HUMAN EYE & COLOURFUL WORLD

Diagram shows the section of a human eye by

CONTENTS a horizontal plane. It is a spherical ball of
diameter about 2.5 cm. Its essential parts are
Human Eye described below :
Power of Accommodation  Cornea : It is the front buldged out part of
 Defects of vision, symptoms & eye ball covered by transparent sclerotic.
Cornea Iris (coloured)
remedy (correction)
Dispersion of white light by a
glass prism Pupil (transparent)

Refraction in nature Cornea of the eye-front view.

 Iris : It is the coloured region under cornea
Scattering of light formed by choroid. Its colour differs from
person to person.
 Pupil : It is central circular aperture in the
iris. Its normal diameter is 1 mm but it can
 HUMAN EYE
contract in excess light and expand in dim
It is the most delicate and complicated natural light, by means of two sets of involuntary
optical instrument which enables us to see the muscular fibres.
wonderful world of light.  Crystalline lens : It is a double convex lens L
 immediately behind iris. This is made of
 STRUCTURE : transparent concentric layers whose optical
Ciliary muscle density increases towards the centre of the lens.
Sclerotic choroid (black)  Ciliary muscles : The lens is connected of
(white of eye)
retina the sclerotic by the ciliary muscles. These
iris (eye colour)
Yellow spot(fovea) muscles change thickness of the lens by
pupil
optic nerve relaxing and exerting pressure.
Cornea (transparent)
 Aqueous humour : Anterior chamber is filled
aqueous humor blind spot with a transparent liquid of refractive index. The
(watery liquid)
vitreous humor (jelly) liquid is called the aqueous humour.
 Vitreous humour : Posterior chamber is filled
with a transparent watery liquid with little
common salt having some refractive index. The
liquid is called the vitreous humour.
  Retina : It forms innermost coat in the optic nerves. The brain interprets these
interior of the eye. It consists of a thin signals, and finally, processes the information
membrane which is rich in nerve fibres, so that we perceive objects as they are.
containing two kinds of vision cells called
rods and cones and blood vessels. It is  POWER OF ACCOMMODATION
sensitive to light, for it is a continuation of the
optic nerves. It serves the purpose of a
The ability of the eye lens to adjust its focal
sensitive screen for the reception of the image
length is called accommodation. However, the
formed by the lens system of the eye.
focal length of the eye lens cannot be decreased
[The rods are responsible for colour vision in
below a certain minimum limit. To see an object
dim light (Scotopic vision).
comfortably and distinctly, you must hold it at
The cones are responsible for vision under
about 25 cm from the eyes. The minimum
ordinary day light (Photopic vision).
distance, at which objects can be seen most
distinctly without strain, is called the least
  Blind spot : The blind spot B. It is the spot
distance of distinct vision. It is also called the near
where the optic nerves enter the eye. It is also
point of the eye. For a young adult with normal
slightly raised and insensitive to light, because it
vision, the near point is about 25 cm. The farthest
is not covered with choroid and retina.
point upto which the eye can see objects clearly is
called the far point of the eye. It is infinity for a
 Working (Action of the eye) :
normal eye.
The human eye is like a camera. Its lens
You may note here a normal eye can see objects
system forms an image on a light-sensitive
clearly that are between 25 cm and infinity.
screen called the retina. Light enters the eye
through a thin membrane called the cornea. It
forms the transparent bulge on the front  DEFECTS OF VISION, SYMPTOMS AND
surface of the eyeball. The eyeball is REMEDY (CORRECTION)
approximately spherical in shape with a 
diameter of about 2.3 cm. Most of the  Defects of Vision
refraction for the light rays entering the eye The major defects of vision are :
occurs at the outer surface of the cornea. The 1. Short sightedness or myopia.
crystalline lens merely provides the finer 2. Long sightedness or hypermetropia.
adjustment of focal length required to focus 3. Presbyopic
objects at different distances on the retina. 4. Astigmatism
We find a structure called iris behind the
cornea. Iris is a dark muscular diaphragm that 1. Short sightedness or myopia
controls the size of the pupil. The pupil  Symptoms : Eye cannot see clearly beyond a
regulates and controls the amount of light certain distance. It means that the far point of
entering the eye. The eye lens forms an the defective eye has shifted from infinity to a
inverted real image of the object on the retina. finite distance ahead.
The retina is a delicate membrane having  Reasons : It is so because the image of
enormous number of light-sensitive cells. The distant objects is formed in front of the retina.
light-sensitive cells get activated upon It is shown in fig.
illumination and generate electrical signals.
These signals are sent to the brain via the
 2. Long sightedness or hypermetropia
 Symptoms : With this defect eye cannot see
clearly within a certain distance. It means that
the near point of the defective eye has shifted
from 25 cm to some more distance behind
F F' (away).
 Reason : It is so because the image of near
Myopic eye vision. objects is formed behind the retina. It is
shown in fig.
  Causes :
(i) The lens may be thicker (more converging)
that the normal eye lens.
(ii) The eye ball may be elongated,
N' N

