DEVP211 Reviewer PRELIMS INTERVENE

CHAPTER 1 - Giving a child a speech therapy

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ➢ BASIC CONCEPTS

- Study of change and stability in people PHYSICAL

starting from birth
- Growth of body, brain, sensory
Life-span Development capacities, motor skills, health

- From “womb to tomb” COGNITIVE

- Scientific study of development from
conception to death - Learning, attention, memory, language,
thinking, reasoning, creativity
Life-span Perspective
PSYCHOSOCIAL
- Views development as lifelong,
multidimensional, multidirectional, - Emotions, personality, social
plastic, multidisciplinary, contextual relationships
- Process that involves growth,
maintenance and regulation of loss ➢ Periods of lifespan

Development can be + or – SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION

- Concept or practice that is an invention

➢ Goals of Human Development
of particular culture or society
DESCRIBE
❖ UNIVERSAL vs. CONTEXT SPECIFIC
- When most children say their first word
- How large their vocabulary is at a Adolescence (13-18 y/o)
certain age
Universal – strong sense of identity
- Norms, averages, behaviour at various
ages Adolescence (13-18 y/o)
EXPLAIN Context – weak sense of identity
- How children acquire language
EGOCENTRIC
- Why some children learn to speak late
- Thinking only oneself, without regard
PREDICT
for the feelings or desires of others
- Future behaviour - Self-centered
- A child will have serious speech
Erik Erickson (son of Erik)
problems
- Adopted child
 - Husband of Jone Erickson Extended – multigenerational network of
➢ PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins & more
THEORY (Psychodynamic Theory) by distant relatives (traditional family form)
Jone & Erik
▪ SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS
PSYCHODYNAMIC
Poverty – often indirect through its impact on
- Talking about past parents’ emotional state and parenting
- Determinism practices/home environment.
- Determined by experiences
- Risk factors, increase the likelihood of a
- Determinism vs. Free choice
negative outcome, are present
- Determined by psychosocial
experiences
▪ CULTURE
- Young adults
Individualistic – personal goals & encourage
Infancy > childhood > adolescence > old age
people to view themselves as distinct
- Determined by psychological and individuals
environmental forces/crisis
Collectivistic – collective goals and group
Factors that shape a person: dynamics, people are more likely to view
themselves w/ respect to their relationship with
- Trauma, peers, family, standards, others
beliefs, religion, politics, culture,
mistakes, choices, etc. ▪ ETHNICITY AND RACE

Nature vs. Nurture – Maturation Race – concept of dividing people into groups
on the basis of various sets of physical
NATURE – heredity characteristics

NURTURE – environment Ethnicity – cultural factors (nationality, regional

culture, ancestry, language)
Maturation – the unfolding of a natural
sequence of physical changes and behaviour Ethnic Minorities – groups with national or
patterns cultural traditions from majority population
(often affected by prejudice & discrimination)
CONTEXTS OF DEVELOPMENT
Ethnic Gloss – overgeneralization that
Nuclear – one or two parents and their children obscures/blurs such variations, simplistic
(whether biological, adopted or stepchildren)
categorical label used to refer to ethnocultural
Polygamy – one parent (most commonly the groups (Asians, Hispanics, other
father) is married to multiple spouses nationalistic/indigenous groups where unique
cultural/ethnic differences found among group
members are ignored)
 ▪ HISTORICAL CONTEXT – over - are certain phases of development
time, investigators began to focus on when the brain is most responsive to
how influences & place tied to time and certain sorts of learning and
place affect the course of people’s lives experiences.
▪ NORMATIVE & ➔ Plasticity – concept of critical periods
NONNORMATIVE INFLUENCES in humans is controversial, many
aspects of development even in
Normative Age-graded Influences – highly physical domain have been found to
similar to people in a particular age group show modifiabilty of performance
(timing of biological events is fairly predictable
within a normal range) Sensitive Period – person is responsive to
certain kinds of experiences
Normative History-graded Influences –
significant events (such as World War II, COVID- Ex. Of individuals in this period: a child learning
19 pandemic) shape the behaviour & attitudes to crawl, talk, and socialize with people other
of historical generation than the family

Historical Generation – a group of people who LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT

experience the event at a formative time in APPROACH
their lives
Lifelong – affected by what happened before
Cohort – group of people born at about the and will affect what is to come
same time
Multidimensional – biological, psychological,
Nonnormative Influences – unusual events, and social
typical events that happen at an atypical time of
life (such as death of a parent when a child is Multidirectional – as people gain in one area,
young) or atypical events (such as surviving a they may lose in another sometimes at the
plane crash) same time

Relative Influences of biology and culture shift

▪ TIMING OF INFLUENCES
over the life span – balance between biology
Imprinting – readiness of an organism’s nervous and culture changes (abilities such as muscular
system to acquire certain information during a strength weaken with age but cultural supports
brief critical period in early life such as education, training and technology may
help compensate)
Critical Period – specific time when a given
event, or its absence has a specific impact on Involves changing resource allocation –
development (if a necessary event does not individuals choose to invest their resources of
occur during a critical period of maturation, time, energy, talent, money and social support
normal development will not occur, and the in varying ways
resulting abnormal patterns may be
Shows plasticity – can be improved significantly
irreversible)
with training and practice
Influenced by historical & cultural context –
each person develops within multiple contexts
(circumstances or conditions defined in part by
maturation and in part by time and place)

