Korean Confucianism

Korean
Confucianism
Tradition and Modernity
The Understanding Korea Series (UKS) 1§1
Korean Confucianism: Tradition and Modernity
Published by The Academy of Korean Studies Press

Published in February 2015
Written by Edward Y. J. Chung
Edited by The Center for International Affairs
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The Understanding Korea Series (UKS) �
Korean
Confucianism
Tradition and Modernity
Edward Y. J. Chung
THE ACADEMY OF KOREAN STUDIES PREss$

Foreword
Korea achieved extraordinary economic development today

by overcoming historical crises and hardships with wisdom and
intelligence. The foundation for such development is the result of
South Korea's harmonious integration of various characteristics
like traditional culture, social structure, emphasis on education
and politics. According ly, it is indeed a timely required task to
broaden our understanding of South Korea by re-examining the
engine of its miraculous development including its rich cultural
heritage and economic achievements and by sharing new finding s
with the world.
Since its establishment in 1978, the Academy of Korean
Studies has striven to develop and creatively preserve Korean
culture. In doing so, the Academy of Korean Studies not only
published many specialized academic books in Korean studies
but also provided overseas scholastic support by training and
producing Korean studies experts. Today, the Academy of Korean
Studies faces a new opportunity to move forward in elevating the
importance of Korean Studies in the world on the occasion of the
rise of the Korean wave and professionalism in the field.
Fon.word 5
In this regard, I am delighted to see the publication of Korean
Confucianism, the third book in the Understanding Korea Series.
I hope that this book will contribute to deepening the international
understanding of Korea and stimulate more interest i n the
creativity and authenticity of Korean culture. Finally, I would l i ke
to thank research members of the Center for International Affairs
who made this publication possible.
February 2015
LEE Bae Yong, Ph.D
President of the Academy of Korean Studies
6 Korean Confuaanam
Acknowledgments I
The Center for International Affairs (CEFIA) at the Academy

of Korean Studies (AKS) undertakes the task of promoting a
better understanding of Korean history and culture and Korea's
contemporary development among the young people around the
world.
This book is the third book in the Understanding of Korea
Series (UKS) covering Korea's world-class cultural heritage. Our
UKS endeavors to publish books on Korea that provide in-depth
understandings of Korean culture and society.
As a beginner's introduction this book explains various
t ra d i tional and contemp orary a s p e c t s of Kor ean neo
Confucianism that are related to philosophy, education, family,
social ethics, politics, national identity, spiritual culture, and the
practice of rituals. Although the book is a scholarly work, it is
written for a wide range of readers from experts to general readers
who are interested in Korean Confucianism. It will also be a
valuable reference to those studying Korean Confucianism.
Many people have contributed to the publication of this
book. I am grateful to all of them. I would like to thank the author,
Ackno'11-{edgm ent!. I 7
Professor Edward Y. l Chung. My thanks also go to the Bank of
Korea (Mr. Hyeoncho LEE Yu-tae and Mr. Woljeong Chang Woo
seong), Ojukheon & Museum in Gangneung (Mr. Idang Kim
Eun-ho), Korean Tourism Organization, Songgyun'gwan, Tosan
Academy, Yeonhap News, and Mr. Son Sung-hoon for generously
permitting the use of their photos.
I sincerely hope that this book wil l contribute to the
better global understanding of Korean culture by inspiring the
international community's interest in Korea.
February 2015
KIM Hyeon, Ph.D.
Director of the Center for International Affairs
8 Korean Confuaanam
Acknowledgments II
I wish to express my gratitude and thanks to those institutions

and people who have assisted my book project from May 2013
to February 2015. Most of all, I would like to thank the national
Academy of Korean Studies (AKS), South Korea for initiating
this project; I am honored to acknowledge that this book was
supported by the Academy I am grateful to the AKS President
and the Center for International Affairs (CEFIA) at the Academy
for giving me such an opportunity to write a new introductory
book about Korean Confucianism. It was the invitation from the
Center's Division of Understanding Korea Project that motivated
me to consider this interesting project. Frankly, I initially hesitated
a little bit after going over several possible examples of topic
coverage because I quickly thought how challeng ing this work will
be for any scholar in Confucianism and Korean Studies to handle
in terms of tradition and modernity pertaining to its various
aspects such as history, philosophy, spirituality, education, family,
society, political culture, national identity, and so on This basic
issue was complicated also by the breadth and depth of research,
interpretation, and writing one might have to do. I ultimately felt
Ackno"1ed.s'lll enu II 9
honored to accept the invitation after realizing the distinctiveness
and significance of Korean Confucianism not only as a relevant
livi ng tradition regionally and globally but also for the Center's
academic mission "to promote a better understanding of Korea
to the world" and "to improve Korea's image while promoting
mutual understanding and friendship." I hope to contribute to the
better global understanding of Korean Confucianism by writing
this book.
My warm thanks also go to my institution, the University
of Prince Edward Island (Charlottetown, PEI, Canada) for
granting me a full-year sabbatical, July 2011-July 2012 (together
with an internal research grant), duri ng which time I was able
to visit Korea and the University of Toronto for research and
consultation on several aspects of Korean Confucianism .
Furtherm ore, my writing also draws upon m y previous
scholarly works on these topics, most of which were funded
by research grants and conference travel grants which I had
received from UPEI from 1992 to 2011. Without this research
support by my university, my work on this book would have
been a difficult and less fruitful project.
On a related note, I am also pleased to acknowledge that
several chapters in this book are facilitated by research and
writing I did for my previous publications and conference
papers. I therefore thank the following publishers and scholarly
associations. Chapter 3 partly grew out of the substantially re-
10 Korean Confuaanam
written, combined, and updated version of my two previous
works: some sections of the Historical Background chapter in
my book, The Korean Neo-Confucianism of Yi T'oegye and
Yi Yulgok: A Reappraisal of the Four-Seven Thesis and Its
Implications for Self-Cultivation (SUNY Press, 1995), and "Yi
Yulgok's Practical Learning and Its Influence on the Sirhak
School in Korea," Korean Studies in Canada (University of
Toronto), vol. 3 (1995). Chapter 5 is generally based on the
integrated and revised version of my journal article, "Confucian
Ethics in Contemporary Korea: A Common National
Discourse," Korean Culture 16 (1995), and my conference
paper, "Confucian Influence on the Korean Language: Some
Reflections on the Dynamics of Confucian Humanism and
Cultural Transformation," presented at the International
Conference on "Translation and Cultural Transformation in
Korea," York University, Toronto, 1994. Chapter 7 draws upon
my two conference papers: "Tradition and Globalization:
Comparative Reflections on Confucian Values," presented
at the Biannual Meeting of the Canadian Asian Studies
Association (CASA) at the University of Montreal, 2003, and
"Globalization and Cultural Identity: Conflict or Assimilation
in K orea," presented the 2 5th Ann iver sar y of CASA
Conference, Marriott Chateau Champlain, Montreal, 2005. I
prepared Chapter 8 by substantially shortening, combining,
revising, and updating my journal article, "Confucianism and
Women in Modern Korea: Continuity, Change and Conflict,"
in Arvind Sharma and K. Young, eds. The Annual Review of
Women in World Religions, 3 (1994), and my conference paper,
"Modernity and Traditional Values in South Korea: Confucian
and Comparative Reflections on Moral-Cultural Identity and
Perplexity," presented at the Fourth Pacific Asian Conference
on Korean Studies, University ofBritish Columbia, Vancouver,
1998. Chapter 9 partly comes from the shortened and re-written
version of my two conference papers: "Confucian Li (Ritual)
and Family Spirituality: Reflections on Ancestral Rites in
Contemporary Korea," presented at the 2006 Annual Meeting
of the American Academy of Religion, Washing ton, DC, and
"Confucian Ancestral Rites and Christian Inculturation in
Modern Korea: Toward a Confucian-Catholic Spirituality,"
presented at the 1999 Annual Meeting of AAR, B oston.
Finally, I prepared Chapter 10 by assimilating, shortening,
and updating my two conference papers: "Confucianism and
Cultural Integration: Reflections on the Korean-Canadian
Experience," presented at the Conference on Canadian-Korean
Relations, UBC, Vancouver, 2003, and " Educating Non
English Speaking Immigrant Newcomers (Koreans) In PEI,
Canada: Facts, Challenges, and Opportunities," presented for
a special panel, Academic Services for Newcomers to Canada:
High Schools and Universities Adjust, at the 35th Conference of
Atlantic Association of' Registrars and Admissions Officers/
Interchange Conference, UPEI, Charlottetown, 2009.
For some sc holarly advice I received for my research
on Korean Confucianism while visiting South Korea a few
times since 1998, I sincerely thank my senior colleagues at the
Department of Religious Studies, Seoul National University,
Korea, especially Professor Emeritus Jangtae Keum, a leading
eminent scholar in the study of Korean Confucianism.
Lastly, I am also grateful to those people at the AKS for their
great work in dealing with administrative work and publication
information for this book project. In particular, I would like to
thank Dr. Hyeon Kim, CEFIA Director; I am also grateful to So
young Park and Jae-Yun Jeong, researchers and administrative
assistants in the Center's Division of Understanding Korea
Project, who have communicated effectively with me for about
two years. Finally, my warm thanks go to Dr. Philip G. Davis,
my senior depar tment colleague at the University of PEI,
Canada, who kindly assisted me in copyediting the manuscript
for English style.
Edward Y J. Chung
Charlottetown, Canada
Note on the Citation and
Transliteration Style
Korean terms, names, and titles are Romanized according

to the standard McCune-Reischauer system, my ongoing
preference, and Chinese counterparts according to the more
popular Pinyin system. In Romanizing the Korean given names
and pen names, I also follow the accepted style of excluding a
hyphen between the two characters (syllables) of one's name:
for example, Yi T'oegye (not T'oe-gye; a famous Korean Neo
Confucian); Yi Pyongdo (not Pyong-do; a modern historian
of Korean Confucianism); and so on. Likewise, the Chinese
counterparts are done by following the standard Pinyin style
of having no hyphen between those two syllables: e.g., Wang
Yangming (leading Ming Neo-Confucian); Tu Weiming
(contemporary Chinese scholar); and so on.
For the primary and secondary Korean sources cited,
only the Korean titles are given, as it is the standard style. To
avoid confusion, the titles of the early Chinese classics and
those Neo-Confucian sources are mainly given in Chinese
only. Since the focus is on Korean Confucianism, most of
the romanized philosophical terms-which are often given
in parentheses-indicate the Korean pronunciation first and
then the Chinese with a slash between them: for example, in/
Jen (human-heartedness or benevolence); yelli (propriety
or ritual); illi (principle); and so on. Nonetheless, there are
some exceptions especially in Chapters 1 and 4, where I have
indicated only the Chinese pronunciation when appropriate in
discussing the key Chinese thinkers and texts. Overall, I have
maintained this style consistently in all chapters and the notes.
My references to various sources are usually cited in the
notes. Some of these notes are necessarily detailed but include
substantial annotated comments which are provided for further
discussion. T his is partly why I prefer to use the endnote
format, so I encourage the reader to consider some of these
comments and additional points for his/her further reflection
beyond my writing. When appropriate, certain quotations are
given and documented directly within the text for the sake of
the reader's convenience; in other words, I use both in-text
and endnote citation styles in all chapters. I maintain the same
styles with convenience and consistency in presenting not only
modern Korean sources but also relevant Western translations
and studies (e.g., Chan, Lau, de Bary, Tu, Ching, etc.), which
will also assist the reader by indicating both the efficiency and
reliability of these sources.
1
Confucianism: Great Teachers and Teaching s ·· ····•·•·•········ 19
2
Korean Confucianism: A Short History ..... 33
3
Eminent Korean Thinkers and Scholars· · 48
4
Self-Cultivation: The Way of Leaming to be Human ········· 65
5
The Ethics of Human Relationships: Confucian Influence on
Korean Family, Society, and Language •••••••••• 76
6
Education, Confucian Values, and Economic Development
in Twentieth-Century Korea··· ················· 87
7
Confucianism and Globalization: National Identity and
Cultura l Assimilation ··············································· 95
8
Modern Korean Women and Confucian Values:
Change and Assimilation .. 105
9
Ancestral Rites and Family Moral Spirituality:
A Living Tradition in Today's Korea ··············· · ·······•·•·· ·· 117
10
Koreans and Confucianism in the West:
Some International Reflections ······ ·············· ... 132
11
The Relevance and Future of Korean Confucianism in the
Modern World ... 143
NOTES ••••••• ........ 154

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ··········••···•···• ........ 166
1 Confucianism:
Great Teachers and Teachings
1. Great Confucians
Confucianism originated in China during a golden

age of Chinese thought, several centuries before the
beginning of the Christian era. It is a common, living
tradition in East Asia including Korea as well as among
international East Asian communities around the world.
Acknowledged as one of the so-called T hree Teachings
(samgyolsanjiao) of China, together with Daoism and
Buddhism, it has shaped many elements of culture over
centuries in China as well as in Korea.
Is Confucianism a religion, a philosophy, a system
of family values, a social ethics, or something else?
Various scholars have applied different approaches to the
study of Confucianism.1 It is a unique tradition that puts
primm:y emphasis on learning, self-cultivation, practical
wisdom, and human relations. But we also need to study
it as a religious tradition; in fact, Confucianism embodies
an ancient religious foundation and its spiritual ideals.
From a comparative perspective, Confucianism has
been considered as a "diffused religion": an unorganized
set of beliefs and values diffused throughout family,
morality, social ethics, and public rites. As a kind of "lay
spirituality" or humanistic religion (Ching 1993), it offers
a set of values and spiritual teachings which are open
to other forms of religion. Some scholars have looked
at it in terms of its contribution to East Asia's economic
development as well.
This tradition developed from the teaching of
Confucius (551-479 BCE), a reformer and educator
from the state of Lu in modern Shandong province
in northeastern China. So the word "Confucianism"
is associated with the name Confucius, which is the
Latinized form of his Chinese title Kong Fuzi (Master
Kong), best pronounced as "Confucius" by the sixteenth
century Jesuits and other European missionaries in China.
It centered around a moral, educational and spiritual
project that sought to promote the "cultivated self," "great
community," and universal peace through a unique set of
scriptures and teachings.
Confucius did not view himself as the founder of
a new philosophy or religion, but rather preferred to
be called a " transmitter of ancient wisdom." He was
also a spiritual thinker whose teaching inspired a great
2Q Korellfi Coof'u::iawsm
following about two centuries later when it was elaborated
by Mencius (Mengzi, Master Meng; 372-289 BCE) and
others. Mencius, second only to Confucius, offered a
vision of idealism in terms of original human goodness.
The teachings of Confucius and Mencius represented
state orthodoxy from early Han China in 202 BCE to the
end of China's imperial period in 1911, as well as in Korea
until 1910, the end of the Yi Chos6n Dynasty.
The tradition eventually cul minated in Neo
Confucianism, the revival of Confucianism in Song China
(960-1279) during the eleventh and twelfth centuries,
which resulted in a creative interpretation of the earlier
and existing teachings. The famous thinker Zhu Xi
(1130-1 200) provided a comprehensive system of Neo
Confucian learning, metaphysics, ethics, and spirituality.
Three centuries later in the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644),
Wang Yangming (1472-1529) was the chief exponent
of Neo-Confucianism who emphasized the unity of
knowledge and action and the way to practice it morally in
daily life. Zhu's and Wang's schools ofNeo-Confucianism
were gradually introduced to Korea and Japan, although
the former generally became the orthodox school.
The Confucian tradition of Chos6n Korea (1392-1910)
produced many outstanding scholars such as Yi T'oegye
(1501-1570) and Yi Yulgok (1536-1584) . Chapter 3 in
this book discusses seven eminent Confucian scholars in
Korea including T'oegye and Yulgok.
2. Confucian Classics
The sac r e d b ooks o f Con fucianism are nme

Chinese scriptures divided i nto two groups: the Five
Classics (Wujing) and the Four Books (Sishu). All of the
major teachings are preserved in these works, which
greatly contributed to shaping the cultural identity and
philosophical-religious traditions of East Asia as a whole.
Confucius was believed to have spent his last years editing
and completing certain portions of the Five Classics.
The Five Classics consist of the Book of Changes
(Yijing), Book of History (Shujing), Book of Poetry
(Shijing), Book ofRites (Liji), and Spring and Autumn
Annals (Chunqiu), most of which had existed prior to the
time of Confuci us. The Yijing is a manual of divination,
probably compiled before the eleventh century BCE; its
supplementary philosophical portion i s collected i n a
series of appendixes. The Book ofHistory is a collection
of ancient historical documents, and the Book of Poetry
(or Odes) is an anthology of ancient religious songs,
hymns and poems. The Book ofRites deals with various
rituals and the corresponding principles of moral conduct,
22 Korellfi Coof'u::iawsm
including those for the rites of passage and public
religious ceremonies. The Spring and Autumn Annals is
the work reputedly compiled by Confucius himself, for it
is a historic al chronicle about his home state of Lu from
the eighth century to the early fifth century BCE.
The Four Books are the Anale cts (Lunyu), Great
Learning (Daxue), Doctrine of the Mean (Zhongyong),
and Book of Mencius (Mengzi). The Analects is the most
reliable text about Confucius' life and teachings and
his conversations with disciples. The Great Learning,
attributed to Confucius, is a brief essay dealing with
the practical dimension of Confucian life, including
education, self-cultivation, family regulation, and
political order. The Doctrine of the Mean, another brief
text, contains some of Confucius' teaching organized
with comments by others. It deals with the inner, spiritual
dimension of self-cultivation with respect to "the oneness
of Heaven and human nature." The Book ofMencius is a
longer book written by Mencius himself and contains his
idealistic philosophy of human nature and its implications
for self-cultivation and benevolent government. The
famous Neo-Confucian Zhu Xi called these texts "the
Four Books," and emphasized them as containing the
central ideas of Confucian thought, for which reason he
wrote an immense amount of com mentaries on them.
Scholars and students in China, Korea, and (to a lesser
extent) Japan commonly studied the Five Classics, Four
Books, and Zhu Xi's commentaries because they were
the suqjects of civil service examinations for over many
centuries until the late nineteenth century.
3. Basic Confucian Teachings
The core Confucian doctrine is about "learning

to be human," and its ultimate goal is sagehood (self
per fection). It presents a unifying commitment to
promoting peace, order, and prosperit y through the
transformation of the individual. It is basically concerned
with the ultimate meaning of humanity and the best way
of maintaining our ethical and social roles.
Con fucianism therefore emphasizes human
heartedness (inlren) and other virtues. Ren is variously
translated as benevolence, love, compassion, or human
goodness as the supreme, universal virtue, representing
the source of all other virtues. It is the key to the way
of wisdom, representing human qualities at their best.
Con fucius said: "Ren is to love all human beings"
(Anal,ects, 12:22). It is best expressed in the Confucian
golden rule: "Do not do to others what you do not want
done to yourself' (4:15 and 12:2). The proper cultivation
of ren embodies the Way (Do/Dao), which is meant to be
extended to family, society, government, and beyond.
Another key teaching is propriety or ritual (yelli). The
tradition takes it beyond the formal religious ceremonies by
including moral human relationships and a customary code
of social propriety. Confucius taught it not as sacrifices
asking for divine grace (blessing) or theistic salvation, but
rather as appropriate actions and ceremonies. It governs
the basic means by which ren is cultivated: ritual acts may
enrich one's moral and spiritual growth. Confucius said:
"To master oneself and return to ritual propriety is human
heartedness" (Analects, 12:1). This also means the so
called four-fold prohibition which Confucius emphasized
for practicing propriety in daily life:
To master oneself and return to propriety (ye/Ii) is

humanity Qn!ren) .. .. Do not look at what is contrary to
propriety, do not listen to what is contrary to propriety,
do not speak what is contrary to propriety, and do not
make any movement which is contrary to propriety.
(;J.nalects, 12:1; Chan 1963:38-39; cf. Lau 1979:112)
Chapter 4 in this book discusses human-heartedness

and propriety as the essential basis of the Confucian way
of self-cultivation.
Besides formal daily manners, ye/Ii ritual may be as
complex as the funeral and memorial rites for a deceased
parent, so it implies the moral-religious dimension
of the tradition. Chapter 9 in this book will discuss
its implication for the Korean tradition of Confucian
ancestral rites and family spirituality which will point to
Confucianism as a living tradition in today's Korea.
Furthermore, righteousne s s is necessary for
developing ren; one follows this virtue acc ording to
propriety (ye/li). It is also a natural moral feeling to
do good. Mencius, in particular, developed a doctrine
of righteousness with respect to personal cultivation,
sageho od, and government. Mencius formulated an
explicit theory of "the original goodness of human
nature."
Filial piety is another important virtue, which
Confucius and others regarded as basic to family and
social ethics. Also understood as family love, it enables
children to grow up with filial respect for parents and a
sense of propriety in social relationships.
One who follows these key virtues is called a noble
or cultivated person (kunja!junzi). Confucius and others
discussed this role model as "the human way," and
affirmed it as a necessary path to the ultimate attainment
of sagehood in unity with "the Heavenly Dao." Centuries
later, Neo-Confucian thinkers in China, Korea, and Japan
generally interpreted these teachings in the similar ways,
while compiling a large number of discourses, essays,
commentaries, and anthologies.
Confucianism emp hasize d the so-c a lled Five
Relationships, maintained by the two principles of
reciprocity and mutual obligation. They are not just
biological or social relationsh ips but are also based on
moral-philosophical principles, revealing a fundamental
belief in human dignity and equality. So the proper roles
and virtues are emphasized: affection between parents
and children; righteousness between ruler and subjects;
distinction and harmony between husband and wife; order
(and respect) among older and younger siblings; and trust
among friends (Mencius, 3A:4). As Confucius said,
Ifthe names and duties are not rectified, the language

wi ll not accord with truth; if the language is not
in accordan c e with the truth, things cannot be
accomplished (properly). (Analects, 13:3)
These ideals of human relationships are meant to be