F
F' Hypermetropic eye vision.
 Causes :
(i) The eye lens may be thinner (less
Fig. Elongated eye. converging) than the normal eye lens.
(ii) The eye ball may be oval distance between
 Correction : The extra converging power of lens and retina becomes less than that for
eye lens is compensated by using a concave normal eye.
(diverging) lens of proper power (focal
length) as shown in fig.
Concave N' N
lens

F F'
x Fig. Oval eye.
 Correction : The deficiency in converging power
of eye lens is compensated by using a convex
Fig. Myopia corrected by a concave lens (Converging) lens of proper power (focal
 Calculation : Let distance of far point F’ length) as shown in fig.
from eye = x. Then for lens to be used,
Convex
u = v= –x, f = ? lens
From lens formula,
N' N
1 1 1
– = D
v u f
y
1 1
=
x f Fig : Hypermetropia corrected by a convex lens.
or f = –x 

The lens used must have focal length equal to  Calculation : Let distance of near point N' from
the distance of the far point from the eye eye = y. Then, for lens to be used
(–ve sign means concave lens).   u = –D, v= –y, f = ?
From lens formula,
1 1 1
– =
v u f
 1 1 1 This defect can be corrected by using
– = cylindrical lens
y D f
yD
f= (Which is positive  y > D)
yD
This is required expression for the focal
length of the convex lens to be used. Cylindrical lens
3. Presbyopic :  Solved Examples 
The power of accommodation of the eye Ex.1 A person cannot see objects closer than 75 cm
usually decreases with ageing. For most from the eye. Calculate the power of the
people, the near point gradually recedes corrected lens should he use.
away. They find it difficult to see nearby Sol. Since the person cannot see objects lying
objects comfortably and distinctly without closer than 75 cm, he suffers from
corrective eye-glasses. This defect is called hypermetropia. His near point has shifted
Presbyopia. from 25 cm to 75 cm. The focal length of the
It arises due to the gradual weakening of the corrective lens can be calculated by
ciliary muscles and diminishing flexibility of considering u = –25 cm,  = – 75 cm, f = ?
the eye lens. Sometimes, a person may suffer 1 1 1 1 1
Now, = – = –
from both myopia and hypermetropia. f v u  75  25
Such people often require bi-focal lenses. A 1 2 75 0.75
common type of bi-focal lenses consists of or = or f = cm = m
f 75 2 2
both concave and convex lenses. The upper
1 2 8
portion consists of a concave lens. It  Power = = D = + D = 2.66D
facilitates distant vision. The lower part is a f 0.75 3
convex lens. It facilitates near vision. These
days, it is possible to correct the refractive Ex.2 The far point of a myopic person is 80 cm in
defects with contact lenses or through front of the eye. What is the nature and power
surgical interventions. of the lens required to enable him to see very
distant objects distinctly?
4. Astigmation : Sol. Since the person suffers from myopia,
A person suffering from this defect cannot concave lens of focal length 80 cm = –0.80 m
simultaneously focus on both horizontal and should be used.
vertical lines of a wire gauze.
1
 P= = –1.25D
 0.80

