THE BEGINNINGS OF SOCIOLOGY

Sociology before Auguste Comte?

Sociology has a long past but only a short history. Sociology, which is known as the science of
society, is one of the youngest as well as one of the oldest of the social sciences. It is one of the
youngest sciences because only recently it came to be established as a distinct branch of
knowledge with its own distinct set of concepts and its own methods of inquiry.
Sociology is also one of the oldest of the sciences. Since the dawn of civilization, society has
been a subject for speculation and inquiry along with other phenomena which have agitated the
restless and inquisitive mind of man. Even centuries ago men were thinking about society and
how it should be organized, and held views on man and his destiny, the rise and fall of peoples
and civilisations. Though they were thinking in sociological terms they were called philosophers,
historians, thinkers, law-givers or seers. Thus, "Broadly it may be said that sociology has had a
fourfold origin: in political philosophy, the philosophy of history, biological theories of evolution
and the movements for social and political reforms…"

There was social thought during the ancient age: Though sociology came to be established
as a separate discipline in the 19th century due to the efforts of the French philosopher Augusto
Comte, it is wrong to suppose that there existed no social thought before him. For thousands of
years men have reflected upon societies in which they lived. In the writings of philosophers,
thinkers and law-givers of various countries of various epochs we find ideas that are sociological.
For instance, in the writings of Plato, Aristotle, Manu, Kautilyn, Confucius, Cicero and others we
find major at- tempts to deal methodically with the nature of society, law, religion, philosophy etc.
Plato's Republic, Aristotle's Politics, Kautilya's Arthashastra, the Smriti of Manu, Confucius'
Analects, Cicero's "On Justice" are some of the ancient sources of social thought.

During the middle ages and early modern times the teachings of the church dominated the human
mind and hence most part of the human thinking remained as metaphysical speculation far away
from the scientific inquiry. Intellectuals became more active from the 16th century onwards. Their
quest for an understanding of human society, its nature, socio-political system and its problems
now received new impetus. The literary works of some prominent intellectuals of this period clearly
reveals this urge to understand and interpret man's socio-political system.

Machiavelli's "The Prince", Thomas Hobbes' "Leviathan", Rousseau's "Social Contract",

Montesquieu's "The Spirit of Laws", Adam Smith's "Wealth of Nations", Condorcet's "Historical
Sketch of the Progress of the Human mind” serve as examples of such literary works. Thinkers
like Sir Thomas More in his "Utopia", Thomasso Campanella in his "City of the Sun", Sir Francis
Bacon in his "New Atlantis", James Harrington in his "Common Wealth of Oceana", H.G. Wells in
his "A Modern Utopia"- had made attempts to project a picture of an ideal society free from all
shortcomings.

Auguste Comte [1798-1857]

-the Founding Father of Sociology

Auguste Comte, the French Philosopher, is traditionally considered the "Father of Sociology".
Comte who invented the term "Sociology" was the first man to distinguish the subject-matter of
sociology from all the other sciences. He worked out in a series of books, a general approach to
the study of society. Comte is regarded as the "Father of sociology" not because of any significant
contributions to science as such, but because of the great influence he had upon it. It would be
more appropriate to regard him as a philosopher of science rather than as a sociologist.

Comte introduced the word "sociology" for the first time in his famous work "Positive Philosophy"
in about 1839. The term "Sociology" is derived from the Latin word Socius, meaning companion
or associate, and the Greek word logos, meaning study or science. Thus, the etymological
meaning of sociology is the science of society. He defined sociology as the science of social
phenomena "subject to natural and invariable laws, the discovery of which is the object of
investigation"

Comte devoted his main efforts to an inquiry into the nature of human knowledge and tried to
classify all knowledge and to analyze the methods of achieving it. He concentrated his efforts to
determine the nature of human society and the laws and principles underlying its growth and
development. He also labored to establish the methods to be employed in studying social
phenomena.

Comte believed that the sciences follow one another in a definite and logical order and that all
inquiry goes through certain stages (namely, the theological, the metaphysical and the 'positive
or scientific or empirical). Finally, they arrive at the last or scientific stage or as he called the
positive stage. In the positive stage, objective observation is substituted for speculation. Social
phenomena like physical phenomena, he maintained, can be studied objectively by making use
of the positive method. He thought that it was time for inquiries into social problems and social
phenomena to enter into this last stage. So, he recommended that the study of society be called
the science of society, i.e. 'sociology'

Comte proposed sociology to be studied in two main parts: (1) the social statics and (ii) the social
dynamics. These two concepts represent a basic division in the subject-matter of sociology. The
social statics deals with the major institutions of society such as family, economy or polity.
Sociology is conceived of as the study of inter-relations between such institutions. In the words of
Comte, "the statical study of sociology consists the investigations of laws of action and reaction
of different parts of the social system". He argued that the parts of a society cannot be studied
separately, "as if they had an independent existence".