"reciprocal" and be practiced in various circles of society.
C hapter 5 w ill discuss this topic in terms of modern
Korean ethics of human relationships inter"-connecting the
self, family, society, government, nation, and beyond.
The Great Learning, one of the Four Books of
Confucianism, present s its famou s teach ing on the
ultimate goal of lea rning: an integrated path to self
cultivation, family regulation, socio-political order, and
then universal peace and harmony. As the first chapter
articulates, "The Way of lea rning to be great consists
of illuminating the virtue, renovating the people, and
maintaining the highest good ...." And this wel l-known
passa ge also states:
The ancients who wished to manifest their clear

character to the world would fi r st bring order to their
states. Those who wished to bring order to their states
would first regulate their families. Those who wished
to re gulate their families would first cultivate their
personal lives. Those who wished to cultivate their
personal lives would first rectify their minds. Those
who wished to rectify their minds would first make
their wills sincer e. Those who wished to make their
wills sincere would first extend their knowledge. The
extension of knowledge consists in the investigation
of things. (Chan 1963:86)
Korean Neo-Confucians such as Yi T'oegye and Yi
Yulgok frequently discussed this core teaching, which
may be called the 8-step Confucian way of perfecting
the self and the world. It begins from "the investigation
of things" and continues through "self-cultivation"
and "governing the state." This teaching also has a
c osmological and spiritual basis, as indicated in the
Doctrine of the Mean (chap. 1): "W hat Heaven (tian)
imparts to human beings is called human nature; to follow
our nature is called the Way (Dao). Cultivating the Way
is called learning." It is to take human knowledge, action
and experience seriously as the arena of moral-spiritual
fulfillment. For this reason, Chapter 4 will discuss the
Confucian way of self-cultivation as "lear ning to be
human."
The idealist in ner dimension of Con fucianism
embodies a spiritual nature with respect to the Way and
the oneness of Heaven and humanity. It is uniquely about
the Confucian notion of transcendence: to perfect the self
and the society, as bestowed by the Dao. Here we can see
its spiritual teaching of sagehood.
In medieval China, the leading Neo-Confucian Zhu
Xi wrote numerous commentaries and essays in order
to s treng then and enrich the entire Confucian tradition
by developing a comprehensive system of metaphysics,
ethics, and spiritual practice in terms of iiIi (metaphysical
principle) and kilqi (physical energy or material force),
human nature and emotions, good and evil, sel f
cultivation, and so on. 2 Overall, Zhu's interpretation
emphasized the transcendent, virtuous reality of illi over
the physical, emotional and material world of ki, thereby
calling for learning and moral-spiritual self-cultivation.
This is basically how Yi T'oegye articulated such a
philosophy in Korea centuries later.
The Zhu Xi school in Song China became known
as "the ChengZhu school" 3 of orthodoxy that offered
a balance of study, self-cultivation, social ethics, ritual
practice, and government administration. Other Neo
Confucians in China as well as Korea developed it further
until the late nineteenth century. Yi T'oegye and Yi
Yulgok are the two best-known scholars in the Korean
ChengZhu school; Chapter 2 will explore its history,
and Chapter 3 presents its eminent scholars and thinkers
including them.
As I have noted at the beginning of this chapter,
Confucianism, unlike Christianity or even Buddhism,
is not an organized membership religion with clergy or
a set of religious creeds. Given its historical and cultural
background, it did not need to develop a central church,
organized priesthood or worship services (Ching 1993).
For many centuries in East Asia including Korea, the
Confucian tradi tion developed and promoted self
cultivation, public education, family, society, government,
cultural development, and so on. It i s continuously
influencing elite culture, moral education, family values,
social har mony and eth ics, political leadersh ip, and
cultural identity in modem East Asia. In Chapters 5-9 we
discuss these living aspects of Korean Confucianism and
their modern changes.
Supplementary Readings:
Berthrong, John. 2002. Conjucianism: A Short Introduction.
Chan, Wing-ts it. 1963. A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy.
Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Chan, Wing-ts it, ed. 1986. Chu Hsi andNeo-Confucianism.
Honolulu: University ofHawaii Press.
Ching, Julia. 1993. Chinese Religions. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis
Books.
Ch ung, Edward Y. J. 1995. The KoreanNeo-Confucianism of Yi
T'oegye and Yi Yulgok: A Reappraisal of the "Four-Seven
Thesis" and Its Implications for Seif-Cultivation. Albany:
State University of New York Press.
De Bary, William, T., et al. 1960. Sources of the Chinese
Tradi.tion. New York: Columbia University Press.
E brey, Patricia B., trans. 1991. Chu Hsi 's Family Rituals: A
Twelflh-Century Chinese Manual for the Performance
of Cappings, Weddings, Funerals, and Ancestral Rites.
Princ eton Library of Asian Translations. Princ eton:
Princ eton University Press.
Ga dner, Daniel K. 2007. The Four Books: The Basic Teachi.ngs
r
ofthe Inter Confucian Tradition. Indianapolis/Cambridge:

Hackett Publishing Company.
Kalton, M ichael C., trans. 1988. To Become A Sage: The Ten
Diagrams on Sage Learning by Yi T'oegye. New York:
Columbia University Press.
Kung, Hans and Julia Ching. 1989. Christianity and Chinese
Religions. New York: Doubleday.
Lau. D. C., trans. 1979. Corifucius: The Analects. New York:
Penguin Classics.
__ _ , trans. 1970. Nfencius. New York: Penguin Classics.
Legge, James, trans., 1962. Chinese Classics, 7 vols. (Five
Classics , Analects, and Nfencius). Hong Kong: Hong Kong
University Press.
Ro, Young-chan. 1989. The Korecm Confucianism of Yi Yulgok.
Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
Tu, Weiming. 1985. Confucian Thought: Selfhood as Creative
Selj'Jransformation. Albany: SUNY Press.
Tu, Weiming, M. Hejtmanek, and A. Wachman. eds. 1992. The
Confucicm World Observed: A Contemporary Discussion
of Confucian Humanism in East Asia Honolulu: The East
West Center.
2 Korean Confucianism:
A Short History
1. Early Korea
Korea has a long and rich tradition of Confucianism

since its early historical period. Particularly during
the Choson dynasty (1392-1910), it strongly influenced
Korean family, education, philosophy, religion, social
and polit ical systems, and daily ways o f life. It is
unclear precisely when Confucianism was introduced
to Korea from China. Early Korea welcomed it together
with the Chine se classics s omet ime around 108
BCE, when Han China established its colony at Lo
lang (Korean: Nangnang), a northwestern region of
the Korean peninsula; Lo-lang was a district around
modem P'yongyang in North Korea. The first use of the
Confucian classics in the Korean peninsula took place in
the Lo-lang period.
In the so-called Three Kingdoms period (57 BCE-
668 CE), 4 Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism
were all officially accepted by the ruling class and
later spread to the commoners. In fact, each of the
three kingdoms supported Confucianism not only
as an important part of Chinese learning but also as
an institutional means of maintaining its aristocratic
power and its socio-political order. In addition,
Confucian ritualism was important in official court
ceremonies, including the veneration of deceased kings
and other leaders. The people of Silla, for example,
learned Confucian values and put them into practice
in their daily life. Its impact on Silla society indicates
that even some leading Buddhist monks tried to
incorporated certain Confucian moral teachings. 5 The
Silla people had the custom of a three-year mourning
for the death of parents, one that originates from the
Confucian rite system. 6 Another good example of
Confucian influence is Silla's Hwarangdo (way of the
flower youth), a quasi-religious and military academy
for aristocratic sons that promoted the Confucian way
of learning and self-cultivation? This academy was
particularly important in welding Silla Korean society
together, and the Confucian teaching of loyalty, its
cohesive force, facilitated Silla not only to maintain
the authority of the throne but also to u nify two
neighboring kingdoms.
In the Unified Silla period (668-935), Confucianism
b egan to rival Buddhism. In the eighth and ninth
centuries, many Korean students went to Tang China
and studied Confucianism at its national academy. Still,
Confucianism was studied mainly in Buddhist temples
and monasteries, the academic and religious centers of
Unified Silla Korea. Meanwhile, Confucian scholars
promoted it as an alternative system of learning and
political ideology for building a bureaucratic state in
which they and their followers could prosper under state
patronage. The establishment of the state examination
system clearly reflects Unified Silla's decision to do so as
the basis of selecting government officials.
2. The Rise of Neo-Confucianism in the Koryo

Period
On the whole, Confucianism was not important

to everyone in the Three Kingdoms and Unified Silla
periods. It played a subordinate role to the traditional
ideas maintained by noble families and hereditary
aristocrats, as well as by the Buddhist tradition. Not
until the rise of Neo-Confucianism in the late thirteenth
century, did the Confucian tradition begin to exert more
and stronger impact on Korean thought, religion, socio
political systems, and ways oflife.
In the Koryo dynasty (918-1392), King Kwangjong
(949-975), for example, imitated Tang China in order
to appoint many Confucian scholars as officials. The
civil service examination system consisted of three
major groups of examinations: composition, classics,
and miscellaneous. During the Unified Silla period
the criteria for selecting government officials tended
to privilege the members of hereditary aristocratic
families. However, the Koryo people of local elite
groups had their opportunities to advance into the
central bureaucracy. It was therefore possible for more
young men to become government officials in Koryo
Korea.
Meanwhile, Confucian scholars became interested in
capturing the political power of the central government
by urging that Confucianism be fully established as the
state ideology. King Songjong organized the national
Confucian academy (Kukchagam) which quickly led
to establishing Koryo's educational system on the basis
of Confucian learning. He also sent Confucian scholars
to the countryside in order to establish regional schools
known as Hyanggyo and to teach students in local
areas.8 Such an educational system, despite its high cost,
expanded to produce a new elite class of scholar-officials.
Many of the Koryo scholars also travelled to Song China
and studied the new form of Confucianism known as the
ChengZhu school.9 This brought Song Neo-Confucianism
to Korea from the late thirteenth century.
From the late Koryo period onward, the ChengZhu
school in Korea began to receive strong support from
the new class of scholar-officials. In the late fourteenth
century, Neo -Confucian scholar-officials, especially
Chong Mongju (1337-1392) and others, began to institute
the state education system at the Songgyun'gwan while
attacking the Buddhist institutions. They strongly
supported the Songgyun'gwan as the national center
for Confucian education.10 In the Choson dynasty, it
produced many eminent Neo-Confucians, including
Yi T'oegye (1501-1570) and Yi Yulgok (1536-1584),
photo 1 a Sooggyun'gwan Confucian Academy in Korea TaesOngjon

Grand Confucian Shrine ®Songgyun'gwan
photo 1 b Smggyun' gwan Confucian Academy in Korea TaesOngjm
Grand Confucian Shrine - inside enshrining and honoring
Confucius' and other ancestral tablets ©Smggyun'gwan
photo 1 c Smggyun'gwan Confucian Academy in Korea Mymgnyundang Grand Lecture Hall

©Smggyun'gwan
and continued to serve as the most important center for
education, scholarship, and political influence in Korea
up until 1910.
3. Neo-Confucianism in the Early Chosun Dynasty

Instead of his duty to fight the Ming Chinese forces
in 1388, General Yi Songgye withdrew his army from
the Yalu River and mar ched toward the Koryo capital to
seize political power. This led to the beginning of the Yi
Choson dynasty (1392-1910). Liberal scholar-officials, such
as Chong Tojon (13 42-1398)1 1 and Kwon Kun (1352-14 09),
supported Yi's claims of the legitimacy of the new dynasty.
In a period of dynastic and ideological transition,
N ea-Confucianism enabled General Yi to begin the
Choson dynasty as King T'aejo (r. 1392-1398 ), thereby
enabling Korean Neo-Confucians to establish Song Neo
Confucianism as the new state religion and ideology in
Korea. The new ChengZhu school from China offered
them enough hope of creating a new political order out of
the corrupt old society but also an ethical and religious
system of thought that provided a refreshing set of goals
and methods in order to legitimize the new dynasty.
Among Yi's leading supporters was Chong Tojon who
assisted his ascent to power. For the new elite class,
this meant a renewed commitment to the Confucian
tradition which was considered to be the new i ntellectual
and spiritual guide for scholar-officials to sustain a
bureaucratic state.
4. Neo-Confucian Education and State Examination

System
With the establishment an d spread of N e o

Confucianism, the state examination system- which was
put into effect inKoryo as a way of recruiting government
officials-took on a more central role in the Choson
dynasty. The Neo-Confucian literati devised a system of
administrative law infused with the moral and political
ideals of Confucianism. They constituted the yangban
gentry class representing the t wo privileged orders of
civil and military officials.12 Social classes of literati
and commoners were separated according to birth and
lineage. The elite class enjoyed their educational, social
and political privileges as means of becoming government
officials through the civil-service examination system
or by the merit of their ancestors to the state. By the
eighteenth century, almost all levels of the whole society
became transformed into what Kim Haboush calls a
Confucian normative society.13 Many elite families
and Confucian bureaucrats began to compete in power
struggle. Indeed, Neo-Con fucianism may have played
a powerful role i n generat ing an elite gentry society
and a highly bureaucratic tradition; this has been the
most popular area in current scholarship on traditional
Korean history, society, and politics, one that need not be
rehearsed here.14
From the early fifteenth century, Confucian education
thus became a primary gateway to personal and family
success. The literary licentiate examination system15 was
based on skills in composing Chinese literary works such
as poetry, documentary prose, and problem essays. The
texts used in the examinations included the Five Classics,
Four Books, Neo-Confucian commentaries, histories,
etc. Hence, the government concentrated its efforts on
developing its public academies, which was significant for
scholar-officials in establishing a thoroughly Confucian
s ociety on the basis of the state exami nation and
education systems. In Chapters 5 and 6 we shall explore
the influence of this tradition on today's Korea.
These academies also served as the important local
centers for Confucian scholarship through which many
retired scholars were able to make a significant progress
in the development ofNeo-Confucianism from the middle
of the SL'Cteenth centmy on. Dmi.ng this period, the most
glorious period in the history of Korean Confucianism,
many eminent thinkers emerged, including Yi T'oegye
and Yi Yulgok. The following section briefly goes over
this historical period.
5. The Golden Age of Songnihak in Sixteenth

Century Korea
So Kyongdok (pen name, Hwadam; 1489-1546), Yi

Hwang (pen name, T'oegye), and Yi I (pen name, Yulgok)
are kn own as the "Three Masters" of Korean N eo
Confucianism, who determined the unique patterns of its
"philosophy of human nature and principle" (songnihak).16
Hwadam dedicated himself to the study of Song Chinese
Neo-Confucianism and became the first Korean scholar to
have formulated a philosophy of material force (kihak). Yi
Hwang is commonly known by his literary (pen) name,
T'oegye. He developed a highly sophisticated system of
metaphysics, ethics and spirituality in many significant
works he compiled during his fi fties and sixties.17 Yi
T'oegye and Yi Yulgok are often mentioned together as
the two greatest minds of Choson Korea. Yulgok was
a great scholar as well as a distinguished politician and
refoimer.18 He advocated Confucian principles to improve
the contemporary political, economic, social, and military
institutions of the Choson dynasty.
Followers of the Yongnam school became associated
with T'oegye's "school of the pr imacy of pr inciple"
(churip'a), whereas Yulgok's disciples and their followers
established "the school of the primacy of kl' (chugip'a).
Beginning in the late sixteenth century, these two schools
of thought emerged within the Korean Songnihak, and
they eventually began to c riticize each other. Each school
underwent further development for three more centuries
in the hands of successive thinkers. Chapter 3 discusses
Hwadam, T'oegye, Yulgok, and others in detail.
6. Practical Learning and Reform Confucianism

in the 18 and 19 Centuries
th th
In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Practical

Learning (sirhak) was a leading Confucian school in
Korea. It is complex in origin but an important an d
influential school of thought. Sirhak scholars extended their
inquiries to various practical areas such as government
ad minis tratio n , economics, history, mathem atics,
geography, agriculture, literature, and Western religion
and science.19 In general, however, they shared a common,
reformist nature: the Confucian vision of how an orderly
and prosperous society based on an ideal government could
be achieved and maintained successfully.
The Korean scholm: Yi Olho suggested that it is
not wrong to call the Sirhak school a kind of "reform
Confucianism," for it reaffirmed the fundamental
Confucian teaching of self-cultivation and good
government. D uring the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries, most Sirhak thinkers criticized the orthodox
Songnihak as an "abstract," "impractical," "non
refomrist" lem:ning. Yi Ik (pen name, Songho; 1681-1763)
and his later follower, Chong Yagyong (pen name, Tasan;
1762-1836), m:gued that the Korean Songnihak failed to
comprehend the fundamental Confucian ideas and values
concerned with socio-political and economic matters.
Defining the term sirhak in the context of promoting the
daily lives of people, they made a clem:-cut distinction
between traditional N eo-Confucianism and themselves.
Undoubtedly, the Sirhak school was influenced
by various existing ideas, approaches and concerns.
In a historically dynamic and pluralistic setting, it
tried to synthesize them, and its reformist, egalitm:ian
and utilitarian spirit was different from the orthodox
Songnihak school. But it did not have a purely original
foundation outside the Confucian tradition because
its philosophical and ethical unfolding was essentially
related to the study of Confucian classics, Neo-Confucian
thought, and practical aspects. The Sirhak school began
as "learning for governing the country," insofar as its
essence pertains to the Confucian tradition of learning,
self-cultivation, and government administration. Chapter
3 discusses its greatest scholar, Chong Tasan, in detail.
7. Early Twentieth-Century Reformers
In addressing social and political problems in the

early twentieth century, Korean reformers charged that
the collapse of the nation was due to the dominance of
the orthodox S6ngnihak school which was suited for
"empty" theoretical study only. For them, it was therefore
necessary to renovate Confucianism by promo ting
the Wang Yangming school, a rival Neo-Confucian
tradition that developed in Ming China, by criticizing
the ChengZhu school. Wang's emphasis on actual moral
practice was said to be fur more important than Zhu Xi's
teaching of rational knowledge. When the Y i Chos6n
dynasty was about to collapse and become a colony of
Japan, some leading reformers also preached the doctrine
"the innate ability to do good," the slogan of "practical
action," and reformist progress in the spirit of Wang
Yangming's teaching.20
The spirit of Wang's philosophy had a profound
impact on a new group of Korean modernists such as
like Pak Dnsik (1859-1926) who advocated national
independence when the penetration of Japanese and
Western influence began to threaten Korea's sovereignty.
Pak was also a famous historian who emphasized a sense
of patriotic pride and respect. In his major historical
works, 21 he attacked Japanese policies of aggression
and also provided a kind of spiritual support for the
independence movement. For him, the collapse of the
nation was due to the Songnihak school's failure to
reform itself. In his essay on "saving and renovating
Confucianism," Pak argued that to make people happy
again, Korea should promote only the Wang Yangming
school as "people's Confucianism" in order to preserve
happiness and peace in the world. He maintained that
any knowledge one may acquire through the Songnihak
school is "without practical usefulness" in daily life. As
I discussed elsewhere (Chung 1992a), although the Wang
Yangming school did not enjoy full development in the
Choson dynasty, it played an important role in Korea's
modem intellectual history by exerting a strong influence
on the development of the new Sirhak school and the
rise of modern Korean reformers in the early twentieth
century.
To conclude this chapter, we need to note that for
many centuries in Korea, Confucianism has been an
intellectual discourse, a code of family values, and a
system of social ethics, as well as a political ideology. It
has also developed and preserved its spiritual teaching
and ritual tradition. And yet, it differs from other
religious or philosophical traditions because it continues
to integrate these aspects of Confucian culture in today's
Korea, including learning, moral education, family values
and ancestral rites, social hierarchy and harmony, political
leadership, and cultural identity. In Chapters 5-9, we
discuss these aspects of Korean Confucianism and their
modern changes.
3 Eminent Korean Thinkers
and Scholars
From the late fourteenth century, Korea began to

produce numerous great Confucian scholars, many
of whom also served as famous government officials.
The names of these people include Chong Mongju
(1337-1392), Chong Tojon (1342-1398), his colleague
Kwon Kun (135 2-1409), So Hwadam (1489-1546),
Yi T'oegye (1501-1570), Yi Yulgok (1536-1584), and
Chong Tasan (1762-1836). This chapter presents a
general overview of their contributions to Korean
Confucianism and briefly covers each thinker's life,
scholarship, and philosophy.22
1. Chong Mongju: Neo-Confucian Learning

and Morality
Chong Mongju (pen name, Poiln) and others began to
institute the state education system at the Songgyun'gwan
Confucian royal college in the late Koryo period. They
strongly supported the Songgyun'gwan as the national
c enter for educ ation. As a result, it eventually taught
such outstanding students as Chong Tojon, Kwon Kun,
Yi T'oegye, Yi Yulgok, and others, all of whom became
influential Neo-Confucian scholarn in Korea from the late
fourteenth century.
Chong Mongju was an influential scholar-official
and also served as an instructor at the Songgyun'gwan.
He was well versed in the Five Classics, Four Books, and
Zhu Xi's c ommentaries.23 His study of Song Chinese
Neo-Confucianism was praised highly by others . He
was even c alled the "founder of the school of principle
(ihak/li-hsiie h) in Korea"; the term ihak is one of the
c ommon terms used in referring to the ChengZhu school
associated with Song Chinese Neo-Confucianism. His
c ontemporaries praised him as the first Korean who
elevated the Korean tradition to the level of philosophical
thinking and moral self-cultivation.
When General Yi Songgye claimed for the legitimacy
of his new Yi dynasty through a military coup d'etat,
Chong strongly opposed Yi's rulership by maintaining
that it was an improper, immoral and unjustified ac t.
As a result, he was murdered by one of Yi's sons, as
the Koryo Dynasty fell. He is still highly admired by
modern Koreans not only bec ause he suffered martyrdom
to defend his faith, but also as an everlasting Korean
paradigm of t he Con fucian virtues of l oyalty and
righteousness.
2. Chong Tojon: The Establishment of Neo