Ex.3 The far point of a person suffering from

myopia is 2 m from the eye. Calculate the
Normal Wire Gauge
focal length and the power of the corrective
lens.
Sol. The far point lies at 2 m. Therefore, a
concave lens of focal length 2 m should be
used so that the objects lying at infinity can
Wire gauge with be focused at the far point.
distorted vertical lines  For corrective lens, focal length,f = –2 m
1
 Power, P= = –0.5D
2

Ex.4 The near point of an elderly person lies at 50

Wire gauge with cm from the eye. Calculate the focal length
distorted horizontal lines and power of the corrective lens.
This defect arises due to the fact that the Sol. The person suffers from hypermetropia. His
cornea is not perfectly spherical near point lies at 50 cm. Therefore, a convex
lens should be used for the correction of his
 vision. The focal length of the corrective lens A Prism (P2)
is calculated by
1 1 1 R R R
– =
 25  50 f White v v
1 1
v Screen
or = Light
f 50 Prism (P1) A
or f = 50 cm = 0.5 m
Power of the corrective lens,
1 1 REFRACTION IN NATURE
P= = = + 2D
f 0 .5 (A) FORMATION OF RAINBOW
A rainbow is a natural spectrum appearing in the
DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT BY sky after a rain shower. It is caused by dispersion
 A GLASS PRISM of sunlight by tiny water droplets, present in the
atmosphere. A rainbow is always formed in a
When a ray of white light (sunlight) enters a
glass prism (denser medium). It emerges out direction opposite to that of the Sun. The water
and broken into seven colours. droplets act like small prisms. They refract and
This phenomenon, due to which different disperse the incident sunlight, then reflect it
components of a white light are separated is
called (dispersion) internally, and finally refract it again when it
comes out of the raindrop. Due to the dispersion
 Explanation : It is due to different refractive
index of different components of white light. of light and internal reflection, different colours
White light has seven colours, namely, violet reach the observer’s eye.
indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red
(remembered by the word VIBGYOR). In air Raindrop
(strictly in vacuum) light waves of all colours sunlight
have same velocity (3 × 108 m/s).
But in a denser medium, their velocities Red
become less and different. Red light waves, Violet
Horizontal
being longest in length, travel fastest and
have maximum velocity. Violet light waves,
being shortest in length, travel slowest and (B) ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION
have minimum velocity in the denser We can observe the apparent random wavering or
medium. flickering of objects seen through a turbulent
The refractive index ()of a medium for a stream of hot air rising above a fire or a radiator.
wave is given by the relation. The air just above the fire becomes hotter than the
Velocity of Wave in air (or vacuum) c air further up. The hotter air is lighter (less dense)
 = =
Velocity of wave in the medium v than the cooler air above it, and has a refractive
As is maximum for violet so it bends maximum index slightly less than that of the cooler air.
A Since the physical conditions of the refracting
medium (air) are not stationary, the apparent
R V Red position of the object, as seen through the hot air,
R fluctuates. This wavering is thus an effect of
White light O
Y
G
atmospheric refraction (refraction of light by the
B earth’s atmosphere) on a small scale in our local
Violet I
V environment. The twinkling of stars is a similar
B C phenomenon on a much larger scale.
Dispersion of white light by a glass prism
When this dispersed white light is made to (a) Twinkling of stars :
fall on a white screen, we get a seven The twinkling of a star is due to atmospheric
coloured band or light. This coloured band is refraction of starlight. The starlight, on entering
called spectrum. the earth’s atmosphere, undergoes refraction
 continuously before it reaches the earth. The deep sea, the reddening of the sun at sunrise and
atmospheric refraction occurs in a medium of the sunset are some of the wonderful phenomena
gradually changing refractive index. we are familiar with. The path of a beam of light
passing through a true solution is not visible.
Since the stars are very distant, they approximate However, its path becomes visible through a
point-sized sources of light. As the path of rays of colloidal solution where the size of the particles is
light coming from the star goes on varying relatively larger.
