Free Electron Theory

1. Explain the concept of free electron theory:

In metals, bulk state of the metallic elements are crystalline involving a geometric array of
atoms in a space lattice, within these atoms the nuclei are surrounded by electrons. The
electrons in the inner orbits which are bound to the nuclei form core electrons which cannot
be disturbed easily, those electrons which are in the outer orbits and loosely bound to the
nuclei can be disturbed easily and are called free electrons.

2. What are the assumption of Drude and Lorentz Theory?

1. All metals contain a large number of free electrons. This free electrons are free to
move inside the crystal.
2. The average velocity of electrons is zero if there is external electric field applied
across the material.
3. These free electrons are fully responsible for the electrical and thermal conductivity
of a metal.
4. The interaction between the electron-electron and electron ion core is fully elastic.
5. The momentum of free electrons obeys the laws of the classical kinetic theory of
gases.
6. The electron velocities in a metal obey classical Maxwell-Boltzman distribution of
velocities.
7. In the absence of an electric field, the kinetic energy associated with an electron at a
temperature T is given by , where k is the Boltzmann constant.
8. When the electric field is applied to the metal, the free electrons are accelerated in the
direction opposite to the direction of applied electric field. So with the random motion
there is an additional directional motion is imposed on the electron. This directional
motion is called the drift motion.

3. What is drift velocity (Vd):

The average velocity with which free electrons move in a steady state opposite to the
direction of the applied electric field in a metal is called drift velocity.

4. Find the expression for drift velocity:

If a constant electric field E is applied to the metal the electron of mass m and charge e will
experience a force, ……………….(1)

During its movement it may collide with each other or may collie with positive ion core
which opposes the directional motion. This is analogous to frictional force.
If V is velocity of the electron and τ is the average time between the successive collisions,
then the frictional force is;
 ………………………….(2)
So the equation of motion of electron in the metal is
………………….(3)
In Steady state condition; ,
i.e V= constant = Vd,………(4) , This implies all electrons are moving with constant velocity.

In steady state condition, equation (3) becomes

, (The negative sign indicates the direction of motion of electrons is opposite to the
direction of the applied electric field.)

5. Find the derivation of electrical conductivity:

Consider a conductor of length L and cross-sectional area A placed under an electric filed E .
Let n is the charge carrier density, i.e. number of charges per unit volume.

If V is velocity of the electron and τ is the average time between the successive collisions,
then the frictional force is;
………………………….(1)

And ,electric force ……………….(2)

So the equation of motion of electron in the metal is

………………….(3)
In Steady state condition; ,
i.e V= constant = Vd,………(4) , This implies all electrons are moving with constant velocity.

In steady state condition, equation (3) becomes

, (The negative sign indicates the direction of motion of electrons is opposite to the
direction of the applied electric field.)

Due to the drift motion in the presence of external electric field, the current in the conductor,

------------------(5)

The current density in the conductor, (The magnitude of current passing through unit
area)
,
 So, [Putting the value of I from equation number (5)]
Therefore; …………………………..(6)

Appling the value of drift velocity Vd in equation number (6)

We get,
Or, ……………………….(7)
Where ……………………..(8) , is known as electrical conductivity.
Thus conductivity is proportional to the number of electrons per m3. Equation 7 is called
point form of Ohm’s law or atomic form of the Ohm’s law.

Mobility(μ): The velocity of the free electrons per unit electric field intensity is called
mobility. It represented by
Unit of the mobility is

Mean Free path(λ): The average distance travelled by an electron between any two
successive collisions is known as mean free path.
Unit is ‘m’.

Resistivity(ρ): The reciprocal of electrical conductivity is known as electrical resistivity.

6. What are the advantages of classical free electron theory:

1. It verifies ohm’s law

2. It explains electrical conductivity of metals.

3. It explains thermal conductivity of metals.

4. It explains optical reflectivity of the metal.

5. It derives Widemann – Franz law. (I.e. the relation between electrical and thermal
conductivity.

7. What are the drawbacks of classical free electron theory:

1. It could not explain the photoelectric effect, Compton Effect and black body radiation.

2. Electrical conductivity of semiconductors and insulators could not be explained.

3. Ferromagnetism could not be explained by this theory. The theoretical value of

paramagnetic susceptibility is greater than the experimental value.

4. It could not able to derive the correct expression of the specific heat of metals.

5. Widemann – Franz law is not applicable at lower temperature.

 FERMI –DIRAC DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION

The Fermi-Dirac statistics deals with the particles having half integer spin. The spin of the
electron is half and hence it is dealt with Fermi Dirac statistic and hence an electron is said to be
a Fermi particle or fermions.
Q. Define Fermi level?

This is the highest fully occupied energy level at absolute zero temperature.

At finite temperature, the energy level that has the ½ probability to filled up by the electrons.

8. What is crystal?

A crystal is a solid consisting of regular and repetitive arrangement of atoms or molecules in

space.

9. What is energy band?

This is a combination of large number of energy levels spacing very close to each other.

10. How energy band form in crystal?

The energy of an isolated atoms are negative and it depend on radius of the orbit. If radius
increases the energy approaching towards zero. A schematic diagram is shown in the fig. (a).
In fig (b) we show the energy diagram for large number of atoms of the crystal. The energy
level of the same orbit of all the atoms are same. In a crystal atoms are very close to each
other. Due to the inter atomic interaction crystal form a single electronic system obeying
Pauli’s exclusion principle. Therefore each energy level of the isolated atom will splits as
many energy levels as there are atoms in the crystal so that Pauli’s exclusion principle can
satisfy. The separation of split off energy levels are very small. These large number of
closely placed energy levels are called energy band. So in crystal instead of energy level we
have large number of energy band.
11. Define Valence Band?
The highest band of energy of a crystal which is totally filled up by the electrons of the crystal
is called valence band.

12. Define conduction Band?

The lowest energy band which is totally empty or partially empty is called conduction band.

13. Define forbidden energy gap?

The energy gap between lower level of conduction band and upper level of valence band.

14. Why forbidden energy gap is called so? Does it depend on temperature?
In this region electrons are not allowed to stay due to the quantum nature of the atoms or
molecules of the crystal. The gap also depends on nature of atoms or molecules of the
crystal. Therefore, the energy gap is intrinsic property of the material and does not depend
on temperature.

15. Define insulator, semiconductor and conductor depending on band gap? Or Draw the
energy band diagram for insulator, semiconductor and conductor.

Insulator: The crystal in which the energy band gap between conduction band and valence
bad is very large and its approximately 5 eV.

Semiconductor: The crystal in which the energy band gap between conduction band and
valence bad is small and its approximately 1 - 3 eV.
 Conductor: The crystal in which the energy band gap between conduction band and valence
bad is zero. Basically conduction band and valence band overlap to each other.

Fig 1. Energy band diagram for (a) insulator (b) semiconductor and (c) conductor

15 Draw the Fermi energy level for insulator, semiconductor and conductor.

Fig 2. Energy gaps and Fermi levels for (a) insulator (b) semiconductor and (c) conductor