Confucianism as the New State Ideology
By t aking advantage of Yi S onggye's rise t o
power, scholar-officials began t o establish Song Neo
Confucianism as the new state ideology and religion
in Korea. Among Yi's close supporters was his leading
scholar-official, Chong Tojon (pen name, Sambong; 1342-
1398) who assisted his ascent to supreme power.24 His
first approach to reform was a revision of the legal code
according to Neo -Confucian ethical and political ideals.
As the principal architect of the new dynasty, he compiled
major political writings such as the Choson K orea's c odes
for Governing the country (Choson kyongguk chon) and
Historical Mirror for Managing the World and Saving
the Pe ople (Kyongje mu'gam); these works provided a
general framework for the polity and social order of the
new dynasty, becoming the basis of his Great Codes
for Governing the Country (Kyongguk taejon), the new
dynasty's political canon.
At the same time, Sambong launched a serious
attack against Buddhism. He was the first Korean Neo
Confucian t o formulate a systematic philosophical
c riticism of Buddhist do ctrines, as indicated in his
major essay, "Arguments against the Buddha" (Pulssi
chapp'yon).25 His c onclusion was that the Confucian
learning is much more valuable than Buddhist and Daoist
teachings because of its emphasis on the objective reality
oflearning, self-cultivation, and socio-political actions.
3. Kwon Kun: Neo-Confucian Scholarship and

Political Contribution
Kwon Kiln (pen name, Yangch'on; 1352-1409) was an

another important scholar-teacher who was a former dean
of the national Songgyun'gwan royal academy. He helped
the new government in establishing Neo-Confucianism
as the basis ofits state religion and ideology. He did so by
preparing influential scholarly works; e.g., the first Korean
c ommentaries on Confucian rituals and ceremonies .
These texts facilitated the promotion of the state rituals of
the Choson dynasty during its first century.
Like Sambong, he used Neo-Confucian doctrines to
c1iticize Buddhism by emphasizing the unity ofknowledge
and action in Confucian learning. His most famous work
is the Diagrammatic Treatise for the Commencement of
Learning (Jphak tosol), the first major interpretation of
Neo-Confucian thought in Korea. It was published fifty
five times in both Korea and Japan. It consists of twenty
six diagrams, and the first diagram is especially significant
because it summarizes the essentials of Neo-Confucian
met aphysics and ethic s. 26 Through Sambong's and
Yangch'on's writings, Neo-Confucianism was presented
as the new intellectual, ethical, and political guide for
scholar-officials to sustain a centralized, bureaucratic
Confucian state in Korea. Even economic issues were to
be addressed in the Confucian context of administrating
a political economy. These practical ideas and concerns
were the focus of their statecraft school, which helped the
Korean scholar-officials to develop Neo-Confucianism
from the middle of the sixteenth century on. Indeed,
this period was the golden age in the history of Korean
Confucianism when many eminent thinkers emerged,
including those discussed in the following section.
Eminent Thinker-Scholars from the

Sixteenth-Century
4. So Hwadam: A Philosophy of Ki
S6 Hwadam (1489-1546), T'oegye, and Yulgok are
known as the "Three Masters" (samja) of Korean Neo
Confucianism who determined its unique patterns. After
turning his back on the political world of the Chos6n
dynasty, Hwadam dedicated himself to the study of Neo
Confucianism and became the first Korean thinker t o
have formulated a philosophy o f material force (kilqi;
physical energy). In his short philosophical treatises,
he articulated the role of ki in the process of all cosmic
transformation. H is whole philosophy emphasizes the idea
of ki as the "fundamental substance" of the universe: ki
is the formless and unlimited force and therefore creates
and transforms all phenomena. Hwadam explained that
life and death are due to the fusing and intermingling
activities of ki, and the operation of everything is founded
on this dynamic role of ki. Yi T'oegye later criticized
Hwadam for m isinterpreting Zhu Xi's metaphysics
of i and ki; by contrast, Yi Yulgok praised Hwadam's
originality.
5. Yi T' oegye: The Korean Philosophy of Principle:

Neo-Confucian Ethics and Spirituality
Yi Hwang (1501-1570) 27 is better known by his pen
name T'oegye, and is often referred to as the Master Zhu
Xi of Korea. Prof. Tu Weiming of Harvard University and
'•
.••
photo 2a Eminent Confucian scholar Yi T'oegye' s portrait
in color ©Bank of Korea in Seoul/ Mr. (Hyuncho)
LEE, Yu Tae
Beijing Univer sity called
T' oegye "a major source
of ins piration for creative
1000 scholarship on Confucian
photo 2b Eminent Confucian scholar Yi
philosophy and its modern
T'oernre's portrait - Korean paper scholarship" (Tu 1978:467).
money, 1000won
The contemporary Japanese
scholar Abe Yoshio (1977:9) considered T 'oegye as "the
greatest scholar of the ChengZhu school in Korea." T'oegye's
thought exerted a good deal of influence on the development
of Neo-Confucianism in Tokugawa Japan a s well. The
Japanese scholars learned Neo-Confucianism partly through
reading T'oegye's editions of the Chinese writings.
T'oegye was a quiet and introspective man, who
always liked reading and study. Even in the early years of
his life, he practiced quiet-sitting and self-reflection over
what he learned from books , especially when his mind
recovered its serenity at night. He also composed over
2,000 poems of various types. 28 In fact, the poetic and
intuitive aspects of life influenced T 'oegye's philosophy,
which emphasizes an inner-directed and contemplative
way of life as well as his practice of self-cultivation.
He served in a total of twenty-nine official position s, in
which he utilized his scholarly and literary talents. But he
always wanted to retire because he never had any political
ambition. Obviously, T'oegye's longing for an opportunity
to devote hi mself to study corresponds to his strong
dissatisfaction with the political problems of his time. He
always wished to return to his home town in the beautiful
countryside, so that he could fully devote himself to
Confucian learning and self-cultivation. Furthermore, he
was also busy with teaching and writing.
T'oegye compiled many famous works in his sixties.
Among them is his greatest writing, Songhak sipto (Ten
diagrams on sage learning), a concise summation and
commentary on the whole framework of ChengZhu Neo
Confucianism.29 It covers the essentials ofNeo-Confucian
metaphysics, et hics and spirituality, together with
T'oegye's diagrams and annotate comments.
For seven years from early 1559 to late 1566, T'oegye
carried on his famous Four-Seven correspondence with Ki
Taesung (pen name, Kobong; 1529-1592).30 It was in this
debate that he formulated a highly sophisticated moral
philosophy and psychology of human nature and feelings,
as well as their implication for self-cultivation in relation
to the Neo-Confucian metaphysics and ethics of good
and evil. In short, T'oegye emphasized the transcendent
and virtuous reality of principle (i) over the immanent,
physical and emotional world of material force, (ki),
thereby calling for moral and spiritual self-cultivation.
photo 3a Eminent Confucian scholar Yi Yulgok's portrait
in color ©Ojukheon & Museum in Gangneung/
Mr (I-dang) Kim, Eun-ho
Ercwlent Korean
Thwl.ers and Scholars 57
His Four-Seven letters are
an excellent source for
u nderstanding not only
the ethical and spiritual
photo 3b Eminent Confucian scholar Yi dimensions of his N eo
Yulgok' s portrait - Korean paper Confucianism but also his
money 5000 won
wisdom, scholarship, and
mentorship. He emphasized the ultimate t ruth of human
nature (as discussed in Chapters 1 and 4), thereby calling
for a sagely learning that integrates intellectual insight,
moral effort, and spiritual cultivation. T'oegye's entire
thought centers around such a philosophy that greatly
enhanced the moral and spiritual dimension of Korean
Neo-C onfucianism.
6. Yi Yulgok: Learning, Self-Cultivation, and

Socio-Political Actions
Yi T'oegye and Yi Yulgok 31 are often mentioned
together as the two greatest minds of Choson Korea.
Modem Koreans respect Yulgok not only as a b rilliant
Neo-Confucian thinker-scholar but also as a distinguished
politician and reformer who ad vocated Con fucian
principles to imp rove the political, economic, social,
and military institutions of the Choson dynasty. He had
many remarkable accomplishments during his short life
of forty-nine years. No other Korean Neo-Confucians
can match his far-reaching vision of history, practical
learning, public service, and political reform.
At age five Yulgok began to commit himself seriously
to mastering literary Chinese and basic Confucian
classics, under the guidance of his mother. His beloved
mother's ear ly death in 1551, when Yulgok was only
fifteen years old, gave him a deep sorrow about life. He
built a small hut near his mother's grave, and there he
mourned her for three years. His official career began
when he was twenty-three years o ld; after that, his
scholarly and official life was a busy and influential one.
Yulgok compiled many important philosophical,
political and educational works. Among those presented
to the king include the following: "Tongho Questions
and Answers" (Tongho mundap), a famous political
memorial consisting of eleven critical articles of political
reform, and "A Model for Academy" (Hakkyo mobom), a
major essay covering the Confucian goals and methods
of educating youth . These works articulate the practical
aspects ofhis thought dealing with government, economy,
s ocial reform, and ed ucation. For example, Yulgok
presented an urgent call to abolish political corruption
maintained by the traditional rules of government and
to establish new programs and strategies to bring about
an economic and social progress. 32 He also urged the
liberation of talented slaves and advocated a reform
measure that sons of secondaty wives of the gentry class
should be appointed to both civil and military government
offices.
The Songhak chipyo (Essentials of the learning of
sagehood) is Yulgok's most famous philosophical work,
which c ontains the fundamentals of Neo-Confucian
metaphysics, ethics, self-cultivation, and statecraft.
Furthermore, his famous "Four-Seven Debate Letters"
articulated the crucial topic T'oegye had discussed a
decade before. Yulgok gave a detailed and systematic
interpretation of the Confucian philosophy of mind,
human nature, and feelings and its implication for self
cultivation and practical learning.33 In comparison to
T'oegye who had no interest in politics, Yulgok was
an active statesman who utilized Confucian principles
and ideals in order to for mulate his political thought
concerning reform and progress. Yulgok emphasized the
philosophical idea of ki (material force or physical energy)
with respect to learning and self-cultivation,34 which has
its rational and moral grounds in the ChengZhu school
of Neo-Confucianism.35 Overall, his thought tends to
emphasize a realistic and practical philosophy of ki that
eventually shaped his philosophy of practical learning and
political reform.
7. Chong Tasan: Practical Learning (Sirhak) and

Reform Confucianism
Chong Tasan (1762-1836)36 systematized a major
p h ilosophy of practical learning (sirhak). Ta san,
originally a student of the ChengZhu school in Korea,
became the greatest name among the Korean Sirhak
scholars. He also incor porated Western Learn ing
(sohak; Catholicism and Western science)37 in addition
to studying not only Neo-Confucian writings but also
compiling many commentaries on classical Confucian
texts. For example, his Complete Works contains forty
eight volumes of his commentaries on the classics, thirty
nine volumes of political thought, twenty-four volumes of
his commentaries on Confucian r ites, and eight volumes
of geographical studies.38 Particularly using the Ching
Chinese method of "classical learning" and "evidential
learning," Tasan challenged the authority of ChengZhu
thought and Korean S6ngnihak.
In his commentaries on the Four Books (including
Confucius' Analects and the Mencius), he charged that
C hinese N eo -Confucian i sm and Korean S6ngni hak
photo4 Eminent Confucian scholar Chong Tasan's portrait
in color ©Bank of Korea in Seoul/ Mr (WolJeong)
Chang, Woo Seang
did not follow the original classics in the philological
or philosophical context. Human n ature is a dynamic
entity that integrates intellectual faculty, moral virtue,
and emotional behaviour. So Tasan emphasized virtue
as something that actually engages in the practice of
daily actions. 39 Self-cultiv ation depends on the sphere
of practical ethics. Tasan therefore regarded Confucian
learning as the way of self-cultivation and governing the
people. This dual ideal frequently appears in his various
essays and commentaries. Tasan also criticized his fellow
Korean scholars for wasting their time and energy in
an endless series of debates on metaphysical ideas and
theoretical doctrines. In his famous political essays-such
as Design for Governing the Country (Kyongse yup'yo)
and Essay on Leading the People (Mongmin simso)
Tasan presented an innovative set of specific political,
s ocial, and economic strategies for the Confucian
framework of Choson institutions. The latter essay reveals
his disapproval of the ineffectiveness and corruption of
government administration, as well as his sympathy for
the difficult economic and social situations of the local
peasantry. AB Tasan pointed out, Confucian learning must
combine "self-cultivation" and "leading the people." By
emphasizing the "people-based" principle, he therefore
advocated two other norms: "loving the people" and
"protecting the people."
Overa ll, Ta san attempted to reform government
administration and improve the social and econ omic
situation of the people. This certainly points to a prototype
of modem democracy that addresses the b asic ideology of
social welfare and economic prosperity on behalf of the
common people. In this regard, Tasan continues to receive
a good deal of respect from today's Korean intellectuals
who have recently paid more attention to his life and
thought.
4 Self-Cultivation: The Way of
"Learni ng to be Human"
Confucian learning begins with the self because it

"reflects on things near at hand." The key phrase, "human
nature endowed by Heaven," is frequently quoted by
eminent Confucian scholar-educators such as Zhu Xi in
China and Yi T'oegye and Yi Yulgok in Korea. As the
opening paragraph in the Doctrine ofthe Mean (one of the
Four Books of Confucianism) states,
What Heaven imparts to human beings is human

nature. To follow our nature is called the Way (Dao).
Cultivating the Way is called education. The Way
cannot be separated from us for a moment. What can
be separated from us is not the Way. (cf. Chan 1963:98)
Indeed, t his sub t l e passage was ar t iculated

cosmologically, morally, and educationally in order to
emphasize that the human way oflearning is mandated by
the Dao. In his study of Confucianism and the Doctrine of
the Mean, Professor Tu (Harvard University and Beijing
University) pointed out that the intel lectual and spiritual
heart of Confucianism represents what he called the
"human aspiration for self-t ransformation" th rough its
learning to be human (Tu 1985, 1989).
As we saw in Chapter 1 (Confucianism), Confucian
learning is therefore a w ay of self-cultivation. This is
eloquently articulated by the opening key passage of the
first chapter in the Great Learning as well:
The ancient who wished to manifest their cle ar

character to the world would first bring order to their
states. Those who wished to bring order to their states
would first regulate their families. Those who wished
to regulate their families would first cultivate their
personal lives. Those who wished to cultivate their
personal lives would first rectify their minds. Those
who wished to rectify their minds would first make
their wills sincere. Those who wished to make their
wills sincere would first extend their knowledge. The
extension of knowledge consists in the investigation
of things. (Chan 1963:86; my emphasis)
The eminent Neo-Confucians such as Zhu Xi in

China and Yi T'oegye in Korea often discussed this
core teaching; we may call it the eight-step Confucian
way of perfecting oneself and the world. It begins from
"the investigation of things" and continues through
"the rectification of the mind," " self-cultivation," and
then "governing the state." This is also supported by the
Doctrine of the Mean, chapter 1, according to which:
...The Way cannot be separated from us for a moment.

What c a n be separated from us is not the Way.
Therefore the superior man [self-cultivated person] is
cautious over what he does not see and apprehensive
over what he does not hear. (Chan 1963:98)
A related teaching by Confucius is the so-c alled

three-fold reflection. Zhu Xi and Yi T'oegye, for example,
emphasized it as a way of self-reflection in the process
of personal cultivation. This teaching is what Zengzi
(Confucius' disciple) learned from his master as follows:
Tseng Tzu [Zengzi in Pinyin] said, "Everyd ay I reflect

on myself in three ways: first, whether in working
for others I have not been loyal; second, whether in
dealing with friends I have not been faithful; and third,
whether I have not studied the transmitted teaching."
(!J.nalects, 1:4; cf Chan 1963:20 or Lau 1979:63).
As cited by Zhu Xi and T'oegye, Confucius also
taught the "three-fold treasuring" as follows:
There are three things from which the self-cultivated

person treasures most: first, to stay far away from
fierceness and snobbish ness; second, to be t rusted
closely when correcting an exp ression on his face
properly; and third, to avoid meanness and contradiction
\Ml.en talking or making sounds. (Analects, 8:4; cf. Lau
1979:92-93)
Regarding daily moral cultivation, Confucius also

emphasized the" four-fold prohibition" directly pertaining
to the virtue of propriety as follows:
Confucius said, "To master oneself and ret urn to

propriety (li) is humanity (fen).. . .Yen Yiian [Yan Yuan
in Pinyin; Confucius' disciple] said, "May I ask for
the detailed items?" Confucius said, "Do not look at
what is contrary to propriety, do not listen to what is
contrary to propriety, do not speak what is contrary
to propriety, and do not make any movement which is
contrary to propriety. (Anakcts, 12:1; Chan 1963:38-
39)
The essence of self-cultivation is to extend human
heartedness (inlren) to others through applying propriety
(yelli) to dai ly life. In fact, Confucius praised his disciple
Yan Yuan for not breaking it "for three months" (Analects,
6:5). Zhu Xi in China and T'oegye in Korea often praised
Yan Yuan as a g re at role-model for Confuci an self
cultivation.
Mencius justified and strengthened the Confucian
teaching by developi ng an idealistic moral philosophy of
human nature. In addressing "the original goodness of
human nature" (Mencius, 2A:6 and 6A:6), he emphasized
our "innate ability" to do good. He specifically referred to
the "the Four Beginnings [of virtue]" as the foundation of
original human goodness as follows:
The mind-and-heart (sim/xin) of commiseration is

the beginning of benevolence; the mind-and-heart of
shame and dislike is the beginning of righteousness;
the mind-and-heart of courtesy and modesty is the
beginning ofpropriety; and t he mind-and-heart
of [moral dis cernment of] right and wrong is the
beginning of wisdom. All human beings have these
Four Beginnings (ofvirtue)just as they have their four
limbs. (lvfencius, 2A:6; cf Lau 1970:82-83)
For Mencius, our moral mind-and-hearts (feelings) of
commiseration, shame and dislike, and so on are naturally
rooted in human nature, so they are the innate moral seeds
of self-cultivation. This therefore confirms the Mencian
doctrine that the original goodness of"human nature" is
inherent in our mind-and-heart (6A:6; Lau 1970:163),40 for
which reason self-cultivation is said to be the universal
path to perfection (sagehood).
According t o the Neo-Confucian interpretation,
learning starts from the "low level" of cultivating oneself
in interaction with daily phenomena while "reflecting
on things near at hand." It begins with this moral and
intellectual objective, and one must sincerely maintain
patience and dedication because the Confucian way
self-cultivation is never a fast track. In other words, one
should overcome "the common defect of learning" such
as "seeking quick success" or "taking a short cut." As
Confucius said, make real effort with single-minded
dedication for a long period of time.
Neo -Confucians such a s Zhu Xi and T'o egye
articulated this teaching also by emphasizing the classical
teaching as follows: "Be orderly and dignified and be
solemn and austere." Self-cultivation needs to be done
consistently and diligently, so that the mind-and-heart
does not go wrong and moral principles become clear.
The teaching of "single-minded concentration" means
c ontrolling the body and the mind in self-cultivation. As
Confucius said, "Hold onto it (the mind-heart) and it will
remain, let go of it and it will disappear...." (Mencius,
6A:8; Chan 1963:63). So Mencius' doctrine of"preserving
the mind" confirms Confucian belief in "the original
goodness of human nature." For this reason, the Mencian
teaching was frequently cited by Korean Neo-Confucians
such as T'oegye.
They taught that it is important to integrate study and
moral practice to the extent that students can develop the
virtue of reverential seriousness as "the master of the self'
in per sonal cultivation. T'oegye, like Zhu Xi, basically
meant mind cultivation with reverential attitudes toward
Heaven and Earth and other human beings. This teaching
is essential to the Confucian way of wisdom; in short, the
moral and spiritual core of Confucianism centers around
this idea. As I discussed elsewhere (Chung 1995a, 2004),
this is arguably a major development within the Korean
school, attributed especially to Yi T'oegye, one that
enriched the inner Confucian doctrine of sagehood and
self-cultivation.41
In ordinary language, wisdom requires knowledge
and ethical action through a self-reflective learning that
respects oneself and others. This also reminds us in the
modern world about the broader meaning of Confucian
self-cultivation, insofar as its global implication is relevant
to our ways of virtuous life as well.
In traditional Korea, not only was moral education
closely associated with the system of learning and self
cultivation, Confucian academies also maintained and
promoted it at the hear t of teaching and learning. In
today's Korea, it still remains an essential component
in the public school curricu lum system. Consider
the contemporary Korean word kyoyuk (education):
it c ombines two single terms kyo (teaching) and yuk
(nurturing), both of which originate from the Confucian
tradition. This is generally common to Confucian
influenced countries including Korea and Japan. In other
words, the Korean notion of education involves not just
the North American context of study and intellectual
growth, but also moral teaching, learning, and practice.
This is also why the Sin o-Korean word songin
which literally means a "mature person"-demands an
accomplished moral-spiritual stage, not just a physical or
academic growth. The public view is that Korean children
should be taught to understand that the notion of a "good
person" involves moral principles and proper manners
(yeui; literally, propriety and rightness).
In the modern West, moral education was taken away
from the churches and other religious institutes with
the creation of secular state schools under the influence
of liberal education. In today's Korea, however, moral
education continues to be essential to the Korean school
curriculum system. Look at the ethics textbooks that are
uniformly used in Korean and other East Asian schools:
many of the core Confucian values (e.g., filial piety,
respect, righteousness, propriety, etc.) are actually taught
there. There is considerable attention to the inseparability
of morality, society, and politics and the harmony of
the self, family, and community; current scholarship on
Confucianism and modem East Asia (e.g., Elman et al.
2002; Tu 1996, Smith 1991, Rozman 1991) has articulated
this important point from various perspectives.
T he educational implication of self-cultivation
has been an important factor in maintaining personal
discipline within the whole enterprise of moral education,
society, and cultural identity in modern Korea, as I
pointed out elsewhere (Chung 1994a, 1995b). To conclude,
interpersonal relationships and social manners are usually
expressed in close connection to Confucian values often
under other labels, which helps to reinforce the public
view that the proper understanding of these traditional
values is a relevant part of educational curriculum there.
In fact, this has contributed to promoting personal
cultivation, family solidarity, and social well-being.
Chapters 5-7 will explore this and related topics about
modem Korea.
Supplementary Readings:
Consult the foll owing bo oks, in addition to the short list
provided at t he end of Chapter 1:
Ching, Julia. 2000. The Religious Thought ofChu Hsi. Toronto

and Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Chung, Edward, Y.J. 2004. "Confucian Spirituality in Yi
T'oegye: A Korean Interpretation and Its Implications for
Comparative Religion." In Tu Weiming and Mary Evely n
Tucker, eds., Confacil01 Spirituality, vol. 2B, pp. 204-2 25.
____. 1995b. "Confucian Ethics in Contemporary Korea:
A Common National Discourse." Korel01 Culture 16: 12-
20.
____. 1994a. "Confucianism and Women in Modern
Korea: Con tinuity, Change and Conflict." A. Sharma and
K. Young, eds. The Annual Review of Women in World
Religions, 3: 142-188.
De Bary, William. T. 1981. Neo-Confacil01 Orthodoxy l01d the
Le(JJ'ning of the Jvli.nd-and-He(JJ't. New York: Columbia
University Press.
Gardner, Daniel K. 1986. Chu Hsi and the Ta-hsileh: Neo-
Confucian Reflection on the Confucian C(01on. Cambridge,
Mass.: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University.
Ivanhoe, Philip J. 2000. Corlfucian Jv.foral Self Cultivation, 2nd
ed. Indianapolis: Hackett Publication.
Robinson, Michael E. 1991. "Perceptions of Confucianism
in Twentieth-Century Korea." In G. Rozman, ed., The
East Asian Region: Confucian Heritage and Its Modern
Adaptation.
Rozman, Gilbert, ed. 1991. The East Asian Region: Conjuci(01
Heritage and Its Jv.fodernAdaptation. Princeton: Princeton
University Press.
T aylor, Rodn ey. 19 91. Religious Dimensions of Neo
Conjucianism. Albany: SUNY Press.
Tu, Weiming. 1989. Centrality and Commonality: An Essay on
Confuci(01 Religiousness [A revised and enlarged edition
of Centrality and Commonality: A n Essay on Chung
yung]. Albany: SUNY Press.
Tu, Weiming, ed. 1996. Confucian Traditions in East Asian
Jv.fodernity: Moral Education and Economic Culture in
Japan and the Four Mini-Dragons. Cambridge: Harvard
University Press.
5 The Ethics of Human Relationships:
Confucian Influence on Korean
Family, Society, and Language
After visiting South Korea many times since the mld-