slightly, the apparent position of the star
fluctuates and the amount of starlight entering the (a) Tyndall effect
The earth’s atmosphere is a heterogeneous
eye flickers – the star sometimes appears brighter, mixture of minute particles. These particles
and at some other time, fainter, which is the include smoke, tiny water droplets, suspended
twinkling effect. particles of dust and molecules of air. When a
beam of light strikes such fine particles, the path
(b) Why don’t the planets twinkle? of the beam becomes visible. The light reaches us,
after being reflected diffusely by these particles.
The planets are much closer to the earth, and are The phenomenon of scattering of light by the
thus seen as extended sources. If we consider a colloidal particles gives rise to Tyndall effect.
planet as a collection of a large number of point- This phenomenon is seen when a fine beam of
sized sources of light, the total variation in the sunlight enters a smoke-filled room through a
amount of light entering our eye from all the small hole. Thus, scattering of light makes the
individual point-sized sources will average out to particles visible. Tyndall effect can also be
zero, thereby nullifying the twinkling effect. observed when sunlight passes through a canopy
of a dense forest. Here, tiny water droplets in the
(C) ADVANCE SUNRISE AND DELAYED SUNSET : mist scatter light. The colour of the scattered light
Advance sunrise and delayed sunset The Sun is depends on the size of the scattering particles.
visible to us about 2 minutes before the actual Very fine particles scatter mainly blue light while
sunrise, and about 2 minutes after the actual particles of larger size scatter light of longer
sunset because of atmospheric refraction. By wavelengths. If the size of the scattering particles
actual sunrise, we mean the actual crossing of the is large enough, then, the scattered light may even
horizon by the Sun. figure shows the actual and appear white.
apparent positions of the Sun with respect to the
horizon. The time difference between actual
(b) Why is the colour of the clear sky blue :
sunset and the apparent sunset is about 2 minutes.
The apparent flattening of the Sun’s disc at The molecules of air and other fine particles in the
sunrise and sunset is also due to the same atmosphere have size smaller than the wavelength
phenomenon. of visible light. These are more effective in
Apparent position scattering light of shorter wavelengths at the blue
of the sun end than light of longer wavelengths at the red
end. The red light has a wavelength about 1.8
Observer Horizon times greater than blue light. Thus, when sunlight
passes through the atmosphere, the fine particles
Earth in air scatter the blue colour (shorter wavelengths)
more strongly than red. The scattered blue light
enters our eyes. If the earth had no atmosphere,
Atmosphere there would not have been any scattering. Then,
Atmospheric refraction at sunrise and sunset the sky would have looked dark. The sky appears
dark to passengers flying at very high altitudes, as
scattering is not prominent at such heights. You
SCATTERING OF LIGHT might have observed that ‘danger’ signal lights
are red in colour. Do you know why? The red is
The interplay of light with objects around us gives least scattered by fog or smoke. Therefore, it can
rise to several spectacular phenomena in nature. be seen in the same colour at a distance.
The blue colour of the sky, colour of water in
(c) Colour of the sun at sunrise and sunset For rays (like number 1 ray), incident at small
The sky and the Sun at sunset or sunrise appears angle at upper most layer, the angle of
red. Near the horizon, most of the blue light and incidence on lowest layer may not be more than
shorter wavelengths are scattered away by the critical angle. These rays are all absorbed by
particles. Therefore, the light that reaches our sand.
eyes is of longer wavelengths. This gives rise to
the reddish appearance of the Sun. The ray no. 2 starting from tree top and making a
bigger angle since beginning, reaches the lowest
sun nearly layer at bigger angle. The angle of incidence may
overhead
become just more than the critical angle. The ray
Blue scattered away Less blue is totally reflected upward and outward. All rays
scattered on the right of ray no. 2 will start with still bigger
Sun appears reddish
angle and will have angle of incidence becoming
Sun near more than critical angle from upper and upper
Observer layers. They are also totally reflected.
horizon