If Statics examines how the parts of societies are interrelated, social dynamics focuses on whole
societies as the unit of analysis and reveals how they developed and changed through time. "We
must remember that the laws of social dynamics are most recognisable when they relate to the
largest societies", he said. Comte was convinced that all societies moved through certain fixed
stages of development and that progressed towards ever increasing perfection. He felt that the
comparative study of societies as "wholes" was major subject for sociological analysis.

Contributions of Comte to the Development of Sociology As a Science

1. Comte gave to 'sociology' its name and laid its foundation so that it could develop into an
independent and a separate science.
2. Comte's insistence on positive approach, objectivity and scientific attitude contributed to
progress of social sciences in general.
3. Comte, through his "Law of Three Stages" clearly established the close association
between intellectual evolution and social progress.
 4. Comte's classification of sciences drives home the fact that sociology depends heavily on
the achievements of other sciences. The 'interdisciplinary approach' of modern times is in
tune with the Comtean view.
5. Comte gave maximum importance to the scientific method. He criticized the attitude of the
armchair social philosophers and stressed the need to follow the method of science.

6. Comte divided the study of sociology into two broad areas: "social statics" and "social
dynamics". Present day sociologists have retained them in the form of social structure and
function" and "social change and progress".
7. Comte had argued that sociology was not just a "pure" science, but an "applied" science
also. He believed that sociology should help to solve the problems of society. This insistence on
the practical aspect of sociology led to the development of various applied fields of sociology such
as "social work" "social welfare", etc.

8. Comte also contributed to the development of theoretical sociology.

9. Comte upheld the 'moral order in the society. The importance which he attached to
morality highly impressed the later writers such as Arnold Toynbee and Pitirim A. Sorokin

10. Comte's famous books (i) ‘Positive Philosophy’ [in 6 volumes] and, (ii) "Positive Policy" [in
4 volumes] are memorable contributions to the development of sociological literature.

Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)

An English scholar, Herbert Spencer, known as one of the most brilliant intellects of modem times,
contributed a great deal to the establishment of sociology as a systematic discipline. His three
volumes of "Principles of Sociology", published in 1877 were the first systematic study devoted
mainly to the sociological analysis. He was much more precise than Comte in specifying the topics
or special fields of sociology.

According to Spencer, the fields of sociology are: the family, politics, religion, social control and
Industry or work. He also mentioned the sociological study of associations, communities, the
division of labor, social differentiation, and stratification, the sociology of knowledge and of
science, and the study of arts and aesthetics.
Spencer stressed the obligation of sociology to deal with the inter-relations between the different
elements of society, to give an account of how the parts influence the whole and are in turn
reacted upon. He insisted that sociology should take the whole society as its unit for analysis. He
maintained that the parts of society were not arranged unsystematically. The parts bore some
constant relation and this made society as such a meaningful 'entity', a fit subject for scientific
inquiry.

Spencer's another contribution is his famous organic analogy, in which society is compared
with the human organism. Spencer was influenced by the theory of organic evolution of his
contemporary, Charles Darwin. Even L.F. Ward, Sumner and Giddings were highly influenced by
the organismic theory of society advocated by Spencer.

Contributions of Spencer to the Development of Sociology

 1. Spencer very strongly supported the views of Comte who insisted on the need to establish
a separate science of society.
2. Spencer stressed upon the interdependence of different parts of society. Spencer argued,
the various parts of society, such as the state and the economy, are also interdependent
and work to ensure the stability and survival of the entire system.

3. Spencer through his "theory of Organic Analogy" contributed to the development of the
tradi- tion of comparative studies in sociology. Though this theory has its own limitations it
influenced Ward, Sumner, Giddings and other later writers.

4. Spencer emphasized the "laws of evolution" and tried to universalise them. According to
L.A. Coser, the laws of evolution popularized by Spencer could be taken as his contribution to the
philosophy of sociology rather than to the science of sociology

5. Spencer's theories had a special appeal for two reasons: (i) they satisfied the desire for
unifying knowledge; and (ii) they stressed the need for the "principle of free enterprise" (or
"laissezfaire principle. Spencer was a supporter of the principle of "individualism". The policy of
free thinking advocated by him supported the cause of the development of the new science of
sociology.

6. Spencer's works such as-Social Statics", "First Principle" "The Study of

Sociology","Principles of Ethics", "Principles of Sociology". "The Man Versus The State" have
been a great contribution to the enrichment of sociological literature.

It is relevant here to make a brief mention of the contributions of cther founding fathers such as
Marx, Durkheim and Weber to the development of sociology.

Karl Marx (1818-1883)

Karl Marx was one of the most important thinkers of the 19th century. He wrote brilliantly on
subjects such as philosophy, political science, economics and history. He never called himself a
sociologist, but his work is very rich in sociological insights. Hence he is regarded as one of most
profound and original sociological thinkers. His influence has been tremendous. Millions of people
throughout the world accept his theories with almost religious fervour.