1980s, I have come to the realization that Confucian
culture exists at many Integrated levels of South
Korean society. As we have explored In Chapters 2
and 3, particularly in the Choson dynasty (1393-1910)
Confucianism affected K orean thought, ethics, social
structure, political system, and ways of life . Current
scholarship articulates Its historical and socio-political
patterns in Cho son Korea,42 as well as Its philosophical
and religious tradltlms.43 By the early eighteenth century,
almost all sectors of Korea accepted Confucianism, as
the whole society had transformed Into "a Confucian
normative soclety."44 This chapter discusses the way
In which Confucian values Influence today's Koreans.
Our main goal Is to understand why South Korea Is
fundamentally a Confucian-influenced society, at least in
terms of Its moral system and cultural Identity.
1. Human Relationships
Central to Confucian ethics is a profound belief in
the so-called Five Relationships (oryun): parent-child,
husband-wife, sibling-sibling, friend-friend, and ruler
subject relationships. 45 According to Confucianism,
socio-political order must begin in the family. As we have
seen in the preceding chapter, these mutual relationships
require self-cultivation as the uni versal basis for
maintaining an orderly and harmonious society. It is to
be regulated by the two principles of reciprocity and role
specialization that are expressed in terms of moral virtues
such as benevolence, propriety, righteousness, and so on.
The Confucian literature emphasizes the Five Human
Relationships as the proper human way of life and
culture, one that is taught by the sages according to the
"mandate of Heaven." These relationships are not simply
biological and/or social, but also are founded on moral
and philosophical principles. In a sense, Confucian ethics
requires the continuous harmony of the moral, social, and
political orders.
In Korea the human relationships were respected as
part of the daily value system. Those who occupy the
"prior" social positions were rulers, parents, husbands,
older siblings and friends, and senior colleagues; those
who hold the "posterior" positions were subjects,
children, wives, younger siblings and friends, and junior
colleagues. Most Koreans believed that the former
must show benevolence and protection in a vir tuous
manner, while the latter should demonstrate respect and
collaboration in a trustworthy way.
There seem to be two basic trends of maintaining
this value system: one toward hierarchy and ord er,
and the other toward complementarity and harmony.
Julia Ching, a leading scholar in Confucianism and
comparative thought, said that Confucian ethics "served
to strengthen a basic belief in human equality" (Kung
and Ching 1989:89). Hierarchical distinctions basically
meant role specialization, leadership, or age, rather than
dominance and submission in any intellectual and ethical
terms. In today's Korea, proper human relationships
cultivated within the Confucian-influenced family are
therefore said to be essential for moral order and social
harmony.
These Confucian values have been adjusting to
the economic and institutional changes that have been
introduced rapidly since the late 1980s. Koreans tend to
think and behave as members of groups more than as
individuals with absolute self-autonomy. From a Korean
perspective, North America emphasizes too strongly
individual freedom, individual choice, individual right,
and so on. At Korean home, school, or work place, any
extreme expression of these ideas may be discouraged
by the strength of cumulative values. In practical reality,
an ordinary Korean person usually assumes a particular
normative identity in the context of integrated settings.46
These patterns do not mean that there i s neither
change nor conflict. One growing trend, especially among
young men and women, is the stronger recognition of
the self. However, regardless of religious affiliation,
generation, occupation, and other related factors, most
Koreans see reciprocity in human relationships as an
indispensable daily value. With awareness of new social
problems (including the decline of morality), Ko rean
society has been reassessing the importance of traditional
values. In Chapter 7 we will discuss this topic further in
relation to globalization.
2. Korean Identity and Public Moral Discourses
Confucian ethics emphasizes moral and social values

in terms of mutual reciprocity and responsibility. It calls
for a unique sense of identity in the holistic network of the
proper roles of the self, family, society, and government.
In South Korea, it is essentially the value system that
still serves as the common, national discourse of Korean
identity. In other words, interpersonal relationships and
values are expressed in Confucian-related terms. For
elementary, middle and high school students, textbooks
on ethics or society also involve basic Confucian norms.
The ethical education of children remains a family and
societal responsibility.
In particular, filial piety (hyo or hyodo) is one of
the most important values for Koreans regardless of
their religious identities. It is the reverential virtue of
children toward parents. What does this mean to North
Americans? Children are expected to respect parents:
reverence, loyalty, and compliance to parents are the
trinity of filial piety. The significance of family m orality
and spirituality is clear from the Korean notion of
ancestors as well.47 Family continuity, solidarity, and
harmony are emphasized. For this reason, the regular
observance of ancestral (mem orial) rites (ch'arye or
chesa) at home or grave sites exemplifies Confucianism as
a living tradition in South Korea. 48 Chapter 9 will discuss
this topic in detail.
Undoubtedly, the family model influences other
collective norms in schools, local communities, work
places, and the entire nation. The extension of filial piety
entails moral obligation to treat elders and superiors
with proper manners (yeui) and reverence and respect
(chon'gyong). Loyalty (chung) remains vital in the spirit
of pattiotism and national identity. The practice of self
reflection is an important part of personal cultivation.
Parents and teachers emphasize other Confucian
influenced values such as sincerity and seriousness for
bringing about personal success and social prosperity.
Furthermore, the virtuous realm of human life is
expressed in terms of what Koreans call inchong (human
feelings), insim (hu man mind-heart), and uri (mutual
t rust; principle of righteousness), all of which are based
on Con fucian principles. The in chong is a moving
feeling of sy mpathy or commiseration considered as
the fundamental basis of all human relations; the insim
refers to humaneness or mutual understanding; and the
uri emphasizes mutual obligation to behave in a proper
way toward another person or between members of any
social group. Koreans may basically share these values as
the essential part of daily moral culture, group identity,
and interpersonal relationships, even though they do not
necessarily identity themselves as Confucians religiously
or do not make specific references to ancient Confucian
sages, Neo-Confucian thinkers like Yi T'oegye, or their
doctrines.
3. Influence on Korean Language and Society
As mentioned in the preceding section, the Korean

language of morality and manners is often informed by
the Confucian teachings. The Korean pattern of speech,
gesture, and etiquette reflects Confucian-related values
with the manifold levels of expressing propriety and
politeness. For example, a fundamental characteristic of
the Korean language is kyongo (or chondaetmal honorific
language); it signi fies one's strong sensitivity t o age
difference, social status, occupation, degree of intimacy,
and nature of previous interaction between the speaker,
the listener, and any third-party referent. Each speaker
needs to make a choice before uttering a proper pronoun,
noun, verb, and verb ending; he or she usually bases the
level of speech on combination of these factors. Because
of the complexity of the chondaetmal, it is quite difficult
for Westerners to master spoken Korean. As I explained
elsewhere, this linguistic and social complexity is closely
linked to Confucian-oriented group norms in South
Korea.49
Koreans often maintained this tendency of preferring
family-related words and collective terms over self
centered, individualistic terms (signifying exclusive
pers onal relationships) used in North America. Even if
we call this tendency a subordination of the individual
to the group, it does not arise from a lack of basic human
freedom and rights. To put it in another way, both Korean
men and women consider themselves socially accepted
and psychologically secure in a network of groups such as
family, school, work place, and so on.
The public often emphasizes self-cultivation as the
basis of maintaining the nation's socio-political order.
Democratic government and economic growth may not
be accomplished successfully without maintaining this.
These public discourses remind us of the moral-social
tradition of Confucianism, which can be effective in a
country like Korea where the Confucian value system
remains a common, national discourse. In fact, the public
understanding of two mo dern Korean words, kyongje
(economy) and chongch'i (politics), is closely connected
to that language. The latter originates from two Confucian
words: "to rectify the national affairs" and "to rule the
country." The kyongje can be traced back to three other
Confucian ideas: "to govern the nation," "to save the
people," and "to regulate the family." These traditional
ideas served as the core of the Neo-Confucian statecraft
tradition in Chos6n Kore a.
4. Confucian Influence on Political Culture
The inseparability of morality and politics was
emphasized in the entire Confucian tradition of East Asia.
We need to understand it on its own terms relevant to
South Korea. Commenting on Confucianism in modern
East Asia, Tu Weiming correctly pointed out that: "The
vital energy inherent in human relationships offers a way
to transform society and to establish a particular political
structure. For that reason, a dominant theme in Confucian
political ideology is ethics, not power....Throughout East
Asia, the state is seen as a mechanism for exerting social
control and establishing and maintaining moral order" (Tu
et al. 1992:10-11).
The Confucian idea of political order and social
stability is important in Korea; the central government is
still considered to order society, control the educational
system, and so on. Of course, the close link between
Confucian values, human relationships, social norms,
and cultural identity occupies a major position in Korean
attitudes toward politics and good government.
In South Korea democracy is already elevated to the
status of an official ideology in many public institutions
and organizations. Most people (including intellectuals)
talk about not just democratic ideas and institutions,
but also the social and ethical-political obligation
of the state in the traditional context of maintaining
a benevolent and rig hteous governm ent. We may
argue that Confucian values and democratic ideas are
integrated at the collective level. From a cross-cultural
and interdisciplinary perspective, this is a fascinating
phenomenon with certain implications for Western
societies such as the United States, where democratic
systems and processes do not necessarily involve moral
values and norms. Mature Korean people maintain a
nationwide tendency of considering morality, society,
politics, and economy as ins eparable. Is this tendency
not in continuity with Confucian values, suggesting
another sign of the living influence of Confucianism in
contemporary Korean society?
5. Conclusion
On the whole, the Confucian value system remains
the backbone of Korean society, and the family is the
vital core of Confucian ethics. An average person has a
collective sense of Korean identity: ideally he or she is
expected to think and act according to social norms and
interests. Even with the massive economic, social, and
political changes since the 1980s, this pattern continues
to be important, although it is definitely becoming weaker
and has gone through a process of transformation and
assimilation. Chap ters 7 and 8 will address this topic in
detail.
The Conf ucian system can serve a s a common
discourse of Korean identity, and one's religious faith is
usually not hampered by it. For example, a good Korean
Buddhist or Christian would not worry about his/her own
religious identity when he/she participates in interpersonal
values and manners. 50 As far as the daily value sys tern
of family and society is concerned, most Koreans are
naturally connected to the network of Confucian cultural
heritage.51
To be "Korean" is identified not just biologically and
regionally but also in terms of culture including language,
family, ethos, and customs. It means much more than
to be born of Korean parents and to learn Korean. It
basically locates one within of the Korean social and
cultural system. An average Korean person is concerned
with what it means to be an individual within a family,
group , and society. In other words, there is this public
awareness of maintaining these social norms in South
Korea, a nation influenced by Confucian values.
6 Education, Confucian Values,
and E conomic Development
in Twentieth-Century Korea
This chapter presents the Interplay between Confucian

values and economic development In Korea from a
broad and Integrated standpoint of several qualitative
factors Involving cultural identity, education, social
values, political economy, and so on. The focus of this
chapter Is to discuss the question of how Confucian
values contributed to South Korea's recent economic
success.
1. Western Views on "Confucian Capitalism"

It has been pointed out that the West had dwelt a
lot on concrete economic ideas and facts such as trade,
stock market, technology, in flation, political issues,
and so on, but too little on the educational, social and
ethical ones. It is now very sophisticated to talk about the
global phenomenon of economy because its language of
capitalism, wealth and power is conditioned by different
cultural factors and norms.
W hat unites Japan and the four little d ragons
(South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore) for
their economic success o ver the past several decades?
Since the early 1980s, the West has studied this topic
in terms of Confucianism and education. Several
interpretations include such common phrases as
"industrial Confucianism" and "Confucian capitalism,"
pertaining these countries. There is general agreement
that Confucian values indeed made a sign ificant
contribution by offering favorable cultural factors. For
example, Vogel (1991; The Four Little Dragons ....), a
sociologist at Harvard, explained the economic success
of the Four Little Dragons in terms of "industrial Neo
Confucianism," referring to Confucian contribution to
education and industry. Tai's Confucianism and Economic
Development: An Orienta/Alternative (1989) is another
relevant work on a similar topic. Peter Berger (1988; An
East Asian Development Model), a leading comparative
sociologist of religion, addressed the Confucian culture
of political economy and capitalism in East Asia. In
addition, Rozman's edited The East Asian Region:
Confucian Heritage and Its Modern Adaptation (1991)
was a comparative study of modernization comparatively
in China, Japan, and Korea. 52 We also have some other
works on education and Confucian culture, such as
Smith's edited The Confucian Continuum: Educational
Modernization in Taiwan (1991).
2. Education, Social Competition, and Economic

Success in South Korea:
Commenting on South Korea's social economy in

the 1960s and 1970s, Edward Mason pointed out that an
emphasis on academic education was "a major Confucian
influence on the character of the modem blue- and white
collar work force" (1980:378). Addressing Confucianism
in twenty-century Korea as a system of "political and
social values," Robinson (1991), a historian o f Korea,
pointed out that Confucian ideas made a contribution
to the promotion of higher education, social order and
political authoritarianism in South Korea. Palais (2002),
a specialist in the study of Choson Korean politics and
policies, has similar perspectives about "Confucianism
and economic development in South Korea." However,
th is subject matter is not only about education and the
socio-political order, but also pertains to other factors as
well.
On the whole, the binding network of self-discipline,
moral education, family culture, social competition,
group productivity, political economy, and national
identity played a crucial role in the process of economic
development in South Korea. The strength of these
cumulative values, which is associated with the Confucian
self and community, played a major role in South
Korea's economic success. As I articulated elsewhere
(1994a and 1995b), it contributed to the management of
human relations and norms and the promotion of group
harmony and productivity in workplaces. In South Korea,
those values associated with Confucian pri nciples are
experienced in a holistic setting. We may call them social
genes in almost every Korean person. For example, the
five human relationships and their changing implications
represent a cultural system based on the continuous
harmony of moral, social and political orders, thereby
carrying certain economic implications.
As we have seen in Chapter 4, ethical education was
included in the Confucian way of self-cultivation, and
this continues to be essential in South Korea's curriculum
system. Its role has been a crucial factor in giving a
personal-ethical discipline to the whole enterprise of
education and public life.
Furthermore, the intensive entrance examination
system i n South K or e a reflects a social r ealm
char acter ized by ac ademic au thor ity: those who
succeed view themselves, and are viewed by others, as a
meritocratic elite. This also made a positive contribution
to the nation's educational and social competition which
w as grounded in Confucian values; in the long run,
it facilitated economic growth on both personal and
collective levels. The public view is that education should
promote not just intellectual learning but also moral
education and its implication for the interplay between
values, social competition, and economy.
3. The Mother's Role and Contribution
Another central aspect of Confucian culture raises

the question of family culture, the mother's role, and
economic success in East Asia. I pointed out elsewhere
(1994a and 1995b) that the family remains a mor al
educational unit that consistently maintains Confucian
influenced values in South Korea.
We have to address the topic of how women working
at home contributed educationally and economically.
Recent studies and st atistical results on the school
systems of East Asia and North A merica i nd icate
an interesting comparative fact . It is said that North
American schools teach students how to think and study
creatively and critically. However, on any objective scale
of international tests, the Korean, Chinese, and Japanese
students always do better in the key subjects including
math, science, and writing. There can be various reasons
for this success in East Asia: elite culture, competitive
entrance examin ations, mo re scho ols days, tougher
school discipline, prep schools and private tutors, and
so on. These factors are basically inf luenced by the
elite Confucian mentality that emphasized academic
excellence, personal development, and social success.
And yet, the most important contributor is arguably
the Korean mo ther's role at home. Among Koreans
and other East Asians, the real intellectual and cultural
transmitter in the early lives of young c hildren is
overwhelmingly the mother. In a detailed a rticle on
Confucianism and women in modern Korea, I discussed a
similar topic in terms of continuity, change and synthesis.
On the whole, the relationship between Confucian values
and the mother's role is an important topic that needs to
be studied further.
4. Confucian Values and Political Economy

As mentioned in Chapter 5, the Confucian tradition
is intertwined with an agricultural and political economy
within a family-centered social structure , a hierarchical
central bureaucracy, and an authority-based national
polity. This is partly why Py e (1985) emphasized
Confucian culture as an essential part of the idea of
political authority in East Asia. The authoritarian political
legacy is also said to have facilitated a rapid economic
development in South Korea, for instance.
However, this topic is related to other factors as well.
In South Korea, the modern Confucian notion of political
leadership still plays a vital role in economic development.
Tu Weiming (1992), a l eading s cholar in Conf ucian
Studies, recently articulated Confucian inf luence on
political order, the state , and economic development
in modern East Asia: The public generally expects the
central government to impose strong leadership in many
areas. Accordingly, the economy is expected to be directly
under some authority of the state in ruling the nation.
The state therefore leads or promotes commercial and
industrial developments.
Regarding the South Korean case, it is generally
believed that the best government ought to engage with
many levels of society; this is expressed not only in
the political and economic context, but also in ethical,
educational and social terms. On the whole, the South
Korean economy has been under full state control under
rigid regulations; this was indeed productive at least until
the 1990s. In recent years, however, it has generated a
major problem, as the economy has become ve1y complex.
The problem is usually addressed in terms of financial
political collusion and corruption involving the so-called
che bol entrepreneurs and groups. In a capitalistic Western
sense, this may be a major political weakness of South
Korean economy.
5. Conclusion
The diffused nature of academic competition,

group loyalty, and group productivity is incorporated
into the national discourse on capitalistic economy and
national development in South Korea, which seems to
reveal something like an integrated Confucian mode of
educational-social-and-economic thinking. To conclude,
we need to recognize the influence of Confucian
categories on the structure and operation of specific
economic, political, and educational institutions in
modern Korea
7 Confucianism and Globalization:
National Identity and Cultural
Assimilation
This chapter explores the Interplay between tradition

and globalization In South Korea by focusing on the
situation and role of Confucian values. There are some
fascinating things about this topic. Can globalization
do away with national identity and cultural values?
The notion of "globalization" In South Korea seems to
be understood by addressing certain cultural factors.
What Is the future of Con fucian values In Korea? Is
there any fruitful Interaction between tr adltlon and
globalization?
1. Confucian Values and National Identity
There is s ome ambiguity about the "religious

identity" of Confucianism, as I pointed out in Chapter
1. 53 This is usually because East Asians generally do
not acknowledge Confucianism religiously as explicitly
as organized religions like Christianity and Buddhism.
As we explored in Chapters 5 and 6, Confucianism is a
living tradition in South Korea, a religiously pluralistic
and competitive country, where the C onfucian mode
of thinking influences v arious level s of s ocie ty.
Confucianism exists as a diffused tradition ethically and
culturally, and its basic patterns are recently reported in
scholarly Korean works and public surveys. 54 Koreans are
Confucians at least in the cultural context of maintaining
these traditional values to varying degrees.
Family Values and Rites

