Bridge Work

DISGEN OF A 10METER SPAN OF BRIDGE
CERTIFICATION
This work was carried out by LOVIS YENWOMBUE, FOKA TOCHE GIOVANNI JESS,
NGADJI SAIDOU ISRAFLOU, NDZI COLLINS NFOR,
, meets the requirements and regulation governing the award of the BACHELOR
DEGREE in the department of ROAD AND CIVIL ENGINEERING
Academic
Supervisor Mr.
NGUEFACK
SIMPILES
Signature……. Date……
President of Jury
Name…………………………………
Signature…………. Date…………………
Member of Jury 1
Name……………………………
Signature…………. Date………………….
Member of jury 2
Name…………………………………………
Signature…………. Date…………………..
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DECLARATION
LOVIS YENWOMBUE, FOKA TOCHE GIOVANNI JESS, NGADJI SAIDOU

ISRAFLOU, NDZI COLLINS NFOR,
, hereby declare that this project on CONSTRUCTION OF A 10M SPAN OF BRIDGE
is our own work. No part of this work has been presented before for similar purpose. All
citations have been punctually acknowledged at end of this work.
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DEDICATION
We fully dedicate this work
TO
OUR
LOVELY
FAMILIES
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We will like to express my special thanks of gratitude to:
• GOD for his wisdom in us who permitted us to do this project
• The general president of Siantou University institute, Honourable Wantou

Siantou, for the comfortable working environment; The director of the institution Dr
Nanyongo Veronica Mulema, for good management of the institute;
• Our academic supervisor, Mr. NGUEFACK SIMPLIES, for his guidance and
availability;
• The instructors of Siantou in particular the instructors of the software

engineering department for the qualified education received;
• Our families for their encouragements.
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Contents
DEDICATION......................................................................................................................................3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...................................................................................................................4
1 CHAPTER 1 :LITERATURE REVIEW.................................................................................................6
1.1 INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................6
1.2 FUNDAMENTAL OF BRIDGE AND BIRDGE DESIGN.................................................................7
1.2.1 1 TYPE OF BRIDGE..........................................................................................................7
1.3 - BRIDGE NOMENCLACTURE:...............................................................................................18
1.4 Types of Bridges based on Span...........................................................................................20
1.5 Types of Bridges based on Materials...................................................................................22
1.6 ACTION ON BRIDGE:............................................................................................................23
1.6.2 wind:............................................................................................................................24
1.6.3 Thermal actions:..........................................................................................................26
1.6.4 ACTION DURING CONSTRUCTION...............................................................................26
1.6.5 ACCIDENTAL LOADS.....................................................................................................28
a) ACCIDENTAL ACTIONS CAUSED BY ROAD VEHICLES [4.3]..........................................................28
b) Impact on substructures [4.3.1]..............................................................................................28
a) ACCIDENTAL ACTIONS CAUSED BY ROAD VEHICLES [4.3].....................................29
b) Impact on superstructures [4.3.2]...........................................................................................29
1.2.6 TRAFFIC LOADS:...........................................................................................................29
1.6.6 Dead Load...................................................................................................................31
1.6.7 TRAFFIC LOAD MODELS:..............................................................................................33
1.7 LIMIT STATE AND REPRESENTATION OF LOAD....................................................................35
2 2 CHAPTER TWO METHODOLOG.................................................................................................43
2.1 Scope...................................................................................................................................43
2.2 location................................................................................................................................43
2.3 Geometry.............................................................................................................................43
2.3.1 Geometry of the deck..................................................................................................43
2.3.2 Geometry of sub structure...........................................................................................44
2.4 Design specifications............................................................................................................47
2.4.1 DESIGN WORKING LIFE................................................................................................47
2.5 Materials..............................................................................................................................47
2.5.1 2.5.1 Concrete.............................................................................................................47
2.5.2 Steel reinforcement.....................................................................................................48
2.6 Actions.................................................................................................................................48
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2.6.1 Static load....................................................................................................................48