CHAPTER 2 ➢ THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES

(1) PSYCHOANALYTIC
THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT
- Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) originator
- Set of logically related concepts or of this perspective
statements that seek to describe, - Personality develops through childhood
explain and predict the kinds of conflicts between inborn urges of ID
behaviour that may occur under certain and the requirements of civilized life
conditions - Reactive, qualitative changes overtime
- Hypotheses explanations
ID > EGO > SUPEREGO
Active vs. Reactive
Levels →
ACTIVE
ID (Unconscious)
- motivated to learn about the world
- Newborns are governed by ID
around them
- Pleasure principle
REACTIVE
EGO
- soaks up experiences and is shaped by
- Find realistic ways to gratify the ID
this input overtime
- Reality principle
Continuous vs. Discontinuous
SUPEREGO
CONTINUOUS
- Conscience
- development is always governed by - Morality principle; right or wrong
same processes
- gradual refinement & extension of early ➢ FIVE STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL
skills to abilities DEVELOPMENT
- qualitative change o FIXATION
- An arrest in development that can show
DISCONTINUOUS up in adult personality

- development at different points in the ORAL STAGE

life span is fundamentally different in
nature - Babies whose needs are not met may
- kind, structure, organization, number grow up as nail-biters or smokers
- qualitative change
ANAL STAGE Psychosocial Crisis – these issues must be
satisfactorily resolved for healthy ego
- Toddlers who had too strict toilet development
training may be fixated
- Obsessively clean or defiantly messy (2) LEARNING
- Development was the result of learning
PHALLIC STAGE - Change based on experience or
- Sexual attachment (Oedipus and Electra adaptation to environment
Complex) - Focuses on behaviour
- Oedipus Complex: son to mother - Continuous, mechanistic, quantitative
- Electra Complex: daughter to father
BEHAVIORISM

- Observed behaviour as a predictable

response to experience
- Emphasizes the predictable role of the
LATENCY STAGE environment in causing observable
behaviour
- Period of relative emotional calm and
- All ages learn about the world by
intellectual, social exploration
reacting to conditions of environment
GENITAL STAGE that they find pleasing, painful or
threatening
- Sexual urges resurface to flow in
socially approved channels
- One to one relationship with another
▪ CLASSICAL CONDTIONING
person
➢ PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Infancy – under 2 years (HOPE)

Early Childhood – 2 to 4 years (WILL)

Play Age – 4 to 6 years (PURPOSE)

School Age – 5 to 12 years (COMPETENCE)

Adolescence – 12 to 19 years (FIDELITY)

Young Adulthood – 19 to 35 years (LOVE)

Adulthood – 35 to 65 years (CARE)

Old Age – 65 years and beyond (WISDOM)

▪ OPERANT CONDTIONING
 - Voluntary behaviour and the - Human beings are processors of
consequences rather than the symbols
predictors of behaviour ➢ PIAGETIAN APPROACH
- Jean Piaget (1896-1980) developed the
REINFORCEMENT cognitive stage theory
- A consequence that increases the - Viewed development organismically as
likelihood of the behaviour that if product of children’s attempts to
follows understand and act upon their world
- Most effective when it immediately - Qualitative development; development
follows a behavior stages
A. Organization – tendency to create
PUNISHMENT categories

- A consequence that decreases the SCHEMES – ways of organizing info about the
likelihood of the behaviour that it world
follows
B. Adaptation – how children handle new
EXTINCTION information in light of what they
already know
- When a response is no longer
reinforced ASSIMILATION

➢ SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY - Taking in new information and

- Albert Bandura (1925-2021) incorporating it into existing cognitive
- Suggested the impetus for development ACCOMMODATION
is bidirectional
- Adjusting one’s cognitive structures to
RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM fit the new information
- The person acts on the world as the
world acts on the person C. Equilibration (Equilibrium) – a constant
striving for a stable balance, motivates
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING (Modeling) the shift between assimilation and
accommodation
- People learn appropriate social
behaviour by observing and imitating DISEQUILIBRIUM
models
- Self-efficacy, Human Agency - A state of imbalance when
encountering info that requires us to
(03) COGNITIVE develop new schema or modify existing
schema
- Qualitative changes in thought occur
with development
- Social interaction is central to cognitive
development
ADAPTATION OF SCHEMAS (04) CONTEXTUAL

- Development can be understood only in

its social context
- Interacting with the environment but as
an inseparable part of it

➢ BIOECOLOGICAL THEORY

- Urie Brofenbrenner (1917-2005)

generally represented as a set of rings
with the developing child in the middle
- Identifies five levels of environmental
influence
 PIAGET’S FOUR STAGES OF COGNITIVE - Individual difference variables: age, sex,
DEVELOPMENT health, abilities, temperament
1. Sensorimotor – infant’s knowledge of the - Child is an active shaper of
world is based on senses & motor skills; by the development
end of the period, uses mental representation
(birth to 2 years) CONCENTRIC CIRCLE →
2. Preoperational Thought – child learns how to
use symbols such as words & numbers MICROSYSTEM
represent aspects of the world but relates to - Everyday environment of home, work,
the world only through his/her perspective (2 to school, or neighbourhood
6 years) - Face to face interactions with others
3. Concrete Operational Thought – child MESOSYSTEM
understands & applies logical operations to - Interlocking influence of Microsystems
experiences provided, they are focused on the - Interaction between friends and your
here and now (7 years to early adolescence) mother
4. Formal Operational Thought – adult thinks EXOSYSTEM
abstractly, deals with hypothetical situations & - Microsystem and an outside system or
speculates about what may be possible institution
(adolescence and beyond) - Ex. Countries differ with respect to
what type of parental leave, if any, is
➢ SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY available
- Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) focused on - Environments in which the child is not
the social and cultural processes that involved and are external to their
guide children’s cognitive development experience but nonetheless affect them
anyway
ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD)
- Gap between what they are already
able to do by themselves and with MACROSYSTEM
assistance
- Consists of overarching cultural
SCAFFOLDING
- Supportive assistance by parents, patterns such as beliefs, ideologies,
teachers or other people economic and political systems
MKO – More Knowledgeable Others
CHRONOSYSTEM ▪ Natural Selection – small incremental
changes in passed-down traits result in
- Represents dimension of time species change. “survival of the fittest”
- Ex. Changes in family composition - Passed down traits can be physical,
- Environmental events and transitions behavioural or psychological
that occur throughout a child's life, o Ethology – study of adaptive behaviours
including any sociohistorical events. of animal species in natural contexts
o Evolutionary Psychology – focus on
humans and apply Darwinian principles
to human behaviour
o Cognitive Adaptations – the
psychological products of natural
selection in humans

