultural

production.

vi. Credit facilities should be granted to entrepreneurs to make them put up

their best.

vii. Planning and target setting.

viii. Using appropriate tools and equipment.

x. Using modern technology - computers, tractors, combine harvesters etc.
xi. Effective work ethics - punctuality, regularity, hard work, honesty etc.

EXPLAIN HOW THE FACTORS MENTIONED ABOVE CAN IMPROVE

PRODUCTIVITY.

ii. Provision of Credit facilities to entrepreneurs: Credit facilities should be

given to entrepreneurs to make them put up their best. Eg. It will help them
expand their capacity and increase productivity.

iii. Provision of Irrigation facilities: In agriculture, irrigation projects should

be set up to increase agricultural production. This will help farmers to grow
crops throughout the year instead of relying only on the weather.

iv. Training and re-training: Workers should be given on-the-job training

and should attend refresher courses to improve their skills.
 v. Motivation of workers: Workers should be motivated by improving their
service conditions and other benefits. This will let them put up their best
hence increasing productivity.

vi. Training of middle-level manpower: Emphasis should be laid on

technical education to train middle-level manpower. This will improve their
skills and increase productivity.

vii. Public Education: There must be public education on the negative

practices that lower productivity.

vii. Education: Education in the form of professional training and continuous

in-service training makes workers to be skilful and efficient on their jobs
hence increasing productivity.

viii. Planning and target setting: Planning or deciding on what to do, how to
do it and when to do it makes the workers work with time to achieve the set
target hence increasing productivity.

ix. Use of appropriate tools and equipment: When workers are given the
right tools it speeds up work and increases efficiency while reducing
wastes. Eg. they use farm tools in the farms and industrial machines in the
industries. This increases productivity.

x. The use of Modern Technology: The use of modern technology such as

farmers planting in rows and other improved methods of farming increases
productivity.

xi. Management of work process: Good management brings about good

decisions and proper supervision. It also makes available the right things at
the right time. This reduces wastes and increases productivity.

TECHNOLOGY

It is the application of scientific findings and knowledge to improve upon the quality
of life.

EXAMPLES OF MODERN TECHNOLOGY USED IN WORK PLACES.

i. The use of Automated Teller Machines (ATM) for withdrawing money from banks
instead of going to the cashier.

ii.. The use of robots for lifting and packaging.

iii. The use of video pill in diagnosis which leads to show everything going on in the
stomach.

iv. The use of computers in storing information instead of files and the use of e–
mails, mobile phones etc.

v. The use of tractors and combine harvesters for turning the soil and harvesting crop
respectively.

ADVANTAGES OF TECHNOLOGY.

i. It makes labour more efficient: Technology helps labour to work more

efficient than human effort or strength eg. Modern machines such as
computers have made labour more efficient at their work.

ii. Technology speeds up work: The use of modern technology speeds up

work and therefore saves time.

iii. It minimizes boredom: Doing the same kind of work several times leads to
boredom. The use of technology solves this problem of boredom and
reduces accident.

iv. It promotes specialization: Technology promotes specialization because

specific machines or technology is used for specific jobs. This leads to
efficiency and specialization.

v. It leads to mass production of goods and services: Technology promotes

specialization which leads to efficiency and high production.

vi. It releases labour for use in other sectors of the economy: Since
technology reduces the number of people employed for specific jobs, it
releases people to be employed in other sectors of the economy.

vii. Works that are dangerous for human beings can be done: Technology
is able to do works that are dangerous for humans. Eg. In situations where
dangerous Chemicals or radiations are concerned, robots and computers are
 used to reduce the risk of human contamination and human exposure to
radiation.

viii. Technology reduces unit cost of production: Because technology leads

to mass predication of goods and services as well as high productivity, this
will eventually bring down the unit cost of production.

SUGGEST SOME AREAS OF WORK FOR WHICH TECHNOLOGY IS

VITALLY NEEDED.
i. Agriculture: We need improved methods of farming such as application of
fertilizers, crop rotation etc. We also need tractors, combine harvesters and irrigation
machines and stop relying on the weather for rains.

ii. Education: We need computers for research work; we also need internet facilities
to be part of the global village. Audio-visuals are also needed to enhance the
distance-learning.

iii. Transport and Communication: We need to develop our railways to enhance

movement of heavy goods to the port, we also need modern means of communication
such as mobile phones, e-mails etc.

iv. Industry: We need modern technology for our industries and assembling of cars
and other electrical equipment.

v.Health: We need X-ray machines to show everything going on in the stomach. We

also need machines for certain surgical operations.

COMPARE THE ECONOMIES OF DEVELOPED COUNTRIES AND

DEVELOPING COUNTRIES.
DEVELOPING COUNTRY EG. DEVELOPED COUNTRY EG.
GHANA AND MALI. UNITED KINGDOM AND JAPAN.
Poor economic management. Proper economic management.
Low per-capita income. High per-capita income.
Low level of literacy. High literacy.
Inadequate health services eg. Few Adequate health services
doctors for more patients. More doctors for few patients.
High population growth. Optimum population growth.
Low level of productivity in agriculture High level of productivity in both
eg. Producing only raw materials, low agriculture and industrial goods eg.
productivity in industrial goods. Computer, cars and other machines.
 Poor transport and communication. Efficient transport and communication.

FACTORS THAT ACCOUNT FOR LOW PRODUCTIVITY IN THE PUBLIC

SECTOR.
1.Low Remuneration: The wages and salaries paid to workers in the public sector
are very low. Because of this they don't work hard leading to low productivity.

2.Poor attitude to work; Most workers in the public service do not have effective
work ethics. They come to work late, sometimes absent themselves from work etc.
All these lead to low productivity.

3.Bureaucracy: There is too much unnecessary delays in the public service. This
delays quick decision taking leading to low productivity.

4. Lack of Commitment and dedication: Most people in the public service

regard the work as government work and not theirs. They, therefore, do not work
hard. This leads to low productivity.

5. Poor Supervision: Supervisors in public sector do not control their junior officers
effectively. This leads to low productivity.

6.Lack of incentives and motivation: Apart from low wages and salaries, workers
in the public sector do not receive incentives to motivate them to work hard.

7. Pilfering and embezzlement: Because of the poor supervision, there is too much
pilfering, corruption and embezzlement in the public sector which leads to low
productivity.

8. Too much political interference: Government interferes too much in the public
sector. This leads to low productivity.

WAYS FOR IMPROVING PRODUCTIVITY IN WORK PLACES IN

GHANA.
i Motivation of workers: We have to give workers good working conditions such as
good salaries, decent accommodation and other incentives.

ii. Provision of the right tools to workers: The workers must be given the
appropriate tools to work with to speed up their work and improve their efficiency
hence productivity.

iii. The use of modern technology: Workers must stop using the old technology and
use the modern technology such as the use of computers etc.
iv. Development of effective work ethics: Workers must use good working ethics
such as punctuality, obedience, honesty, handwork, teamwork etc.

v.Planning and target setting: Workers must plan their work and set targets for
themselves while making sure that the targets set is achieved.

vi. Education: Workers must be given professional training and continuous in

service training to help them to upgrade their knowledge and efficiency which will
also increase productivity.

vii. Proper supervision and motivation of workers.

WAYS TO IMPROVE PRODUCTIVITY IN OUR FARMS, FACTORIES AND

SHOPS IN GHANA.

1. FARMS:
i. Farmers must be introduced to new seeds and seedlings that have shorter
growing periods with high yields.

ii. Farmers must be educated on modern farming practices to increase their yields.

iii. Irrigation facilities must be provided to enable farming throughout the year.

iv. The road network in farming areas should be improved to enable farmers
bring their produce to market centres.

2. FACTORIES
i. We must use modern technology in our factories.

ii. We must motivate our workers to work hard.

iii. There should be effective supervision of workers to reduce negative work

attitudes.

3. SHOPS
i. Shop owners must use the most effective means of advertisement.

ii. Shop owners must use modern technologies like money counting machine
and e-zwich point of sale machines.

iii. Shop assistants must be trained to be polite to customers.

iv. Shops must give discount to their customers.

v. There must be proper book keeping at the shops.

ESSAY TEST.
1. (a). What are the differences between education and training?

(b). What is meant by productivity?

2. (a). Identify four factors that lead to increase production in Ghana.

(b). Suggest four ways to improve production in Ghana.

3. (a).What is meant by technology?

(b).State four advantages of using technology for work.

(c). Give four examples of modern technology used in work places.

4. Suggest areas of work where technology is needed and how it could be applied.

THIRD TERM.
STRAND 8
OUR COUNTRY GHANA.

Teaching and learning Objectives

After learning this chapter, you should be able to:

1. state the symbols of National unity in Ghana.

2. examine ways of fostering National unity and defending the integrity of the Nation.
3.show the position of Ghana on the map of West Africa in relation to latitudes and
longitudes.
4. show on the map of Ghana, the ten administrative regions, their capitals and some
important towns.
5. describe the main relief and drainage features on a sketch map of Ghana.
6. explain the importance of mineral deposits to the socio-economic development of
Ghana.
7. describe the seasons and types of vegetation in Ghana.

THE SYMBOLS OF NATIONAL UNITY IN GHANA.

As one nation, Ghana is known by symbols and colours. They are called the symbols
of National unity. These National symbols identify us as one people. The symbols of
National unity include: The National Pledge, National Anthem, National Flag, The
Coat of Arms and State's sceptre.

THE GHANA NATIONAL PLEDGE (OUR NATIONAL PLEDGE).

I promise on my honour

To be faithful and loyal to Ghana my motherland

I pledge myself to the service of Ghana

With all my strength and with all my heart

I promise to hold in high esteem

Our heritage, won for us through the blood and toil of our fathers

And, I pledge myself in all things

To uphold and defend the good name of Ghana

So help me God.

We say the National Pledge at school during morning assemblies. As we say it, we
stand at attention and put our right hand on our chest ie left side of our chest.
By reciting the National pledge, we promise to be faithful and loyal to our nation.
As can be seen from the pledge above, the National pledge is a promise we make to
our motherland. If we are faithful and loyal to something, it means we will do
anything to defend it.

THOSE WHO ARE FAITHFUL AND LOYAL TO THEIR COUNTRY

PERFORM THE FOLLOWING:
1.They respond to national assignments such as voting and paying their taxes.

2.They report saboteurs such as reporting criminals to the police etc.

3.They work hard at their work places

4.They show love and respect for their National symbols and authority etc.

5.They protect and defend the constitution of the country by reporting coup plotters.

Therefore, the National pledge really moves us. lt touches our hearts. It is one way in
which we can move our people to do great things for Ghana.

THE GHANA NATIONAL ANTHEM.

The following are the words of the National Anthem:

1. God bless our homeland Ghana

And make our Nation great and strong,
Bold to defend forever
The cause of Freedom and of right;
Fill our hearts with true humility,
Make us cherish fearless honesty,
And help us to resist oppressors' rule
With all our will and might for evermore.

2. Hail to the name, O Ghana.

elections and
To thee we make our solemn vow:
Steadfast to build together
A Nation strong in unity;
With our gifts of mind and strength of arm,
Whether night or day, in mist or storm,
In every need whate'er the call may be.
To serve thee, Ghana, now and evermore.

3. Raise high the flag of Ghana,

And one with Africa advance,
Black star of hope and honour
To all who thirst for liberty.

Where the banner of Ghana freely flies,

May the way to freedom truly lie;
Arise, arise, O sons of Ghana land,
And under God march on for evermore!

The Ghana National Anthem was composed by a Ghanaian called Phillip Comi
Gbeho. The National Anthem is sung at all state functions because it is the Nation's
song. Example, it is sung by school children at parades, during Independence Day
celebrations on 6th March, every year. It is also played before and after the Head of
state speaks to the people of Ghana. As Ghanaians we must stand at attention when
the National Anthem is being played, as a sign of respect for the country. This means
that those who do not stand at attention position when the National Anthem is
being played do not respect the country.

It is important to know that before independence, Ghana had no National Anthem.

The people sang The British National Anthem which is "God saves the Queen". This
was because Ghana was a British Colony ie being ruled by Britain.

THE NATIONAL FLAG.

The National flag is the uniform of the country. Therefore, anytime you see it you
know that you are in Ghana or somewhere, where our country is being represented.
The Ghana National Flag was designed by Mrs. Theodosia Salome Okoh, a
Ghanaian, to replace the flag of the United Kingdom of Britain and Ireland
(Union Jack) upon the attainment of independence in 1957. The National flag as can
be seen above consists of the colours red, gold and green in horizontal stripes with a
five-pointed Blackstar in the centre of the gold stripe. The National Flag is the only
National symbol used for State mourning. When the Flag is half mast it means there
is a State mourning. The colours in our flag tell the story of the land.
1. Red: represents the blood and toil of our fathers who fought for our
independence". So, the red reminds us of our fight for independence and that many
people died during the fight.

2. Gold: represents "the mineral resources of Ghana". So, the Gold reminds
mineral wealth. E.g., gold, diamond, bauxite and manganese.

3. Green: represents "the vegetation resources of Ghana". So, the green tells us
that our land is blessed with rich forest and farm lands. Ghana has cocoa, timber, kola
etc.

4. The Black star: Signifies the emergence of the African on the world's stage. So it
stands for the hope of Africa. You remember Ghana was the first country in Black
Africa to gain independence. Our independence shows that one day all black
in Africa will be free. We will be able to do great things and become important in the
world. Therefore, the Black star in the centre of our flag reminds us of these hopes.
The flag is the pride of the Nation so we must respect it.
 THE COAT OF ARMS.

The Coat of Arms is the emblem or badge of the nation. The Ghana Coat-of-Arms
was designed by Mr. Amon Kotei a Ghanaian. It is found on all government letter
heads. It is used by the government, the ministries and Government departments only.
It is a shield which carries the colours and the symbols of the traditions and hopes of
the nation.
When you see the Coat-of-Arms on anything you know, that thing belongs to the
people of Ghana i.e., it belongs to the nation.

DESCRIPTION OF THE COAT-OF-ARMS.

Ghana's Coat-of-Arms is made up of four main parts.
1. There is a shield in the middle
2. There is the Black star on the shield
3. There are two eagles carrying the shield
4: There is the motto on which the star, the shield and the eagles rest.
The whole shield stands for a weapon which helps us to fight ignorance, poverty,
disease, illiteracy, hunger and all kinds of bad practices in society. The shield
contains five pictures which tell the story of Ghana.

1.In the top right-hand corner, there is a castle and the waves of the sea: The
castle stands for the country's central government which was brought to Ghana by
the white man from overseas and it works for ruling the whole country.

2 In the top left-hand corner are the Staff and sword of a chief: They are the
symbols of a chief's power or authority. The staff and sword stand for local
government in the country. They tell us that our chiefs were ruling the people before
the white man came. They also show the importance of our chiefs.

3.In the bottom left-hand corner, there is a cocoa tree: The cocoa tree stands for
Ghana's agricultural wealth.

4.In the bottom right-hand corner, there is a shaft of a mine: The shaft stands for
Ghana's mineral wealth. It tells us that Ghana has many minerals which are very
important to the nation.

5. The Gold lion in the middle of the shield stands for the continued link between
Ghana and the British government. The link is that Ghana is a member of the British
Commonwealth of Nations.

6. The Green Cross in the shield tells us that all the people of Ghana must live
together in peace.

7. Two eagles carry the shield, the eagle is a very large and strong bird. It is called
"King of Birds". This is because it is strong and powerful. If two eagles are carrying
our Coat-of-Arms, it means our independence is in safe hands. So the two eagles
stand for a protector with strength, very clear and attentive eyes keeping watch
over the country. The eagles are proudly wearing black star medals suspended from a
ribbon of Ghana colours: red, gold and green. This also tells us that we must be
proud that we are Africans.

8. There is a wreath on the top of the shield: The wreath is woven in the colours of
Ghana. The Black five pointed star rimmed with gold stands on the wreath. It
stands for the Lonestar of African freedom. The motto of Ghana is "Freedom and
Justice". We find this motto under the shield in our Coat-of-Arms. This means that
Ghanaians are free and independent people. The motto helps us to do great things
just as footballers are encouraged by their mottos such as "Never say Die",
"Fabulous" and "Hasmal, We Go Do". Whenever the players hear the supporters
shouting these words, they are moved to die for their teams. So as Ghanaians, we
must be moved by our motto "Freedom and justice" to do great things for Ghana.
THE STATE SWORD.
This sword of state is the symbol of presidential authority. It is held by the President
as he takes the oath of state at his inauguration, and will be borne before him when he
comes to Parliament House for the state opening of parliament. It is of solid gold, and
its design is based on that of the double-bladed "Afena-nta" (The traditional symbol
of inter-sate peace).

A. The sword bears on one side the following symbols:

1. "Nyame-tumi" (a square, a circle and a triangle,

known as God's power), symbolizing the presence
of God in society.

2. "Adehye-borobe" (a symbol based on the shape of

the pineapple), signifying royalty and sovereignty.

B. On the other side are the following symbols.

3. "Fawoho", a symbol of freedom

4. "Bi-nka-bi", symbol of justice

5. "Adehye-borobe" (as explained)

Linking the two blades at the top rests the Ghana star, symbolizing the oneness of the
nation as also the Lonestar of African freedom.
The President of the republic being sworn into Office by the Chief Justice using the

State Sword.

THE PRESIDENT PERSONAL STANDARD.