2.6.2 Traffic load...................................................................................................................49
b) horizontal load...............................................................................................................................52
2.6.3 Limit State and combination of Actions.......................................................................53
2.6.4 Transverse load distribution........................................................................................57
2.7 Solicitation...........................................................................................................................58
2.8 Design of deck......................................................................................................................58
2.8.1 Design for bending.......................................................................................................58
2.9 Detailing...............................................................................................................................62
2.10 Quantity and cost estimate of deck.....................................................................................65
2.11 Design of Maquette.............................................................................................................65
3 Chapter 3 Results and analysis..................................................................................................65
3.1 Actions.................................................................................................................................65
3.1.1 Load Evaluation............................................................................................................65
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1 CHAPTER 1 :LITERATURE REVIEW
1.1 INTRODUCTION
This part of the design report emphasizes on introducing the typical process of designing either
reinforced or prestressed concrete bridges, as well as the additional consideration that a design team
need to take through each phase of the design process. A wide range of contents with respect to bridge
design process are covered in this part of the design report.
Different types of bridges used in construction practices were investigated. These bridges vary in
terms of materials used (wood, concrete, steel etc.) and structural type (cantilever, truss, suspension
etc.).
Once the background information about bridge design was discussed
determined all the necessary design inputs, such as any client requirements, site conditions and
government regulations. With the design inputs determined, several conceptual designs need to be
proposed. In, chapter 2 these proposed designs for the De La Concorde Overpass replacement were
described and evaluated based on the defined design objectives, and the most appropriate design was
determined at the end of the chapter based on evaluation matrix. The research regarding to the
methods, tools and software of structural analysis were conducted in Chapter 2. Five different
structural design software, including SAP 2000, RISA 3D, Midas Civil, Ansys and Abaqus FEA,
were explored with their applications and limitations identified.
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1.2 FUNDAMENTAL OF BRIDGE AND BIRDGE