CHAPTER 3
➢ BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS

Fertilization – or conception is the process by

which sperm and ovum combine to create
single cell called zygote

- Normally occurs while the ovum is

passing through the fallopian tube

Sperm = absorbed by woman’s leukocytes

(05) EVOLUTIONARY/SOCIOBIOLOGICAL
Ovum = passes through uterus and exits
- findings of anthropology, ecology, genetics,
through vagina
ethology, & evolutionary psychology to explain
the adaptive or survival value of behaviour for MULTIPLE BIRTHS?
an individual or species
▪ DIZYGOTIC TWINS – or fraternal twins
Darwin’s theory can be broken down (result of two separate eggs being
into few major postulates: fertilized by two different sperm to
form two unique individuals)
1) organisms vary
- Can be the same or different sex
2) there are never enough resources for all ▪ MONOZYOTIC TWINS – or identical
organisms to survive twins, cleaving of one fertilized egg and
are generally genetically identical
3) individual differences in organisms are
heritable
 - Can still differ outwardly Each sex cells end up with only 23
➢ MECHANISMS OF HEREDITY chromosomes (one from each pair)

DNA – the “stuff” of heredity is a chemical FATHER (23) + MOTHER (23) = BABY (46)
called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
AUTOSOMES – 22 pairs of our 23 pairs are
Bases – pairs of chemical units (double-helix chromosomes that are not related to sexual
structure of a DNA molecule – long, spiralling expression
ladder)

BASES:

“Letters” of the genetic code which

cellular machinery “reads” ->

(A) adenine

(T) thymine

(C) cytosine

(G) guanine

Chromosomes – coils of DNA that consists

of smaller segments called genes
(functional units of heredity) Sex Chromosome – 23rd pairs – one from the
father and one from the mother – that govern
✓ The complete sequence of genes in the
the baby’s sex
human body constitutes the human
genome. Mitosis – process by which non-sex cells divide
in half over and over again, DNA replicates itself
DNA -> Gene -> Chromosomes -> Nucleus ->
so that each newly formed cell has the same
Cell
DNA structure as all the others
✓ Chromosomes are found inside the CELL
Mutations – these are permanent alterations in
NUCLEUS
genetic material (can cause cancer)
MEIOSIS – every cell in the normal human body
How is biological sex determined?
except sex cells has 23 pairs of chromosomes
(46 in all) - females tend to only have X
chromosomes, the egg cells that they
produce typically carry an X
chromosome, while the male sperm cell
can carry either an X or Y.
Therefore, the sex chromosome that a
male sperm carries determines whether
 the offspring will develop into a male or MULTIFACTORIAL TRANSMISSION –
a female. environmental experience modifies the
expression of the genotype for most traits
➢ Patterns of Genetic Transmission
WHY IDENTICAL TWINS NOT
Alleles – genes that can produce alternative REALLY IDENTICAL?
expressions of a characteristic (such as black or
brown eye colour) are called alleles Epigenesis/Epigenetics – genes are turned off
or on as they are needed by developing body or
- Every person receives one maternal and when triggered by the environment
one paternal allele for any given trait
➢ Genetic and Chromosome
HOMOZYGOUS – when both alleles are the Abnormalities
same
Dominant and Recessive Inheritance of Defects
HETEROZYGOUS – when alleles received from
parents are different - Recessive defects are expressed only if
the child is homozygous for that gene
DOMINANT – the dominant allele is always - Incomplete dominance is a pattern of
expressed or shows up as a trait in that person inheritance in which a child receives
two different alleles resulting in partial
RECESSIVE – person must have two recessive
expression of a trait
alleles, one from each parent
Sex-linked Inheritance of Defects
POLYGENIC INHERITANCE – interaction of
several genes - Certain recessive disorders affect male
and female children differently
PHENOTYPE – observable characteristics
- Heterozygote females who carry one
through which underlying genetic makeup is
“bad” copy of a recessive gene and
expressed
“good” one is called CARRIERS
GENOTYPE – underlying genetic makeup that - More common among men
contributes to the phenotype
 ABNORMALITIES

Alpha Thalassemia – severe anemia that

reduces ability of blood to carry oxygen; nearly
all affected infants are still born or die soon
after birth

Beta Thalassemia – severe anemia resulting in

weakness, fatigue, frequent illness; usually fatal
in adolescence or young adulthood