 MIRAGE OR INFERIOR MIRAGE

 Definition : It is an optical illusion, seen in
deserts at summer noon, due to which an
 LOOMING OR SUPERIOR MIRAGE
inverted image of a distant tree is seen formed
in hot sand below it, as if formed in water.  Definition : It is an optical illusion, seen, at
Actually there is no water anywhere. sea–shore in winter evening, due to which an
Observer far image of a ship is seen formed in air in sea–
away Less hot sky. The actual ship is nowhere visible.
air (Denser)
Less cold air (rare)
3
2 i ic
1

More hot air (Rarer) Ship

More cold Cold water
Hot sand air (denser)
Sea shore Sea

Fig. Looming at cold sea–shore

Fig. Mirage in hot desert–Inverted image of
 Explanation : It is due to total internal
tree in hot sand
reflection. In cold evening, over sea–bed sea
 Explanation : It is due to total internal water becomes too cold. Air layer in its
reflection. At summer noon, in desert, sand contact is cold and denser. As we go up, air
becomes hot. The air in its contact becomes layers become less and less colder and hence
very hot and hence rarer. As we move up, air rarer. (Fig.)
becomes less and less hot, hence less and less
rarer. The air can be divided into layers of Rays from invisible ship going upward go from
different optical density (fig.). denser to rarer air layers. They are totally
reflected downwards and received by an observer
 at sea–shore. The observer sees an image focussed on any distant object, the ciliary
(virtual) of the ship hanging in the sky. muscle is most tense (strained).
  Myopia (shortsightedness) : The defect on
IMPORTANT POINTS TO BE REMEMBER eye due to which eye is not able to see the
distant objects clearly though it can see the
 Cornea : A transparent spherical membrane nearby objects clearly is called myopia or
which refracts light into the eye is called shortsightedness.
cornea. Myopia is caused by a decrease in the focal
 Iris : A dark muscular diaphragm that length of the eye lens. It can be corrected by
controls the size of the pupil is called iris. using spectacles made from concave lenses of
 Pupil : A small circular opening in the centre suitable focal length.
of the iris is called pupil. Pupil appears black  Hypermetropia (Longsightedness) : The
because no light if reflected from it. defect of the eye due to which eyes is not able
 Eye lens : A converging lens made of a to see clearly the nearby objects through it
transparent jelly-like proteinaceous material can see the distant objects clearly is called
behind the pupil is called the eye lens. hypermetropia or longsightedness.
 Retina : The inside surface of the real (back) Hypermetropia (long-sightedness) is caused
part of the eye ball where the light which by an increase in the focal length of the eye
enters the eye is focussed is called retina. The lens. It can be corrected by using spectacles
surface of the retina consists of about 125 made from convex lenses of suitable focal
million light-sensitive receptors. These lengths.
receptors are called rods and cones. The rods Astigmatism : The defect of the eye due to
are sensitive to the intensity of light, while which the rays of light coming from the
cones are sensitive to the colour of light. horizontal and vertical planes of an object do
 Colour blindness : It is a defect of the eye not come to focus at the same point is called
due to which person is not able to distinguish astigmatism. Astigmatism occurs when the
between certain colours. Colour blindness is a cornea or the eye lens or both are not
genetic disorder. perfectly spherical. This can be corrected by
 Near point : The nearest point up to which using cylindrical lenses.
an eye can see clearly is called its near point  Dispersion of white light : The process of
Far point : The farthest point up to which an splitting white light into its seven constituent
eye can see clearly is called its far point. For colours is called dispersion of white light.
a normal eye, the far point is at infinity. The band of seven colours is called spectrum
 Least distance of distinct vision : The of visible light.
minimum distance up to which an eye can see Rainbows are formed due to the dispersion of
clearly is called the least distance of distinct white light by small droplets of water hanging
vision. in the air after the rain.
For a normal eye of an adult, the least  Rainbow : Rainbow is a band of seven
distance of distinct vision is 25 cm. colours across the sky produced due to the
 Accommodation power of the eye : The dispersion of white light by small raindrops
property due to which the eye lens is able to hanging in the air after the rain.
change its focal length is called  Atmospheric refraction : The optical
accommodation of the eye. When the eye is density of our atmosphere decreases with
altitude. Thus a ray of light entering any layer
 of the atmosphere suffers refraction as it particles, it get scattered in all direction.
travels through the other layers. This is called Smaller particles scatter blue light to a larger
atmospheric refraction. Many interesting extent than the red light.
natural phenomena occur due to atmospheric Larger particles scatter light of longer
refraction. wavelengths, such as orange/red. In the case
Scattering of light : The earth’s atmosphere of very larger particles, the scattered light
consists of gases, and many different kinds of appears white.
particulate matter. When light falls on such
 EXERCISE # 1