This standard consists of the Ghana Presidential Coat-of-Arms on a blue
background. The Coat-of-Arms is made up of the black star and the flying eagles of
Ghana with the following symbols:

1. The three concentric circles:

a."Adinkrahene", a symbol of
sovereignty.
b. The cross "Kerapa" otherwise
known as "Musuyide", symbol
of good luck and sanctity.

THE PRESIDENT PERSONAL STANDARD POLE.

Inside the President's office, his personal standard stands
unfurled on a gilded standard pole.

This is decorated with the following symbols:

i. "Perekese", symbol of personal importance of sovereign
ii. "Owo-foro-dobe", symbol of diplomacy and prudence
iii. "Nkonkyema", symbol of beauty
iv. "Dwantire", symbol of guiltlessness
v"Babadua", symbol of continuity of life
vi. "Nkonsonkonson", symbol of human relationship
vii. "Nkyinkyim", symbol of selfless service
viii. "Ntesie" ("Mate-Masie"), symbol of wisdom

THE MACE.
The Mace is the symbol of Authority of Parliament entrusted to the speaker.
Speaker's procession into the Chamber is led by the Marshal with the mace signifying
the ceremonial opening of each sitting day in the House.

The Marshal carries the Mace on his right shoulder and places it in a special holder in
front of the Clerk's table where it remains throughout the sitting as symbol or
authority of Parliament When the speaker is in the chair, the Mace stands upright or
perpendicular indicating the formal proceedings in the house.
However, during the consideration stage of a bill, the Mace is tilted towards the chair
indicating the informal nature of the proceedings. At this stage, the rules of debate are
relaxed and members can speak more than once to any question from the chair.

At the state opening of Parliament, the President and Parliament come together to
fulfil a constitutional function. On that occasion, during the presence of the President
in the house state sword, usually regarded as the symbol of authority of the state,
takes the place of the Mace.

The shaft of the Mace has six traditional stools symbolizing the common sharing of
responsibility, the presence of God in our society lasting personality, prosperity, and
presence and effect of feminine power in the society and pride. The Adinkra symbol
embossed between the stools denote the Omnipotence of God, critical examination,
strength, immortality and Justice.

THE DESIGN OF THE MACE IS MADE UP OF VARIOUS GHANAIAN

TRADITIONAL SYMBOLS. THEY ARE:

i. The flying eagle, symbolizing the state of Ghana.

i. "Kontonkurow', symbol of the common sharing of responsibility.

ii. "Nyamedua", a stool symbol of the presence of God in Society.

iv. "Hwemdua", a symbol of critical examination "Gye Nyame" (Except God) a

symbol of the omnipotence of God.

V. "Kudu-Pono", a symbol of lasting personality.

vi. "Dwanimmen", symbol of Manly Strength.

vi. "Mbaadwa", a symbol of the presence and effect of feminine power in

society.

vii. "Hye-wo-nhye" (Burnt but unburnt), symbol of imperishability.

ix. "Bi-nka - bi" (no one bites another), symbol of justice.

X. "Kuntunkantan" (bent only to strengthen), symbol of the pride of state.

 THE ARCH
There is a state monument in Accra called Independence Arch. This monument was
built to mark the year Ghana became independent. It carries the motto of Ghana ie
"Freedom and Justice". The Black star is also on the top of the Arch with the date of
independence AD 1957 written on the Arch.

OUR CURRENCIES
As we have seen, a national flag stands for a country. Coat-of-Arms and the National
Anthem also stands for a country. Currencies too stand for countries. Remember we
use the word currency for the money used in a country. Every country has its own
money.
Usually, the money of a country is used in that country only. Currencies are usually
made up of notes and coins. In Ghana, the notes are called Ghana Cedis (GHC) while
the coins are called Ghana pesewa (GHP).
We use the Ghana cedis and Ghana pesewa only in Ghana.

POSTAGE STAMPS
Postage stamps also stand for countries. Every country has its own postage stamps.
The postage stamp of one country cannot be used for posting letters in another
country.
Postage stamps sometimes show pictures of important people or common plants and
animals found in that country. They tell us about things people do in the country and
show some of the important events that have taken place in other places.

NATIONAL UNITY
By National unity we mean bringing together of all individuals and various cultural
units to one common society with a common sense of togetherness. That is, bringing
all the ethnic groups together to form one nation with one destiny.

WAYS OF FOSTERING NATIONAL UNITY

Ways of fostering National Unity in Ghana are:
1. Showing patriotism and selflessness: We must put the interest of Ghana first in
everything we do rather than our own selfish, tribal, social or political interest.

2.Tolerance of opposing views, opinions and beliefs: We must all learn to tolerate
the views, opinions and beliefs of other people even if we do not like them. There
must be respect for divergent views or other people's opinions.

3.Respect for Country's National symbols, National anthem, National flag,

pledge etc: we must respect all the National symbols because as one country, Ghana
is known by the National symbols and colours. These National symbols identify us as
one people. This is why they are called symbols of national unity.
4.Celebration of National Cultural Festivals: We must all celebrate the national
Cultural festivals e.g. National Festival of Arts and Culture (NAFAC) etc.

5.Respect and Appreciation of other people's culture: There must be respect for
each other's culture. We must not look down upon other people's culture. We must
also participate in other ethnic group's local festivals or social activities.

6. Promoting inter-ethnic marriages: Promoting inter-ethnic marriages or marriage

between two or more ethnic groups helps to foster national unity. It breeds peace,
unity and national cohesion.

7. Encouraging the boarding school system: Encouraging the boarding school

system will help to promote National unity. The boarding school system brings
students from all parts of the country together. As a result, they associate, interact and
make friends with one another.

8. Teaching of local music and dance (Culture) in schools: We have to promote

The teaching of the indigenous or local music and dance of the various ethnic groups
in our schools e.g. Adowa, Kete, Kpanlogo, Agbadza etc. This will help us to
appreciate each other's music and dance.

9.Encouraging the National Service Scheme: Promoting the National Service

Scheme helps to foster national unity when people are posted to do their National
service in places other than their own. They end up learning and appreciating the
cultures of those areas.

10.Learning and speaking other people's language: As a multi-ethnic society, we

must be proud to learn to speak two or more Ghanaian languages. This will help to
bring unity instead of looking down upon other people's languages.

11. Wearing of various traditional Ghanaian dresses in schools and work places:
We should promote wearing of the various traditional Ghanaian dresses such as "Slit
and Kaba", smock, kente, etc in schools, public functions and at work places. They
give us our identity as Ghanaians which foster national unity.

12. Avoiding Stereotyping: We must avoid the negative attitude towards other
people such as making derogatory remarks. Eg. All people in ethnic group "A" are
bad or everybody political party "B" is a thief. Such attitudes must be avoided.

13. Need to value peace and stability: People need to value peace and stability so
that they will do everything possible to promote peace and stability. Hence fostering
national unity.
14. Promotion of inter-regional sports and games: Promotion of inter-regional
sports and games helps to foster national unity because they promote friendliness
among people.

15. Fair representation in government: Representation in government must reflect

the different shades of opinion in the country. Fairness must prevail in the community
and in the country.

16. Fair distribution of National resources and development. There must be fair
Distribution of national resources and development. Nepotism and favouritism must
be avoided. We must avoid discrimination.
 BENEFITS OR REASONS FOR NATIONAL UNITY
1. It brings unity and National stability.
2. It prevents conflicts and promotes peace and National harmony.
3. It brings total allegiance to the state. This helps to pursue National interest
instead of individual or tribal goals.
4. Tribalism and nepotism are avoided. People see themselves as one people, one
nation with one destiny.
5. It helps to move together into the future in unity.

WAYS OF DEFENDING THE INTEGRITY OF THE NATION.

We can defend Ghana's integrity by:

1.Responding to National Assignments: We defend the nation's integrity by

responding to national assignments such as playing for the nation's team against
other nations if one is a footballer or going for our national service.

2. Reporting saboteurs: We defend the nation's integrity by reporting those who

intentionally commit crimes such as giving vital information to the police to help in
their investigations.

3.Showing Commitments to National Symbols: We can do this by flying the Ghana

flag, singing the national anthem, standing at attention position when singing the
national Anthem and putting your right hand on the left side of the chest when
reciting the National pledge.

4.Patronizing made in Ghana goods: We defend the nation's integrity when we buy
or prefer our country's products to the products of other countries.

5.Performing our civic responsibilities: We defend the nation's integrity by

performing our civic responsibilities such as voting during elections, paying our
taxes, being honest etc.

6.Upholding National Values: We defend Ghana's integrity by upholding the

national values such as patriotism, tolerance, love and volunteerism etc.
 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY.
NB: Before we show the position of Ghana on the map of West Africa. let us leam
about how to locate places on maps using latitudes and longitudes.

Things to remember

1. Remember we said a map is the drawing of any part of the earth's surface to scale
on paper.

2. The model of the earth is called the globe.

3. The globe has lines which are drawn from the north to the south and from the east
to the west.

4. The lines are imaginary lines and not real because they are not on the actual earth.

5. These imaginary lines help us to locate positions of places.

6. The imaginary lines which are drawn from the West to the East, are called
Latitudes.

7. The imaginary lines which are drawn on the globe from the North to the South are
called Longitudes.

8. The equator latitude 0' divides the earth into two equal parts or halves (North and
South).

9. The equator passes through the centre of the earth and it is the starting point for
latitudes.

10.The half which is north of the equator is called The Northern Hemisphere.

11. The half which is south of the equator is called The Southern Hemisphere.

12. All latitudes north of the equator are North latitudes.

13. All latitudes south of the equator are South latitudes.

14. Latitudes are also called Parallels because they do not meet with one another but
lie side by side.

15. Parallels or latitudes are marked from 0 to 90 north and south of the equator.

16. Latitude 23/2"N is called The Tropic of Cancer.

17. Latitude 23/,'S is called The Tropic of Capricorn.

18. Latitude 66%2 'N is called The Arctic Circle.

19. Latitude 6612 °S is called The Antarctic Circle.

20. The area between latitude 23½°N and 23½°S is called The Tropical Zone.

21. The areas between the tropics and latitudes 66%2 °N and 66% 'S are called the
temperate zones.

22. Longitude 0° and 180° divides the globe into two equal halves-east and west.

23. Longitudes are also called Meridians or Great circles.

24. Longitude 0° is also called the Prime Meridian (first meridian or Greenwich
meridian).

25. The Greenwich meridian passes through Tema in Ghana and London in Europe.

26. All longitudes meet at the top (North pole) of the globe.

27. All longitudes also meet at the bottom (South pole) of the globe.

28. Any line which divides the globe into two equal halves is called a Great circle.

29. Latitude 0° the equator and all longitudes are Great Circles.

30. All Meridians or longitudes are numbered from 0° to 180° E and 0° to 180⁰ W.

MODELS OF THE EARTH SHOWING THE SPECIAL LATITUDES AND

LONGITUDES ZONES.
HOW TO LOCATE A PLACE ON THE GLOBE OR MAP.

1.The main purpose of latitudes and longitudes is to help locate or describe places on
maps.

2. To describe the position of any place, we take two readings. The readings of
latitudes and the readings of longitudes.

3. However, if the places do not lie exactly on the latitude and longitude, then we
consider the nearest latitude or longitude.

SHOW THE POSITION OF GHANA ON THE MAP OF WEST AFRICA IN

RELATION TO LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES.
1. Ghana is a country on the continent of Africa. It is located on the Western part of
Africa.

2. Ghana lies between latitudes 11°N and 5°N.

3. The Western extent reaches longitude 3½° West and the Eastern extent reaches
longitude 1°E.

4. The Greenwich Meridian (Longitude 0°) passes through Tema.

5. The northern extent reaches Latitude 11°N.

6. The Southern extent reaches Latitude 5° N

7. The farthest point of Ghana in the South is Cape Three Point (Latitude 5°N).

8. The farthest point of Ghana in the East is Keta (Longitude 1°E)

9. Ghana is at a central position along the coast of West Africa.

10. The length of Ghana from South to North is over 700 kilometres.

11. The wideness of Ghana from the East to the West is over 500 Kilometres.

12. Ghana shares the same boundaries with Togo in the east, Cote d'Ivoire in the west
and Burkina Faso in the north, in the south is the Gulf of Guinea
 REGIONAL BOUNDARIES OF GHANA.
Ghana is divided into sixteen administrative regions; each region has its own capital
or headquarters. Each region also has a Regional Minister at the regional capitals who
represents the government at the regional level. Accra is both the capital city of
Ghana and the Greater Accra Region. Formally, the capital town of Ghana was Cape
Coast but was changed from Cape Coast to Accra in 1874.
 THE RELIEF FEATURES OF GHANA.
Relief features show the highlands and lowlands of an area.

Highland: It is a stretch of land which is higher than the land surrounding it. Or it is
a land area which is more than 150 metres above sea level.
Central Highlands: These highlands extend from a place near Koforidua to a place
near Wenchi. They include the Kintampo and the Kwahu-Mampong highlands. They
are in the central part of the country. The mountains found here include Kwamisa
(767m), Bosumkesi (712m), Aya (692m), Adansi (707m), Ejuanema (775m),
Tutuojiram (762m), Akwawa (788m) and Atewiredu (738m).

The scarps found on the Central Highlands also include: Mampong scarp near
Mampong in the Ashanti region and the Kwahu scarp at Nkawkaw in the Eastern
Region.

Gambaga Highlands: They are found on the North-Eastern part of the country. The
scarp found there is The Gambaga scarp in the Northern Region.

North West highlands: They are in the North-West of the country. The scarp found
there is the Wa scarp in the Upper West Region.

The Akwapim-Togo Ranges: They extend from Akwapim towards the Volta Region
in the North-Eastern direction. The ranges are broken by the Volta gorge between
Ajena and Adomi.

Akwapim-Togo ranges has the highest peak among the highlands in Ghana. Some
Of the very high mountains found on the Akwapim-Togo ranges are Afadjato 885m
high which is the highest in Ghana. It is found near the eastern boundary of Ghana.
Other mountains found on the Akwapim-Togo ranges include: Torogbani (873m),
Ayegbadje (863m), Djebobo (876m) and Agumatsato (840m).

LOWLANDS.
Lowlands: They are stretches of lands that are relatively flat and are below 150
metres above sea level.

Volta Lowlands or Volta Basin lowlands: The lowlands which stretch from
Akosombo as far north as west of Bolgatanga is called the Volta lowland because it is
an area where the Volta River flowed before the Lake Volta was formed. Again,
because river Volta flows through this area, it is called The Volta Basin Lowland.

Coastal Lowlands: It is the lowland near the coast. The coastal lowland is widest in
the west, near Accra they are narrow. All over the area, the average height of the land
is about 90 metres above sea level.

In few places like the Shai, Osudoku, Krobo etc. there are small hills there. These
hills are called inselbergs.
BELOW IS A MAP SHOWING THE RELIEF AND DRAINAGE FEATURES OF
GHANA.
 THE IMPORTANCE OF RELIEF FEATURES IN THE COUNTRY.
The importance of mountains and highlands include:

i. Mountains and Highlands influence rainfall: Mountains and highlands influence

or reduce relief or orographic rainfall. This is so because the mountains force humid
air to rise, as it blows over them. The humid air cools, condenses and then falls back
as rain.

ii.Mountains and highlands act as windbrakes: The mountains and highlands

always act as a check against strong winds. They, therefore, help to protect human
settlement against destruction caused by wind.

iii.They provide rocks for construction/building: Many mountains and highlands

generally contain rocks that can be quarried for roads, houses, bridges, dams and
building constructions. For example, rocks from the Shai hills were used for the
Construction of Tema harbour. Rocks from Wenchi and Banda mountains were
used for the construction of the Bui dam.

iv. They serve as a source of mineral: Mountains and highlands serve as a source of
minerals such as gold, diamond, bauxite etc. which help the country to get foreign
exchange. For example, bauxite is mined at mountain Ejuanema near Mpraeso
and Atewa Atwiriedu range near Kibi.

v.They provide favourable climate for human settlement: They provide cooler
climate for human settlement. This is so because the cool air in the mountain areas
is very healthy and pleasant for human settlement. It is especially suitable for
Europeans.

vi. They influence the climate of surrounding settlements: Mountains and

highlands influence temperature and rainfall distribution. Example, the climate in
mountainous areas are very cool and therefore ideal for habitation.

vii. They serve as sources of rivers and streams: Some mountains and highlands
serve as sources of rivers and streams. This means that many rivers originate
(start) from mountains. Example, river Densu and Ayensu take their source from
the Atewa Highlands in the Eastern region.

viii.Mountains and highlands serve as important tourist attraction areas: Most

of the mountains in Ghana attract tourists which generate revenue and foreign
exchange for the country. Example, mountain Afadjato which is the highest
mountain in Ghana attracts tourists all year round.

IMPORTANCE OF VALLEYS.
i. Valleys are fertile areas for farming: Unlike mountain areas which are not good
for farming, valleys provide good place for farming especially the lowland areas.

ii. Valleys offer good territory for roads: Roads built in valleys are cheaper than
roads built in mountain areas, which are winding and more expensive to build.

iii. Valleys are good sites for rivers: Most rivers and streams flow through valleys
which provide drinking water for human settlements.

THE DRAINAGE FEATURES

The drainage features show the water bodies that exist in an area. It is a name given
to rivers, lake and other types of water.