Family culture in South Korea is a key example of
influence by the Confucian tradition. Confucianism
places primary emphasis on proper human relations and
the cultivation of virtue, so as to enrich human nature,
family, and society. Family values remain the backbone of
changing Korean society. In the traditional context, family
is believed to be not just a biological-social unit, but also a
living educational-ethical center for human relationships.
The moral-spiritual foundation of the Confucian tradition
remains the family, whose broader implications naturally
expand to education , work ethic, work places, group
dependency, etc. This is also said to have contributed to
South Korea's rapid economic development in the past
three decades, as we have learned in Chapter 6.
Core family values are generally Confucian in
today's Korea. It is reasonable to point out that many
Christians and Buddhists assimilate these v alues. As
mentioned in Chapter 10, we can easily see a similar
pattern of the family tradition among Korean or other
East Asian communities in the large multicultural cities
in North America such as Toronto, Vancouver, New York,
Los Angeles, etc. Chapter 5 also discussed how family
morality is essentially Confucian in nature: in particular,
parent al benevolence, filial piet y (hyo), and mutual
obligations are emphasized for family love and solidarity.
In this regard, the f amily in today's Korea maintains an
essential life of its own on its own terms; this is central to
Korean identity and Confucian cultural moral heritage.
For this reason, many Korean families continue to observe
their ancestral memorial rites at home or grave sites on
special national holidays . These fa mily rites continuously
influence South Korea with the modernized Confucian
style of ritual propriety. Chapter 9 will discuss this topic
further in terms of ancestral rites and family moral
spirituality.
Social Ethics and Korean identity

Family values associated with Confucianism help
promoting moral education, social binding, and Korean
identity. Confucian social ethics is based on the so-called
Five Relationships, which are intended to be regulated
by the two principles of status reciprocity and mutual
obligation. So it emphasized a fundamental belief in
human dignity, moral equality, and social harmony,
which leads Koreans to consider themselves socially
engaged and psychologically accepted in a network of
groups. Proper human relationships are usually seen as a
desirable part of maintaining group life; as I pointed out
in the preceding chapter, this is actually taught in school
textbooks on ethics and society. So people are aware
of a hierarchical social structure, have a sense of group
belonging, and maintain collective formalism and norms.
The ethical part of daily Korean conversations is often
reminiscent of the basic Confucian discourse: i.e., higher
learning and personal cultivation are ideal for successful
career, family reputation, social competition, and cultural
prosperity.
It is also worthw hile to note that the integrated
strength of these values played a major role in competitive
education, group dependency, and productivity in
workplaces, most of which contributed to South Korea's
rapid economic success during the past three decades. As
we have explored in Chapter 6, Confucian ideals, often
under other names, guided the nation in the direction of
economic development.55
Political Culture and Moral Ideals

Tradi tionally Co n f ucian e thics emphasi zes
benevolent government (sage-ru ler) over despotic
government (tyrant ruler), together with the virtues of
humanity, righteousness, and wisdom. It is worthwhile
to note Confucian influence on political culture in East
Asia. 56 Belief in the inseparability between politics and
morality occupies a major position in Korean attitudes
toward the central state and its exemplary leadership.
The public often asserts that the best government ought
integrate many public sectors of society, as is consistently
echoed in the Korean press. Most people talk about not
just democratic government and policies, but also the
ethical and social obligations of the central state. Indeed,
this kind of public awareness is often informed by the
traditional values associated with Confucianism.
The basic insight is contained in the ideal of self
cultivation as the root of political leadership and social
well-being. So it seems that the public utilizes an ethical
language which is reminiscent of the Confucian teaching,
emphasizing the unity of personal discipline, family
regulation, and social-political orders. This kind of public
discourse has been effective in a country like South
Korea, where the heart of political culture embodies
traditional values.
2. Tradition and Globalization: Cultural Assimilation
Urbanization and industrialization have boosted

the Korean people into modern standards of living.
Furthermore, the modern West is something that has
to be considered seriously because of its economic and
political impact on South Korea and other East Asian
nations. The process of "modernization" (hyondae hwa)
in South Korea will continue engaging some elements of
"Westernization" (soyang hwa) as well as the growing
trend of "globalization" (kukjae hwa in Korean). So the
Confucian value system is readjusting itself to the rapid
economic and social changes introduced since the 1980s.
The recent statistics and surveys indicate many significant
developments. In short, the younger generat ions'
perspectives now maintain a much stronger impact on
many economic and social aspects of Korean society.
They often point to contemporary ideas, setting the
new standards for self-identity. Since the beginning of this
century, popular home dramas and talk shows on TV., for
example, portray them as the so-called "new generations"
100 Komu, Coo/u,wtism

(sin sedae), "internet generations" (netijun sedae), or
"global generations" (gllobal sedae). Their personal and
social images seem to be as contemporary and liberalized
as their peers in North America, for instance.
On the whole, we certainly see enough influence of
urbanization, democratization, market economy, high
technology, and globalization on these social changes in
South Korea. Surely, a great deal of transformation in
the Korean family system and social relationships has
occurred. The contemporary notion of self (and/or family)
now co-exists with the Korean-Confucian tradition of
values.
Certain new issues have also emerged in the nation.
Since the 1990s, South K orea tried to im plem ent
several reform measures partly under the influence of
global Western ideas and institutions such as p olitical
accountability, business transparency, etc. On the whole,
non-egalitarian norms and unfair stereotypes are strongly
challenged not just by younger generations themselves,
but also by the new legal and social standards. For
example, the one-sided, authoritarian legacy such as
the subjugation of inferiors and juniors to superiors and
seniors is highly criticized and thus being reduced. This
trend of change surely pertains to the globalizing process
that accommodates (if not welcomes) certain Western
ideas, as evidenced in the persuasive power of democracy,
liberty, market economy, and privacy.
Nonetheless, the public is also becoming concerned
with an increasing individualism, which has been
criticized for "neglecting (traditional) moral values." This
neglect is said to be a side-effect of accepting Western
ideas and emphasizing economic and social globalization.
This is now stimulating certain intellectuals to debate
the extent to which "globalization" can damage national
identity and values.
The gene rational gap issue, which may have
something to do with the Korean value system, is not
as serious as the economic, employment and political
problems. In fact, the public often expresses the relevance
of political responsibility for economic development
and social well-being in a common-sense language
reminiscent of Confucian ethics. The implicit language
embedded in various public discourses indicate an
ethical tradition in terms of political leadership, nation
buil ding, and cultural prosperity. In other words, it
utilizes a modern moral-political language reminiscent of
Confucian humanism. The nation's value system is often
mentioned in relation to social justice and the people's
well-being. South Korea not only engages global ideas
and new concerns but also recognizes traditional values

and assimilates its moral tradition as a key element of
Korean identity.
In other words, the idea of change-whether
educational, economic, or political-is not necessarily
taken to be either a conscious rejection of the past,
or a total departure from the respected tradition. The
Korean people's attitudes toward traditional values
also vary according to certain generational, economic,
occupational, and gender-related factors. There are
two basic trends: the older one requiring hierarchy,
authority, and order; and the o ther, growing pattern
toward reciprocity, harmony, and mutual duty. And our
recognition of the latter trend would help us to avoid
stereoty ping Confucian ethics only negatively and to
understand its contemporary relevance positively. In
general, the notion of "Korean identity" usually engages
the basic human relationships and values. In other words,
there is more public desire for harmony rather than
confrontation between the traditional values and the new
global standards.
3. Conclusion
Confucian humanism remains in the backbone
of Korean society. Its role in the interplay between
Confu.cianismSlld. Glol:Glizat:bn:
Natio:tlal Ideutityau:1 Cul.rural As:.i.mi.lmiou 103
tradition, g lobal ization, and national identity is
significant from the Korean perspective of the 2000s.
This shows not just different way s to debate the whole
idea of globalization, but also the need for reexamining
the meaning of tradition. In this regard, I note that the
word "globalization" is not something fully understood
if we discuss it only in terms of economic things such
as capitalism, market economy, economic policies,
technology, etc.
In a broader sense, the Korean understanding of
globalization appears to be conditioned by certain cultural
values and customs. So the actual process of globalization
could take different forms depending on these cultural
factors. The Korean notion certainly embodies some
"Western stuff" and its globalizing trends. However,
we cannot ignore the fact that some of these imported,
international elements are also integrated with Korea's
traditional values and ideals.
What we find fascinating about the ongoing situation
of Confucianism in South Korea is that there seems to
be some mutual balance between traditional values and
global mentality. And we can learn more about this trend
of East-West marriage in the coming years.

8 Modern Korean Women
and Confucian Values:
Change and Assimilation
This chapter disrusses women and Confucian values

In modern Korea. The subject of Confucianism and
w omen in the Chason dynasty (1393-1910) has been
studied to some extent by historians, whi l e other
works articulated Chason Korea's social and political
structures.57 However, It Is Important to understand
the Interplay between women and Confucian values In
modern Korea as well.53
1. Women and Family in Confucianism

In modern times, East Asian c ountries have been
criticized for utilizing Confucianism in their l egacies
of maintaining a rigid tradition of patriarchy, authority,
and hierarchy. Critics often blamed it for subordinating
the status of women to men not only at home but also in
many social and political circles. The mainstream view
Modern. Kot"ean 'i7i..bmen and

Coufucian V:alue s: Ch.ans? and As:.imil.sliou 105
that Confucianism resulted in a "subjugation" of women
stems especially from the recent feminist critiques of its
historical and social repercussions. These interpretations
denounce Confucian ethics for promoting a "patriarchal"
and "androcentric" oppression of women in traditional
East Asia.
The "patrilineal" Confucian notion of family had an
immense impact on the lives of women in Korea, China,
and Japan, which often involved male guidance or control
over all stages of female life by father, husband, and
then mature son. Marriage was considered mandatory,
as women played the central role in preserving their
husbands' families and clans. Before marriage, a young
woman was to train herself in the four aspects of feminine
character: virtue, speech, comportment, and work (Book
ofRites, ch. 12 and 44). Thus, education for Korean girls
normally meant to prepare themselves for the married
ideal of a "wise mother and good wife." When a daughter
manied a man, she was immediately called "an outsider
leaving (her n atal) fam ily." In other words, she joined
her husband's family, and her domestic duties included
serving him and his parents, thereby maintaining
traditional customs and family reputation as well as
educating children.
We n e e d to n o t e that C o n f u c i a n huma n i sm

emphasizes interpersonal relationships in terms of
ethical values and norms. As de Bary pointed out, "the
Confucians sought to reconcile the egalitarian claims
of a common humanity with the need for a hierarchy
of values, which they saw as a natural and essential
outgrowth of...civilizing activity and also indispensable
t o the maintenance of any social order" (de Bary and
Bloom 1979:6). Among the so-called "Five Relationships"
(paren t-child, husband-wife, sibling-sibling, friend-friend,
and ruler-min ister), 59 the parent-child, ruler-minister,
and husband-wife relationships are known as the "three
bonds" (samgang in Korean: san-kang in Chinese) that
underscored the principle of reciprocity as the universal
basis for maintaining human relationships. Ideally, the
former had to show guidance and instruction in a virtuous
and caring manner, while the latter was expected to
demonstrate respect and compliance. As Julia Ching
pointed out, Confucian ethics has "served to strengthen
a basic bel ief in human equality" (Kung and Ching
1988:89).
Indeed, the Confucian conjugal relationship precedes
all other human relationships. In analy zing v arious
Confucian texts written for women, Kelleher p ointed
out that: "She [a Confucian woman] has a stake in the
maintenance of the family order and thus submits to
the discipline of family relationships" (1989:147) This
statement suggests that in coping with Confucian culture,
Korean women's concerns for maintaining family and
social harmony were central to their practice of collective
norms and roles.
Confucian ethics em phasizes the principle o f
reciprocity for the duality of gender in terms of yin
yang unity, role specialization, and harmony. Here, we
need to understand the common Korean proverb that the
husband-wife relationship means the "one mind- and
heart and same body." This Sino-Korean symbol entails
an awareness of biological and psychological diversity
and unity between male and female; more significantly, it
underscores the distinctive-yet-complementary aspects of
the conjugal relationship.
2. Women and Confucian Values in Korea

In Korea, especially from the sixteenth century,
Neo-Confucianism played a powerful role for both
men and women in maintaining mora l and s ocial
orders. But the politicized manipulation of this role has
engendered an elite bureaucracy on the one hand and
an authoritarian tradition on the other hand. For five
centuries o f Confucian feudalism in Choson Korea,

family symbolism and its social structures are thought
to have sustained a patriarchal tradition. Korean women
were required to be serious in learning and practicing
the "feminine arts": virtues such as chastity, obedience,
and modesty.60 By the eighteenth century, the Choson
dynasty generally accepted this tradition, while Korean
society was transforming itself into what Kim Haboush
calls "a Confucian normative society" in the context of
maintaining "patriarchy" as well (1991:91-103).
Furthermore, Buddhism and shamanism provided
Korean women of all classes with an important way
of religious life in personal local settings, for women
were the special devotees of these two traditions. Post
World War II ideological confusion permitted traditional
forms. Since the early 1980s, democratic ideologies have
become stronger. As economic prosperity gained its full
momentum in the mid-1980s, South Korea experienced
more significant changes including the higher status of
women and their strong roles in society. Korean women
made a definite departure from the status quo, taking
necessary steps to adjust to the new needs of a modern
society. The traditional "ideal of womanhood" was still
expressed in terms of being a "wise mother and good
wife" (hyonmo yangch'o) based on Confucian values. As
a contemporary bride, a married woman was expected to

fill the position of "housewife."
The husband-wife harmony was expressed in terms
of "public-domes tic" and "out-in" roles. When married
women meet, they usually saw each other's social status
in terms of not only her education, occupation, and even
wealth, but also those of her husband and children. To
put it in another way, a woman usually found herself
socially "accepted" in a network of her social groups such
as marriage, family, school, work place, and so on. This
combination of acceptance and security was predicated
on the public belief in traditional norms.
Since the 1980s, most mothers have become deeply
involved in the education of their children. This is known
as the p henomenon of kyoyuk omma or "educational
mother," a commonly used term for a mother actively
engaged in a social mania for pushing her children
upward in their education. The mother's role at home in
South Korea certainly contributed to educational and
economic development. This dimension of family life and
educational culture is said to be an essential part of the
Confucian tradition. Much of the mother's role focused on
influencing the child's education, school, an d teachers.
Sinc e the 1 98 0s, new democr atic ideas and
alien values filtered dow n to the interpersonal and
organizational levels quickly. As a result, there emerged

new patterns of change especially with respect to women's
status and gender relationships.
3. Change and Assimilation in Today's Korea
Since the early 1980s, rapid industrialization and

urbanization have advanced Korean women into the
modern standards of life that challenged traditional
feminine values associated with Confucianism. While
traditionally viewed as the inner guardians and managers
of their country's well-being, they have become the
powerful architects of economic progress and social
change in the past three decades. As a result of the far
reaching economic and social changes set in motion,
democracy, liberty, and privacy are all elevated to the
status of an official ideology in most institutions and work
places in today's Korea, and egalitarian and Western
values have already gained much more authority. There
now exist old and new ideas, values, and ways of handling
things and human relations.
In tod ay's Korea, the younger g enerations'
perspectives in both urban cities and rural areas are
exerting a much stronger impact on all as pects of
society, as indicated in recent Korean statistical surveys.
The identity and roles of women have changed rapidly
according to new standards and needs. Accordingly,
traditional family values are coping with this changing
social reali ty. Some generatio nal g aps and their
ideological issues exist here and there because college
students, young career women, or young husbands
and wives express more individual freedom, liber ty,
and privacy, thereby following a number of Western
and global patterns. College education for women has
expanded rapidly since the early 1970s. All daughters in
Korea want university education not only for intellectual
maturity and good employment, but also as a basic
requirement for finding a good marriage prospect in a
Confucian-based society, where one's educational level is
a major determinant of one's status and ability.
Korean women have now become far more active in
various occupational, institutional and social arenas on
the national level; the employment rate for women in the
professional and managerial works strongly increased
since 1980s. Several obvious reasons for this trend should
be noted here: first, more job opportunities for women;
second, more women seeking professional careers; and
third, a much more positive attitude toward working wives
or mothers, rejecting the traditional custom that "women
should work at home"; and so on.
As indicated in the recent public statistics, the average

marriage ages for men and women have been increasing
rapidly in the last two decades.61 This also demonstrates
a new trend where more women delay marriage for few
co mmon reasons: higher education; professional career; no
interest in marriage; heavy financial burden for marriage
and raising children; and so on. Overall, the traditional
view of daughters as "outsiders after maniage" no longer
exists. This also indicates an increasing trend of conjugal
intimacy and privacy for married women. Most husbands
now share household duties with their wives because of
changing social attitudes toward women's roles, which no
longer tolerate the traditional taboo that "no male should
step into the kitchen." Certainly, all of these changes
suggest that women's status and roles have improved
substantially, and that the wife has much more decision
making power in relation to all family matters. In other
words, the Confucian tradition of patriarchalism and the
weight of a patrilineal family system and father-son relation
have weakened significantly or even no longer exist.
The average size of family has been shrinking every
year. Until the mid-1980s, to have two or three children
several years apart was considered most ideal, but the
average "ideal number of children" on the national level
has drastically dropped to 1.14 in 2003. 62 Young married
couples now prefer one child or even "no child" for certain

inevitable reasons as follows: the high cost of living and
education: the difficulty of raising children: and other
related reasons. These changes certainly indicate that the
husband-wife relationship in a small family became much
more private and intimate than that in the traditional large
family.
In general, Korean women's views of traditional (or
Confucian) values tend to be differentiated depending on
various factors. Among many modernists, the traditional
value system associated with Confucian ethics is strongly
challenged or even rejected by the adoption of modern
economic, social, and legal standards. Many home
dramas on TV., for example, portray teenage girls, college
students, or career women as a new generation that has
an independent or Western view of women's identity
in terms of education, career, fashion, consumerism,
romantic life, marriage, and so on. As products of the
"post-industrialization" system and hi-tech "digital
age," these women in today's Korea are much better
educated than the older generations. They often ignore
traditional role expectations and demand full freedom
and opportunities, thereby setting their own standards
for the family, social and institutional structures. These
modernists even doubt whether marriage and motherhood
rather than professional career while remaining single

would even represent an ideal path to a woman's self
fulfilment at all.
4. Conclusion
Having been influenced by Confucian values on the
one hand and stimulated by economic affluence, social
changes, and democratic ideas on the other, Korean
women now have much more opportunity to think about
their present and future status. Their increasing criticism
of the traditional expectations and norms means a definite
weakening of Confucian feminine values. But the patterns
of gender conf lict seem less intense or wide-spread in
South Korea than in North America.
There are now new patterns of human-relatedness
and those of gender harmony and conf lict. Particularly
striking is the extent to which Western values and
democratic ideas have been integrated with traditional
Korean identity at both individual and collective levels.
The public and legal status o f Korean women has
improved rapidly, as much as the Korean economy has
together with institutional and political changes. Women
are now seeking a meaningful way of portraying a new
identity. Such a challenge involves not only a variety of
generational, educational and ideological gaps, but also

a great deal of other complicated issues, including the
moral, legal, and social systems, which all tend to be
intertwined with one another.
The current situation in South Korea appears to be
a way of managing and integrating the traditional in
the modern. Embedded in this situation is an inevitable
process of cultural and s o cial adjustment to new
challenges and opportunities . To conclude, a major
issue is to consider Korean women's new identity while
addressing the gender-inclusive global culture that entails
women's life outside the home, marriage or family.