A. Very Short Answer Type Questions Q.16 What is astigmatism? How is it corrected?

Q.1 Define the range of vision of a normal eye. Q.17 Explain myopia with the help of a well-
labelled diagram. How is it corrected by a
Q.2 Define the magnitude of the least distance of lens?
distinct vision.
Q.18 Explain hypermetropia with the help of a
Q.3 Explain the magnitude of near point and far well-labelled diagram. How is it corrected by
point of a normal eye. a lens?

Q.4 Name four common defects of the eye. Q.19 Define presbiopia. How is it corrected?

Q.5 What kind of lens should a person suffering

from myopia and hypermetropia use?
C.  Long Answer Type Questions
Q.6 A child sitting in a classroom on the back seat
is not able to view what is written on Q.20 Describe the construction of the human eye
blackboard. What defect of vision does he with a well-labelled diagram. Explain the
suffer from? What types of lens should be functioning of its various parts.
provided to him to correct the defect?
Q.21 Explain the power of accommodation of the
Q.7 The spectacles of a person have concave eye.
lenses. Which defect of vision is he suffering
from? Q.22 What are rods and cones? Define their roles.

Q.8 Which defect of vision is corrected by using Q.23 What do you understand by persistence of
cylindrical lens? vision? Give their applications in theatre.

Q.9 Which type of retinal cells respond to the Q.24 Define the power of accommodation of the
intensity of light? eye. Define near and far points of the eye.

Q.10 Which type of retinal cells respond to

colours?

B.  Short Answer Type Questions

Q.11 How does a normal eye view near as well as

distant objects clearly ?

Q.12 How does the human eye adjust itself to

varying intensities of light?

Q.13 When we enter a cinema hall from bright

sunshine, we cannot see our surroundings.
Explain why.

Q.14 How do we see colours ?

Q.15 What is meant by colour blindness? What

kind of retinal cells are lacking in a person
suffering from this defect?
 EXERCISE # 2

Single Correct Answer type Questions Q.6 Dispersion of light by a prism is due to the
change in-
Q.1 The focal length of eye lens is controlled by : (A) frequency of light (B) speed of light
(A) Iris (B) Cornea (C) scattering (D) none of these
(C) Ciliary muscles (D) Optic nerve
Q.7 Least distance of distinct vision of a long-
Q.2 A white light falls on a glass prism, the least signted man is 40 cm. He wish to reduce it to
deviated colour is- 25 cm by using a lens the focal length of the
(A) Violet (B) Orange lens is-
(C) Red (D) Yellow
200 200
(A)  cm (B)  cm
Q.3 Blue colour of sky is due to- 3 3
(C) +200 cm (D) –200 cm
(A) dispersion of light (B) scattering of light
(C) refraction of light (D) reflection of light Q.8 Which of the following colour has the least
wavelength ?
Q.4 Rainbow is formed due to-
(A) Red (B) Orange
(A) reflection and dispersion of light through
(C) Violet (D) Blue
the water droplets
(B) total internal reflection, refraction and Q.9 Convex lens of suitable focal length can
dispersion of light through the water correct-
droplets (A) short sightedness (B) long sightedness
(C) only dispersion of light (C) presbyopia (D) astigmatism
(D) only refraction of light Q.10 The focal length of human eye lens is (with
Q.5 Power of accommodation (max. variation in relaxed eye)-
power of eye lens) of a normal eye is about (A) 2.5 cm (B) 25 cm
(A) 1D (B) 2D (C) 3D (D) 4D (C) 25 m (D) 

ANSWER KEY

EXERCISE-2
Ques 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans C C B B D B A C B A