Cystic Fibrosis – overproduction of mucus

which collects in the lung & digestive tract;
children do not grow normally; short life-span;  CHROMOSOMAL
most common inherited lethal defect among ABNORMALITIES
white people - Typically occur because of errors in cell
division, resulting in an extra or missing
Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy – fatal disease
chromosome
usually found in males, marked by muscle
weakness and minor intellectual disability; XYY – male; tall stature; tendency toward low
respiratory failure and death usually occur in IQ, especially verbal
young adulthood
XXX – female; normal appearance, menstrual
Hemophilia – excessive bleeding, usually irregularities, learning disorders, intellectual
affecting males; in its most severe form, can disability
lead to crippling arthritis in adulthood
XXY – male; sterility, underdeveloped
Anencephaly – absence of brain tissues; infants secondary sex characteristics, small testes,
are stillborn or die soon after birth learning disorders
Spina Bifida – incompletely closed spinal canal, XO – female; short stature, webbed neck,
muscle weakness or paralysis, loss of bladder impaired spatial abilities, no menstruation,
and bowel control; often accompanied by infertility, underdeveloped sex organs
hydrocephalus (accumulation of spinal fluid in
brain and intellectual disability)

Phenylketonuria (PKU) – metabolic disorder

resulting in intellectual disability

Polycystic Kidney Disease – infantile form:

enlarged kidneys leading to respiratory
problems & cognitive heart failure; adult form:
kidney pain, kidney stones, hypertension
resulting chronic kidney failure

Sickle-cell Anemia – deformed red blood cells

that clog blood vessels, depriving the body of
oxygen; symptoms include sever pain, stunted Fragile X – minor-to-severe intellectual
growth, infections, leg ulcers, gallstones, disability more severe in males; delayed speech
pneumonia, stroke and motor development, hyperactivity; most
common inherited form of intellectual disability
Tay-Sachs Disease – degenerative disease of
brain and nerve cells resulting in death before Down Syndrome
age 5
- Characterized by moderated-to-severe
intellectual disability and by such
physical signs as downward-slopping
 skin fold at inner corners of the eyes Passive Correlation
(trisomy-21)
- You not only inherit genes from your
➢ INFLUENCES OF HEREDITY & biological parents, but you also inherit
ENVIRONMENT environments

Behavioral Genetics Reactive Correlation

- Children with differing genetic makeups

- It seeks to measure how much heredity
and environment influence particular evoke different reactions from others
traits Active Correlation

- Children actively select or create

Heretability experiences consistent with their
genetic tendencies
- Estimating how much of a trait is due to - Niche-picking
genetics & how much is the result of ➢ PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
environmental influences
Gestation
Reaction Range
- Period between conception and birth
- Range of potential expressions of a - Normal range of gestation is between
hereditary trait, potential variability 37 and 41 weeks
depending on environmental conditions
Gestational Age
in the expression of hereditary trait

Canalization - Dated from first day of expectant

mother’s last menstrual cycle
- Limitation on variance of expression of
certain inherited characteristics ➢ Stages of development
- How the same phenotypes are
produced by genotype even though the
environment may differ
 GENOTYPE-ENVIRONMENT
INTERACTION
- Effects of similar environmental
conditions on genetically different
individuals
 GENOTYPE-ENVIRONMENT
CORRELATION
- Environment often reflects or reinforces
genetic differences
 ➢ Patterns of Development muscles, skeleton, excretory and
circulatory systems)
Cephalocaudal
ENDODERM
- “head to tail,” dictates that
development proceeds from the head - Inner layer (will become digestive
to the lower part of the trunk system, liver, pancreas, salivary glands)

Proximodistal

- “near to far,” development proceeds

from parts near the center of the body
to outer ones

Germinal Stage (fertilization – 2 weeks)

- Zygote divides, become more complex

and implanted in wall of uterus
- Within 36 hours after fertilization,
What makes up a blastocyst?
zygote enters a period of rapid cell
division and duplication (mitosis) Amniotic Sac
- Making its way through fallopian tube
to uterus for 3 to 4 days - A fluid-filled membrane that encases
- Changes into blastocyst (fluid-filled developing membryo, protecting it &
sphere) giving it room to move and grow

What happens within the blastocyst? Placenta

- As cell differentiation occurs prior to - Allows oxygen, nourishment, waste to

implantation, certain cells surrounding pass between the mother and embryo,
the blastocyst's edge cluster on one it is connected to embryo by the
side to create the embryonic disk, a umbilical cord
thicker cell mass from which the - Combat internal infection, give child
embryo begins to develop immunity to various diseases
- Produces hormones that support
ECTODERM pregnancy (estrogen and progesterone)
➔ Embryonic Stage (2-8 weeks)
- Upper layer (outer-layer of skin, nails,
- Organogenesis (organs, major body
hair, teeth, sensory organs, nervous
systems, respiratory digestive, nervous
system, brain, spinal cord)
develop rapidly
MESODERM - Critical period (most vulnerable to
destructive influences)
- Middle layer (will develop and - Brain growth and development
differentiate into inner layer of skin,
 ➔ Fetal Stage (8 weeks – birth) ➢ Terms for Childbirth Complications
- Appearance of first bone cells
- Rapid growth and body systems Low-Birth Weight Babies
become more complex - Weighing less than 2,500 grams (5
- Finishing touches such as fingernails, pounds)
toenails, eyelids develop
- - taste buds, olfactory receptors (smell) Pre-Term (Pre-mature) Infants
begin to form
- Born before the 37th week of gestation
BIRTH
Small-for-date Infants
- Parturition (act or process of giving
- Born at or around their due dates but
birth, typically begins about 2 weeks
are smaller than would be expected
before delivery)
Postmature Infants

- Fetus not yet born as of 2 weeks after

the due date or 42 weeks after
mother’s last menstrual period
 Stage 1 Early Labor

NEONATAL PERIOD

-First 4 weeks of life

➢Medical and Behavorial Assesments
▪APGAR SCALE
▪BRAZELTON NEONATAL BEHAVORIAL
ASSESSMENT SCALE
▪ NEONATAL SCREENING FOR MEDICAL
CONDITONS
❖ APGAR Scale
- 1 minute post-delivery + 5 minutes
after birth