9 Ancestral Rites and Family Moral
Spirituality: A Living Tradition in
Today's Korea
This chapter presents Confucianism as a living

tradition In South Korea by discussing Its ancestral
rites. This to pic Is not clearly studied In current
scholarship on Confucianism. So we explore the
ongoing Korean heritage of ancestral rites as well as
Its modern Implication for what we may call "family
moral splr ltuality ".
1. Confucian Teaching and Ritual Practice
Ancestral rites were central to family culture over

many centuries in East Asia. The esse nce of to day's
family rites in Korea is essentially Confucian according to
its tradition of ritual propriety (ye/Ii). The Korean legacy
of ancestral rites developed along w ith family moral
spiritual values especially filial piety and family love.
This core teaching is frequently mentioned in Chinese
&.cestral Rites and hmi!rMor3.l Spirituality":

Af..iTI11J Trad.iti:iu in Todaf s Korea
11 7
cl assics and Neo-Confucian commentaries on ritual
practice. Ancient ritual texts provided Confucianism
with the basic understanding of ancestral rites and a set of
instructions on family rites. The ancestral r ites tradition
generally indicates that ancestors and their descendants
depend on each other for family solidarity and continuity,
According to the Classic of Filial Piety (Hyogyongl
Xiaojing), a filial child should respect and serve his dead
parents properly through ancestral rites. Confucius and
Mencius taught that self-cultivation or the practice of
filial piety would not be perfecte d without including ritual
propriety. Their focus on learning and human v irtue
emphasized family rites and social ethics. So Confucius
taught moral attitudes behind ancestral rites: self-cultivation
takes filial piety as an essential virtue, which is said to be
a very appropriate expression of moral and ritual propriety
(yelli). As he sai d, "When parents are alive, serve them
according to ritual propriety. When they die, give them
a proper funeral rite according to it, and remember them
in memorial rites according to it" (Analects 2:5). This
instruction indicates the "propriety" of filial piety with
regard to the rites of passage including the funeral and
ancestral rites. In other words, it means a cultivated life in
harmony with proper ritual practice. As Ebrey pointed out
(1991: 14), the topic of family rituals is i mportant in studying

the religious and social aspects of the Confucian tradition.
The doctrine of filial piety and ancestral rites was
articulated further - philosophically and socially - by
leading Neo-Confucians in medieval and pre-modern
times. Chinese and Korean scholar-teachers justified
ancestral rites from a moral and spiritual standpoint;
for example, Zhu Xi in China and Yi T'oegye in Korea
interpreted ritual as a profound source of moral self
cultivation. Their contribution was indeed a major
articulation on the moral and spiritual aspects of ritual
thought. Yi Yulgok (1536-83), another leading Korean
Neo-Confucian, also d iscussed the idea of "ancestor
and-descendant encounter" through ancestral rites by
emphasizing the virtue of filial piety and family respect.
The moral principle of filial piety is therefore inseparable
from the observance of ancestral rites. The family
expetience of ancestral rites shows a culturally diffused
form of spirituality. This is partly why the Confucian
way of self-cultivation takes "li (ritual) as a process of
humanization," as pointed by Tu Weirning (1989; 1985).
2. Korean Ancestral Rites

Funeral and memorial r ites in South Korea basically
reveal Confucian customs and manners, and other
religions have come to terms with traditional family
values. Indeed, the Confucian spirit of ancestral rites
became a symbol of filial piety and family love and
reputation. Most Koreans who participate in their ancestral
rites are familiar with this teaching; in fact, the modern
meaning of ye propriety is actually taught in pub lic
education curriculum (in courses such as Korean morality
and society). Commenting on Korean Confucianism, Ro
(1985:12) correctly stated that: "Both the moral dimension
and the ritual dimension of filial piety are intrinsically
related to each other.. ..well expressed in the Confucian
idea of li (propriety and ritual)."
The contemporary Korean practice of ancestral rites
is not idol worship, but rather reveals the basic Confucian
teaching: to return filial gratitude to ancestors. It is an act
of honoring and appreciating the affection and care one
has received from parents. In other words, there seems to
be a common tendency among some Western scholars to
over-generalize the Korean ancestral rites incorrectly as
a form of "worship" or "ancestor worship" in connection
to shamanism or folk religion in modern Korea.63 lt is also
relevant to discuss the broader implication of ancestral
rites not only for a better understanding of the spiritual
nature of Confucianism,64 but also t o c onsider the
distinctive nature of Korea's social and religious life.

Traditionally, several types of ancestral rites were
commonly held in Korea, as mentioned in the Confucian
handbooks. 65 Three of them are still commonly held in
South Korea as follows: 1) special holiday rites (ch'aryf!);
2) death memorial rites at home (kijesa or chesa), which
is traditionally done at midnight on the anniversary of the
ancestor's death; and 3) memorial rites at the grave sites
(now more commonly know n as songmyo). The kijesa
death anniversary rite is done for four generat ions up. The
ch 'arye ancestral rites on national holidays are normally
held in the early morning together with special seasonal
food offerings. These seasonal rites became more popular
than others on the national level since they are also blended
with holiday celebration on the traditional Korean (lunar)
New Year's Day (some families do this on the regular
January 1) and the Ch'usok (or Han'gawi), the full-moon
day of lunar August during the fall harvest Many Koreans
- regardless educational, generational, gender, or social
differences - observe the ch 'arye ancestral rites on these
national holidays, as reported in a recent national survey. 66
3. Ritual Preparation and Procedure

A set of instructions is given in several Confucian
ritual manuals; they are also explained in the modern
photo 5a Chesasang 1 (ancetral ritual table of offei rngs) on the Korean NYD ©Korea Tourism Organization
Korean editions. 67 There is a common set of guidelines for

the ritual procedure, including the preparation of a ritual
table: e.g., the proper way of arranging special dishes of
food offe1ing (including meat, fish, vegetables, and fruits),
as illustrated in photos 5a-b and 9a-b. In general, average
Koreans among the older generati ons (including my
own father and futher-in-law) - especially the first sons

and their wives - are more or less familiar with
these ritual customs and etiquette. These ritual
manuals explain the complete procedure for each
rite in detail; some diagrammatic illustrations are
also provided, in addition to explaining the moral
meaning and spiritual significance of each step.68
It is worth mentioning a few important points
here. For example, the finale of an ancestral ritual is
the family sharing of food , but it seems more than
an ordinar y meal; i.e., a kind of "ritualized food"
which is said to be good for family happiness and
prosperity. Furthermore, one of the ceremonial steps
at the beginning is to give two full prostrations to the
ancestor being honored. This is a natural extension
of the popular Korean custom of expressing filial
piety and family
love by giving a
full p r o s t r ati o n
(sebae or chol i n Korean)
to grandparents, parents,
or elders who are being
thanked and honored on
the Korean New Year's
photo 5b Chesasang 2 (ancestral ritual table
Day or another special of offerings) on the Korean (lunar)
f a m i ly o c c asion ; see NYD ©Korea Tourism Organization

123
photo 6a Sebae prostration Korean NYO greetings photo 6b Sebae prostrati on Korean NYO greetings
by a couple to their parents on ©Korea with foreigners ©Yonhap News
Tourism Organization
photos 6a-b for this tradition.69

A formal ritual reading (ch 'ungmun) is also d one
with the family attitudes of filial piety, gratitude, and
propriety. This is the Confucian style of giving tribute to
the ancestors, one that includes: each ancestor's identity
and family relationship; his professional title and pubic
service; and the identity and name of the ritual master as
a "filial son." At the end, the ritual master (father) says
that he and his family wish to remember the ancestor's
love, care, and merit. See photos 7a-b for a ritual master
chanting a ch'ungmun reading.70
Nowadays, a growing number of urban families
observe the ch'arye ancestral rites at home without
making a long, highway traffic-jammed holiday trip to
12 4 Korellfi Coof'u::iawsm
their hometown, the place of ancestral origin. Others
also enjoy the national ancestral lites on special holidays
by visiting their ancestor's grave sites (songmyo) on the
Ch'us6k and the Korean New Year's Day. For example,
during the 2006 Ch' us6k holiday (fi rst weekend of
October), Mr. Ban Ki-moon, current General Secretary
of the Un ited Nations, made a visit to his hometown in
Korea. The Korean media reported him as a filial man
carrying out an ancestral rite; note that Mr. Ban was
wealing a t ypical Confucian gown at a local family shline
represen ting his ancestral lineage. He also did a formal
lite at his parents' and ancestors' grave sites; see photos
8a-b. This is a common national tradition in South Korea.
Other illustrations also show the modernized ancestral
photo 7a Tosan Academy's chesa ancestral rite for Yi photo 7b Tosan Academy's ancestral rite for Yi
T' oegye ch'ungmunritual initiation reading T' oegye @Tosan Academy
and group prostration @Tosan Academy

125
rite performed a t
va r i o u s 1 o c a t i o n s
during the Ch'us6k
holiday in Korea; see
photos 9a-b for the
ancestral rite done by a
team of famous Korean
World Cup s o cc er
players with a well
prepared ritual table
of offerings a t their
training camp. These
k i nds o f e x a m ples
indic ate the s oci al,
photo 8a Ban Ki-moon, UN Secretary General ethical, and religious
Ch'usok holiday's hometown songrrryo n orms of holiday
ancestral rite at his father's grave site
©YonhapNe'Ws
ancestral rites, most of
which are a ssociated
with Korean Confucian culture.
Korean people continue to make more adjustment
as the urbanites need to simplify some aspects of the
ancestral rites because they are criticized for being too
formal or costly. For example, instead of the traditional
wo oden table, the white paper ancestral tablet has
been popular together with a portrait of the ancestor if

available; the portrait is usually put on the far back side
of a ritual table, as illustrated in photo 10. In some cases,
only the portrait is used by those families who are unable
to prepare the paper tablet.
Another change is that many Christian families invite
a priest to conduct a simpler memorial service instead of a
formal ancestral rite. Among most Korean Protestants, for
example, Christian prayer has replaced the Conf ucian rite.
All Korean Protestant churches in South Korea discourage
or even p rohi bit the
observance of ancestral
r i tes 71; a s a res u l t ,
t h e P rotestant style
o f m emor i a l p ra y e r
a n d h y m n-si n g i n g
(ch'umoje or ch'udosik)
is more pop ular. This
also applies to overseas
K or e an P ro te s t a nt
f a m i l i e s i n No r t h
America (see Chapt er
10 for details). For those
Korean Catholics who photo 8b Ban Ki-moon, UN Secretary General
Ch'usok holiday·shometown sadang
want to continue their Koyuje ancestr a l rite ®Yonhap
family ancestral rites, News

127
photo 9a Ch"us6k(harvest) holiday ch"arye ancestral photo 9b Ch"us6k(harvest) holiday ch"arye ancestral
rite - KFA world cup soccer team rite - KFA world cup soccer team
@Yonhap News @Yonhap News
the Korean Catholic church basically allows some aspects

of the Confucian tradition, such as the use of a paper
ancestral tablet; prostration and incense-burning; food
offerings; the expression of respect; and family's sharing
of ritual meals. A number of Korean Catholics maintain
the modified version of their ancestral rites by practicing
several key Christian components especially prayer,
priestly sermon, scripture readings,72 and hymns singing.
These families usually see no serious moral or cultural
conflict between Christian faith and Confucian family
values.73 As I said before, this is partly because Koreans,
like other East Asians, usually do not acknowledge the
specifically religious identity of Confucianism. So the two
traditions of values could be mutually assimilated.

photo 10 Chesasang 3 (ancestral ritual table) with offerings and an ancestral portrait
®Mr Son, Sung-Hoon

129
Overall, we need to understand the nature of Korean
ancestral rites in connection to Con fucian ritual and
pro priety (ye). Its national symbols have developed along
the key moral teaching of filial piety and family solidarity.
4. Conclusion
Korea has preser ved and refined the Confucian
tradition of ritual practice faithfully and more originally
and eloquently than China or Japan did in modern times.
The Korean tradition of ancestral rituals has retained
some of its distinctive and elegant aspects through several
centuries. Its formal features also eventually filtered down
into the most common ritual-social tradition there on a
national level.74 In recent years, various aspects of change
and adjustment have also developed in accordance with
new economic and social factors in South Korea.
The practice of ancestral rites in South Korea is a
modern Confucian model of ritual propriety. Despite the
growing influence of Western ideas and values, the public
recognition of this national tradition is still important. Its
basic logic also seems to be social ly driven: a family that
neglects its ritual duties for dead parents or ancestors,
whether in a traditional or another style, could be viewed
as "unfilial." Similarly, a society that ignores or rejects

its ceremonial propriety will not be a harmonious or
orderly one. The Korean tradition certainly embodies a
moral-spiritual source of family culture. It is at the heart
of family spirituality that represents Confucianism as
a living tradition in South Korea. From a comparative
perspective, this also concurs with Ju lia Chi ng's
interpretation of Confucianism as a "lay spirituality."
(2000; 1993). Its broader meaning is arguably compatible
with the basic moral teachings of other religions.
Furthermore, it is also becoming more important to
discuss what we may call "international Confucianism"
regarding overseas Koreans and their cultural values.
For example, Koreans i n the West assimilate Korean
identity and Confucian values socially and culturally. The
following chapter discusses this topic.
10 Koreans and Confucianism
in the West: Some International
Reflections
This chapter briefly discusses the Interplay between

traditional values and cultural Integration among
oversea s Koreans. We are Interested In this topic
partly because as we have explored In the preceding
chapters, Confucian values remain a living tradition
In today's Korea.75 There are some Interesting things
about Korean communities in North America. I reflect
on my teaching and experience of Confucianism, as
well as on my knowledge of Koreans In Canada. We
discuss the way in which Confucian values influence
Korean Canadians In relation to Western Ideas and
lifestyles. Our cross cultural understanding of this
topic Is also I mportant for the ongoing debate on
multiculturalism and public policy In Canada and
beyond.

1. Koreans in Canada: Some Preliminary Notes
Over the past several decades in Canada, there have

been increasing numbers of immigrants from South Korea,
Hong Kong, China, and Taiwan. Korean immigrants have
been coming to Canada steadily since the late 1960s.
The rate of immigration from South Korea accelerated
rapidly in the mid-19 70s and 1980s when many changes
were made for family-sponsored immigrants in Canadian
immigration law. Over the past ten years, there has also
been a higher number of business immigrants and their
families. Koreans in Canada live mainly in larger cities
such as Greater Toronto Area and Vancouver. Smaller
c oncentrations of Koreans are found in Ottawa, London
(Ontario), Hamilton, Calgary, Montreal, etc. Like ot her
East Asian immigrants, Koreans are positively received
in Canada, which has helped them adjust to Canadian life
through a set of various channels and activities, including
education, business, and religious activities.
It is worthwhile to n ote that the life experience
of first-generation Koreans has managed to maintain
Korean identity by tran smitting it to their children at
h ome and by establishing their language schools and
community associations. They generally remain proud
of their family and cultural traditions. These Korean-
Canadians are now b ec oming older (ranging from
mid-60s to 80s) as a senior group within the Korean
community. The experience of the so-called il-jjom
ose (one-and-a-half) Korean generation in Canada
(intermediate group of immigrants between the first
and second generations) is broader and more Canadian.
Most of these p eople (including myself) were educated
both in Korea and in Canada, so they are bicultural and
bilingual, Korean and English. At home and in their
cultural and business communities, they understand the
values of their elders and are also able to assimilate them
with Canadian society and standards.
The experience of yise or second-generation Koreans
is more complex and also less researched than those of
their older generations. These Canadian-born, younger
Koreans (including my son and daughter) understand
some basic Korean val u es, but they are much more
accustomed to Canadian society and lifestyles. Some
people even say that they are "not 100% Canadian." Some
of them see m to struggle with generational gaps and
crosscultural issues with their parents and other Koreans.
Accordingly, the whole topic is a challenging one
because the Korean-Canadian community is by no means
a homogeneous group due to certain generational, cultural
and ideological factors.

2. Korean 1dentity and Confucian Values
Koreans generally share Confucian family values,
although ordinary people do not necessarily pay spec ific
attention to ancient sages, famous Neo-Confucian
scholars, or their schools of thought. As I discussed in the
preceding chapters, various aspects of this reality have
been reported recently in public surveys and scholarly
works. In general it might be awkward for a Korean or
Korean-Canadian to call himself or herself religiously
Confucian in terms of identity or group membership,
insofar as East Asians generally do not acknowledge the
religious identity of Confucianism as explicitly or clearly
as those of Christianity, Buddhism, and other organized
religions. Koreans in North America, like those in South
Korea, normally do not see Confucianism as a religion.
This is because Confucianism, unlike Christianity
or Buddhism, is not a membership religion with an
organized set of religious doctrines, beliefs, or worship;
in fact, it did not need to establish a religious system of
priesthood, membership, and congregational service.
Nonetheless, Confucianism exists in Canada as a
diffused tradition ethically and culturally. Like their
fellow Koreans in the homeland, Koreans in Canada tend
to maintain family values and relationships to varying
degrees, depending on generational, social, and gender
related factors. In this regard, a relevant issue is how to
interpret the international heritage of Confucian values
vis-a-vis Canadian lifestyles as well.
One k ey a s pect o f Korean identity raises the
question of family because family values remain the
backbone of modern Korean identity. As I have pointed
out in the preceding chapters, the moral foundation
of Confucianism remains family and social relations.
Among overseas Koreans, moral education for children
is usually maintain ed at home. It is also incorporated
into the Korean heritage language schools, Sunday Bible
classes, or special summer programs. I also find that the
educational-ethical part of the language spoken by Korean
immigrant families is reminiscent of modern Confucian
values: i.e., higher learning, self-discipline, and work ethic
are ideal for successful career and economic success.
Many Koreans in Canada or America have become
Christi.ans, and there is a noticeable number of Buddhists
as well. However, it is important to note that many of
them assimilate traditional Korean values and daily
manners. Core family values and human relationships are
essentially Confucian in nature; in particular, parental
benevolence (in) and filial piety (hyo) am emphasized for
family happiness. Although this trend may be visible to a

lesser degree in the West, we can still see it at Korean (or
other East Asian) homes and retail shops or by making a
quick visit to a Korean church there. International Korean
communities have maintained their Korean identity and
values, which helped them to hold together their family
and cultural heritage.
Nevertheless, generational conflict and its ideological
issues exist here and there, indicating the younger
generations' opinions on occupation, marriage, lifestyle,
etc . Korean-Canadian teenagers, college students, and
young career men and women (including my two children)
express much more individual freedom, personal choices,
liberty, and privacy in the Western context. They are
not really different from average Canadians of North
American or European background. On the whole, there
is more assimilation than c onflict between Korean values
and Canadian standards, to varying degrees of personal
understanding and bicultural harmony.
3. International Integration of Confucian Values
Koreans in Canada, as well as those in America,

see proper human relationships as a desirable part of
maintaining their cultural heritage. This trend of cultural
integration includes some daily patterns of traditional
Kot'eSJ:lS lill.d ConfucWJ..i..s:cn in the \i\.tst:

Scme Internatbtutl Refl:ccti.ons 137
manners, insofar as it is assimilated with Canadian
lifestyles and customs. Moder n C o nfucian values
continue to be an essential part of the Korean heritage,
influencing international Koreans, whether consciously
or unconsciously. From a similar angle, Robert Ellwood
of University Southern California correctly pointed out in
his study of East Asian religions in America:
East Asian American families are also frequently

noted for the same emphasis on education, family
cohesiveness and cooperation, and traditional values
sometimes to the point of tension with their younger,
more 'individualized' members over Issues such as
ma rriage or going into the family business... (Ellwood
2000:158)
As we discussed in Chapter 6, Confucian values

in East Asia, often under other names, contributed to
education and economic development. From a similar
angle, we can talk about Confucian influence on Koreans
in North America as well. For example, regarding Korean
Canadian communities, the modern quality of attitudes
toward family, education, and business is well-known,
althoug h there is obviously a workable balance between
Korean values and Canadian standards. There is also a

lot of attention to children's higher education, work ethic,
and their immense implications for professional career
and economic success. Other ideals such as personal
cultivation are also emphasized, thereby reflecting on
some indication of Confucian values.
An average Korean in North America, whether a
first-generation or even 1.5-generation person, likely
assumes a particular identity in the context of integrating
Western lifestyle with some Korean values. Certain kinds
of cultural issues exist due to the younger generations'
strong Western opinions on their lifestyles, occupation,
social life, marriage, etc. On the whole, we can discover
one or another level of Korean influence on their daily
values. It is therefore possible to talk about Korean
Western integration in relation to modern Confucian
adaptability.
Traditionally, the Confucian teaching on ye (ritual
propriety) and filial piety (hyo) was highly significant. As
I discussed in Chapter 9, this is partly why many families
in South Korea continue observing the national tradition
of ancestral rites at home or grave sites. Likewise, some
Korean immigrant families continue practicing it. I should
also note that among these Korean families in the West,
the tradition of ancestral rites has undergone a good deal
of modification according to Western religion and society.
Kot'eSJ:lS lill.d ConfucWJ..i..s:cn in the \i\.tst:

Scme Internatbtutl Refl:ccti.ons 139
For example, most Korean Protestant families in North
America, like those in South Korea, replaced the ancestral
rites with Christian memorial service.76
Furthermore, it is not surprising that those families
who observe the modified ancestral rites at home usually
see no serious conflict between C h ristian life and
Confucian teaching . This is partly because Confucianism
is not an organized religion like Christianity in terms
of religious identity, membership, ordained clerg y, or
institutional authority; so the two traditions of values
could mutually co-exist. For instance, 92% of Korean
Christians in the New York area who participated in a
survey have claimed that they have experienced no real
conflict between the two traditions (Mullinax 1994).77 As
I discussed in Chapters 1 and 9 and elsewhere (Chung
2010a, 1995b), Confucianism as an ethical humanism
or lay spirituality offers a set of values and a spiritual
teaching of wisdom that can co-exist and interact with
other spiritual traditions.
4. Conclusion
The international phenomenon of religious-cultural
assimilation may contribute to our understanding
Korean Confucianism from a broader global perspective.

Confucianism exists among Korean immigrant families
and communities in the West. Therefore, Neville's notion
of "por table Confucianism"78 is relevant here in terms of
its contemporary crosscultural adaptability.
Contemporary Confucianism-or whatever we call
it-is open to other spiritual traditions. In large North
American cities, for example, we may find a new group
of Confucians of Western or Christian backgrounds,
including some scholars and students who respect or
practice some of Confucian moral principles and human
relationships. So we may start talking about some
new labels such as "global Confucianism," "Canadian
Confucianism," "American Confucianism," etc. To add
a bit of philosophy here, I note that the Confucian Way
basically promotes learning and personal cultivation. Its
ultimate teaching of sagehood requires a virtuous life,
insofar as its role model for wisdom addresses global
peace, harmony and prosperity. This may enable us to
reflect further on Confucian influence on Koreans in the
West regarding education, work ethic, family relations,
multicultural engagement, and so on.
In the final analysis, the question is: What c an
we lea r n from this? Some scholars might see my
interpretation as extending far beyond the earlier tradition
of classical learning, elite Confucianism, or bureaucratic
Confu cianism. But we d o not f ind international
Confucianism so surprising because the Confucian Way
is intended to be a continuous "human project," one that
ideally transcends language, intellectual, cultural, or
religious differences. It has helped Koreans in Canada to
preserve family cohesiveness and cultural heritage and
also to manage bicultural social assimilation, thereby
linking the East and the West.
The international paradigm of Confucian values and
cultural integration is certainly a relevant topic for more
scholarly research by other specialists. The intended
meaning of multiculturalism and diversity is to encourage
participation and assimilation rather than isolation and
segregation. The Korean case of cultural integration in the
West is interesting.