Name and identify on a map of Ghana the main drainage features

A map showing the rivers, lakes and lagoons of an area is referred to as the drainage
map.
The rivers in Ghana flow in two directions. Some start from highlands in the central
place of the country and flow into the sea.
Among these are the Tano, Ankobra, Pra, Amisa, Ayensu and Densu, River Bia is the
only river which takes its source from Ghana and enters the sea at La Cote d'lvoire.

The river that passes through the Ghana-Ivory Coast border in the south is River
Tano. The river that passes through the Ghana-Ivory Coast border in the north is the
Black Volta.

Other rivers flow from the north, east and west into the Volta Basin lowland. These
rivers give all their waters to the Volta Lake. They are the Black Volta, Pra, Sene,
Afram, White Volta, Daka, Oti and Asuokawkaw. These rivers are also referred to as
the Tributaries of River Volta.

At Akosombo, part of the water from Lake Volta is allowed to pass through the dam.
This flows on to the low Volta River and into the sea at Ada. There are only two
lakes in Ghana. They are lake Bosomtwi and Lake Volta. Lake Bosomtwi is a natural
lake (i.e. not made by man) and Lake Volta is an artificial lake (i.e. made by man)

Along the coast of Ghana are a number of Lagoons. Some of the big ones are Keta
Lagoon, Songhaw Lagoon near Ada, Muni Lagoon near Winneba and Korle Lagoon
in Accra.

The largest Lagoon in Ghana is the Keta Lagoon. The largest river in Ghana is the
Volta River, it is about 1000 miles. The second largest river in West Africa is the
Volta River. The only river which is described as an international river in Ghana is
the Volta River. The largest artificial lake in Ghana is the Volta Lake. The largest
natural lake in Ghana is Lake Bosomtwi. The two important towns of the Volta River
are Amedika and Ada.
IMPORTANCE OF WATER BODIES IN THE COUNTRY.

i. For Industrial Use: We use water from water bodies for industrial use eg. cooling
of engines, washing and dyeing raw materials etc.

ii. Provide water for irrigation: Water bodies are important because they provide
water for irrigation in our farms.

iii. Sources of minerals: Water bodies serve as sources of minerals eg. alluvial gold
and diamond.

iv. For tourist attractions: Water bodies serve as tourist attractions. Eg. waterfalls
dams, bridges etc.

v. Employment avenues: They provide employment to many people eg. Fishermen,

boatmen, miners etc.

vi. They help reduce flood: Water bodies collect and store excess rain water hence
minimizing the occurrence of flood.

vii. They act as drainage system for the country: Water bodies drain excess water
and channel it into larger water bodies and eventually into the sea.

viii. For domestic use: They provide drinking water for birds, animals and humans.
Eg. the river Offin supplies water to Kumasi and the water works is at Barikese.
Volta river supplies water to Tema and Accra from Kpong and Tano river supplies
water to Sunyani, Techiman etc with the water works at Abesim.

ix. They provide fish for humans: Water bodies provide fish for humans eg. River
Nasia in the Northern part gives a lot of fish. The Volta River also provides a lot of
fish, lobsters and oysters. Lagoons and lakes in the country provide fresh water fish
like tilapia for our food.

x. Source of Plankton: Water bodies provide plankton and other sources of food for
fish and other aquatic animals like, crocodiles etc.

xi. They provide homes for aquatic animals: Water bodies help to provide homes
for aquatic animals like fish, crocodiles.

xii. Larger water bodies can be used as a means of Transportation: Larger water
bodies such as the Volta, Ankobra and River Pra are used for transporting
passengers and goods. Eg. the Volta Lake Transport Company uses boats such as
Yapei Queen and Akosombo Queen to transport passengers, foodstuffs, livestock
and manufactured goods between Akosombo and Yapei on the lake.

xiii. They serve as a source of hydroelectric power and dams for irrigation: Most
rivers provide good sites or gorges for the construction of dams for hydroelectric
power. Eg. the Akosombo dam and Bui gorge. The Akosombo dam provides
electricity to Ghana and its neighbouring countries. Dams have also been
constructed on most of the rivers to provide water for irrigation of crops.

xiv. They provide the vapour that eventually turns into rain.

REASONS WHY IT IS NOT A GOOD PRACTICE TO CUT TREES NEAR

WATER BODIES.
1.It exposes the water to the sun which makes it dry up quickly leading to shortage of
water for human and animal use.
2. It destroys the natural vegetation.
3. It reduces rainfall since the trees which cause the wind to rise and fall as rain are
cut down.
4. It also leads to shortage of water for irrigation of crops since the water dry up
leading to shortage of food.

REASONS WHY IT IS NOT A GOOD PRACTICE TO BUILD HOUSES ON

WATERWAYS.
i. It increases the occurrence of flood since it destroys the drainage system.
ii. It destroys the beauty of the town.
iii. It may be destroyed and lead to loss of resources to the owner.
iv. The foundation of the house becomes weaker which may eventually collapse.

WAYS OF PROTECTING WATER BODIES.

i. Creation of forest reserves at the sources and along the river banks.
ii. Afforestation and re-afforestation.
iii. Legislation against indiscriminate cutting of trees.
iv. Measures to prevent pollution of water bodies eg. Use of chemicals.
v. Public education on the need to protect water bodies.

THE MEANING OF "WEATHER".

The weather refers to the day-to-day conditions of the atmosphere of a place at a
particular time. The weather is made up of the rain, the wind, the cloud, temperature
and sunshine. These are referred to as the elements of the weather.

THE ELEMENTS OF THE WEATHER.

1. Temperature 2. Cloud 3. Sunshine 4. Wind 5. Rainfall 6. Humidity

THE TWO SEASONS IN GHANA.

i. The Dry Season: The dry season starts from November and ends in February.
This is the time when the North-East Trade winds (Harmattan winds which blow
from the Sahara Desert) are felt most in Ghana. There are few or no clouds in the sky
during this period. There are a lot of dust in the atmosphere. Rivers become small
in size and many streams dry up. The sun shines strongly in the afternoon and
temperatures are high. Sometimes temperatures go higher than 35°C in the
afternoon and go low to 20°C in the night. This makes the weather very cold in the
night and early mornings. There is poor visibility in the night and morning making
driving very difficult during this season.
ii. The Wet Season: It starts from March to October. It is caused by the South-West
monsoon winds which blow from the Atlantic Ocean. In Northern Ghana, it is
between May and October. During this season, there are plenty clouds in the sky,
rains very often. It usually rains from morning to evening in June and early July.
Many rivers become full and overflow their banks. Muddy roads and paths become
impassable. Because of this, temperatures are low in many places. Sometimes
It around 20°C. Farmers grow crops during the season.
The wet season is divided into two:
One major season from September to October with August as the coolest month of
the year. The maps below show the two seasons in Ghana.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HARMATTAN.

i.It is a dry wind which blows over Ghana/West Africa.
ii.It blows from North-East to South-West and it is known as the North-East-Trade
winds.
iii.There are few or no rain clouds in the sky during this period.
iv.It carries a lot of dust.
v.It blows between November and March.
vi.It brings about hazy conditions making it difficult to see over long distances.
vii. Temperatures are generally lower than normal and nights are very cold.

IMPORTANCE OF THE HARMATTAN (DRY SEASON).

i.It helps laundry i.e. cloths dry quickly
ii.The weather conditions are very good for drying crops. Eg. Cocoa, maize,
groundnuts, cassava etc.
iii.Hunting is easily done during the harmattan.
iv.It helps farmers to prepare new land for new farms by means of bush burning.
v.The harmattan season is relatively mosquito free because stagnant waters, ponds,
marshes in which mosquito lay eggs dry up.

DISADVANTAGES OF THE HARMATTAN.

i. Some rivers dry up or decrease in volume posing danger to navigation.
i. Streams which serve as sources of drinking water dry up leading to shortage
to human animal uses.
ii. It creates health hazards like influenza and cerebrospinal meningitis (C.S.M.).
iv. Frequent bush fires resulting in loss of farms, houses, deforestation etc.
v. Our lips and skins dry and can make us feel uncomfortable.
vi. Plants wither and die down resulting in shortage of pastures for livestock.
vii. Poor visibility can cause accidents eg. flights of aeroplanes are disrupted.

NB: Teachers should use the opposite of the features, importance and disadvantages
of harmattan to explain the features, importance and disadvantages of the South West
Monsoon Winds (SWMW).

RAINFALL
HOW RAIN IS FORMED.
i. When the sun shines on water surfaces such as the sea, the lagoons and the rivers,
they get heated.
ii.The heated water turns into vapour.
iii. The turning of water into vapour is known as evaporation.
iv. As the vapour rises higher and higher it cools. As it cools it turns back into small
drops of water.
v. The turning of water vapour into small drops of water is known as condensation.
vi. The small drops of water known as the clouds come together and become heavy
and fall as rain.

TYPES OF RAINFALL.
There are three ways in which air can be
made to rise. Because of this we have three
(3) types of rainfall.
They are:
1. Convectional rainfall
2. Relief rainfall or Orographic rainfall and
3. Cyclonic rainfall

1. Convectional Rainfall: This is the type of rain which falls from moist air rising as
a result of heating.
i.When air is heated it rises on its own (convection)
ii.As the moist air rises higher and higher it cools
iii.As it cools, condensation takes place
iv. Clouds are formed and rain falls
v.This type of rain usually falls in the afternoon and they are heavy rains but lasts
shortly. It usually falls in the tropics.
vi. The rain usually comes with thunder and lightening.
Diagram below shows Convectional Rainfall.

2. Relief or Orographic: This is the type of rain which falls from moist air which
rises as a result of air blowing against mountains or highlands.
i. When moist winds blow against mountains or highlands.
ii. They are forced to rise. As they rise higher and higher, they cool, then condense
and form clouds.
iii. Clouds become thicker and rain falls on the windward side.
iv. At the other side of the mountain known as leeward side, there is little or no rain.
v. This type of rain falls in mountain areas such as Abetifi, Kwahu area, Akwapim-
Togo range, Mampong highland etc.

BELOW IS A DIAGRAM OF RELIEF RAINFALL.

3. Cyclonic or Frontal rainfall:
i. When warm winds and cold winds meet from opposite directions.
ii. Because the warm winds are lighter than the cold winds.
iii. The warm winds are forced to rise by the cold winds.
iv. Condense and form clouds and rainfall
v. Cyclonic rain falls in showers and may last for about a whole day or two. They
usually fall in the tropics and in the temperate zone.
vi. The rain falls over a wide area. It can fall over the whole Ghana.

Below is a diagram describing Cyclonic or Frontal Rainfall

 CLIMATE
Climate refers to the average weather condition of a place over a period between 30-
35 years. The elements of climate are the same as the elements of weather. Eg.
rainfall, wind, temperature etc.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WEATHER AND CLIMATE.

Weather: is the atmospheric condition of a place at any short period of time. Climate
on the other hand, is the average weather condition of a place over a long period of
time normally from 30-35 years.

ELEMENTS OF WEATHER OR CLIMATE AND THE INSTRUMENTS FOR

MEASURING EACH OF THEM.

ELEMENTS OF WEATHER OR INSTRUMENT FOR MEASURING

ELEMENTS OF CLIMATE
Sunshine Sunshine recorder
Rainfall Rain Gauge
Wind speed Anemometer
Wind direction Wind vane
Humidity Hygrometer
Atmospheric Pressure Barometer
 Temperature Thermometer
Cloud Octal

PATTERN OF RAINFALL DISTRIBUTION IN GHANA.

The South-West Monsoon winds brings rains to Ghana.
2. The amount of rainfall decreases from the south towards the north.
3. In the south there is double maximum of rainfall.
3. They start from April - July and from September to October.
5. The coolest month of the year is August.
3. In the north, there is single maximum of rainfall.
7. In the north, the rainy season is from June - October.
3. The heaviest annual rainfall in Ghana is recorded in Axim area (over 2000 mm a
year).
9. The lowest rainfall in Ghana is recorded at the South-East coastal plain (less than
1000mm a year).

Name and show the pattern of rainfall distribution on a map of Ghana.

Ghana has four main climatic regions. It is made up of the climatic elements of
rainfall, wind and temperature. The four main climatic regions in Ghana are:
i. The South-Western Equatorial

ii. Dry-Equatorial

iii. Wet semi-Equatorial

iv. Tropical Continental or Savanna.

The map below shows Ghana climatic regions.

 CHARACTERISTICS OF CLIMATES IN GHANA.
South-Western Equatorial
1.This is the wettest climatic region in Ghana.
2.It is found in the South-Western part of Ghana.
3.It rains throughout the year in this region.
4.It has the heaviest rainfall in Ghana.
5.The mean annual rainfall is over 190cm.
6. The highest mean monthly temperature is about 30°C and occurs between March
and April.
7. The lowest temperature is August with about 26°C.
8. Atypical station for this is Axim.

Dry Equatorial
1. The dry season is longer than the wet season.
2. The total amount of rainfall is very low.
3.The mean annual rainfall is between 74 and 89 centimetres.
4.Temperatures are almost the same as the wet equatorial region.
5.A typical station for this is Accra.
6.There is double maximum rainfall.

Wet Semi-Equatorial: It covers areas such as Kumasi, Sunyani, Kwahu,

Abetifi, Akwapim-Togo ranges, Mampong, Dormaa Ahenkro, Wenchi, Enchi, Ho
etc.
1.Annual rainfall is lower than the wet equatorial.
2.There is double maximum rainfall from April to July and from September to
October
3.The heaviest rainfall is recorded in June in
this region.
4.The dry season in this region is quite sharp from November to March.
5.Temperatures are as in the wet equatorial region.

IV. Tropical Continental or Interior Savanna

1. It is found in the northern part of Ghana.
2. It has single rainy season from June to October.
3. It has a very long dry season.
4. The total rainfall is less than 1200mm.
5. The mean annual rainfall is about 100cm.
6. Mean monthly temperature changes from about 30°C in March to about 27° C in
August.

BENEFITS OF RAINFALL
i.It serves as a source of water for domestic use eg. for washing, drinking, cooking
etc.
ii. It helps in the generation of Hydro-Electric power.
iii. It helps the weather to become cool.
iv. Some farmers irrigate their crops in the dry season using water from rivers or
dams.
v. The rain makes the grass to grow which animals feed on.
vi. Farmers depend mainly on rain water to grow their crops.

reasons why the south-eastern part of Ghana (Coastal Plains) or the dry
equatorial receives low amount of rainfall
i.The south-eastern coastal plains are generally flat and gently undulating. It has
only few inselbergs or small hills which cannot force the south-west monsoon to rise
and fall as rain.

ii. There is a body of cool water off shore from cape three points eastwards. It cools
the south west monsoon as it blows resulting in the formation of fog.

iii. The south west monsoon winds blow almost parallel to the coast and therefore
cannot bring rainfall to the land.

iv. Some of the rain giving storms from the east deposit their rainfall on the
Akwapim-Togo ranges and continues to the south east coastal plains with dry winds.

NAME THE TYPES OF VEGETATION IN GHANA.

The vegetation types in Ghana are:
i. Tropical evergreen rain forest
ii. Moist semi deciduous forest
iii. Guinea Savanna
iv. Sudan Savanna
v. Mangrove
vi. Coastal thicket and grassland

The Tropical Evergreen Rain Forest: It is found on the south-western part of

Ghana around Axim area.

i. The forest is evergreen throughout the year with broad leaves.

ii. The forest is arranged in layers.
iii. The trees are all tall and straight.
iv. There are many lianas or woody climbers which twist around the trees.
v. The trees have inter-locking canopies.
vi. Dead leaves, trees and fungi are common in the undergrowth.
vii. The trees are not found in pure stands
viii. The trees have thin barks with buttress roots.

Moist-Semi-Deciduous Forest: It is found in the central and southern parts of

Ghana.
 Characteristics
i. It is also made up mostly of tall big trees.
ii. The trees are close to one another.
iii. It is the second largest vegetation in Ghana.
iv. The trees found in the vegetation are wawa, odum, sapele, mahogany etc which
are used for timber.
v. Some of the crops grown in this vegetation are: cocoa, plantain, cassava, maize,
cocoyam, and fruit trees.
vi. Some of the animals reared here are sheep, goats and birds.
vii. cattle are not reared here on large scale because of the presence of tsetse fly in the
area.

Guinea Savanna: It is found in the Northern part of Ghana and some small areas in
me south-eastern parts.

Characteristics
1.It is the largest vegetation type in Ghana.
2.It is made up of short trees which are like umbrella mixed with grass.
3.The trees are scattered all over.
4. Because the trees are not tall but are like umbrella, they have strong roots deep
into the soil.
5.Some of the products of this vegetation are: yam, guinea-corn, millet, shea-nut,
maize, rice, tomatoes, groundnuts etc.
6. Some of the animals reared here are cattle, sheep, goats and guinea fowls.
7. Cocoa do not do well in the Guinea Savanna zone because the rainfall is great.

Sudan-Savanna: It is found in the Upper East region of Ghana. Specifically, in the

North-eastern corner of Ghana.
Characteristics
i. It is made up of short trees which are scattered.
ii. It is made up of short grasses.
iii. The trees have thick barks and are, therefore, fire and drought resistant.
iv. There is a long drought in this area.
v. Some of the trees in the areas are: acacia, shea trees and baobab.
vi. Some of the important crops in this area are: millet, guinea-corn, rice, shea-
nuts, onion, etc.
vii. Some of the animals reared there are: sheep, goats, cattle, guinea fowls etc.