Appearance (color)

Pulse (Heart rate)

BRAXTON-HICKS CONTRACTIONS
Grimace (Reflex irritability)
- Woman may have felt false
contractions at times during final Activity (Muscle tone)
months of pregnancy or even as early as
the second trimester when muscles of Respiration (Breathing)
the uterus tighten for up to 2 minutes
 ✓ The new born is rated 0, 1 or 2 on each Attention & Response to visual &
measure, for a maximum score of 10 interaction auditory stimuli
CNS Instability Tremors
indications
Sign 0 1 2
Appearanc Blue, Body pink, Entirely
NEONATAL SCREENING FOR MEDICAL
e pale extremitie pink
s blue CONDITONS (Up to 2 months old)
Pulse Absent Slow Rapid
(below (over
100) 100)
Grimace No Grimace Coughing
respons ,
e sneezing,
crying
Activity Limp Weak, Strong,
inactive Active
Respiration Absent Irregular, Good,
slow crying
5-minute score of ->

7-10 The baby is in good to

excellent condition.
5-7 The baby needs help
to establish breathing;
<4 The baby needs
CHAPTER 4
immediate lifesaving
➢ INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD (birth to
treatment.
0-3 at 10, 15, & 20 Associated with 3 years old)
minutes after birth cerebral palsy
(1) Early Physical Development

- First three years (time of explosive

❖ Brazelton Neonatal Behavorial Assessment
Scale (NBAS) growth & development)
- Grows in an orderly & patterned way
- Used to assess neonates’
responsiveness to their environment, to Cephalocaudal Principle
identify strengths and vulnerabilities in
neurological functioning, to predict - Growth occurs from top down, brain
future development grows rapidly before birth (new born
- Suitable for infants up to 2 months old baby’s head is disproportionately large)

Motor Organization Bring hand to the Proximodistal Principle

mouth
Reflexes Rooting reflex - Development proceeds from within to
State changes Ability to quiet down, without
irritability
 breast cancer

Parietal Lobe

- Involved with integrating sensory

information from body
- Helps us move our bodies through
- Parts of body near center develop space/manipulate objects in our world
before extremities
- Growth and motor development Temporal Lobe
proceed from center of body outward
- Helps us interpret smells and sounds
Breastfeed or bottle? and is involved in memory

- Through most of human history, all Frontal Lobe

babies were breastfed
- Newest region of brain, involved with
- Breastfeeding is always best for infants
variety of higher-order processes (goal
 Benefits of Breastfed Babies
setting, inhibition, reasoning, planning,
1. Less likely to contract infectious illnesses
problem-solving)
2. Have lower risk of SIDS and post-
neonatal death Integration
3. Less likely to develop obesity, diabetes
or childhood cancer - Process by which neurons coordinate
4. Perform better IQ/cognitive tests activities of muscle groups
5. Fewer cavities
Differentiation
 Benefits of Breastfeeding Mothers
1. Enjoy quicker recovery from childbirth, - Process by which cells acquire
less risk of postpartum bleeding specialized structures/functions
2. More likely to return to their pre-
pregnancy weight/ less likely to develop Cell Death
long-term obesity - In brain development, normal
3. Reduced risk of anemia/lowered risk of elimination of excess brain cells to
repeat pregnancy while breastfeeding achieve more efficient functioning
4. Less likely to develop
osteoporosis/ovarian/premenopausal Myelination

- Process of coating neural pathways with

fatty substance called myelin, which
enables faster communication between
cells
Early Reflexes Denver Developmental Screening Test

- When pupils contract as you turn - Screening test given to children 1

toward a bright light, they are acting month to 6 years old (to determine
involuntarily whether they are developing normally

Reflex behaviors Test Measures:

- Automatic innate response to ▪ Gross Motor Skills

stimulation - Physical skills that involve small muscles
- Controlled by lower brain centers that and eye-hand coordination
govern involuntary processes (breathing ▪ Fine Motor Skills
and heart rate) - Physical skills that involve large muscles