Marx believed that the task of the social scientist was not merely to describe the world, it was to
change it. Whereas Spencer saw social harmony and the inevitability of progress, Marx saw social
conflict and the inevitability of revolution. The key to history, he believed is class conflict- the bitter
struggle between the capitalists and the laborers or between those who own the means of
producing wealth and those who do not.
Marx also believed that the historic struggle would end only with the overthrow of the ruling
exploiters, and the establishment of a free, harmonious, classless society. Marx placed too much
emphasis on the economic base of society. Marx believed that the economic base of society
influences the general character of all other aspects of culture and social structure, such as law,
religion, education, government etc.

Modern sociologists though reject many of the ideas of Marx, do generally recognise the fun-
damental influence of the economy on other areas of society. The 'conflict approach' to the study
of social phenomena developed by Marx is still in currency. Later sociologists and social thinkers
could hardly escape the influence of Marxian ideas and theories. Good number of writers and
think- ers still subscribe to his views and theories.

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)

Prof. Durkheim, the French thinker, like Spencer, considered societies as such to be important
units of sociological analysis. He stressed the importance of studying different types of society
comparatively. "Comparative Sociology is not a particular branch of sociology, it is sociology
itself," he maintained.

In Durkheim's theory the ultimate social reality is the group, not the individual. Social life has to
be analyzed in terms of 'social facts', according to him. Social facts are nothing but collective ways
of thinking, feeling and acting which though coming from the individual, "are external" to him and
exert an external "constraint" or pressure on him. These social facts are the proper study of
sociology and to them all social phenomena should be reduced, he opined. Further, each social
fact, he felt, must be related "to a particular social milieu, to a definite type of society".

Durkheim also mentioned various fields of sociological inquiry such as-General Sociology.
"Sociology of Religion, Sociology of Law and Morals, including sub-sections on political
organizations, social organization, marriage and family, The Sociology of Crime, Economic
Sociology including sub-sections on measurement of value and occupational groups;
Demography, including studies on urban and rural communities; and Sociology of Aesthetics. His
major works are: The Division of Labour in Society, The Rules of Sociological Method, Suicide,
The Elementary Forms of the Republic Life.

Max Weber (1864-1920)

Max Weber's approach is almost contrary to that of Durkheim. For Weber, the individual is the
basic unit of society..He opines that the finding of sociological laws is but a means to understand
man. In his system, sociological laws are "empirically established probabilities or statistical
generalizations of the course of social behavior of which an interpretation can be given in terms
of typical motives and intentions. Sociological method is a combination of inductive or statistical
generalization with verstchen (understanding) interpretation by the aid of an ideal type of
behavior, that is, assumed to be rationally or purposefully determined".

Weber devoted much of his efforts to expound a special method called the method of under-
standing (verstchen) for the study of social phenomena. He stressed the importance of
maintaining objectivity and neutrality of value-judgements in social sciences. He wrote much on
such topics as religion; various aspects of economic life, including money and the division of labor,
political parties and other forms of political organization and authority, bureaucracy and other
varieties of large-scale organization; class and caste; the city; and music. His influence on
contemporary soci- ologists especially those of analytic school is rapidly increasing. His major
works are: Economics and Society, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, The City,
Bureaucracy and various other books and essays.

What These Four Pioneers of Sociology did in Common?

These "four founding fathers"-Comte, Spencer, Durkheim and Weber-it seems, agreed upon the
proper subject-matter of Sociology.

(1) Firstly, all of them urged the sociologists to study a wide range of institutions from the family
to the state.

(2) Secondly, they agreed that a unique subject-matter for sociology is found in the inter- relations
among different institutions.

(3) Thirdly, they came to the common consensus on the opinion that society as a whole can be
taken as a distinctive unit of sociological analysis. They assigned sociology the task of explaining
wherein and why societies are alike or different.

(4) Finally, they insisted that sociology should focus on 'social acts' or 'social relationships'
regardless of their institutional setting. This view was most clearly expressed by Weber.

The Ultimate Goals of Sociology

The immediate goal of sociology is to acquire knowledge about society like all the sciences.
However, sociology is not content with descriptions, exhibitions and analysis. It has a more remote
and ultimate purpose. Robert Bierstedt's views are meaningful in this regard. He says: "The final
questions to which sociology addresses itself are those that have to do with the nature of human
experience and this earth and the succession of societies over the long centuries of human
existence........... What are the factors responsible for the disintegration of one social structure,
like that of the medieval world, and the coming into being of another? Do human societies like the
individuals who comprise them, grow old after a while, and wery and finally disappear from the
face of the earth? Is there an ebb and a flow in the affairs of men, a systole and diastole of human
history? These too are problems of sociology... But some day, if sociology, through its intimate
analysis of the dynamics of society, can achieve some understanding of problems of this kind,
and contribute to their resolution, it will fulfill its initial promise and its ultimate destiny. In brief, as
Samuel Koenig has pointed out, the ultimate aim of sociology is "to improve man's adjustment to
life by developing objective knowledge concerning social phenomena which can be used to deal
effectively with social problems."