5. Mangrove: it is found very close to the beaches and along the mouth of rivers that
enter the lagoons and sea.

Characteristics
i. It is the smallest vegetation in Ghana
ii. It has big trees with long, thick green leaves.
iii. The trees are closely packed and are green in appearance throughout the year.
iv. Some of the products from the vegetation are: maize, cassava, shallot, crabs
and shrimps.

6. Coastal thickets and grassland: It is known as the coastal scrub and Grassland. It
is near the sea.
Characteristics
i. The scrub and grass are short
ii. There is very little rainfall in this vegetation. It receives the least amount of rainfall
in Ghana.
iii. Annual rainfall is between 74-89mm.
iv. The most important trees in this place are the palm family-coconut, raffia, oil and
fan palms.
v. Some of the products of this vegetation are: maize, vegetables and fruit trees.
vi. Some of the animals reared in this place are: cattle, sheep and goats.

BENEFITS OF THE RAIN FOREST / IMPORTANCE OF THE

VEGETATION.
i. It provides timber exported for foreign exchange
ii. It provides timber for construction and furniture
iii. It provides raw materials for craft eg, Cane for basket and wood for carving.
iv. It provides barks, roots, leaves, for preparation of herbal medicine.
v. It provides habitat for wild animals eg. Elephants, monkeys, lions etc.
vi. It protects sources of many rivers and keeps them from drying up.
vii. It provides food eg. Fruits, yam etc.
viii. It provides the condition for cultivation of certain crops like cocoa, cola, rubber
etc.
ix. It serves as a source of employment for chain-saw operators, farmers etc
x. It provides tourist attractions eg. Kakum forest, the Big Tree near Akim Oda.
xi. It serves as source of fuel, wood and charcoal.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE TYPE OF VEGETATION IN

GHANA.
1. Climate: The type of climate of an area influences the type of the vegetation. Eg.
Climatic region with high temperature and low rainfall such as the Tropical
continental or savanna in Ghana will have the savanna vegetation. On the other
hand, climate with low temperature and heavy rainfall throughout the year such as
the south-western part of Ghana encourages the growth of forest hence the tropical
evergreen rain forest.

2. Soil: The nature of soil also influences the type of vegetation. Eg. if the soil is
loamy, it will encourage the growth of forest vegetation such as the rain forest in
Ghana.

3. Human Activity: The activities of human beings such as farming or clearing land
for crop production, lumbering or felling of trees in the forest, hunting and bush
burning destroy the forest vegetation and produces the savanna vegetation. On the
other hand, areas where people do not hunt, burn bush, farm and fell trees produce
forest vegetation.

WAYS BY WHICH VEGETATION IS BEING DESTROYED.

1. Lumbering or logging results in many of the big trees in the forest being felled and
removed.
2. Poor farming methods like shifting cultivation and bush fallowing encourage
Deforestation.
3. overgrazing also destroys the vegetation.
4. The development of settlement also destroys the vegetation.
5. Mining activities such as galamsey also destroy the vegetation.

WAYS BY WHICH THE VEGETATION CAN BE PROTECTED

1.Farmers should be encouraged to practice good farming methods such as crop
rotation, mixed farming etc.

2.We must intensify education on the dangers of destroying the vegetation.

3.We must pass laws to punish those who cause bush fires.
4.We have to encourage people to practice re-afforestation or to plant more trees.
5.Farmers must make fire belts before burning their farms.
6.The Forestry Commission should intensify their supervision and set up forest
reserves and National parks.

THE MAJOR MINERALS OBTAINED IN GHANA.

The major minerals are:
i.Gold ii. Diamond iii. Manganese and iv. Bauxite v.Salt vi. Rocks viii. Crude oil
viii. Natural gas
Important towns associated with each of the minerals mined in Ghana
i.Gold-Obuasi, Prestea, Tarkwa, Konongo, Dunkwa, Nangode, Bogoso, Bibiani
ii.Diamond-Akwatia, Bonsaso and Kade
iii.Manganese-Nsuta
iv.Bauxite - Awaso (other deposited areas are: Yenahin, Atwima and Ejuanema)
v.Salt-Daboya, Ada, Accra, Apam, Keta, and Elmina
vi.Rock-Greater Accra, Eastern region, Central region, Western region, Ashanti
region etc. Much of the rock mines are granite.

IMPORTANCE OR BENEFITS OF MINING OR MINERALS TO THE

ECONOMY OF GHANA.

i.Employment: Mining of minerals offer employment to a large number of people

like drivers, labourers, miners etc.

ii.Revenue: Mining companies provide revenue to the government through the

payment of income taxes and royalties.

iii. Infrastructural facilities: Mining companies provide infrastructural facilities like

roads, hospitals, schools, railways, harbours in the communities in which they work.

iv. Foreign exchange earner for the country: Minerals form major part of Ghana's
export earnings. Gold for instance is the number one foreign exchange earner for
the country. The second is cocoa and the third foreign exchange earner is timber.

v. Development of township: Mining leads to the development of townships and

urbanization eg. Konongo, Obuasi and Tarkwa.

vi. Guarantee: Gold is used for backing money to make it valuable.

vii. Minerals are used for making medals, trophies and souvenirs eg. gold medal at
games.
viii. For Jewellery: Gold and diamond are used in making regalia for chiefs, crowns,
ornaments etc.
ix. For Industrial purpose: Minerals are used as raw materials in the industries. Eg.
Diamond is largely used for the manufacturing of grinding wheels and metal cutting
tools and bauxite is a raw material for making aluminium.

x Acquisition of skills: It leads to acquisition of skills through training of manpower

for different sectors of mining. eg. Mining Engineers and technicians.

METHODS OF EXTRACTION OR MINING.

i. Deep Shaft mining: This method is used mainly in mining gold when it is found in
the solid rock. Deep vertical holes called shafts are dug in the ground to reach the
rocks which has the gold. Explosive machines like dynamites are used to break the
rocks. It is used in mining Gold in Obuasi.

ii. Open cast Method: This method uses mechanical shovels to mine minerals
which are found near the surface. The top soil is removed and the rocks, which had
the minerals, are collected and crashed with a machine. Chemicals are used to
remove the minerals. It is used to mine bauxite in Ghana at Awaso.

iii. Dredging or panning: Minerals which are found on river valleys or river beds are
called alluvial minerals. So when minerals are found in the sand deposited on river
bed or river bank, people use pans and baskets to take the sand, wash it and remove
the minerals. This method is known as dredging or panning. In Ghana, it is used to
mine Diamond.
iv. Drilling: This method is used mainly in mining oil. Pipes are driven into the
ground to reach the oil deposit. The crude oil then flows through the pipes to the
surface. The crude oil is later refined at the refinery into petrol, kerosene etc.

EXTRACTION OF SALT.
In Ghana, salt is mined in two ways. These are:
I. Extraction from the earth
ii. Extraction from the sea

i.Extraction of salt from the earth (rock salt): This type of salt mining mainly
occurs at Daboya in the Northern region of Ghana. The salt impregnated in the earth
is collected and mixed with water and boiled. The salt crystals appear and are
removed easily when the mixture cools.

ii. Extraction of salt from the Sea: This is the commonest type of salt extraction in
Ghana. It is carried out mainly in the Songhor lagoon at Ada, at Weija near Accra
and at Apam and Elmina in the Central Region.

At Elmina, Apam and Cape Coast, the land near the sea is low and flat, portions of it
are enclosed with low mud walls to contain water that flows into them when there is
high tide. When the sun shines, the hot sun evaporates the salty-trapped seawater
leaving salt crystals at the bottom of the enclosures. The salt crystals are formed
through evaporation of the seawater by the sun. They then collect the salt crystals
from the cemented floor.

At Weija and Apam, the companies have machines to pump seawater into permanent
enclosures with low concrete walls and cemented floors. Salt crystals are formed
through evaporation of the seawater by the sun. They then collect the salt.

IMPORTANCE OF SALT.
i.Salt is important for the upkeep of our bodies (it provides minerals)
ii. Salt is also important for our health eg. iodized salt in our meals helps to prevent
goitre.

Quarrying or Rock Mining.

Rock mining is a countrywide activity. It is mined in greater Accra region, Eastern
region, Western region, Ashanti region, Central region, Brong Ahafo, Volta region
etc. Generally, rocks are mined and used for construction of roads, house, harbours
and railways. It is also used as weapons.

PROBLEMS OF MINING IN GHANA.

i.There is lack of funds to invest in the mining activities.
ii.There is lack of skilled men and special machines to search for the minerals.
iii.People smuggle the minerals out of the country.
iv. Poor working conditions make workers go on strike leading to loss of money.
v. Lack of good roads to mining areas.

HOW TO SOLVE THE PROBLEMS.

i. The government and mining companies must construct roads to mining areas.
ii. Mining companies should pay their workers well.
iii. More technicians and engineers must be trained.
iv. The government must allocate more money for the mining sector.

ESSAY TEST.
1. (i) In what four ways is the forest vegetation important to the Ghanaian?
(ii) State three ways by which the forest can be protected.

2. (i) Describe the formation of relief rainfall.

(ii) Mention two areas in Ghana which experience relief rainfall.
(ii) List two benefits of rainfall.

3. (i) Name three types of rainfall.

(ii) With the aid of a diagram describe how any one type of rainfall is formed.

4. (i) State the characteristics of the North-East Trade winds.

(ii) Mention three disadvantages of the North-East trade winds.

5. (i) List the major minerals mined in Ghana.

(ii) Name one important town associated with each of the minerals in Ghana.
(iii) Explain the importance or benefits of mining to the economy of Ghana.

6. (i) State six ways by which the vegetation can be destroyed.

(ii) Mention six ways by which the vegetation can be protected.

STRAND 9
GHANA'S COOPERATION WITH OTHER NATIONS.

Teaching and learning objectives:

After learning this chapter, you should be able to:
1. state ways by which Ghana cooperates with other countries and international
bodies.
2. explain why it is necessary for Ghana to cooperate with other countries.
3. identify a set of basic rules for accepting aid, help or co-operation.
4. show interest in foreign matters.

What is Co-operation?
Co-operation means working together with others to achieve a common purpose. eg.
AU and UNO. Co-operation with other Nations of the world is most important for the
social and economic growth of the country.
Types of Co-operation
There are two types of Co-operation. They are Bilateral Co-operation and
Multilateral Co-operation.

1. Bilateral Co-operation
This is a kind of friendly relationship or co-operation that exists between two
countries. Eg. Co-operation between Ghana and Ivory Coast to resolve our
border dispute over recently discovered oil or co-operation between Nigeria and
Cameroon over the delta peninsula.

2. Multilateral Co-operation
This is a type of co-operation which exists among many countries and international
bodies with a common objective. Examples are the United Nations (UN), African
Union (A.U.), the Commonwealth of Nations and the Economic Community of
West African States (ECOWAS).
 FORMS OF CO-OPERATION
i. Political co-operation: This is the form of co-operation where countries form
international political organizations such as the UNO and the AU so as to give
themselves respect and influence at international meetings and to have a common
voice in their attempt to press for their interest.

ii.cultural co-operation: This form of co-operation is where countries agree to learn

me another's culture and to have cultural exchange programs so as to help maintain
their cultural heritage. Example is the first All African Cultural Festival in Algeria
organised by the OAU and The Festival of Arts and Culture in Nigeria.

iii.Economic Co-operation: This is the form of co-operation where countries come

together to undertake economic programmes. Eg. The CIMAO project in Togo,
which is a co-operation between Ghana, Togo and Cote d'Ivoire. ECOWAS and
E.C.A. are other examples of economic co-operations.

iv.Technical Co-operation: This is a form of co-operation which enables member

countries to benefit from the technical expertise of the advanced ones within the
group. Areas where such expertise is tapped include, atomic energy, construction
industry, military and aerospaceship. Ghana for example has benefited in this
regard from countries like China, Japan, Germany, The U.S.A. and Britain.

v.Educational Co-operation: This is co-operation which is aimed at improving the

quality of education among the countries. This is made up of exchange of
educational programmes, awarding of scholarship to students to learn and acquire
the relevant knowledge and skills needed to accelerate growth and development.
For example, the commonwealth, UN and other countries like Cuba, Canada etc.
have offered scholarship to Ghanaians to study in those countries.

WAYS BY WHICH GHANA CO-OPERATES WITH OTHER COUNTRIES.

i.Ghana co-operates with other nations politically i.e. by being a member of
international political organizations such as the UNO and AU.

ii.Ghana also co-operates with other nations economically by being a member of

economic groupings such as ECOWAS to help develop the country economically.

iii. Ghana also co-operates with other nations culturally and educationally by the
establishment of exchange programmes in education and culture. eg. Ghana
organizes a biennial cultural festival for the Africans in the diaspora known as
Pan African Festival of Art and Culture (PANAFEST).

iv. Ghana also co-operates with other nations just by being a member of international
organizations such as: AU, ECOWAS, The UNO and the Commonwealth of Nations.
V. Ghana co-operates with other nations by the establishment of embassies or high
commissions in other countries. These high commissions represent Ghana in those
countries eg. Ghana High Commissioner in Britain etc.

vi. By establishment of joint commissions for specified functions eg. West African
Gas-Pipeline.

vii. By organization of sporting events eg. Confederation of African Football (CAF)

and West African Football Union(WAFU).

viii. By organization of meetings with other countries and visits of heads of state for
official purposes eg. President Clinton's visit to Ghana in 1998 and Obama's visit in
2009.

NEW PARTNERSHIP FOR AFRICA'S DEVELOPMENT (NEPAD)

WHAT IS NEPAD?
The New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) is a vision and strategic
framework for Africa's renewal.

WHAT IS THE ORIGIN OF NEPAD?

The NEPAD strategic framework document arises from a mandate given to the five
initiating Heads of state namely: Algeria, Egypt, Nigeria, Senegal and South Africa
by the Organization of African Unity (OAU) now African Union (AU) to develop an
integrated socio-economic development framework for Africa. The 37th summit of
the OAU in July 2001 formally adopted the strategic framework document in Lusaka
Zambia.

HOW DOES THE STRUCTURE FOR IMPLEMENTING NEPAD LOOKS

ALIKE?
NEPAD is a programme of the African union designed to meet its development
objectives. The highest authority of the NEPAD implementation process is the Heads
of state and Government summit of the African Union, formerly known as the OAU.

The Heads of state and Government implementation committee comprises 3 states

per AU region as mandated by the OAU summit of July 2001 and ratified by the AU
summit of July 2002. The HSIC reports to the AU summit on an annual basis.

The steering committee of NEPAD comprises the Personal Representatives of the

NEPAD Heads of state and Government. This committee oversees projects and
programme development. The NEPAD Secretariat co-ordinates implementation of
projects and programmes approved by the HSIC.
 THE OBJECTIVES OF NEPAD.
1. To eradicate poverty on the African continent.
2. To place African countries, both individually and collectively on a path of
sustainable growth and development.
3. To halt the marginalisation of Africa in the globalisation process and enhance
its full and beneficial integration into the global economy.
4. To accelerate the empowerment of women.

PRINCIPLES OF NEPAD
Some of the principles of NEPAD are:
1. Good governance as a basic requirement for peace, security and sustainable
political and socio-economic development.

2. African ownership and leadership as well as broad and deep participation by all
sectors of society.

3. Anchoring the development of Africa on its resources and resourcefulness of its

people.

4. Partnership between and amongst African people.

3. Building the competitiveness of African countries and the continent.

6. Acceleration of regional and continental integration.
7. Forging a new international partnership that changes the unequal relationship
between Africa and the developed world.

8. Ensuring that all partnerships with NEPAD are linked to the Millennium
Development Goals and other agreed development goals and targets.

THE NEED FOR NEPAD OR REASONS WHY IT IS IMPORTANT FOR

GHANA TO BE PART OF THE NEPAD INITIATIVE.
1. Ghana needs to join the NEPAD initiative because it is designed to address the
current problems (Challenges) facing the African continent of which Ghana is one.

2. There is the need to join NEPAD to help eradicate the escalating poverty levels in
the African continent.

3.There is the need to join NEPAD to stop or halt the marginalisation if Africa. That
is to make people stop treating Africa as if Africa is not important.

4. NEPAD İs important because it is designed to place African countries both

individually and collectively on the path of sustainable growth and development.
5. NEPAD is also very important because it will help accelerate or increase
empowerment of women.

BENEFITS GHANA HAS RECEIVED FROM NEPAD.

1. Ghana is one of the 10 countries selected by the NEPAD secretariat to pilot the
programme in the education sector called the NEPAD Home Grown School feeding
programme. This NEPAD school feeding programme is attracting large numbers of
under-age children into classrooms in the country.

2. Ghana has also benefited from the NEPAD Information and Communication
Technology (1CT) Programme. The NEPAD e-schools project aimed at developing
sustainable knowledge based society in Africa by bringing ICT skills to large number
of primary and secondary Schools.

3. Ghana will also benefit from the NEPAD "Gender Equality in primary and
secondary schools in Africa" project. Under this project, the NEPAD secretariat has
identified the ECOWAS sub-region as a priority area to accelerate government
commitment to gender equality.

4. In the energy sector, two projects which figure among the specific NEPAD
priorities that have attracted the attention of the sub-region are the West African Gas
Pipeline (WAGP) and the West African Power Pool (WAPP). The Gas Pipeline aims
at supplying clean and affordable energy from Nigeria to Benin, Togo and Ghana for
economic growth of the ECOWAS Sub-region.