Depth Perception

- Ability to perceive objects & surfaces in

three dimensions

Haptic Perception

- Ability to acquire infos by handling

objects rather than looking at them

(2) COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT DURING

THE FIRST 3 YEARS

Brain Plasticity • Behaviorist Approach – babies born

with ability to see, hear, smell, taste,
- Brains are not static; they are living touch & remember what they learn
chargeable organs that respond to • Classical and Operant Conditioning
environmental influences & reflection
of our experiences Classical Conditioning – learning based on
- Range of modifiablity of performance associating stimulus that doesn’t ordinarily elicit
- Molding of the brain through a response w/ another stimulus that does elicit
experience the response
➢ Milestones of Development
Operant Conditioning – learning based on
Systems of action association of behaviour with its consequences,
learning based on reinforcement or punishment
- Increasingly complex combinations of
motor skills which permit a wider or • Psychometric Approach – most
more precise range of professionals agree on some basic
movement/control of environment criteria, intelligence enables people to
acquire, remember, use knowledge; to
 understand concepts & relationships; to - Much of the knowledge people acquire
solve daily problems about their world is gained through
symbols, intentional representations of
Intelligent behaviour – goal oriented, adaptive reality
to circumstances & conditions of life - Growth of pictorial competence/ability
IQ (Intelligence Quotient) Tests – seek to to understand nature of pictures
measure intelligence by comparing a test- Imitation
taker’s performance w/ standardized norms
- Develops around 9 months; deferred
Testing Infants & Toddlers: limitation begins after development of
- Home Observation for Measurement of mental representations in sixth
the Environment (HOME) substage (18-24 mos)
- Instrument to measure the influence of
Categorization
the home environment on children’s
cognitive growth - Depends on representational thinking,
- Early intervention develops in 18-24 months
• Piagetian Approach
Causality
(1) Sensorimotor stage – infants learn through
- Develops slowly between 4-6 months
senses and motor activity
and 1 year
(2) Schemes – term for organized patterns of
thought and behaviour used in particular
situations Number
(3) Circular reactions – infant learns to - Depends on symbols, which begins 18-
reproduce desired occurrences originally 24 months
discovered by chance • Information-Processing Approach
(4) Representational – capacity to store mental Habituation
images or symbols of objects and events
- Type of learning in which familiarity
Object Permanence with a stimulus reduces, slows, or stops
- Understanding that a person/object still a response
exists when out of sight Dishabituation
Deferred Limitation - Increase in responsiveness after
- Reproduction of an observed behaviour presentation of new stimulus
after passage of time by calling up a Visual Preference
stored symbol
- Tendency of infants to spend more time
Symbolic Development looking at one sight than another
Visual Recognition Memory
➢ Language Development
- Ability to distinguish a familiar visual
stimulus from an unfamiliar one when Child-directed Speech (CDs)
shown both at the same time
- Form of speech often used in talking to
• Cognitive Neuroscience Approach – babies or toddlers; includes slow,
approach to study of cognitive simplified speech, a high-pitched tone,
development that links brain processes exaggerated vowel sounds, short words
with cognitive ones & sentences, much repetition; also
Implicit Memory called parentese or motherese

- Unconscious recall, generally of habits (3) PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT DURING THE

and skills; sometimes called procedural FIRST 3 YEARS
memory Personality
- Remembering occurs without effort or
even conscious awareness - The relatively consistent blend of
emotions, temperament, thought and
Explicit Memory behaviour that makes a person unique
- Intentional and conscious memory, Emotions
generally facts, names, and events
- Subjective reactions to experience that
Working Memory are associated with physiological and
- Short term storage of information being behavorial changes
actively processed Age in Months Characteristics
• Social-Contextual Approach – approach 2 Calm down, when
to the study of cognitive development spoken to or picked
that focuses on environmental up, look at faces &
influences, particularly parents & other smile when talked to
caregivers or smiled at
6 Know familiar people,
Guided Participation enjoy looking in the
mirror at themselves,
- Adult’s participation in a child’s activity and laugh
that helps to structure it and bring the 9 Shy, clingy or fearful
child’s activity that helps to structure it around strangers,
show facial
& bring the child’s understanding of it
expressions when
closer to the adult’s their name is called
15 Initiate other children,
 show interesting
objects to others, clap
when excited, hug Differentiation of Emotions during the first
dolls or stuffed toys three years →
and show affection to
caregivers ✓ Crying is the most powerful way or
18 Point to interesting only way that babies can communicate
things, look at few their needs, parents may soon learn to
pages in a book with recognize whether their baby is crying
an adult, put their
because of hunger, anger, frustration
hands out for adults to
wash them & help or pain.
adults dress them
Social smiling
24 Notice when others
hurt or upset, look at - Beginning in the 2nd month, newborn
adults’ faces to see
infants gaze at their parents & smile at
how to react in a new
situation them, signalling positive participation in
30 Play next to and the relationship
sometimes w/ other
children, show off to Anticipatory smile
parents, follow simple
- Infant smiles at an object and gazes at
routines such as
helping to pick up toys an adult while still smiling
36 Notice other children
Self-conscious emotions
& join them to play,
calm down within 10
- Emotions such as embarrassment,
minutes after being
dropped off, such as at empathy, envy that depend on self-
childcare awareness

Self-awareness

- Realization that one’s existence &

functioning are separate from those of
other people & things

Self-evaluative emotions

- Emotions such as pride, shame, guilt

that depend on both self-awareness &
knowledge of socially accepted
standards of behaviour

Temperament

- Characteristic disposition, style of

approaching & reacting to situations
 o “easy” children – generally happy Avoidant attachment
temperament, regular biological
rhythms, reading to accept new - Pattern in which an infant rarely cries
experiences when separated from primary
o “difficult” children – children w/ caregiver & avoids contact on their
irritable temperament, irregular attachment
biological rhythms, intense emotional Ambivalent (resistant) attachment
responses
o “slow-to-warm-up” children – whose - Pattern in which an infant becomes
temperament is generally mild but anxious before the primary caregiver
who are hesitant about accepting new leaves, is extremely upset during their
experiences absence, and both seeks and resist
✓ Goodness of fit – children differ, and contact on their return
their ideal environments differ as well,
Disorganized-disoriented attachment
the key to healthy adjustment is
goodness of fit – match between a - An infant, after separation from primary
child’s temperament and caregiver, shows contradictory
environmental demands & constraints repetitious, or misdirected behaviors on
the child must deal with. their return
➢ Developmental Issues in Infancy
 Basic sense of trust vs. mistrust Stranger anxiety
 Erikson’s first stage in psychosocial
- Wariness of strange people and places,
development (infants develop a sense
shown by some infants during
of reliability of people & objects)
second/half of 1st year
 Attachment – a reciprocal, enduring
emotional tie between an infant and Separation anxiety
caregiver, each of whom contributes to
the quality of the relationship - Distress shown by someone, typically
 Strange situation – laboratory an infant, when a familiar caregiver
technique used to study infant leaves
attachment Social referencing
ATTACHMENT → - Understanding an ambiguous situation
Secure attachment by seeking another person’s perception
of it
- Pattern in which an infant is quickly and ➢ Developmental Issues in Toddlerhood
effectively able to obtain comfort from
an attachment figure in the face of Self-concept
distress - Sense of self; descriptive & evaluative
mental picture of one’s abilities & traits
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt parent in daily interactions, including
routines, chores, hygiene and play
- Erikson’s second stage in psychosocial CHAPTER 5
development, children achieve balance ➢ EARLY CHILDHOOD (Ages 3-6)
between self-determination and control
by others (01) Physical Development