11 The Relevance and Future of
Korean Confucianism in the
Modern World
Confucianism 'i\TaS declared dead not long ago: many

Western intellectuals anticipated its complete collapse
in East Asia including Korea. However, it still remains
healthy and engaging in South Korean society and its
overseas communities including those in North America.
Confucianism is an important and interesting topic for
understanding Korean people, society, culture, religion,
and thought. This book therefore discussed various
aspects of Korean Confucianism in terms of tradition
and modernity pertaining to the fundamental patterns of
its history, philosophy, education, family values, social
ethics, and spiritual culture.
As we discussed in the preceding c hapters, the
Confucian school of thought generally sees the world to
be transformable, calls for a return to human virtue, views
the political realm in moral terms, teaches fundamental
human values and relationships, articulates their proper
The :Kelev:!11:lCe SJ1d Future of

Korean Confucianism #1 the Modem Vi.brld 143
social roles, and emphasizes self-cultivation as the
universal foundation. The inseparability of learning,
morality, society, and politics was emphasized in the
entire Confucian tradition of East Asia. For five centuries
in Choson Korea, this promoted an i ntensive competition
in the public domains including education, examination
system, government, public career, commercial arenas,
and even family reputation, many of which still i nfluence
today's Koreans in various modern ways.
Confucianism is no longer the elite tradition that
had once dominated intellectual culture, philosophic
orthodoxy, political authority, bureaucratic system,
and social hierarchy in Choson Korea until the end of
the nineteenth century. Its current situation embodies
a diffused language influencing the moral, social, and
cultural core of Korean identity. As I discussed in
Chapters 5 and 7, Confucianism in modern Korea has
transformed itself into a common national discourse
associated with academic elitism, family values, moral
education, social relationships, political leadership,
and so on. Nonetheless, we also need to understand the
sophisticated issue of how traditional values in South
Korea are adjusting themselves to new economic and
institutional changes.
The Confucian value system is a major source of

inspiration for Korean people, thereby endowing them
with a common belief in the worth of humanity an d
human-relatedness, as well as with a share d path to
academic and ethical growth. On the whole, it remains
v ital in the backbone of Korean society. An average
person has a collective sense of Korean identity; ideally
he or she is expecte d to think and act according to
social norms and interests. Overall, it is essentially the
Confucian pattern of family values and inter personal
relationships that ma intains the moral e ducational
dimension of Korean society. This combination of
cultural acceptance and social expectation is sustained
more by public a dherence to tra ditional v alues. Even
with the massive economic, political and social changes
since the late 1980s, it continues to be important and is
quickly going through a process of assimilating more
new changes. The attitudes of Koreans towar d their
traditional values associated with Confucian principles
vary according to generational, family, social, economic,
and religious factors.
In South Korea, the Confucian v alue sy stem
has been interacting with other religious traditions
as well. Bu ddhism has influenced religious life for
many centuries, and Christianity is a very popular and
somewhat "Koreanize d" religion in this religiously

diverse and competitive society. However, most Koreans
including Buddhists and Christians tend to share the
cultural heritage that influences their attitudes toward
daily values and norms. In this regard, they, as well as
overseas Koreans in the West, do not usually find any
serious friction between Korean values and religious
identity; this is true in the context of assimilating the
basic moral principles, such as Confucian human
heartedness and filial piety, Christian love and fellowship,
and Buddhist wisdom and compassion.
The arena of the Korean family appears to be a
moral-cultural institution that maintains an essential
life of its own in its own right; this is central to Korean
Confucian culture. As we discussed in Chapter 9, many
families participate in the regular ancestral (memorial)
rites at home or grave sites, for these rites are viewed as
important for sharing family bond and preserving core
human values. Children are encouraged to remember
and respect their ancestors' virtue and wisdom. The
fundamental moral principles that support the ancestral
rites are filial piety, propriety, reverence, and family love.
Overall, the basic Confucian teaching of ritual propriety
(yelli) plays a key role in Korean people's moral thinking
and practice.
The tradition of ancestral rites is already making

necessary adjustments in today's Korea partly because a
growing number of urbanized families want to simplify
its ceremonial procedure and requirements in response to
recent economic and social changes. Family and public
ritual standards in today's Korea clearly reveal the living
elements of Confucian ritual practice. There are also
Korean immigrant families in the West who observe their
simplified ancestral rites, except most Protestants and
many Catholics who generally replaced the Confucian
ancestral rites with Christian prayer and hymn-singing.
In gen eral K oreans think and behave more as
members of groups than as individuals with absolute
freedom and self-autonomy. Stable families, affectionate
parents, filial son s and daughters, benevolent elders,
superiors, and employers, loyal jun iors, inferiors, and
employees, and faithful friends and colleagues are often
mentioned; in other words, interpersonal relation ships
and values are expressed in Confucian terms, thereby
conveying the public view that the proper understanding
and practice of these social relations is an important part
of the educational curriculum.
Confucianism emphasizes self-cultivation as the
basis of maintaining family solidarity, social harmony,
and political order. When educated Koreans (including
politicians) talk about "democracy" (minju chuui in

Korean; liter ally, people-centered ideology), they
usually emphasize moral leadership and social-ethical
responsibility in addition to democratic government
and politics. For example, "democratic government and
economic growth" cannot be accomplished properly
without maintaining the moral and social order of the
nation.79 Chapter 5 therefore articulated that these kinds of
public voices remind us of the modern reformist tendency
of Confucian moral-political thinking, which can be
effective in a country where the Confucian-oriented value
system remains a common, national discourse.
The se and r e la ted factors m ade the Kore a n
work ethic strong for both men and women, thereby
playing an important role in South Korea's economic
development since the late 1970s. The Korean people's
serious dedication to education also contributed to
this development by improving both individual and
family positions. In South Korea (as well as in Japan,
Taiw an, Hong Kong, and Singapore) various kinds of
examinations are still very important for personal, family
and social success, thereby maintaining an intense level
of competition. According to the proven power of this
system, successful people are said to be those who work
hardest fo r entrance exams, family reputation, career
success, etc. This is deeply grounded in elite Confucian

c ulture; in the long r u n, it facilitated South Korea's
economic success on both personal and collective levels.
However, the whole topic is more sophisticated than
just competitive education. As I mentioned in Chapters 6
and 7, we should consider South Korea's economic success
in a holistic way by discussing the unifying influence of
Confucian values on family contribution, moral education,
political authority and economy, social competition and
mobility, group dependency and productivity, and so
on. For example, family culture, an essential part of the
Confucian tradition, mad e a significant contribution which
is directly related to the Korean mother's dedication to
dealing with family goals such as academic excellence. In
South Kor ea, the mother's roles are significant especially
through nurturing her child(r e n) int e llectually, ethically,
and culturally, thereby facilitating the child's study, school,
and teachers. I know this well from many cases regarding
my relatives and friends and other Koreans both inside and
outside South Korea.
As economic prosperity gained its full momentum
in the late 1980s, authoritarian norms and hierarchical
structures began to decline quickly, thereby allowing
many political, institutional, and social changes. In recent
years, the ideas of self-awareness, self-autonomy and
self-esteem have quickly developed among the younger

generations in their thinking, behaviour, and social
interaction, a ll of which strongly affect their individual
opinions and attitudes about almost every thing including
traditional values, partly under the influence of Western
life-styles and the appeal of Christianity.
Regarding today's Korean women as well, traditional
group norms and expectations have definitely declined to
the lowest level. For example, the tradition of gender role
specialization is observed to a far lesser extent than before:
some people now argue that it no longer exists in South
Korea. The updated value system of social harmony and
gender balance in the family and larger social units appears
to be maintained at the heart of Korean society. Chapter
8 also pointed out that greater emphasis is now placed on
women's equal status and full rights in both public and
domestic spheres. The role of women has became much
stronger, exerting a much more powerful influence on
all family, e ducational, social, economic and political
matters. 80 In the socio-political arena, for instance, South
Koreans electe d Madam Park Geun-hye as their eleventh
and current President in December 2012: indeed, she is the
first female head of state not only in the Republic of Korea
but also in the modern history of East Asia.
Since the 1980s urbanization and industrialization
brought the Korean people into modern standards of life,

and the rec ent influence of the internet, social network, and
high-tech culture quickly advanced their daily ideas and
lifestyles. As a result, the younger generations' perspectives
exert a much stronger impact o n traditional values,
education, work, marriage, career, business, politics, and so
on. Given all these changes, however, new problems-such
as increasing materialism, moral decline, disrespect for
the elderly, and an increasing crime rate-have stimulated
concerned parents and the media to recognize the relevance
of their proud moral tradition. These public voices basically
point to the unifying moral, social, and political order
and harmony, which appears to be associated with the
Confucian foundation of Korean society.
So what is the future of Confucianism in Korea,
where religious dynamism and division are led by
Christianity and Buddhism? We may anticipate Korean
Confucianism to continue as an engaging tradition
of e thical humanism and family spirituality while
influencing Korean people's moral, educational and
social thinking. In other words, the Confucian coding
of "cultural DNA" seems to exist in their daily value
sys tem. Confucianism has never been a membership or
congregational religion with organi zed priesthood and
religious dogmas. As a socially "diffused" tradition, it
will continue co-existing with other spiritual traditions
positively. From a comparative and crosscultural
perspective, it is important to study this living tradition
in Korea, East Asia, and their international communities.
Otherwise, it would be difficult to develop a penetrating
global understanding of Korean Confucianism in terms of
tradition and modernity.
The heart of Korean identity will motivate more
public discourses, embodying Confucian ideals, often
under different names. "The Way of learning to be
human" may play an essential role in the ongoing
process of Korea's changing identity in the coming
years. The modern West is also something that should be
addressed because its institutional and economic ideas
strongly influence East Asia including South Korea.
The Confucian heritage of today's Korean society will
therefore continue to interact with the globalizing process
of its economic, social, and political transformation.
Furthermore, Confucian values have helped the
international Korean community to achieve much of
its well-known academic and cultural reputation in the
West. The mutual interplay between Korean identity
and Western society may help us to develop a balanced
global understanding of Confucianism. Although there
are some generational gaps, younger Koreans in the
West basically assimilate their Korean values to varying

degrees in managing bilingual adjustment and bicultural
harmony. As we explored in Chapter 10, their respect for
education and family relations may be integrated with
their international identity vis-a-vis Western ideas and
lifestyles.
If we refer to Confucianism as a cultural heritage
of appreciating the worth of humanity, of emphasizing
the human capability of intellectual, ethical and spiritual
growth through learning and self-cultivation, and of
sustaining the fundamental human relationships in a
harmonious family and society, then it is certainly relevant
to today's Korean people and, thus, remains as an important
living tradition in both today's Korea and the world.
As a final reflection, I note that Confucianism is
adjusting itself to the globalizing world of ideas, values,
beliefs, and rituals; indeed, it is an "ethic of adjustment
to the world," to borrow an early insight by Max Weber
(1968), an eminent German sociologist and comparative
th inker. From a crosscultural international perspective,
Korean Confucianism supports a natural, human concern
for harmony, a moral and socio-political concern for
order, and a cultural and economic concern for balance
and prosperity. To conclude, this is potentially compatible
with our global ethics and our universal mission of
education and cultural development.
NOTES
The same question could also be phrased as follows: Is Confucianism an

educational discourse, a socio-political ideology, or a cultural system? It is also
relevant to study the modern transformation of Confucianism. Some scholars
(e.g., Ebrey and others) look at the Confucian tradition in terms of the family
because one central aspect of being "Confucian'' raises the issue of family system,
rituals, and values. Confucianism h as also been studied as a philosophy or a
religion by various specialists (e.g., de Bary, Chan, Tu, Ching, Talyor, Neville, etc
for the Chinese tradition; and Kai ton, Chung, and Ro for the Korean tradition)
Other scholars in East Asian Studies discussed its impact on politics and society
in traditional East Asia; regarding the Choson Korean case, for example, see
those works by Kim Haboush, Deuchler, Duncan, and Pal ais ( as indicated in
Selected Bibliography). Furthermore, there are w ays of addressing the issue of
Confucianism and modernization from historical, educational, sociological,
political, and comparative angles (e.g., Tu 1996 and 1992, Rozman 1991, Vogel
1991, Smith 1991, Tai 1989, Berger 1988, Elman et al 2002, Robinson 1991). I also
discussed Confucianism from various philosophical, religious, and cultural angles
(see my works in the SelectedBibliography).
2 In short, i//i means the met aphysical "ground of being" present in each
thing in its fullness; it is the principle of all things in fu 11 goodness and truth. By
contrast, kilqi refers to the material or physical energy that actually brings each
phenomenon into concrete existence, and determines its transformation that may
lead to either good or evil; so ki also represents our physical and psychological
makeup as well. For this topic, see Chan 1963, de Bary 1960, Chung 1995a, etc.
3 I note that the phrase "ChengZhu" (Chongju in Korean) originates from the
two family names of Song Chinese Neo-Confucians, the two bothers Cheng Hao
and Cheng Yi, and Zhu Xi. In Korea it is also called the Chujahak because Chujal
Zhuzi ("Master Zhu") refers to Zhu's honorific title "Master Zhu" as this school of

Neo-Confucianis m was established by him in Song China.
4 From 57 BCE to 668 CE, the Korean peninsula was divided into three
k ingdoms Koguryo (37 BCE-668 CE), Paekche (13 BCE-668 CE), and Silla (57
BCE-668 CE). Kogury6 occupied the northern half, Paekche the southwestern
quarter, and Silla the southeastern quarter. Silla conquered the other two kingdoms
in 668 C. E. and ruled the whole peninsula until 935 CE.
For example, the eminent monk Won'gwang emphasized Confucian moral

precepts, such as filial piety and truthfulness, for the secular life of self-cultivation
and public service; this is recorded in Kim Pusik' s Samguksagi (Historical records
of the three kingdoms). F urthermore, itis also said that Won'gwang "mastered the
major Buddhist scriptures as well as Confucian classics"; see llyon, Samgukyusa:
Legends and hiswry ofthe three kingdoms ofancient Korea, translated by Ha Tae
Hung and Grafton 11intz (Seoul: Yonsei University Press, 1972), bk. 4, ch. 5, sec.
97. For his study travel to China, see also Peter H. Lee and de Bary 1997 (Sources
ofKorean Tradition), 44-45.
6 Three-year Confucian mourning was known to the people of Kogury6 as

well. But the Buddhist custom was more popular because most people found it
much less demanding.
7 This academy adopted the key teachings of Dao ism and Buddhism as
well, together with martial arts. The Silla youth learned about the "Five Confucian
Virtues" ( benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and truthfulness) and
the "Six Ways to Serve the Governm ent" (sagely minister, good minister, loyal
minister, wise minister, virtuous minister, and honest minister). For more on the
Hwarang academy, see Peter H. Lee and de Bary 1997:54-55.
8 The Hyanggyos served as important local Confucian academies during the

Choson dynasty. In South Korea, there are about 231 Hyanggyos, which still serve
as local ritual sites, meeting halls, and classrooms for Confucian ethical education.
The former Chinese and Korean Confucian sages and worthies are periodically
venerated at many of these places. Ancestral rites and other traditional ceremonies
are observed. They also provide people in local areas with knowledge about
Confucian rituals and genealogical information.
9 See note 3 for the "ChengZhu" and "Chujahak."
NOTES 155
10 See photos la-c for the Songgyun'gwan. The Songgyun'gwan is now
affiliated with a public, secular unive rsity called Songgyun'gwan University
in Seoul. But the Songgyun'gwan itself still serves as the headquarters of
Confucianism in Korea, while Songgyun'gwan University maintains its College
of Confucianism and Department of Korean Philosophy. The Songgyun'gwan
is currently organized into the eight areas of the Confucian tradition: rituals,
classics, culture, education, newspapers, and so on. Only in South Korea,
Confucianism is still practiced formally through public organizations, rituals,
meetings, and seminars on both national and local levels. It is strong enough to
be institutionalized, if necessary, even as an organized religion. The Confucian
Yurim (literally, "forest of literati") organization consists of active Confucian
elites and ordinary citizens who expand their network at both national and local
levels. Some leaders of the Songgyun'gwan and the Yurim are academic professors
of Confucianism and Korean philoso phy at Songgyun'gwan University and other
universities. The national organization of the Yu rim is the Yudohoe Ch' ongbonbu
(General organization for the way of Confucian literati) which was established in
1970. In the countryside, there are 231 Hyanggyos (local Confucian academies in
the Kory6 and Choson periods) which now serve as local ritual sites and meeting
halls. Official rituals are annually performed at the Songgyun'gwan; for example,
the celebration of Confucius' birthday is observed there in September, and Chinese
and Korean Confucian sages and worthies, includi ng e minent Korean scholars
like T'oegye and Yulgok, are periodically venerated at the Songgyun'gwan and
Hyanggyos. The Confucian heritage of ancestral rites and other rituals (especially
funeral service) are still observed. For other relevant points, see my articles on
modern Confucianism in Korea: Chung 1995b and 1994a/b.
11 For Chong's biography , see Peter H Lee et al. 1992454-458. For his life
and thought, see also Chai-sik Chung's article in de Bary and J. Kim Haboush 198 5
(The Rise of Neo-Confacianism in Korea), or Lee and de Bary 1997: 254-255, 282,
297-299, 328.
12 These include three classes in the following order: 1) the middle class
(chungin) who held the technical posts as medical officers, translator-interpreters,
accountants, artists, and etc; 2) free-born commoners (sangmin) like farmers and
merchants; and 3) low-born servants (chonmin). Furthermore, the yangba.n class
itself also had some distinctions: the military group received much less respect
than the civil group did. Likewise, s6ja-sons of yangban by secondary wives, their
descendants, and sons and grandsons of yangbanwidows who remarried-could not

sit for examinations in order to qualify for civil office appointments
13 See Kim Haboush's article, "Confucianization of Kore an Society" (1991).
14 T h i s subje c t of Korean Neo-Confucianism in the Choson dynasty

articulated the socio-political structures and historical aspects of Chos6n Korea.
Kim Haboush (1991) is a h i storical survey that discusses the Korean process
of ''Confu cianizing,, the society in terms of education1 government1 ancestor
worship, and patriarchy. It focuses more on the Koryo-Chos6n transitional perio d.
See also Deucl:der' s The Confucian Transformation ofKorea: A Study ofSociety
and Ideology (1992), which presents the way in which the Choson dynasty use d
Neo-Confucian ideology as a "political vehicle" to alter many aspects of Koryo' s
life 1 including the social structure, position of women1 ancestor veneration1 and
inheritance. For other relevant studies, see Kim Haboush, A Heritage ofKings: One
Man's M onarchy in the Confucian World (1988) andPalais' Politics and Policies in
Traditional Korea (1975).
15 For the examination system of the Chos6n dynasty, consult Yong-ho Ch' oe,
The Civil Examinations and the Social Structure in the Early Yi Dynasty Korea
(1987); Yi Songmu, "The Influence of Neo-Confucianism on Education and the
Civil Service Examination in Fourteen- and Fifteenth-Century Korea," in de Bary
and Haboush 1985:59-88; or Duncan's "Examinations and Orthodoxy in Choson
Korea" (2002)
16 The phrase Songnihak (learning of human nature and principle) basically

means the "learning" (haldxue) of two metaphysical and ethical c oncepts, song!
xing (human nature) and illi ( principle). In the Chinese ChengZhu transmission of
Neo-Confucianism, these are two of the most important ideas in its metaphysics
and ethics in China, Korea and Japan. In Korea, the Songnihak was al so known
as the ChengZhu (ChongJu) scho ol, which refers to the two family names of Song
Chinese Neo-Confucians, the two bothers Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi, and Zhu Xi.
17 For a chronological and annotated description of these works by T' oegye,

see Chung 1995a, Appendix 3, in addition to Kalton 1988. For Toegye's life and
thought, see the same sources and my articles in Bibliography.
18 The current l iterature on Yulgok's l ife and thought includes Ro 1989,

Ching's article in de Bary and Kim Haboush 1985, and Chung 1995a (a comparative
NOTES 157
study ofT'oegye and Yulgok), 1998.
19 The current literature on the Sirhak tradition include the following: Yi

Uisong, "Korean Intellectual Tradition The Sirhak School of Thought," in H ugh
K ang, ed., The Traditional Culture and Society of Korea: Thought and Institutions
(1975); M. Kalton, "Chong Tasan' s Philosophy of Man A Radical Critique of the
Neo-Confucian World View," Journal of Korean Studies 3 (1981) 3-37; Yi Ul-ho,
"Tasan's View of Man," Korea Journal 25, no. 9 (Sept. 1985); Han Yongu, "Chong
Yag-yong The Man and His Thought," in Main Currents ofKorean Thought (1983),
pp. 185-203. See also H an Yong-u, "Tasan's Approach to History," Cho Sung
eul, "Tasan on the Social Hierarchy," and Kum Chang-t' ae, "Tasan on Western
Learning and Confucianism," all in Korea Journal 26, no. 2 (Feb 1986)
20 For a good introduc tion to the Wang Yangming school of Chinese Neo
Confucianism, see Chan 1963a and 1963b, de Bary et al. 1960, or Ching 1993, For
my discussion of the Korean Wang Yangming School, consult Chung 1992a.
21 Pak' s major works include The Tragic History of Korea (Han'guk t'ongsa)
and The Bloody History ofthe Independence Mavem2nt in Korea (Han'guk tongnip
undongji hy61sa).
22 For more discussion of these Korean Neo-Confucians, consult de Bary and