5. In the area of road construction under the NEPAD short-term action plan, ADB
financing the Akatsi-Aflao section and Akatsi-Dodze Neope road of the Tema-Aflao
Road Rehabilitation project as well as the Mali-Burkina Faso-Ghana Road project
all of which are under construction.

THE AFRICAN UNION (AU).

The OAU was formed to bring Africans together politically to deal with colonialism
i.e. to fight for independence.
However, in 1979, members of the OAU felt the need to make changes in the aims of
the OAU.
On 9" September, 1979, the Heads of Government met in Sirle-Libya. The meeting
Was called by the Libyan leader Col (Rtd) Muhammar Ghadafi. It made changes in
the OAU aims and objectives.

They also decided to establish the African Union. The main reason for the change
Over by the African leaders was to make the union more responsive to the many
problems facing African countries. The OAU was formed with a purpose which today
is narrow. The key need of Africa today is economic development and the African
Union has been formed to solve that problem. Another reason is political. The
African Union is therefore, ensure that countries in Africa accept and practice
democracy. On July 11, 2001, decision to establish the African Union was taken at
Lusaka Conference in Zambia.
On January 2002, 53 member states met in South Africa and formally signed their
signatures to the birth of African Union to replace the OAU after one year transitional
period.
On July 9 2002, the African Union (AU) was finally established in South Africa. The
resident of South Africa, Mr. Thabo Mbeki, became the first president of the AU and
Mr. Amara Essy from Cote d'lvoire became the first General secretary of the AU.

AIMS OF AFRICAN UNION (AU).

i.To promote unity and solidarity among African countries and move Africans
forward.
ii. Like the OAU, it defends each country and its full independence.
iii. To quicken the development of politics, economics and social standing of member
States.
iv. The AU is to see to it that Africa will take one stand on all international issues.
v. While encouraging international co-operation, the AU is to see to it that there is
peace, security and no disturbances in Africa.
vi. The AU is to ensure that democratic practices reign in Africa and people are
allowed to take part in choosing their leaders and ensure that African leaders rule
their countries properly.
vii. The AU is to see to it that African citizens are treated equally and their rights to
life Wouldn't be taken for granted.
viii.The AU calls for the total development of the economies of African countries and
bringing them together.
ix. The AU is to foster unity and co-operation in all African economies for the
overall engagement of Africans.

ORGANS OF THE AFRICAN UNION (AU).

1.The General Assembly.
2. The Executive council.
3. The Pan-African Parliament.
4. The African Court of Justice.
5. The Commission.
6. The Permanent Representative Committee.
7. The Specialized Technical Committee.
8. The Economic, Social and Cultural Council (ECOSOC).
9. The Peace and Security Council.
10. The Financial institutions.

1. THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY:

i. This is the supreme organ of the union.
ii. It is made up of Heads of state and governments of African countries.
iii. lt establishes other organs.
iv. It appoints and dismisses judges of the court of justices.
v. It takes final decisions.

2. THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL

i. This replaces the council of ministers of OAU
i. It is made up of foreign ministers of member countries.
ii. It prepares agenda for all meetings.

3. THE PERMANENT REPRESENTATIVE COMMITTEE (PRC)

i. Every member state is represented in it.
ii.it sees to it that any decision taken by the Assembly is implemented.

4. THE COMMISSION:
1. This replaces the General Secretariat of the OAU.
ii. It is headed by a chairperson.
ii. The chairperson is assisted by a Deputy chairperson and commissioners.
iv. It runs the day-to-day work of the union.
v. It is based at its headquarters at Addis Ababa.

5. THE SPECIALISED TECHNICAL COMMITTEE (STC)

It is headed by commissioners and handles issues like Rural economy, Agric,
Monetary and Financial Affairs, Trade, Immigration matters etc.

6. THE PAN-AFRICAN PARLIAMENT (PAP)

It is parliament for the whole Africa. Its function for the first five years is only to
advice and consult.

7. THE AFRICAN COURT OF JUSTICE

i. It is a court for the whole Africa.
ii. It settles cases among members 1sJ6 vso
iii. It interprets the laws of the African Union.

8. THE FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS

These institutions have been proposed:
i. The African Bank
ii. The African monetary fund, and
iii. The African Investment Bank

9. BUDGET
The Annual budget of the AU is the same as was the OAU, that is, contributions from
member states.

10. LANGUAGES
The official languages of the AU will be Arabic, English, French and Portuguese.

IMPORTANCE OF THE AU.

i. Unity among African countries: The AU has helped to sustain unity and co-
operation between and among African countries.

ii. Widen the Scope of the OAU: The AU has widened the scope of the aims and
objectives of the defunct OAU by making it more responsive to the problems of the
day.

iii. Enhance respect for Africans: The AU has helped to make Africans including
Ghana respected throughout the world since they now speak with one voice at
international fora.

iv. Maintenance of world peace: It helps to maintain world peace and by settling
cases between member states and helping prevent conflict on the continent eg.
Cote d'Ivoire.

v. Promotion of good governance: The AU promotes good governance by making

sure that African countries accept democratic principles.

PROBLEMS OF THE AFRICAN UNION.

i.Language Problem: Member states have different official languages that is
English, French, Portuguese etc. This makes communication very difficult.

ii. Lack of finance: Some member states do not pay their annual contributions to the
union in good time, others do not pay at all due to poverty making it difficult for the
union to carry out its work.

iii. Lack of standing army: The AU still does not have standing army to enforce the
political decisions of the union.

iv. Lack of economic freedom: There is no economic freedom because the

economies of member states are still linked to those of their former colonial
masters.

HOW GHANA BENEFITS FROM HER CO-OPERATION WITH THE AU.

Ghana benefits a lot from the AU as a result of her co-operation with the African
Union. Some of the ways in which she benefits from the AU are as follows;
1. Some Ghanaian parliamentarians are currently holding key positions in the
African parliament and are helping to shape policies for the continent.

2. The African Development Bank has extended financial and technical support to
many African countries of which Ghana is included.

3. Ghana hosted a number of ordinary sessions of the Assembly of Heads of State

since 1957 including 9th ordinary session in July 13, 2007. These meetings helped
boost economic activities and also raised the level of infrastructure in the country.

4.As a founding member of the former OAU, Ghana gains and enjoys the respect of
other African countries.

BENEFITS THE AU DERIVES FROM HER CO-OPERATION WITH

GHANA.
Just as Ghana benefits from the AU because of her co-operation, the AU as well
benefits greatly from Ghana. Some of these are:

1. Ghana was the first to allow herself to be peer reviewed by other sister African
countries under the New Partnership for African Development (NEPAD) project.

2. The former president of Ghana, John Agyekum Kufour, mediated in the Darfour
conflict in the Sudan and the post-election violence in Kenya. Kofi Annan
(Former Ghanaian UN Secretary General) also mediated in the post-election
violence in Zimbabwe.

3. Ghana has contributed troops to peace-keeping missions in the Sudan, Uganda,

Congo, Liberia, Burundi, Somalia and other countries which experience conflict.

4. The AU has benefited from the rich experience of Ghanaian experts serving in all
AU establishments.

5. Ghana played a pioneering role in the former OAU and continues to play leading
roles in the AU.

ECONOMIC COMMUNITY OF WEST AFRICAN STATES (ECOWAS)

The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) was formed by fifteen
out of the sixteen member countries on 28th May, 1975 at Lagos in Nigeria. Now it
has sixteen members.

AIMS OF ECOWAS.
The aims of ECOWAS are as follows:
i. To promote economic co-operation among member states so that there will be
free movement of labour and other factors of production.
ii. To harmonise the national and economic policies of member states.
iii. To encourage members to co-operate in social and cultural matters.

ORGANS OF ECOWAS

1. The Summit/Authority of Heads of State and Government.

2. The Council of Ministers.
3. The Executive Secretariat.
4. The Tribunal.
5. The Defence Council.
6. Technical and Specialized Commissions.

THE SUMMIT / AUTHORITY OF HEADS OF STATE AND GOVERNMENT

1. It is the highest organ of the community.
2. It is made up of all heads of state and government of member states.
3. It meets once every year in ordinary sessions.
4. It takes final decisions on all matters which affect the work of the community.

THE COUNCIL OF MINISTERS

1. It is the second most powerful institution of the community.
2. It is made up of two ministers from each member state (Finance and Economic
Planning Ministers).
3. It supervises the activities of the community.
4. It prepares the agenda for the meetings of the Authority of Heads of State.

THE EXECUTIVE SECRETARIAT

1. It is the administrative organ of the community.
2. It carries out the executive and administrative work of the community.
3. It is based in Lagos in Nigeria.
4. It is headed by an executive secretary assisted by three deputy executive
Secretaries.
5. It carries out research into various aspects of the community.

THE TRIBUNAL
1. It is the court for the community.
2. It explains and applies the terms of the treaty.
3. It settles disputes among members.
 THE DEFENCE COUNCIL
1. It comprises of the ministers of Defence and Foreign affairs of member countries.
2. It prepares matters or agenda for meetings concerning defence.

ADVANTAGES OF ECOWAS
1. Large Market for Local goods: When goods are allowed to move to any part of
West Africa freely, the market for goods will grow. This is because there will be
many people to buy and many sellers to sell.

2. Reduction of Unemployment: The problem of unemployment in West Africa

would be reduced if people are allowed free movement and the right to take up
employment in any member state.

3. Closer ties among people: All the people of West Africa will form close ties and
will regard one another as members of one big family.

4. Rapid Development of West Africa: The ECOWAS programmes will help

develop West Africa rapidly by giving help and advice to member countries
by the ECOWAS fund.

5. Attraction of Foreign Capital: More foreign investors are likely to come and
invest in the production sector as they are assured of large market.

6. Research: Countries of ECOWAS undertake joint research in the field of

agriculture, industry, marketing, health etc in order to promote higher output.

PROBLEMS OF ECOWAS
ECOWAS is not able to work according to its original plans because of the following
problems:

1. Lack of uniform level of development: Some countries are more developed than
others eg. Nigeria, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire are considered as more developed than
others.

2. The fear of domination by the larger states: Sometimes the smaller countries are
not committed to the programmes of ECOWAS because they fear that they will be
dominated by the larger states.
3. Lack of funds (Finance): Some member countries are poor and are not able to
pay their annual contributions making it difficult to raise capital for the activities of
the organization.

4. Colonial Influence: Member states are individually linked with their colonial
masters which gives them economic assistance. As a result, they find it very difficult
to break away from them.

5. Language Barrier: Member states have English, French, etc as their official
languages thereby, making communication among citizens of member countries
difficult.

6. Similar Economic Structure: All the member countries produce similar goods.
They are all producers of primary products (raw materials). This makes trade among
member states difficult.

7. The size of the community: The size of the community is very large and as
such makes it difficult for decisions to be taken.

GHANA'S CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE ECOWAS.

Ghana has made immense contributions to the ECOWAS union since its formation.
Below are some of the benefits the union benefited from Ghana's co-operation.

1. Ghana regularly honours and pays her dues to the organisation for its smooth
running.

2. Ghana serves as a training ground for personnels from member countries. The
Military Academy and Training School, the Maritime Academy (University) and
the Police College are all institutions in Ghana where personnels of member
countries are trained for their respective countries.

3. Ghana as a leading member has continued to play a leading role in the ECOWAS.
Both past and present heads of state in Ghana such as J. J. Rawlings, J. A. Kufour,
John Dramani Mahama etc played key role in the establishment of peace in the sub-
region as chairman of the union. Also, since the establishment of ECOWAS, so
many meetings have been held in Ghana in an attempt to move the union forward.

4. Ghanaian professionals have been offering their technical expertise to ECOWAS

countries who need them in times of crises. For example, Ghanaians are serving the
ECOWAS parliament, at the ECOWAS Bank and many other Ghanaian
professionals have made themselves available to member countries.
5. Ghana has served as a home to many West African countries which experience
conflict because of her co-operation with the ECOWAS. For example, refugees from
Togo, Cote D'ivoire and Liberia were hosted in Ghana for the past decades.

6. In the establishment and maintenance of peace in the sub-region, Ghana has

served as the major source of peace officers from the Ghana Armed Forces and the
Police services. They all took part in bringing peace to Liberia, Cote D'ivoire, Sierra
Leon and other conflict prone states.

Electric power from Akosombo is sent to neighbouring countries like Togo, Burkina
Faso and Cote d'Ivoire.

BENEFITS GHANA DERIVES FROM HER CO-OPERATION WITH THE

ECOWAS.
Just as Ghana has contributed to the cause of ECOWAS, she has also immensely
benefited from the union. Among these are some of the benefits she derived.

1. Employment: Some Ghanaians have been employed in a number of

establishments within the ECOWAS. For example, a number of Ghanaians are
serving in the ECOWAS parliament, also Dr. Mohammed Ibn Chambas who is a
Ghanaian was the chairman of the ECOWAS Commission, as well as the numerous
Ghanaians who are working in the ECOBANK branches in Ghana.

2. The West African Gas Pipeline Project: Ghana has benefited from the West
African Gas Pipeline Project as a result of her membership to the ECOWAS. This
gas pipeline has been constructed from Nigeria to transport natural gas to
neighbouring countries like Ghana, Benin, Togo, Cote d'Ivoire etc.

3. Large Market for Ghanaian Products. The creation of the ECOWAS market as
a result of the co-operation has created a large market for Ghanaian goods.
Entrepreneurs in Ghana who deal in textiles, salt, kola, cereals and other
commodities get ready market for their products thereby boosting the domestic
economy and the expansion of Ghanaian business across the borders.

4. Ghana is most likely to benefit from the ECOWAS as the headquarters of the
proposed ECOWAS Central Bank would be located in Ghana.

5. Banking: ECOWAS has established a bank (ECOBANK) to finance the numerous

development projects in the sub-region. Ghana has branches of the bank which in
various ways has boosted economic activities in the country.

6. ECOWAS Fund. This fund was established to facilitate the payment of

compensation to member countries which suffer loss as a result of intra-community
trade liberalization. The fund is made up of the contributions of member countries,
loans and grants. Many Ghanaian entrepreneurs have benefited greatly from the fund.

7. Ghana takes part in ECOWAS games and other sporting activities.

THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANIZATION (UNO).

The UNO was formed on 26th June, 1945 in San Francisco, U. S. A. It was formed to
replace the League of Nations. It is a world governing body and its membership is
opened to all independent peace-loving countries. Ghana is the 81st member of the
U.N.O.

AIMS OF THE U.N.O.

1. To maintain international peace and security.
2. To develop friendly relations among nations.
3. To cooperate in solving international economic, social and cultural problems of
human rights.
The flag of the United Nations
4. To promote respect for human rights.
5. To prevent the re-occurrence of another world war.

PRINCIPLES OF THE UNO.

1. All member states (countries) of the U.N.O. are independent and equal.
2. All member states (countries) promise to settle international disputes peacefully
without the use of force.
3. Member states shall do all that the charter expects them to do as a duty.
4. No member shall use force against other state in any international dispute.
5. All members agree to give the UNO every assistance necessary to carry out
its6. All member states shall ensure that states that are not members of the UNO
respect and obey the laws of the UNO.

ORGANS OF THE UNO.

1. The General Assembly - The main organ and the highest.
2. The Security Council - Maintenance of peace and security
3. The economic and social council-Co-ordination of economic and social functions.
The international court of justice.
5. The Secretariat - Administrative body
6.The Trusteeship Council
1.THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY.
i. It is the main organ of the organization.
ii. It is made up of delegates from all member states.
iii. It has the right to discuss and give advice on all issues of the charter.
iv. It elects the 10 non-permanent members of the Security Council.
v. It elects the 54 members of the economic and Social Council.
vi. It elects members of the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of
Justice and the Secretary General.

2. THE SECURITY COUNCIL.

i. It has 15 members - 5 permanent and the others non-permanent.
ii. Its main duty is the maintenance of peace and security.
iii. It looks into disputes that may lead to international conflict and give solutions.
iv. It draws up plans to ensure that nations do not compete in amassing weapons.

3. THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL.

1. It is made up of fifty-four members elected to serve a 3-year term.
ii. It co-ordinates the economic and social functions of the UNO.
iii. It recommends and encourages activities which bring about international co-
operation.

4. THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

i. It is the main court for the U.N.O.
ii. Its headquarters is in the Hague at Holland.
iii. It is made up of fifteen judges.

IMPORTANCE OF THE UNO.

1. Maintenance of international peace and security: it helps to maintain
international peace and security through the UN peace-keeping forces.

2. It promotes respect for fundamental human rights: Through UN universal

Declaration of human rights, it helps to make sure that everybody in the World
enjoys fundamental human rights.

3. Economic integration: It encourages economic integration by establishing

economic commissions for all continents of the world. Eg. E.E.C.

4. Forum for settling international conflicts: It provides a place for settling

international conflicts and disputes through the international court of justice.
 5. It helps in peaceful transition or change of government: It does this by sending
U.N. observers to monitor the preparations and holding of elections in member
countries.

PROBLEMS OF THE UNO.

1.The use of the veto power; The use of the Veto power by the five permanent
members to the security council sometimes makes the organization weak.

2.lack of finance: Some member countries do not pay their annual contributions to
the UNO regularly and as such the organization does not have enough money to carry
out the decisions and plans drawn up by its members.

3.Lack of effective standing Army: The U.N.O. has no standing army. So in times of
emergency it has to rely on the great powers and peace-loving member countries to
give them soldiers for peace-keeping.