Socialization Aspects of Physical Development

- Development of habits, skills, values &  Bodily Growth and Change

motives shared by responsible, - Ages 3-6 (slower growth, loss of babyish
productive members of society roundness)
- Muscles develop, potbelly tightens,
Internalization
body lengthens
- During socialization, process by which - Boys & girls grow 2-3 inches/year, gain
children accept societal standards of 4-6 pounds/year
conduct as their own - Muscles, bones strengthen; body
proportions shift
Self-regulation - Brain nervous system coordination
improves motor skills
- Child’s independent control of
 Sleep
behaviour to conform to understood
- Sleep patterns change with age
social expectations
- US children average 11 hrs sleep by age
Conscience 5, no naps
- Complex cultural factors affect sleep
- Internal standards of behaviour, usually variations
control one’s conduct & produce - Universal factors: unhealthy diet,
emotional discomfort when violated emotions affect sleep
- Sibling influence on sleep varies by
SITUATIONAL COMPLIANCE
region & routine
- Kochanska’s term for obedience of a
SLEEP PROBLEMS IN CHILDREN
parent’s orders only in the presence of
signs of ongoing parental control - Nearly half of children have sleep
problems
COMMITTED COMPLIANCE
- Third of parents report sleep problems
- Kochanska’s term for wholehearted - Disturbances can result from brain
obedience of a parent’s order without activation, deep sleep arousal,
reminders or lapses breathing/restless leg issues
- Heritable and associated w/ anxiety,
RECEPTIVE COOPERATION nasal abnormalities, overweight
- More prevalent in children with ADHD
- Kochanska’s term for eager willingness
& Autism
to cooperate harmoniously with a
Common Disturbances: Age 4: dress w/ help, cut along line, draw simple
designs
Night terrors – abrupt awakening from deep
sleep Age 5: dress independently, copy shapes, draw
more complex figures
Sleepwalking and sleep talking – performing
physical actions or speaking while asleep GROSS MOTOR SKILLS IN EARLY
CHILDHOOD
Nightmares – intense & distressing dreams that
often evoke strong negative emotions, such as 3-year-olds 4-year-olds 5-year-olds
fear, terror, anxiety or sadness Cannot turn Have more Can start,
or stop effective turn, stop
Bed-wetting – common in children up to age 5, quickly control of effectively in
15% of 5-year-old boys, genetic factors, can be stopping, games
starting &
outgrown
turning
 Brain Development Can jump a Can jump a Can make
distance of distance of running jump
- Fast brain growth (frontal area of the
15-24 inches 24-33 inches of 28-36
brain) inches
- Increased density of synapses in Can ascend Can descend Can descend
prefrontal cortex stairway a long a long
- By age 6, brain nearly at 90% peak unaided, stairway stairway
volume alternating alternating unaided,
- Corpus callosum, connecting brain test feet if alternating
supported feet
hemispheres, myelinizes through
Can hop using Can hop four Can easily
childhood an irregular to six steps hop a
 Motor Skills series of on one foot distance of 16
- Motor coordination (stable trait & jumps feet
predicts sports participation)
- Culture influences motor development
❖ Health and Safety (issues during childhood)
(activities and opportunities)
- Physical play fosters best physical 1. Obesity and Overweight
development in young children
- Interventions to improve motor ▪ 39 million children under 5 were obese
coordination (kids under 6 unready for in 2020
organized sports) ▪ Low-and-middle-income countries (esp.
urban areas)
FINE MOTOR SKILL DEVELOPMENT – involves ▪ Faster rise in poorer countries;
eye-hand and small-muscle coordination socioeconomic gap increasing

Milestones: 2. Undernutrition

Ages 3-5: pour milk, use utensils, toilet ▪ Malnutrition more prevalent concern in
independent developing countries like Philippines
Stunting – chronic hunger leading to short ▪ Air pollution, respiratory disease,
stature & cognitive/physical deficiencies cancer, neurological disorders
▪ Pesticides: cognitive effects, cancer
Wasting – appropriate height for their age but ▪ Lead poisoning: cognitive impairment,
are thinner than they should be; rapid weight neurological damage
loss
(02) Cognitive Development
▪ Faster rise in poorer countries
❖ Advances in Preoperational Thought
3. Oral Health
1. The Symbolic Function – ability to use
▪ Baby teeth by age 3, permanent teeth
symbols, words, images, etc. to represent
coming in around age 6
something else
▪ Tooth decay often caused by:
- Overconsumption of sugary Deferred imitation: imitating a behaviour after
drinks/juices in infancy delay, ability to hold mental representation
- Lack of regular dental care
- More cavities in disadvantaged children Pretend play: using an object to represent
▪ Fluoride helps prevent cavities added to something else
toothpaste, mouthwash, water
Language: biggest symbolic activity
4. Death and Injuries
2. Understanding of space – understand
▪ Accidents top cause of death ages 5-12 relationships between models, maps, real
in U.S. spaces by age 3
- Safety regulations helped: car seats,
3. Causality – basic understanding of physical &
helmets, gun storage, etc.
social causes of events
▪ Cancer, congenital disorders, homicide,
heart disease 4. Identities & Categorization
▪ Poverty
- understand objects/people retain identity
5. Environmental Influences despite changes in appearance