Kim Haboush 1985 (several chapters); Chung 1995a (Historical Background); Peter
H. Lee et al. 1992 (including some translations); or P. R Lee and de Bary 1997
(selected translations of original sources) 254-255, 280-282, 288-292, 297-299,
328, 3 34, 343-346, 349-374,
23 For a biographical account of Chong Mongju, see Peter H Lee, et al. 1992
or Lee and de Bary 1997:254.
24 For a d iscussion on Chong Tojon's life and thought, see Chai-sik Chung's
article on Chong Tojon in de Bary and l Kim Haboush 1985, or Lee and de Bary
1997 254-255, 282, 297-299, 328.
25 Furthermore, the three-part work Simgii p'y6n is a critical comparative

analysis of Daoism, Buddhism, and Neo-Confucianism in which Sambong
criticized both Buddhism and Daoism. Sambong defended Confucianism by
criticizing both Buddhism and Daoism. The last part of the Simgii p'y6n is

translated by John B. Duncan in Peter H. Lee et al. 1992454-458
26 For this diagram see John Dunc an's English translation, ibid., pp. 458-
460. For a good discussion of this diagram, see also de Bary and Kim Haboush
1985 107-113.
27 See photos 2a-b for Toegye's portraits including the second one on Korean
paper money - 1000 won.
28 I discussed this topic in Chu ng 20 ! lb.
29 For details, see Kalton 1988 for a full translation of T'oegye's Tell
Diagrams on Sage Learning. See also Chung 1995a for my discussion of this
topic in connection toT'oegye's philosophy of human nature and emotions and its
implication for self-cultivation.
30 See Chung 1995a for a full-length study ofT'oegye's Four-Seven thesis on

the "Four Beginnings of virtue" and the "Seven Emotions" and its entire system
of metaphysics, ethics, and spiritual practice. T his book also covers the same topic
for Yi Yulgok and presents a comparative study of the two leading Korean Neo
Confucian thinke rs.
31 See photos 3a-b for Yulgok's portraits including the second one on Korean
paper money - 5000 won.
32 I discussed this topic in Chung 19926171-175.
33 See Chu ng 1995a for my book on Yulgok's Four-Seven philosophy and its
entire system of metaphysics, moral psychol og y, and practical learning.T his book
also covers the same topic for Yi Toegye and presents a comparative study of the
two leading Korean thinkers.
34 For Yulgok's philosophy, see also Ro 1989 or Chu ng 1998.
35 Ibid.
36 See photo 4 for Tasan' s portrait. For Tasan' s life and thought, see Setton
1997,
NOTES 159
37 Catholicism was introduced along with European culture and science into
Korea from China in the early seventeenth century, stimu lating Korean intellects
such as Yi Ik (Songho, 1681-1763) and his disciples to search for f resh new
measures for reform. As a result, a few members of the Songho school (founded by
Yi Ik) including T asan and his senior colleagues became interested in Christianity
and Wester n culture. Some of them, in fact, became Catholic converts (pos sibly
including Tasan), despite the fact that the government led by the conservative
scholar-officials strongly suppressed its spread.
38 Other com mentaries include 22 vols. of poetry; 4 vols. of music; 5 vols. of

miscel laneous writings; and 6 vols. of medicine. Tasan's Complet.e Works take up
over 10,000 pages in the form ofliterary Chinese (hanmun)
39 As I argued el sewhere, the Chinese Wang Yangming school of thought also

appears to have had some impact on the rise and development of the Sirhak school.
Wang's emphasis on the vir tuous dimension of the mind as well as on the practical
"unity of knowledge and action" influenced the thinking of a few Sirhak scholars
including Yi Ik and Chong Tasan. See Chung 1992a 14-23.
40 See Chung 1995a (chapter 1) for my detailed discussion of this topic in

relation to the Korean Neo-Confucian philosophy of human nature and feelings
('Four-Seven Debate").
41 See also Kalton 1988; I discussed this topic on T'oegye's ethics and
s pirituality of self-cultivationinChung 20 !Oa, 20 I l b .
42 T he relevant literature o n this subJect includes the following: Deuchler

1992; Kim Haboush 1988, 1991, 2002; Yi Songmu 1985; Palais 1975; Duncan 2002;
and Chung 1992a.
43 A major que stion has been: Is Confucianism a religion, a philosophy, or

both simultaneously? Our current scholarship therefore offers various works on
the s tudy of Confucianism as philosophy and/or religion; e.g., de Bary, Chan,
Ching, Tu, Talyor, Neville, etc. For the Korean case, see Kalton, Ro and Chung in
Selected Bibliography. It is also nece ssary to study the modern transformation of
Confuciani sm as well; for m ore comments and supplementary readings on this, see
note 1 (the first note in Chapter 1).

44 See Kim Haboush 199191-103.
45 "Affection between father and son; righteousness between rulers and

subjects; separate functions between husband and wife; an proper order between
old and young; and faithfulness between friends" (Mencius 3A:4). Lau's translation
1970 127.
46 For a further reading on this topic, see Chung 1995b. Regarding Korean
Confucianism, marriage, and gender relationships, see Chung 1994a.
47 The casual notion of ancestors in North America is quite different from

the somewhat moral-religious notion of ancestors in Korea (and other East Asian
countries influenced by Confucian values). As we know, most North Americans
view ancestors as the dead people of the past from whom a living individual is
descended.Ancestry is usually considered part of a person's biological (and social)
past; however, it is not significant for living one's own life including its family
spiritual dimensions. By contrast, the traditional Korean notion of family extends
from the dead ancestors through the living members to the to -be-born members
in the future. Its ancestry embodies a moral-religious belief in maintaining family
values, promoting family prosperity, and even aspiring for personal health and
fortune.
48 For this topic on Korean family spirituality and ancestral rites, I consulted
Chung 2006 (my conference paper) and updated its key points.
49 I discussed this topic before Chung 1995b, 1994a
50 As I said in Chapters 9-10, there are two fundamental reasons for this co
existence first, Confucianism remains a diffused tradition intermingled with daily
Korean values; second, it has never been a theistic and organized confessional
religion like Christianity.
51 Koreans are said to be "Confucian" in the sense of satisfying one or more

ethical, social or religious criteria relating to Confucian awareness and experience.
For example, 92% of four hundred Korean men and women who participated
in a survey study of religious identity are said to be "Confucian" in this way.
Furthermore, 90% o f Korean Catholics are said to be Confucian in the same
context (Korea Gallop Research Centre 1984). Among the four hundred people who
NOTES 161
p a rticip ated in the survey, all seventy-seven Buddhist s a re viewed as C o nfucia n
at the sa me time, and ninety percent of twenty C ath olic s , C o nfucia n . This p oll
cert ainly indic ated a n intere sting but no t surprising result ab out inter a ctio n a nd
p a rticip atio n inv olving C o nfucia nism and a no ther religio n in East Asia. Ano ther
work on a similar topic (Kim Sung Hae 1988) indicate s that 7'J'/o of the res pondent s
a ffirmed gener a l ethic al similaritie s between C o nfucia nis m a nd Chris tia nity.
One major element of the re sult show s that Korea' s cult ural heritage (incl uding
Confucianism) could be a ssimilated.
52 This v olume includes Kim H ab oush' s article,"Co nfucianizatio n of Ko rean

S o ciety," a nd Ro binso n' s a rticle,"Perceptio n s of C o nfucia nis m in Twentieth
Century Ko rea."
53 For detail s, see note 1 (the fir st note in Chapter 1).
54 See no te 51 a bove.
55 As we dis cussed in Ch apter 6, the t o pic of educ atio n, ec o no mic cult ure
a nd C o nfucian v alue s in mo dern Eas t Asia h as been s tudied fro m variou s angle s.
Sever al recent interpret atio n s highlighted" indus tri al C o nfucia nis m" a nd
"Confucian capitalism," relating to Japan and the Four Little Dragon s including
S outh Ko re a. Berger 1988 addressed the Co nfucia n c ulture of"p olitic al ec o no my"
a nd c a pit a lis m in E as t Asi a fr o m a c o mp a r a tive so cio l o gic a l a ngle. Tu wei
ming (1996: 10) pointed out that "the social and c ultural capitaLhas been at least
c o mmen sur a te with C o nfucian ethic s , if n o t th o r oughly C o nf ucia n in n at ure."
Ezr a Vo gel 1991 expl ained"indus trial Neo -C o nfucianism" and it s c o ntributio n
t o educ atio n a nd indus try. Tai 1989 is a n o ther relevant w o rk o n the t o pic o f
C o nfucia nis m a nd ec o n o mic devel o pment. Ro zm a n 1991 pre sented the issue
o f mo derniza tio n and C o nfucia nis m in China , Ja pan, and Ko re a . Fo r the S outh
K o rea n c ase, see also Ro binso n 1991 a nd P al ais 2002.
56 P ye 1985 al so p aid special attentio n t o" a ggressive" Co nfucian cult ure as

a n e ssential p a rt o f p o litic al auth o rity in Eas t Asia including Ko re a . Fo r the imp act
of Confucianism on authoritarianism in Choson Korea, s ee al s o Deuchler 1992,

Kim Hab oush 1991 and 2002, andP al ais 1975.
57 Good source s for this topic are Deuchler 1992, 1977; Kim Haboush 1991,
1988; and P al ais 1975.

58 See Chung 1994a for a detailed discussion of Women and Confucianism in
Modern Korea.
59 "Affection between father and son; righteousness between rulers and

subjects; separate functions between husband and wife; an proper order between
old and young; and faithfulness between friends" (Mencius 3A:4).
60 The upper-class Kore an women had to study and r espect those Chinese and
Korean Confucian texts written for women. A good discussion of the Chinese texts
is Kelleher 1989; for these and Korean texts discussed in the Korean context, see
Deuchler 1977 and Kim Yung-Chung 1976 59-161.
61 Korea Gal l op Research Center; Cho s u n Il bo (chosun com ; daily

newspaper), Aug. 11, 2003.
62 Ibid.
63 Various works on "ancestor worship," shamanism, and rituals in Korean

society include Kendall 1985, Janelli and Janelli 1982, Kendall and Dix 1987,
Dredge 1987, Bruno 2006, Walraven 2006, etc., most of which variously discussed
Korean patterns of ancestor worship and shamanism. See also l Y Lee 1985.
However, I note that the Korean tradition of Confucian ancestral rites should not be
over-simpl ified or generalized in terms of the popular l abel "ancestor worship" in
connection to shamanism or rural folk religion. In the c urrent literature on Korean
ritual and society, these two popular notions are applied to Confucian ancestral
rites unfairly or even incorrectly.
64 T he current literature on the study of Chinese Confucianism and Neo

Confucianism as religion and spirituality includes Ching 2000, 1989, 1977 ; Tu Wei
ming 1989, 1985; Taylor 1991; Berthrong 1994; Neville 2000; and others. For the
Korean case of it, see Kalton 1988; Ro 1989; Chung 201 lb, 2010a-b, 2004, 1995a,
1994b; etc.
65 Such as the Manual of the Four Rites (Sarye pyi5llam), a mi cl-eighteenth

century Korean edition of Zhu Xi's Chinese work, Family Rites (Jiali). In South
Korea, educated ol der generations (including my own father and my father-in-law)
can outline their ancestral rites with fair consistency along the standard customs;
some of them are also familiar with basic family rituals and moral-cultural values
NOTES 163
that are outlined in a public handbook entitled, Standardized Guidelines on Family
Etiquettes and Rituals (Kaj6nguirye chunchi'R;, an important part of the nation 's
civil legal code.
66 A recent national survey on the public view of ancestral rites has reported
that about 79% of families in South Korea observe the kijesa anniversary rites,
and 78% the ch 'arye seasonal holiday rites on the Oi'usok and the traditional New
Year's D ay. Cited inJoongAng llbo newspaper, Sept. 16, 2005.
67 Such as the Concise Handbook.for Confucians (Yurimp'y6/lam), pp. 139-

141, and the new Korean edition, Our Rites and Manners.for Everyday Living(Uri
ui saenghwalyej6I). pp. 324-340. The former is published by the Headquarters of
Korean Yudoh'oe (Society for the Confucian Way; 1983, 1991), and the latter, by
the Songgyun'gwan (1997).
68 I translated, annotated, shortened, and discussed all steps of this formal

procedure in my 2006 conference paper.
69 Inde ed, it is a formal, polite etiquette of express ing filial piety to parents
on traditional holid ays, or givi ng a special gratitude or greetings to old teacher
mentors. Note that it does not imply anything like "idolatry" or "superstition"; I say
so because there has been s ome misunderstanding especially among evangelical
and conservative Christians, Koreans or non-Kore ans, who either do not tolerate
this part of Korean culture or simply ignore its moral nature.
70 For a formal memorial rite at the famous Tosan Confucian Academy,

the ritual master chants a ch'ungmun reading in order to honor Yi T'oegye, the
Academy's founder as well as the most renowned scholar of Korean Confucianism.
This is done with local descendants of his family. It is interesting to note that
traditional scholarly uniforms and hats are also used.
71 The issue of ancestral rites has been addressed negatively especially by

the conservative and evangelical groups of Korean Protestant churches in terms of
"superstitious tradition" and "idol worship."
72 For example, the key passages on family and Christian love are read from
Paul's letters to the Corinthians and to Romans, New Testament.

73 Therefore, it is not surprising that the Catholic church in South Korea is
assimilating ancestral rites and family morality. Since the 1980s, various ideas
of indigenization have been studied in South Korea. Several methodological
paradigms also include cul tural assimilation and Koreanization. In 1989 the
Korean Catholic church established a Special Committee for the Study of
Traditional Funeral and Ancestral Rites, In early 1993, the Special Committee
compiled a lengthy and carefully-written document: "Cerem onial Guidelines for
Funeral and Ancestral Rites: A Recommendation" (Sangjerye yesiks6 sian).
74 In this regard, Palmer (1985: 95) correctly pointed o u t earlier that

Confucian ancestral rites are "a continuing feature of Korean s ocial-religiou s life,
maintaining values" through ritual forms and symbols.
75 I have discussed the topic of Confucianism in contemporary Kore a in terms

of continuity, change and synthesis, relating to moral education, ancestral rituals
and family values, social e thics, Korean identity, modernization, etc. See Chung
2006, 1995b, 1994a, 1994b.
76 This is main ly because Korean Protestant pastors discourage the

observance of ancestral rites. For more, see note 71.
77 Furthermore, 50% of them have experienced no real conflict even in

maintaining the modified tradition of ancestral rites at home (Mullinax 1994). For
more comments ) see note 51 above.
78 Regarding the notion of "portable Confucianism" here, I am indebted to

Robert Neville's c omparative thesis of "Boston Confucianism" (2000) and its
international implications.
79 This was mentioned in a national daily newspapers, Han'guk 1/bo (Korea

daily news), Apr. 16, 1993.
80 Many Korean husbands respect their wives' wisdom and ability in decision
making processes, depending heavily on their wives in many respec ts: virtually all
of the family finance, the education of children, the purchase of household goods,
and the handling of various domestic and social relationships are under the direct
control and management of women.
NOTES 165
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Illustrations: 19 photos
Photos la-c (ch. 2): three pictures on theS6nggyun'gwan,Seoul, Korea.
Photos 2a-b (ch. 3): Yi T'oegye's portraits (second one on Korean paper money
- 1000 won).
Photos 3a-b (ch 3) Yi Yulgok's portraits (second one on Korean paper money
- 5000won).
Photos 4 (ch 3) Chong Tasan's portrait.
Photos 5a-b (ch 9) two photos of the typical ancestral ritual table of food and
related offerings on the Korean New Year's Day.
Photos 6a-b (ch 9) two photos of the sebae prostration custom as s pecial
greetings on the Korean New Year's Day.
Photos 7a-b (ch 9) two photos of the ritual initiation reading and prostration
at the Tosan Confucian Academy's ancestral rite for Master Y i T 'oegye.
SELECTED BIBLIO GRAPH Y 1 77

Photos Sa-b (ch 9) two photos of General Secretary o f the UN, Mr. Ban Ki
moon's ancestral rite in his hometown on the Ch'useok holid ay .
Photos 9a-b (ch 9) two photos o f the Korean World Cup soccer team's
ancestral rite at their training camp on the Ch'usok holiday
Photo 10 (ch 9) one photo about the ances tral ritual table of food offering
with the ancestor's portrait.
Sources of Illustrations:
Photos la [Songgyun' gw an] Songgyun'gwan in Seoul
Photos lb (Songgyun'gw an] Songgyun'gwan in Seoul
Photos le [Songgyun' gw an] Songgyun'gwan in Seoul
Photos 2a [Yi T'oegye portrait]: Bank ofKorea in Seoul/Mr. (Hyuncho)LEE,
Yu Tae
Photos 3a [Yi Yulgok portrait]: Ojukheon & Museum in Gangneung! Mr.
(I-dang)K1m, Eun-ho
Photos 4 [ Chong Tasan portrait]: Bank of Korea in Seoul/ Mr. (Woljeong)
Chang, Woo Seong
Photos 5a [ Chesasang]:Korea Tourism Organization
Photos 5b [ Chesasang]: Korea Tourism Organization
Photos 6a (Sebae prostration]: KoreaTourism Organization
Photos 6b [Sebae proslration] Yonhap News
Photos 7a [Tosan Academy's chesa ancestral rite for Yi T'oegye] Tosan

Acadel'l'3/
Photos 7b [Tosan Academy 's chesa ancestral rite for Y i T'oegye] Tosan
Academy
Photos Sa [General Secretary ofthe UN, Mr. Ban Ki-moon's ancestral rite in
his hometown on the Ch'useok holiday] Yonhap News
Photos Sb [General Secretary of the UN, Mr. Ban Ki-moon's ancestral rite in
his hometown on the Ch'useok holiday] Yonhap News
Photos 9a [Ch'useok (harvest) holiday charye ancestral rite]: Yonhap News
Photos 9b [Ch' useok (harvest) holiday charye ancestral rite]: Yonhap News
Photo 10 [Ancestral ritual table with offerings and ancestral portraits]: Mr.
Son, Sung-Hoon
SELECT!ill BIBLIO GRAPH Y 1 79

About the Author
II
Edward
Prof. Edward Y.J. Chu ng (PhD, MA, BA,
Y. J University of Toronto) teaches East Asian religion
Chung and thought and comparative religion at the
University of Prince Edward Island, Canada,
where he is now directing Asian Studies. His first
major book is The Korean Neo-Confucianism of
Yi T'oegye and Yi Yulgok... (SUNY Press). He
published "Self-transcendence as the Ultimate
Reality in lnterreligious Dialogue: A Nee-Confucian
Perspective," Studies in Religion (2011 ), as well
as two articles about Korean Nee-Confucianism
and ecological thinking in Acta Koreana (2011)
and Ecology and Korean Confucianism (2013).
His other scholarly articles on Yi T'oegye (1501-
70) and other topics (e.g., Confucianism in modern
Korea) are published in East Asian Confucianisms
(Rutgers University Press, 201 0); Acta Koreana
(Dec. 2010); Confucian Spirituality, vol. 2 (T he
Crossroad, 2004); The Annual Review of Women
__JI
in World Religions; Monumenta Serica; Asian
Profile; Korea Journal; Korean Culture; etc.

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Korean

Korean Confucianism: Tradition and Modernity

Published by The Academy of Korean Studies Press

Address_The Academy of Korean Studies Press

Copyright@ 2015 The Academy of Korean Studies

No portion of the contents may be reproduced in any form

THE ACADEMY OF KOREAN STUDIES PREss$

Korea achieved extraordinary economic development today

The Center for International Affairs (CEFIA) at the Academy

I wish to express my gratitude and thanks to those institutions

Korean terms, names, and titles are Romanized according

NOTES ••••••• ........ 154

Confucianism originated in China during a golden

The sac r e d b ooks o f Con fucianism are nme

3. Basic Confucian Teachings

The core Confucian doctrine is about "learning

To master oneself and return to propriety (ye/Ii) is

Chapter 4 in this book discusses human-heartedness

Ifthe names and duties are not rectified, the language

These ideals of human relationships are meant to be

The ancients who wished to manifest their clear

Korean Neo-Confucians such as Yi T'oegye and Yi

ofthe Inter Confucian Tradition. Indianapolis/Cambridge:

Korea has a long and rich tradition of Confucianism

2. The Rise of Neo-Confucianism in the Koryo

On the whole, Confucianism was not important

photo 1 a Sooggyun'gwan Confucian Academy in Korea TaesOngjon

photo 1 c Smggyun'gwan Confucian Academy in Korea Mymgnyundang Grand Lecture Hall

3. Neo-Confucianism in the Early Chosun Dynasty

4. Neo-Confucian Education and State Examination

With the establishment an d spread of N e o­

5. The Golden Age of Songnihak in Sixteenth­

So Kyongdok (pen name, Hwadam; 1489-1546), Yi

6. Practical Learning and Reform Confucianism

In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Practical

7. Early Twentieth-Century Reformers

In addressing social and political problems in the

From the late fourteenth century, Korea began to

1. Chong Mongju: Neo-Confucian Learning

2. Chong Tojon: The Establishment of Neo­

3. Kwon Kun: Neo-Confucian Scholarship and

Kwon Kiln (pen name, Yangch'on; 1352-1409) was an

Eminent Thinker-Scholars from the

5. Yi T' oegye: The Korean Philosophy of Principle:

6. Yi Yulgok: Learning, Self-Cultivation, and

7. Chong Tasan: Practical Learning (Sirhak) and

Confucian learning begins with the self because it

What Heaven imparts to human beings is human

Indeed, t his sub t l e passage was ar t iculated

The ancient who wished to manifest their cle ar

The eminent Neo-Confucians such as Zhu Xi in

...The Way cannot be separated from us for a moment.

A related teaching by Confucius is the so-c alled

Tseng Tzu [Zengzi in Pinyin] said, "Everyd ay I reflect

There are three things from which the self-cultivated

Regarding daily moral cultivation, Confucius also

Confucius said, "To master oneself and ret urn to

The mind-and-heart (sim/xin) of commiseration is

Ching, Julia. 2000. The Religious Thought ofChu Hsi. Toronto

After visiting South Korea many times since the mld-

With the establishment an d spread of N e o

5. The Golden Age of Songnihak in Sixteenth

2. Chong Tojon: The Establishment of Neo