4.The division of the world into power blocs: The division of the world into power
blocs i.e. capitalist and socialist hinders co-operations among the countries of the
world. It also prevents free and fair decision at U.N.O. meetings.

5. Financing of Political instability in other member countries: Some member

countries of the U.N.O. finance political instability in other member countries. Eg.
USSR supported MPLA and USA supported the UNITA in Angola hence prolonging
the civil war in Angola.

WHAT BENEFITS DOES GHANA GET FROM HER MEMBERSHIP TO

THE U.N.O.?
Ghana has benefited from the U.N.O. in the following ways:
i Financial Support from the world Bank: Ghana receives loans and aids from
the World Bank because of its membership of the United Nations Organisation
(U.N.O.)

ii Loans from the International Monetary Fund (IMF): As a member of the

U.N.O., Ghana receives loans and grants from the IMF which is an agency
established by the U.N.O. to help solve social and economic problems in member
countries.

iii.UNDP Programmes and projects in agriculture and rural development:

The United Nation Development Programmes have been carried out in Ghana in
areas like irrigation development, fishery development, agriculture and Volta lake
Research and Development.

iv. Medical Support and Control of Diseases by World Health Organisation

(WHO): The U.N.O. helps to control diseases in Ghana eg. The World Health
Organization (W.H.O.) gives vaccines for polio eradication in Ghana. The vaccines
used for immunization in Ghana are supplied by the W.H.O.

v. Contributions of the World Food Programme (WFP) in 1983: Ghana benefited

from the W.F.P. in 1983 when there was severe bush fires in the country which led to
severe food shortages. The U.N.O. assisted Ghana to come out of that problem.

vi. Contributions of the Food and Agriculture Organization (F.A.O.) towards

agriculture in Ghana: Ghana gets assistance from the U.N.O. agencies such as
the Food and Agriculture Organization. This helps to ensure food security in the
country.

vii. Election Observers and promotion of democratic governance: The U.N.O.

assists Ghana in her transitional or change of government by sending election
observers to monitor our elections.
viii. Technical Assistance to Ghana: Ghana gets technical assistance from the
U.N.O. eg. The United Nations Development Programmes have been carried out in
the country.

ix. Benefits from International Conferences Organized by the ECOSOC: As a

member of the U.N.O., Ghana benefits greatly from the international conferences
organized by the U.N.O. through the ECOSOC. That is, the Economic and Social
Council.

GHANA'S CONTRIBUTION TO THE UN.

Contributions of Ghana towards the U.N.O.:
The U.N.O. has benefited a lot from her co-operation with Ghana. The following are
some examples of Ghana's contribution to the U.N.O.

i. Peace - Keeping Operations in Lebanon, Liberia, Sierra Leone etc. Ghana

contributes to the U.N.O. by sending troops on UN Peace-Keeping Operations in
trouble areas of the world.

ii. Catering for Liberian Refugees-Budumburam and establishment of a Refugee

Centre at Klikor. Ghana's co-operation with the U.N. led to the acceptance and
creating of refugees' camp in Ghana especially in the western, central and Volta
regions for Sierra Leone and Liberian refugees.

iii Ghanaian Public Servants Serve on the U.N.O. organs and agencies. Ghana
has provided experienced public servants who serve on the U.N.O. organs and
agencies eg. Mr. Kofi Annan, former U.N.O. Secretary - General; and Mr. Alex
Quayson Sackey, a former President of the U.N.O. General Assembly are both
Ghanaians.

iv. Serving as a member of the Security Council: Ghana has served (On two
occasions) as a non-permanent member of the Security Council.

v. Financial Contributions as dues: Ghana has since its membership to U.N.O. beer
paying her dues regularly to help sustain and keep it running.

vi. Sending Auditors to audit the UNO Accounts: The Audit Service of Ghana
together with others audit the accounts of the U.N.O. annually.

vii. Hosting of U.N.O. agencies and their diplomats: Ghana has been hosting U.N
agencies and their diplomats. Eg. Ghana hosted the U.N. conference on Trade
Development (UNCTAD) in 2008.

COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS.
The Commonwealth of Nations is an international organization that brings together
Great Britain and her former colonies all over the world. It was formed in 1947. Its
headquarters is in London. The Queen of Britain is the head of the Commonwealth.
Its membership is now made up of fifty-three (53) independent countries.
Government of member countries meet every two years for summit meetings to
international political positions, economic development programmes and regional
problems. The Commonwealth Secretariat is headed by a Secretary General who is
elected every five years to deal with such areas as finance, law, health and education.
Ghana joined the Commonwealth in 1957.

AIMS OF COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS.

1. To bring together all independent countries who were once under British rule.

2. To take advantage of the common language that is English to meet and discuss
problems of common interest to members.

3. To promote the aspects of British rule which each member finds useful.

4. To find means of co-operation among the member states in the areas of education,
culture, Health Science and Technology.

ORGANS OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS

1. The Commonwealth Conference of heads of Government.
2. The Commonwealth Secretariat.
3. The Commonwealth Ministerial Meetings.
IMPORTANCE OF THE COMMONWEALTH TO MEMBER COUNTRIES
LIKE GHANA.
1 Closer ties among member countries: It brings together all former British
colonies as one big family. They, therefore, speak with one voice on international
issues.

2. Sporting Ties: Member countries take part in the commonwealth games hence
helping to strengthen co-operation and friendship among countries.

3. Aids and grants: The wealthy (rich) and advanced countries such as Britain and
Canada help or give aid to poor and developing countries such as Ghana.

4. Social and Cultural ties: Members also enjoy social and cultural ties by
exchanging cultural programmes among member countries.

5. Trade and Educational Ties: Also existing among member states are trade and
educational ties eg. Ghana's main trading partner is Britain and Ghanaian students
also enjoy Commonwealth scholarship.

PROBLEMS OF COMMONWEALTH.
1. Master-Servant relationship: Some of the rich or wealthy nations like Britain try
to control the poor nations like Ghana.

2. Geographical Separation: Mutual co-operation and inter-relations are difficult

because member countries are widely separated.

3. Divided Attention by members due to other sub-groupings: Some member

countries have divided attention because they belong to other international
organizations eg. ECOWAS, EU, NAM.

4. Political Instability: Member countries find it difficult to implement decisions

taken at summit meetings because of political instability.

5. Ideological Problems: Member countries believe in different political ideologies

making it difficult for them to be trusted by all members.

BENEFITS GHANA ENJOYS AS A MEMBER OF THE COMMONWEALTH

OF NATIONS.
1. Ghana receives a lot of technical advice from some commonwealth countries. For
example, India has helped to train engineers for our railway system. India is again
helping to train information and technology experts for Ghana.
2. Ghana as a commonwealth member, receives military assistance in the form of
equipment and training from Britain and India as part of the commonwealth co-
operation.

3. In the field of education, Ghanaians receive commonwealth scholarships on

basis to study in higher learning institutions in India, Australia, Britain, Canada and
other commonwealth countries to build and strengthen the human resource capacity
of Ghana.

4. Ghana continuously receives grants and loans from the developed members of the
commonwealth for the development of the nation because of her closer ties with
them through the commonwealth.

5. During commonwealth games, Ghanaian sportsmen and women have the privilege
of competing with their colleagues from other member countries promoting
friendship and healthy relationships among participants.

6. One benefit Ghana receives is through the regular meetings of the commonwealth.
Through these meetings, expert knowledge and advice are obtained on how to put
the economy on track.

GHANA'S ROLE IN THE COMMONWEALTH.

1. Ghana extends support to other developing countries within the commonwealth.
For example, Nigeria, the Gambia, Sierra Leon etc. send their soldiers to study at the
Military Academy and Training school in Ghana and the Kofi Annan peace keeping
and training centre.

2. Ghana's representative to commonwealth meetings and conferences have the

opportunity to express their views, and these views help the policies of the
commonwealth.

3. Ghana takes part in commonwealth sporting events and our nationals win trophies.

EXPLAIN WHY IT IS NECESSARY FOR GHANA TO CO-OPERATE WITH

OTHER COUNTRIES.
1. To maintain friendly relations with them: No country can live in isolation so
co-operation with other countries is necessary so as to strengthen the bond of
friendship between nations.

2. Getting help in times of trouble: It is necessary for Ghana to co-operate with

other countries so as to benefit from their knowledge and help especially in times of
difficulty. Peace Corps Voluntary Service Overseas, Canadian International
Development Agency (CIDA) and other NGOS give relief items to Ghana during
natural disasters.

3. Maintenance of International Peace and security: Apart from strengthening the

bond of friendship, member countries begin to respect the rights of the other
countries and contribute troops for peace keeping to help maintain world peace.

4. Taking part of the Global fight: It is necessary for Ghana to co-operate with
other nations so as to take part in the global fight against hunger, disease, human
rights abuses, poverty, ignorance etc.

5. Promotion of cultural solidarity: It is necessary for Ghana to co-operate with

other countries so as to promote cultural solidarity eg. The All African Cultural
Festival in Algeria and the Black Festival of Arts and Culture in Nigeria help to
promote cultural solidarity.

6. Ghana co-operates with other nations because some ethnic groups cut across
political boundaries eg. Ewes are in Ghana, Togo and Benin, Sissalas are in Ghana
and Burkina Faso.

7. Ghana co-operates with other nations because she cannot supply all her needs.
As a developing Nation, Ghana gets many goods and services from other nations
Eg. Petroleum from Nigeria, tomato from Burkina Faso, eggs from La Cote D'ivoire
etc.
8. Ghana co-operates with other nations because she trades with some of her
neighbours. Eg. Ghana sells electricity to Togo and La Cote d'Ivoire.

BENEFITS GHANA DERIVES FROM CO-OPERATING WITH OTHER

COUNTRIES AND INTERNATIONAL BODIES.
1. Gets Assistance in times of trouble: Ghana gets help whenever she is in serious
trouble. Eg. When there were floods and bush fires, wars, epidemics, famine etc. In
1983 when there was famine in Ghana, the U.S.A. gave Ghana food to solve the
problem.
2. Obtains Finance for economic development: Ghana obtains finance for
economic development through co-operation. Eg. 1/4 of Ghana's budget is financed
by donor countries every year.

3. Gets Advice from experts for development: Ghana gets advice from experts of
other countries on how to improve various aspects of our national life eg. Peace
Corps Voluntary Services Overseas from U.S.A. helps Ghana by teaching science
and mathematics in our Senior High Schools.

4 Maintains friendly relations with them: Being a member of other international

organizations or international sporting events like CAF, WAFU and African Cup of
Nations help maintain friendly relations with other nations.

5. Ghana gets assistance in times of difficulties: Ghana benefits from her

membership with other nations by getting other countries' knowledge and help
especially in times of difficulties. Eg. Peace Corp Voluntary Service overseas
through her membership of the Commonwealth of Nations.

6. Maintenance of International Peace and Security: Being a member of

organizations like the U.N.O. Peace Keeping Force, Ghana helps to maintain
international Peace and Security.

7. Promotes Cultural Stability: Co-operation helps to promote Ghana's cultural

stability eg. through cultural exchange programme with other countries.

8. Be part of the Global fights: Ghana benefits by being part of the global fights
against hunger, diseases, human rights abuses, poverty, ignorance etc. through the
Wealth Health Organization.

9.Free movement of persons: Ghanaians can move freely to other countries such
as Nigeria, Liberia, Togo etc because of Ghana's membership with the ECOWAS.
Ghana gets aid for Political development: Ghana gets help whenever she is
organizing general elections eg. transparent ballot boxes for 2000 elections.

11. Assistance in times of serious troubles: Ghana gets help whenever she is in
serious trouble eg. whenever there are floods, bush fires, wars, epidemics etc.

12. Respect and Influence at International meetings: Ghana's voice is

strengthened in an effort to press for her interest at international fora.

13. Development of transport and communication network: Co-operation brings

development of transport and communication networks in Ghana eg. the
construction of trans-ECOWAS road to link Ghana, Togo, Benin and Nigeria.
14.Humanitarian ie Relief Aid: Vaccines used in Ghana for immunization are
supplied to Ghana free by the World Health Organization (WHO) and Rotary
international. In the General election of December 2000 and in January 2001,
Presidential run-off, transparent ballot boxes, Photo ID Cards etc were supplied by
international bodies free of charge to the country.

BAD EFFECTS OF CO-OPERATION OR DISADVANTAGES OF CO-

OPERATION.
1. Introduction of cross-border diseases: Some of the results of co-operation with
other countries and international bodies have negative effects on Ghana. For
example, in 1999, an organization in the United States of America (USA) planned to
send Ghana a number of chimpanzees which had been used for experiment over a
long period and were no longer needed. Ghanaians both at home and in the USA
advised the government not to allow that because they could introduce new disease
not known in Ghana.

2. Dependent on foreign aids: Co-operation can make Ghana's economy dependent

on countries and international bodies who dictate policies for the country eg. The
IMF and the World Bank tell Ghana what they want us to do and not what we want to
do with our economy.

3. Dumping grounds: Co-operation also makes our country a dumping ground for
the developed countries who bring their surplus goods into Ghana at cheaper prices
with the aim of killing our local industries hence creating unemployment.
4. Strings attached: It is not in all cases that co-operation will be humanitarian.
Sometimes countries give aid with certain harsh conditions hence making the
recipient country to suffer more.

IDENTIFY A SET OF BASIC RULES FOR ACCEPTING AID, HELP OR CO-

OPERATION.
The process to follow in accepting help is as follows:
1. Examine co-operation agreements very well to make sure there is fairness.
2. Investigate whether the co-operation will not lead to any negative effects on the
individual or on the country.
3. Find out if there is a hidden motive. This means the country must decide whether
the co-operation is purely humanitarian, or there is some hidden agenda.
4. Decide on whether your nation is willing to be a friend to the nation giving the
help or not.
5. Decide on the terms of the co-operation.
6. Accept the help if it will not have negative effects on the nation.
HOW GHANA CO-OPERATES WITH OTHER COUNTRIES AND OTHER
INTERNATIONAL BODIES.
1. Peace-keeping: Ghana has been sending troops i.e. soldiers and police to go and
ensure cease fire in conflict areas eg. Liberia, Sierra Leone and the Middle East.

2. Establishment of refugee centres: Ghana has established refugee centres for

refugees from Liberia and Sierra Leone etc at Budumburam in the Central Region
and Klikor in the Volta Region.

3. Humanitarian Aid: Ghana has been sending relief items to other nations in times
of disaster. Eg. Ghana sent blankets and bedsheets to Ethiopia in 1998 and in 2005
Ghana's mining company, AGC, also sent more than $100,000,000 to the victims of
the Tsunami disasters and recently aids have been sent to help the people of Haiti.

4. Allowing Ghana's citizens to serve in international organizations: Ghanaian

citizens serve in international organizations eg. Mr. Kofi Annan was the Secretary
General for the United Nations Organization and Dr. Mohammed Ibn Chambas was
the Executive Secretary for ECOWAS from 2002 to 2006 and president of ECOWAS
from 2007 to 2010.

THE REASONS WHY GHANAIANS DO NOT SHOW MUCH INTEREST IN

FOREIGN MATTERS NOR INFLUENCE DECISION-MAKING IN
FOREIGN MATTERS.
1. Non-Interest in events in other countries: Ghanaians do not have interest in
events in other countries apart from sports such as world cup, African cup of Nations.

2. Low level of political education: There is no effective political education to let

Ghanaians be aware of international events or what is happening in other countries.

3. Low Literacy rate: Many Ghanaians cannot read and write. This makes people
unable to read nor listen to foreign news.

4. Complexity of most international issues: Most international issues are very

complex and difficult for ordinary people to handle hence deterring Ghanaians from
showing interest in foreign matters.

5. Ignorance of the spill over effects of international problems: Most people in

Ghana is not aware that any issue or problem in other countries can have
effects on Ghana eg wars in Togo and Cote D'Ivoire can spread to Ghana. So they do
not show interest in solving them.
WHAT GHANAIANS CAN DO TO INFLUENCE DECISION-MAKING ON
FOREIGN MATTERS.
1. Ghanaians can help Ghana co-operate better with other countries by taking interest
in foreign matters.
2. They can express their views through the press, their MPs or foreign magazines.
3. They can advise their government on how to handle specific foreign issues.

SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON FOREIGN MATTERS.

1. Through International Radio Stations eg. BBC News and Voice of America
2. Foreign Magazines
3. Foreign News on local TV stations

ESSAY TEST.

1. (a). Mention four international organisations of which Ghana is a member.

(b). Which four benefits does Ghana enjoy from its membership of any of the
international organizations mentioned in (a)

2. State four importance of co-operation.

3. State four ways by which Ghana co-operates with other countries.
4. Identify four set of basic rules for accepting aid, help or co-operation.
5.Mention the sources of information on foreign matters.
6. Explain two problems facing the United Nations Organization (UNO).
 STRAND 10
ENTREPRENEURSHIP.

Teaching and learning objectives

After learning this chapter, you should be able to:

1.explain the meaning of enterprise, examples of enterprises and their advantages

and disadvantages.
2 give reasons why the state owns some businesses.
3. suggest the role that the state should play in promoting private sector business.
4. Suggest the role private businesses should play to ensure continuous survival.

WHO IS AN ENTREPRENEUR?
An entrepreneur is a person who combines the other three factors of production
(Land, labour and capital) in order to produce goods and services at a minimum cost.
Or an entrepreneur is anyone who creates his/her own business. Eg. Farmer,
hairdresser, school proprietor etc.