▪ Low SES, lack of insurance, unmet - categorize objects by similarities & differences
medical/dental needs like color and shape
▪ Racial/ethnic minorities, higher rates of
chronic conditons 5. Number Sense
▪ Homelessness:
- early number sense seen in infants
- Health issues, infections, low birth
weight - cardinality principle (last # said is total)
- Depression, behaviour issues emerges around 2.5 years
▪ Second hand smoke, respirator
infections, ear problems, asthma - counting, quantity comparison abilities
develop
- family SES & pre-school experience impact CULTURAL ❖ Infant Social
math skills INFLUENCES Attention
❖ Executive
❖ Immature Aspects of Preoperational EDUCATION
Functioning
Thought LANGUAGE ❖ Social
 Centration – focusing on one aspect of PATTERNS Competence
situation while neglecting others ❖ Language
PARENTING STYLE
 Egocentrism – hard taking another’s Ability
perspective, centering only own point ❖ Being bilingual
of view ❖ Brain
 Conservation – understanding that Development
quantity remains the same when
appearance changes
➔ Fail conservation tasks by changing ❖ Memory
focus
Memory – ability to encode, store & retrieve
❖ Theory of Mind information
- Awareness & understanding of mental
processes Working Memory – short-term memory store
o Understanding of others’ mental state that holds small amounts of information while it
emerges early & becomes more is being processes (limited capacity)
complex with age
Long-term Memory – relatively permanent &
o Important for social skills, empathy,
unlimited store of knowledge & experiences
understanding behaviour
Metamemory – children’s understanding of
18 months Understand goal-
directed behaviour memory improves w/ age using memory
2 years Engage in pretend strategies
play
3 years Use deception, ❖ Intelligence
distinguish fantasy vs.
reality Intelligence – ability to learn, reason, and
4 years Understand false problem-solve, adapt to new situations,
beliefs manipulate abstract concepts
5 years Manipulate others’
mental states, IQ Tests – standardized tests designed to
understand measure intelligence through variety of verbal
appearance vs. reality & nonverbal tasks (uses Standford-Binet and
Wechsler scales)

Influences on IQ – genes, environment

 ❖ Speech and Language Delays ✓ Typically changes between ages 5 & 7
- 11% of 3-6 years old children have ✓ Talks mostly about concrete,
communication disorder observable behaviors; external
- Risk factors: prenatal development, characteristics; physical features;
parental education, inadequate preferences; possessions; members of
stimulation, family members w/ speech household
& language problems, low
Self-
socioeconomic status concept -
❖ Emergent Literacy sense of self;
descriptive
- Developmental precursors to reading & and
writing that emerge in early childhood evaluative
mental
- Skills like recognizing letters, picture of
understanding words & sentences, one's
abilities
knowing print reads left to right
❖ Early Childhood Education

SELF-ESTEEM

– judgment a person makes about their self-

worth

✓ Ages 5-7, self esteem is not firmly

based on reality
✓ Children widely overestimate their
abilities
✓ Parents are more likely to praise the
child’s efforts
✓ Is unidimensional & stable

REGULATING EMOTIONS

– ability to regulate/control one’s feelings

✓ Helps children guide their behaviour &

adjust responses to meet societal
expectations
(02) Psychosocial Development Cultural differences:
➢ The Developing Self a) Individualistic – values emotional expression
THE SELF-CONCEPT AND COGNITIVE b) Collectivistic – encourages minimizing strong
DEVELOPMENT
emotional responses
Self-definition – cluster of characteristics used
to describe oneself
UNDERSTANDING EMOTIONS  Baumrind’s Model of
Parenting Styles
Social Emotions
Control Warmth
- Developed at around age 3 High Low
High Authoritative Authoritarian
- Emotions involved in regulation of
Low Permissive Neglectful
social behaviour that require self-
awareness & understanding of others’
viewpoints ➔ Permissive Parenting
✓ Age 4-5 years most children can - Self-expression, self-regulation; few
recognize facial expressions demands
✓ Age 7, children start to understand - Consult children about policy; punish
mental states can drive emotions - Warm, noncontrolling, undemanding
✓ Age 9, children can start to understand - Children tend to be immature, least
more complex aspects of emotions self-controlled, least exploratory
➔ Authoritative Parenting
Functional Play Repeated practice of - Child’s individuality but also stresses
large muscle
limits
movements (starts
in infancy) - Loving & accepting; also demand good
Dramatic Play Involves imaginary behaviour & firm in maintaining
objects, actions, standards
roles (pretend play) - Impose limited judicious punishment
PRESCHOOL YEARS when needed; within context of warm,
Constructive Play Use objects or
supportive relationship
materials to
construct something - Children are self-reliant, self-controlled,
(object play) self-assertive, exploratory, content
Formal games Organized games w/ ➔ Neglectful Parenting
known procedures & - From Maccoby & martin (1983)
with rules penalties - Focus on needs rather than on those of
the child
- Externalizing such as delinquency &
defiance
- Internalizing such as depression &
anxiety
- Behavioral problems in childhood and
adolescence
➔ Authoritarian Parenting
- Control and unquestioning obedience
- Make children conform to set standard
of conduct & punish them forcefully for
violating it
- Less warm than other parents
 - Children tend to be more discontented,
withdrawn, distrustful

ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT

Initiative vs. Guilt

- Dealing w/ conflicting feelings about

self
- Learning some of things they want to
do meet social approval, whereas
others do not
- Conflict between child-likeness
(curiosity & exploration) adult-likeness
(righteousness of motives, actions)

Purpose

- Courage to envision & pursue goals

without being unduly inhibited by guilt
or fear of punishment (Erikson, 1982)