WHAT IS AN ENTERPRISE? An enterprise is a business concern set up by an

individual or state to provide essential goods and services to satisfy human needs.

TYPES OF ENTERPRISES IN GHANA.

There are five main types of enterprises in Ghana. They are:
1. Sole Proprietorship
2. Partnerships
3. Co-operatives
4. Joint-stock companies (Limited liability companies)
5. Public Corporations

STATE AND PRIVATE ENTERPRISES

What is a State enterprise?
A State enterprise is a business entity established and owned by the government
Or state to provide vital and essential services to the public at a lower cost. Examples
in Ghana are Ghana Commercial Bank, Ghana Water Company, Electricity Company
of etc.

What is a Private enterprise?

It is a business entity which is set up or established and owned by private individuals
with the sole aim of making profits. Examples include Unilever Ghana Ltd., Despite
group of companies, Virtuous group of companies etc.

THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN STATE OWNED ENTERPRISES AND

PRIVATE ENTERPRISES.
Characteristics of State Owned Characteristics of Private Owned
Enterprises Enterprises

Formation: They are set up by private

i. They are set up by the government individuals or people through the
through an act of parliament registrar of companies.

Ownership: They are owned and controlled by

ii. They are owned and controlled by Individuals
the state

Aim/Purpose: Their aim is to make profit for their

iii. Their aim is not to make profit owners
but provide essential services
to the people

Management/Control: They are managed by the owners

iv. They are managed and controlled or sometimes by Board of Directors
by Board of Directors appointed appointed by the owners or
by the sector minister shareholders

Profit/Loss Losses are borne by the individual

Losses are borne by the state, owners who also enjoy when there is a
profit paid into consolidated profit.
fund

REASONS WHY THE STATE OWNS SOME BUSINESSES.

(i) Provision of vital or strategic services: The state owns some businesses
just to be able to provide vital or strategic services like water, power etc which are
very important to the lives of the people.

(ii) Control of vital services: Sometimes state owned enterprises are set up to enable
the government to closely monitor and control strategic industries whose
operations may pose some risks to the public. This is why nearly all the atomic
energy authorities in the world such as the Ghana Atomic Energy Commission is
state owned enterprises.
(iii) Preventing exploitation of consumers: Most state owned enterprises are set
to prevent or protect consumers against exploitation. Eg. companies for vital
services such as electricity and water cannot be left to private businessmen
because the services will be very important and the private men will be cheating the
consumers.

(iv)Creation of employment avenues: State owned enterprises provide employment

to the general public. eg. The state transport corporation employs a staff of drivers,
mates, conductors etc. for its fleet of cars.

(v)Provision of huge capital where it is required: Some state owned enterprises are
so expensive that private men cannot provide the capital. So the government provides
such huge capital for their establishment eg. Akosombo Dam, Bui Dam etc.

(vi) Provision of infrastructure: Government establishes some state owned

enterprises to be able to provide the needed infrastructure in the country. Eg.
Accra Sports Stadium.

(vii) Breaking Monopoly Power: Government establishes some businesses to bring

competition into those sectors. eg. GHACEM, VALCO etc.

(viii) Raising Revenue for the Government: Some state owned enterprises are set
up to raise revenue for the government. Eg. Internal Revenue Service (IRS) and
the VAT Service. They both raise revenue for the Government.

(ix) Protection of National Interest: Some state owned enterprises are set up to
protect national interest. Eg. Tema Oil Refinery, VALCO, and Tema Steel
Corporation.
(x) The need for equal or even economic development: State owned enterprises
are set up to ensure even or equal economic development throughout the country.
This is why the various Regional Development Corporations were set up throughout
all the regions in Ghana.

ADVANTAGES OF STATE OWNED ENTERPRISES

i. They protect consumers against possible exploitation or cheating by private
enterprises.
ii.They provide essential goods and services to consumers at cheaper rate.
iii. They provide employment to the people in the country.
iv. They help to bring even or equal economic development to all parts of the
country.
v. They help the government to control all the strategic sectors of the economy.
vi. They protect the country against foreign domination.
 DISADVANTAGES OF STATE OWNED ENTERPRISE.
i. Lack of skilled labour.
ii. The incidence of corruption and mismanagement.
iii.Too much political interference and control.
iv.Inappropriate location because they are sometimes sited for political reasons.
v.Production of low quality goods leading to loss to the state.
vi. Ineffective work ethics of the workers which has led to the collapse of most of the
state owned enterprises.

PROBLEMS OF STATE OWNED ENTERPRISES.

Problems facing state owned enterprises in Ghana are:
(i) Government interference or political interference: Government's involvement
in some state owned enterprises nearly led to their collapse eg. The Ghana
Commercial Bank.

(ii) Inadequate finance: Most state owned enterprises are not performing well
because of the problem of finance. Government lacks the needed capital to finance
them.

(iii) Inefficient Management: Most state owned enterprises are mismanaged or are
poorly managed. Due to this most of them have been privatized.

(iv) Corruption or Bribery and Corruption: Most workers in state owned

enterprises consider the work as government's own and not their private work. So
some are corrupt. Some take bribes and do shoddy work leading to poor performance
of the enterprises.

(v) Negative attitude of management to workers: Management do not have good

attitude towards workers unlike private enterprises where supervision is very
effective.

(vi) Nepotism: Most of the managers of state owned enterprises employ their
favourites to work in the organization whether they are qualified or not. They end up
putting square pegs into round holes leading to the non-performing nature of most
of these enterprises.

(vii) Negative work attitude of workers: Most Ghanaians regard state owned
enterprises as government's work and not their own work. So they resort to
lateness, loitering, apathy, laziness and so on. This makes the enterprise lose much
profit.
(vi) Inadequate Supervision: Due to the large size of most state owned enterprises,
supervision always become difficult. This is even worsened by the inefficient
management.

(X) Poor maintenance culture: Managers and workers of state owned enterprises
sometimes do not have good maintenance culture. Most of their machines do not
last longer because they do not service them frequently.

x) Inadequate modern Technologies: Most of them do not have modern equipment

or machines. Eg. most state owned enterprises do not have the latest technologies
to change. This is due to inadequate funds, inefficient management and poor
supervision.

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS OF STATE OWNED ENTERPRISES.

i.Adequate funding: The government must allocate adequate funds for state
owned enterprises to help solve the problem of inadequate funds.

ii. Non-Governmental Interference: The government should stop interfering in the

affairs of these organizations.

iii. Effective Supervision by management: There must be effective supervision by

management to solve the problem of negative work attitudes.

iv. Good working conditions of service: Good working conditions will enable
workers of state owned enterprises work hard and do away with bribery and
corruption. It will also attract qualified and skilled people into those organizations.

v. Employment of skilled personnel through the proper procedure: This will help
solve the problem of nepotism and inefficient management.

vi. Frequent Internal and External Auditing: This will help solve the problem of
bribery and corruption as well as embezzlement.

vii. Training and re-training of manpower: There must be regular on-the-job

training for managers of state owned enterprises to solve the problem of inefficient
management.

viii. Widening the market: State owned enterprises must widen their markets
through adverts to increase production etc.

ix. Decentralization: The government must decentralize most of the state owned
enterprises to help solve the problem of bureaucracy.
 ADVANTAGES OF PRIVATE ENTERPRISES
i.They produce quality goods to consumers.
ii.They pay taxes to the government, which is used to develop the country.
iii. They contribute to the social programmes of their community and the country.
iv.They create employment to the people of the country.
v. They relieve the government of some of its burden hence making the work of the
government easier.

DISADVANTAGES OF PRIVATE ENTERPRISES

i.They exploit consumers by making excessive or too much profit.
ii.They bring unequal level of development in the country by concentrating only on
areas where they can make profit.
iii.Their main aim is to make profit. So sometimes they concentrate on their profit
while causing other environmental and social problems. Eg. The activities of timber
contractors and private mining companies.

PROBLEMS OF PRIVATE ENTERPRISES.

i.Lack of Capital: The main problem facing Private Enterprises in Ghana is lack of
capital to expand their businesses.

ii.Lack of Credit Facilities: Most private enterprises in Ghana do not have

access to credit facilities. This is because they do not have big assets or properties
like buildings to serve as collateral security for loans in the banks.

iii. Unfavourable Competition: The products of Private Enterprises in Ghana cannot

compete with those from developed countries. This leads to the collapse of most of
the Private Enterprises.

iv. High Cost of Production: The cost of production in the country is very high due
to the cost of raw materials and taxes. This leads to the killing of most of the
private enterprises.

WAYS BY WHICH THE STATE CAN PROMOTE PRIVATE ENTERPRISES

i.Granting tax rebates:
The government can promote private enterprises in Ghana by granting the private
sector tax rebates. When government reduces taxes on private businesses, they
become productive and also attracts potential investors into the country.

ii.Tax deferrals:
To promote private businesses the government can defer taxes on newly
established businesses to enable them gain good and firm grounds for production
and effective competition.
iii Advertising Products:
The government can promote private businesses by advertising and hyping of the
private sector internationally. This the state can do by buying air time on
international TV Stations, magazines and other international fora. By so doing
Ghanaian Products would be recognized globally and patronized.

iv.Enabling economic environment for business:

To promote private sector growth, the State must enact laws which are business
friendly, provide infrastructure which will serve as a catalyst for establishment of
business as well as well equipped institutions with oversight responsibility of
managing the Private Sector.

v.Enabling Political Environment:

Businesses would flourish when there is political stability. The government must put
measures in place which will ensure democracy. All forms of dictatorship,
censorship and seizure of business as well as political witch hunting of political
opponents when eliminated will promote growth of the Private sector.

vi. Ensuring production of quality goods and services:

The oversight responsibility of the state to ensuring the production of quality goods
must be applied. This the state can do by ensuring that goods and services
provided by private businesses meets the required local and international
standards or quality. This will help people patronize locally manufactured goods.

vii.Control and check importation of goods and services:

As a way of promoting private businesses the government must initiate and
implement policies and programmes that will promote and protect local businesses.
These policies must put limitation to importation of goods into the country.

viii. Financial support guarantees/ credit guarantees:

The government should guarantee financial support for businesses by setting up
financial packages that will allow private businesses to have easy access to
financial support programmes such as the business advocacy fund, poverty
alleviation fund on both long and short term bases.

ix. Trade mission sponsorships.

Private business owners should be sponsored by the state to participate in
international trade fora, fairs, conferences, seminars and trade shows. This will give
them the needed international exposure for their survival and progress.

x. Organization of training courses/establishment of entrepreneurial

institutions:
The state should organize fresher courses and seminars to equip private business
owners with the needed knowledge, skills and aptitudes to help promote their
businesses. Institutions should be established to outline programmes for the training
of business owners and entrepreneurs.
xi. Trade fair supports:
The government should support and organize trade fairs locally and internationally
to exhibit and show case Ghanaian products. Also, the state can sponsor business
owners to partake in international trade fairs.
xii. Grants and cash advances:
Private sector can be promoted when the government assists business owners by
giving them cash advances and grants to enable them raise the needed capital to
run their business.
xiii. Government directly holding equities in private business.
Private businesses will thrive well if government buy shares and hold equities in
private businesses. This will help streamline things to ensure their survival.
Holding equities in private businesses is a way of injecting capital into the private
sector.

xiv. Facilitate access to markets:

The government should put measures and mechanisms in place that would make
business men and women to have easy access to market. Monopolistic powers by
foreign competitors should be eliminated to give local ones a fair grounds for
healthy competition in the market.

XV.Facilitate access to information:

The state, through its appropriate agencies should make sure that appropriate and
relevant business related information are provided to the private sector. When
they have access to information, it will enable them to explore better ways of
managing their business.

xvi. Facilitate access to network:

In today's era of technological advancement, networking is the best tool to boost
business in Ghana. Government should link business owners with their European
counterparts. When effective networking platform is facilitated by the government
local businesses will bloom.

xvii. Provision of basic infrastructure:

The government must ensure equitable distribution of the national cake in terms of
infrastructure. Basic infrastructure such as water, electricity, health, education,
road, transport and communication should be provided to all parts of the country.
Establishment of these infrastructure will promote the establishment of more
businesses in the country.

xviii. Patronize made in Ghana goods:

Local businesses can be promoted when the government makes legislation to
force Ghanaians to patronize locally made products. When this is done there will
be large market for these goods which will lead to high turn over and revenue.

FORMS/TYPES OF BUSINESS ENTERPRISES.

Sole proprietorship:
Sole proprietorship is a form of business unit which is owned and managed by one
person. It is the oldest, simplest and the commonest type of business organization in
Ghana. It is also called one-man business or sole trader Eg. the owner of a private
school, the owner of a hotel, plantain seller, farmer etc.

HOW A SOLE PROPRIETORSHIP BUSINESS IS SET UP

1.In Ghana, Sole proprietorship is established under the Business Names Act 1962
(No. 151).
2.The sole trader first has to identify the type of business he wants to do.
3.He starts the business with capital from his savings or by borrowing from banks or
from friends.
4.Having started the business, the sole trader goes to the Registrar General's
Department office to register the business.
5.Being satisfied with the necessary requirements, the Registrar General's
Department issues the sole trader with the certificate of Registration which
authorizes the sole trader to commence business under the chosen business name.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLE PROPRIETORSHIP

1. It is owned and controlled by one man.
2. There is privacy in the business. Because it is managed and controlled by one man
all business secrets are kept by the owner.
3.The owner has unlimited liability. This means he will have to sell his private assets
to pay his creditors when the business collapses.
4. The owner has personal contact with his customers which enables him to satisfy
them.
5. It is the commonest type of business in Ghana.
6. It is very easy to form because it does not require huge capital.

ADVANTAGES OF SOLE PROPRIETORSHIP

The advantages of Sole Proprietorship include the following:

1.It is easy and simple to form: The formation of a sole proprietorship business is
very simple because it does not require difficult legal procedures.
2. It does not require huge capital to start with: The amount of money needed to
start a sole proprietorship business is very small. Eg. One can start selling ice water
with Gh€2.
3. There is quick decision-making: The owner does not need to consult anybody
when taking decision. This helps him to do away with unnecessary delays.

4. He enjoys all the profit alone: The sole trader does not share his profit with
anybody. This gives him greater incentives to work hard.

5.He has more privacy: The sole trader does not have to publish his accounts. This
helps him to keep his secrets from his competitors.

6.He has close relation with his customers: The sole trader can maintain personal
touch with his customers since he is most of the time with them. This helps him to
create more goodwill.

7. The sole trader has complete independence: The owner can attend to and close
from work at any day and at any time he wishes.

8. Sole Proprietorship business is easy to terminate: If the owner thinks the

business is no longer profitable, he can stop it easily and change to another
business.

DISADVANTAGES OF SOLE PROPRIETORSHIP

1. Expansion of the business is very slow: This is because, the sole trader has
limited capital to operate his business.

2. There is lack of continuity in the business: The sole trader's business lacks
continuity as it can end on the death, retirement, sickness or bankruptcy of the
owner.
3. He has unlimited liability: This means, in case the business collapses all his
assets or private property may be sold to pay the creditors of the business.

4. He cannot employ experts: The owner cannot afford to employ professional

experts because of his limited capital. This makes him Jack of all trades and master
of none.

5. He bears all the risk alone: Because he enjoys all the profit alone he also bears all
the losses alone.
6. He does not enjoy economics of scale: Due to his small capital, he cannot enjoy
the advantages of large scale production such as the advantages of buying more at
cheaper prices.
 PARTNERSHIPS
Because of the disadvantages of a sole trader such as limited capital, two or more sole
traders may contribute money or skills to run a business together in order to make
profit. This is known as partnership.
Examples of partnerships are found in such professions as fitting, law, accountancy,
partners are themselves responsible for the success or failure of the business. So it is
mechanics, estate development, building, road construction and many others. The
advisable to enter into partnership with people who you know are honest, reliable and
hardworking.
A partnership is a form of business ownership formed by two, but not more than
twenty people for the purpose of making profit. It is the coming together of people
who pool their resources together to run a business for profit.

HOW A PARTNERSHIP BUSINESS IS SET UP.

To set up a partnership business, the following conditions must be satisfied.
1. There should not be fewer than two and not more than twenty people involved.
2. There must be a profit motive.
3. The business must open a bank account.
4. The business must be registered and regulated under the incorporated private
partnership Act 1962 (Act 152) as applied in Ghana.

However at registration, the Act requires that the following information must be
supplied:
1. The name of the partnership.
2. The type of business to be carried out.
3. The address and location of the partnership.
4. The date of the commencement of business.
5. The names and addresses of all the existing and the former partners and their
present or previous occupations.
6. Any other particulars that the Registrar may require.

When a partnership has satisfied all the conditions mentioned above and registered
under the Act, it can now exercise all the powers of a natural person. It has the status
of an artificial person.
However, the internal operations of the business is governed by an agreement called
O partnership deed. This is a written document which outlines the rights and
responsibilities of every partner. This helps to prevent confusion.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PARTNERSHIP
1. Partnership requires complicated agreement.
2. There is usually an unlimited liability for the partners.
3. It is governed by the partnership Act.

Profits and losses are shared among partners according to the amount of capital each
has invested into the business.

ADVANTAGES OF PARTNERSHIP
The advantages of partnership include the following:
1. There is pooling of ideas: When two or more people come together to form a
business, the abilities and skills of the partners are pooled together for the benefit of
the business. This is strengthened by the saying that two heads are better than one.

2. There is specialization: Partners with specialized knowledge or skills may work

in areas where they are good at. This leads to specialization.

3. There is sharing of risks: Risks in all partnership especially in the ordinary

partnership are shared among the partners.

4. Partnership has large size of capital: Since partnership business is formed by

two or more people, the size of the capital is likely to be bigger than that of a sole
Proprietorship.

5. Partnership is credit worthy: A partnership is more credit worthy than sole trader
because of the relative large size of its assets.

6. Partnership has high interest and responsibility: Because the owners are at the
ok same time the managers, like the sole trader, interest and responsibility of a
partnership are high.
7. There is more privacy in partnership: A partnership is not forced by law to
publish its accounts to the general public so it has more privacy.

DISADVANTAGES OF PARTNERSHIP
Some of the disadvantages of partnership include the following:
1. There is risk of dissolution at the death or bankruptcy of a co-partner: The
death, retirement or bankruptcy of a member may lead to the end of the partnership.

2.There is unlimited liability in partnership: This means that partners with

unlimited liability have the risk of losing their personal property to pay for the debt of
the business when the business collapses.

3.There is delay in decision making: All partners must be consulted, before

decisions are taken. More so, disagreements always arise when decisions are
taken. This makes decision taking very slow and difficult.

4. The Pride of ownership reduces: The pride of ownership reduces as the business
is no longer owned by the individual alone but by all the partners.
5. Partners are responsible for the actions of one another: The actions of a
partner in the process of business operations may adversely affect all the other
partners.
6. There is difficulty in admitting new partners: All partners must agree before a
new member is accepted into the business. This often brings in disagreements and
conflict hindering the progress of the business.

7. The size of the capital is relatively limited: A partnership cannot sell shares to
the public to raise more capital. So raising capital is restricted to only the members
contribution, making the size of their capital very limited or small.

Because of the problems of sole trader and partnership, such as limited capital,
unlimited liability, inability to enjoy the benefits of large scale production and their
inability to sell shares to the open market to raise additional capital, successful sole
traders or partnerships may turn their businesses into joint-stock companies in order
to overcome these problems.

JOINT-STOCK COMPANIES (LIMITED LIABILITY COMPANIES)

It is a form of business unit which is operated by a group of people, who contribute
money in the form of shares to earn profit in the form of dividends. It is formed by a
minimum of two members and a maximum of fifty if it is a private company. If it is a
public company, a minimum membership of seven and a maximum is unlimited (No
end). The owners of a company are called shareholders. The two types of Joint-Stock
Companies are:
Private Joint-Stock Company or Private Limited Liability Company: It is a
company formed by at least two people and at most fifty people. This means that the
number of shareholders in a private limited liability company must not be more than
fifty. Example Tobinco Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Yamens Limited and
Unik Image Limited.

Public Joint Stock Company or Public Limited Liability Company: It is a

company formed by at least seven people but has no maximum limit. Examples are
Kumasi Brewery Limited, Fan Milk Ghana Limited, Unilever Ghana Limited and
Mobile Oil Ghana Limited. Note that a Public Company is privately owned.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF JOINT-STOCK COMPANIES

1. It has separate legal entity: This means the company is separate from its owners
by law. It can sue and be sued in the law court.

2. It has limited liability: The word limited written at the end of the company's name
means that in case of bankruptcy, the private property of the shareholders will not be
sold to pay for the debt of the company unlike that of sole trader and partnerships.

3. There is separation between management and ownership: Joint stock

companies are owned by shareholders, managed and controlled by Board of Directors
with the day to day administration of the company in the hands of a Managing
Director who supervises the employees of the company.

4. Continuity of existence: The death, retirement or withdrawal of a shareholder

may not bring the end of the business. This is because it does not depend on the life
of one shareholder.

5. There is legal limit to the number of its shareholders: A private company has a
minimum membership of 2 and a maximum of 50 while a public company has a
minimum of seven 7 with no maximum limit.

6. Capital: Joint-Stock companies raise their capital through the sales of shares to the
general public, issue of debuntures or loans from banks.

7. Publication of Accounts: Unlike private joint stock companies, Public Joint-stock

Companies are required by law to publish their accounts for the general public to
assess their performance.

ADVANTAGES OF PRIVATE JOINT STOCK COMPANIES

The following are some of the advantages of Private Joint stock companies:
1. It has limited liability: This means that if the company is closed down,
shareholders with limited liabilities bear the risk of losing only their invested capital
and not their private property.

2. It has a separate legal entity: This means the company is different from its
members or shareholders. It can contract business on its own, sue and be sued.
without affecting the personality of the shareholders.

3.It has large capital: Many people are allowed to buy shares in the company
making its capital larger than that of the sole trader and partnership.

4. There is guarantee of continuity: This is so because the death or withdrawal of a

shareholder does not lead to the end of the business.

DISADVANTAGES OF A PRIVATE JOINT-STOCK COMPANY

The following are some of the disadvantages of Private Joint-Stock Companies
1. It cannot sell shares directly to the public to get new or additional capital. This
makes the expansion of the business very difficult.
2. Transfer of shares are restricted: A shareholder cannot transfer his shares freely
in a private joint stock company.

3. There is lack of privacy: The accounts must be made known to all the
shareholders of the company who are many, compared to sole trader where only
one person knows the accounts.

4. There is conflict of interest: Sometimes there is conflict of interest between

shareholders who want more dividends and the Board of Directors who want huge.

ADVANTAGES OF PUBLIC LIMITED LIABILITY COMPANY

Public Joint Stock Company has the following advantages:
1. It has limited liability: This means that if the company is closed down,
shareholders with limited liability will bear the risk of losing only the capital they
have invested into the business and not their private property.

2. There is guarantee of continuity of existence of the company: This means that

the death or withdrawal of a shareholder does not lead to the end of the company.

3. Easy transfer of shares or ownership: A shareholder can easily transfer his

shares or ownership to another person through the stock exchange without any
difficulty. This makes it easier for members to enter and leave the company without
any difficulty.

4. It has large sources of capital: The company can raise large amount of capital by
issuing shares and debentures to the general public. Because it is credit worthy, it can
also apply for loans and overdraft from the bank.

5. It has widespread of risk: Since there are many shareholders in public joint stock
company, risks are shared among many shareholders thereby reducing the impact
of risk on all the shareholders.

6. Enjoyment of economies of large-scale production: Because of its larger size, a

public joint-stock company enjoys many advantages of economies of large-scale
production such as cheaper prices due to bulk purchases.

7. It has the ability to employ efficient managers and personnels: The size of a
public joint stock company makes it possible to employ a highly and efficient skilled
personnel which lead to increase productivity. This is so because the company can
give them good salaries unlike sole trader and partnership.

8. It has legal entity: The company is separated and distinct from its shareholders.
So it can sue and be sued without necessarily affecting its shareholders personally.
 DISADVANTAGES OF PUBLIC JOINT STOCK COMPANIES
Some of the disadvantages of public joint-stock companies include:
1. There is lack of privacy: This is because the company is by law forced to publish
its accounts for the general public to assess its performance.

2. It is difficult to form: Unlike sole trader and partnership, forming a company is

very difficult because it needs a big capital and complex legal process.

3. Sometimes there is negative attitude of paid managers to the interest of the

shareholders: The Managers and Board of Directors can sometimes use the profit
of the company to suit their interest to the disadvantage of the actual owners
(shareholders) eg. They may pay large allowances and bonuses while giving small
dividends to shareholders.

4. There are conflicts and disputes: This happens when shareholders demand
more dividends and management demands higher allowances and salaries at the
same time.

5. Ownership is separated from management: Shareholders who are the actual

owners of the company are aliens in their own company because the management
is in the hands of Board of Directors who only report to the shareholders during
annual general meetings.

HOW TO FORM (SET UP) JOINT-STOCK COMPANY

A person who forms a company is called a promoter. So a promoter is any person
who is directly involved in the formation of the company. The promoter raises capital
for the new company through proposals for issuing shares. The promoter engages
professionals like lawyers or solicitors to draw up an agreement for the company. The
promoter submits to the Registrar of Companies the regulations of the new company
for registration.

The regulations of the company is made up of the Article of Association and the
Memorandum of Association.

Article of Association: It is a document that deals with the internal operations of a

company. It contains the rights, powers, responsibilities and authority of
shareholders, employees, Board of Directors and other interest groups within the
company.
Memorandum of Association: It is a document that contains information concerning
a company's relationship with the external world. It shows the relationship between
the company and the outside world such as the Internal Revenue Service, VAT etc.
The following are contained in the Memorandum of Association:
1. The name of the company with the word "Limited" as the last word, if it is a
limited liability company.
2. The type of business the company intends to operate.
3. The names, addresses, powers and the rights of all the directors of the
4. The nominal value of shares registered and
5. The liability status of all the members of the company

When the Registrar of companies is satisfied with the regulations of the company, he
approves it by issuing a certificate of incorporation to the new company. The
certificate of incorporation gives birth officially to the existence of a company.
However, the Registrar must again issue another certificate called certificate to
commence business to the new company before the company can start its operations.

At this stage the company has become a legal entity. It can sue and be sued. So this is
how to form a company.

SOURCES OF FINANCE FOR JOINT STOCK COMPANY

Companies get their money from the following sources:
1. Through the sales of shares to the general public
2. Through loans by issuing debentures to the public.
3. Through their retained profits or ploughed back profits.
4. Through loans and overdrafts from banks.
5. Through credit facilities from suppliers.

CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES

A Co-operative Society is a form of business unit formed by a group of people with

common interest to carry on a business with the aim of maintaining the welfare of
its members.

TYPES OF CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES

There are different types of co-operative societies. They include:
1. Producer co-operative society: This is made up of a group of producers who
combine their resources and organize themselves to produce specific products.
Eg. Co-operative Poultry Farmers Association and Co-operative Distilleries
Association.

2. Consumer Co-operative Society: It consists of consumers who come together to

buy consumer goods in bulk from manufacturers and wholesalers and sell to their
members at reasonable or cheaper prices.

3. Credit and Loan Co-operative societies: The members of this society contribute
money into a common pool from which members can be assisted in the form of
loans when they are in financial crises. They are sometimes called credit union.

4. Thrift and savings co-operative society: Members in this society contribute to a

common pool for investment. They are later paid their contributions with some
interest when they need it. It is formed by low income earners.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES

Some of the characteristics of co-operative societies are:
1. Membership is voluntary and open to all persons upon payment of nominal fee.
Members can enter and leave at their own will.

2.Management is in the hands of management committee elected by the members at

annual general meetings.

3. Each member has only one vote during voting’s irrespective of the amount of
Money, he has put into the business.

4. Ownership in the society is in the form of shares.

5. Profits are shared on the basis of the volume of sales, participation in management
and purchases depending on the type of the society.

ADVANTAGES OF CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES

Members of co-operative societies enjoy the following advantages:
1. They buy goods at cheaper prices: Because they buy in bulk, it reduces the retail
and unit prices for the goods or services sold to their members.

2. It is very democratic: This is because each member has one vote irrespective of
the amount of money he has in the business.

3. They encourage their members to save: It helps members to save thereby

getting money for future investment. This is so with credit unions.

4. Improvement of standard of living: Their main aim is to improve the welfare of

their members.

5. Profits are shared in proportion to patronage: Profits in the society are shared
in proportion to how much each member buys from or sells to the society during the
year.
6. Members with different skills and resources come together: They encourage
people with different skills and resources to pool them together for business. By so
doing they are able to enjoy the advantages of large-scale production, rent or buy
expensive machines which members cannot buy individually.

DISADVANTAGES OF CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES.

Some of the disadvantages of co-operative societies are:
1. Lack of Professional business experience: The people of the management
committee of the society may lack professional business experience. This may
adversely affect their efficiency.

2. Most members are illiterates: Because most members are illiterates, they are
always cheated by the few literate ones who are serving in the management
committee.

3. Members are restricted to do business with only the society: Because benefits
accrue to members who do business with the society, members are restricted to
deal with only their society if even there is another organization with prices cheaper
than theirs.
4. Lack of capital: Lack of capital affects the expansion of co-operative societies as
members may not be able to raise the needed capital.

5. There is apathy and disloyalty on the part of some members: Most members
are only interested in receiving their dividends but do not care about attending
meetings etc.

6. Poor handling of funds and embezzlements: Lack of professionals to handle

their funds and embezzlement of their money also affect co-operative societies.

SOURCES OF FUNDS FOR CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES

Co-operative societies get their money from the following:
1. Contributions paid by members.
2. Loans from banks or from government.
3. Profits retained in the business.
4. Aids and gifts from benevolent societies.

FORMATION OF CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETY

A Co-operative Society can be formed in any area of economic activity where the
members' main aim is to provide cheap services to themselves and to promote their
welfare. The members raise capital for the association by paying membership dues.

They register the association with the Registrar of co-operatives at the Department of
Co-operatives in Accra, by giving the Registrar their application. When the Registrar
co-operatives is satisfied with their application, he gives them a certificate
registration. After that the co-operative society becomes a legal entity. It can sue and
be sued.

REASONS WHY PRIVATE SECTOR BUSINESS IS MORE EFFECTIVE

THAN PUBLIC SECTOR BUSINESS: Private sector businesses are more effective
than public sector businesses because of the following reasons:

1. Good working conditions: Private sector businesses give good motivation to their
I workers by giving them good salaries, good accommodation etc. Public sector
businesses have low incentive for workers which leads to low productivity for public
sector businesses.

2. Effective Supervision: Private sector businesses have effective supervision

which makes workers to work hard or lose their jobs but public sector businesses
do not have proper supervision so workers are apathetic towards the work and refer
to the business as "government work and not their work". This leads to low
productivity in public sector businesses.

3. Quick-decision making: Private sector businesses take decisions very quickly

and can adapt to new business strategies but public sector businesses are too
bureaucratic making their decision making very slow leading to their poor
performance.

4. Efficient Staff: Private sector businesses have efficient staff employed based on
merits, but public sector businesses do not have efficient staff because workers are
not employed based on merit. They put square pegs in round holes. Sometimes
their workers are overstaffed without any good output.

5. Good Working Ethics: Private sector businesses have efficient work ethics like
punctuality, hardworking, discipline, honesty etc. but public sector businesses do
not have effective working ethics. They practice corruption, absenteeism, lateness,
indiscipline, embezzlements and mismanagement leading to poor performance.

6. Profit Oriented: Private businesses aim at maximizing profit or making big

profits. But public sector businesses do not aim at making huge profits.

FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE CHOICE OF BUSINESS UNIT

The type of enterprise you will want to set-up depends on the following factors.
1. The start-up capital.
The amount of capital you have will determine whether you should establish a sole
proprietorship or a limited liability company. If the money is small then sole
proprietorship is the best.
2. The legal frame-work.
Partnership and Joint-stock companies involve difficult legal procedures. But sole
trader does not.

3. The extent of control: If you want to have absolute control over your business,
or a limited then you may prefer a sole proprietorship instead of a partnership
liability company.

ENTERPRISES YOU WILL WANT TO SET UP.

The type of enterprise I will want to set up is sole proprietorship because of the
following reasons:

1. It is easy to make and implement decisions.

2. The owner enjoys all profits alone.
3. I do not need complex procedures before setting up the business.
4. There is a feeling of complete independence and autonomy.
5. I can start with a small amount of capital.

Those who want to set up partnership, joint stock company or co-operative

societies may do so because of the following reasons:
1. Members of the business who have special skills will bring them to the business.
2. All risks are shared among all the members of the business.
3. There will be pooling of ideas since two heads are better than one.
4. The size of the capital is likely to be larger than sole trader especially if the nature
of the business requires huge start-up capital.

WHAT ROLE SHOULD PRIVATE BUSINESS PLAY TO ENSURE

CONTINUOUS STATE SUPPORT
1. Paying their taxes as required: Private businesses must declare their profit
correctly and pay their taxes honestly and at the correct time.

2. Producing good quality goods: To ensure their continuous state support, private
businesses must produce good quality goods. Their products must meet the
standard set by the Ghana Standards Board and Food and Drugs Board.

3. Not making excessive Profits: Private businesses must sell their products a
reasonable prices and must not make excessive or too much profit.

4. Contributing to Social Programmes: They should be contributing to social

programmes of their community and of the country eg. donating to charity
sponsoring sporting events etc.

5. Be law abiding: To ensure continuous state support, they should abide by the
Laws of the state.
 ESSAY TEST.

1. What is a state owned enterprise?

Give two examples of state owned enterprises.

2. What is a private owned enterprise? Give two examples of private owned

enterprises.

3. State four differences between state owned enterprises and private owned
enterprises.

4. Give four reasons why the state owns some businesses.

5 a. Identify any four problems that face state owned enterprises in Ghana.
b. How can the problems identified in (a) be solved?

6. State four advantages of private enterprises.

7. State four things the private enterprises should do to ensure government support.

8. What role should the state play in supporting private enterprises in Ghana.

9.Explain four reasons why private sector businesses are more effective than public
sector business.

10. Identify any of the enterprises you will want to set up and explain four reasons
why.

11. a. Who is a sole trader?

b. State four advantages of a sole trader
c. State four disadvantages of a sole trader.

12. Identify four ways in which a private company is different from a public
company.

13. a Define Partnership.

b. State four advantages of partnership form of business.
c. Give two disadvantages of partnership form of business.
14. a. What is a limited liability company?
b. State four advantages of a joint stock company.
C. State four disadvantages of a public joint stock company.

15. a State four advantages of a co-operative society.

b. State four problems facing co-operative society.