DESIGN
1.2.1 1 TYPE OF BRIDGE

In order for engineers to execute adequate bridge design for every scenario, it is essential to have a
comprehensive understanding on every aspect of the design, from material, cross-sections, types of
bridge and construction technologies. Section 3.2 starts with introductions of common materials used
in bridge structures with emphasis on the differences between reinforced and prestressed concrete
materials, as well as the types of reinforcement. In Section 3.3, the overall geometry of different types
of bridge and various cross-section options are explored. Different types of bridge and their
applications, concludes by the advantages and disadvantages regarding to each type of the bridge are
discussed in Section 3.4. Finally, Section 3.5 presents various construction technologies available to
put bridges in place.
Material
A bridge could be classified based on the principal materials used in its main structure. Through the
ages, various materials were used to construct bridges including masonry, timber, steel, reinforced
concrete and prestressed concrete. These materials differ in their properties such as strength, weight,
durability and even resistance against corrosion. Therefore, structural engineers should select these
materials accordingly based on the external condition and the design requirements
I. Masonry
As shown in figure 3.1, a bridge that is constructed with natural stone or brick with mortar is
generally considered to be a masonry bridge [1]. Masonry bridge are often designed in an arch shape
to develop the load bearing structure, and it is known as one of the most ancient bridge. The bridge
shown in Figure 3.2 is the Arkadiko Bridge constructed in 13th century BC, and it is still in existence
and use [3]. A significant number of masonry bridge are found to last over a thousand years due to its
high durability. To make the bridge durable, a sound weather-resisting stone should be selected, and
rocks such as granite, gneiss and crystallized limestone are found to be generally suitable. Although
the 3-4 masonry bridge almost need no maintenance, it requires a considerable capital cost because of
the high labour intensity during construction
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Figure1
II. Timber
Similar to masonry bridges, timber bridges also have a long history. In fact, wood was considered to
be the major material to build the bridge up to 20th century, because it is abundant, versatile and
easily obtained [7]. Although timber bridges were starting to be replaced by concrete and steel bridges
over the past few decades, it does have its own future due to its renewability. Theoretically, forests
tend to last forever, if it is scientifically managed and protected from natural disaster and excessive
exploitation. Thus, older trees that are harvested would be replaced with younger trees to maintain a
dynamic equilibrium [7]. Other than renewability, there are extensive advantages in terms of using
wood to build bridges. First of all, due to its light weight, a timber bridge generally obtains a really
high strength to weight ratio, and its energy-absorbing property allows it to survive short-term
overloads without adverse effects [7]. Since timber bridges require minimal equipment, the
construction of timber bridges is considered to be much simpler without highly skilled labours
compared to bridges made of other materials [7]. Moreover, wood is also considered to be
economically competitive on both first-cost and life-cycle basis [7]. The unique aesthetic and natural
appearance make it suitable in a natural environment as shown in figure
Despite of the advantages mentioned, bridge designers still use timber with great hesitation. One of
the biggest causes for this situation could be the insufficient familiarity of this material. Bridge
designers are well educated about concrete and steel, however, most of them do not have the same
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level of understanding in wood [7]. Therefore, the design of timber structure should be well educated
to all engineers, so that every beneficial attribute of timber bridge could be carried forwards.
Figure 2
III. Steel
With the industrialization in the 19th century, truss system was developed with the use of iron to
build large span bridges [11]. Steel, known as a form of iron, later became a favorable material to
construct bridges due to its superior strength and ductility as shown in Figure 3.5[13]. Properties like
strength and ductility of steel are highly depend on the chemical composition and the manufacture
processes [14]. Thus, designers could take the advantage of its manipulatable property to design
different bridges accordingly. Moreover, different kind of steel would be used for different parts of
the bridge structure accordingly. For example, steel plates are usually hot rolled, and cast steel may be
used for bearing. For ropes and cables, special steel that has additional tensile strength would
be used [13]. Thus, engineers must have profound knowledge of the behaviour of each kind of steel in
order to use them effectively.
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The design of suspension bridges (Figure 3.6) and truss bridges (Figure 3.7) are commonly relied on
the use of steel, which means steel could be used to build long span bridges that are over 1000 metres.
Its high ductility and strength, especially in tension, makes it irreplaceable in a seismic design.
Moreover, steel is also considered to be sustainable since it is recyclable. As shown in Figure 3.8,
steel products that are at the end of their useful lives can be reused or recycled to build new bridges or
even other structures [14]. Aside from its advantages, a steel bridge also has its drawbacks. For
examples, it is significantly more expensive than other typical materials such as wood and concrete.
Furthermore, steel bridges generally have a much lower resistance to corrosion and fire unless treated
properly, which significantly increases the maintenance costs [17].
figure3
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Concrete Conventional concrete is in composition of cement, aggregates and water. It started to gain
its popularity since the invention of Portland cement in the 19th century [18]. Concrete is generally
known to have a moderate compressive strength with a significantly lower tensile capacity. as shown
in Figure 3.9. Some of the physical properties of concrete can be adjusted by changing the water
cement ratio, chemical admixtures or even curing process. The purpose of adding admixtures to the
cement is to let the concrete gain certain preferred properties. For examples, fly ash and silica fume
are typical admixtures used to increase the durability of the concrete [18.1]. Table 3.10 provides an
overview of general features of main types of Portland cement.
Normal concrete usually obtains a compressive strength between 10 to 40 MPa [18.1]. However, by
lowering the water to cement ratio under 0.35, the compressive strength may exceed 40 MPa [18.1].
Moreover, if the concrete is reinforced with steel fibres, it may even reach 150 MPa [18.2]. The
variation of the stress strain relationships regards to the change in strength is shown in Figure 3.9.
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Unlike other materials such as steel, the stress strain relationship of concrete depends on the rate of
loading as well as the duration of the loading, and this phenomenon is known as creep [18.4].
Moreover, concrete tends to lose its moisture with time which causes a decrease in its volume, and
this process is known as shrinkage of concrete [18.4]. Both of these phenomena would develop strains
that have significant impacts on the long-term stress strain relationships of concrete as shown in
Figure
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1 Reinforced Concrete
As mentioned in the previous sections, plain concrete is known to have a relatively low capacity in
tension and low ductility. Therefore, reinforcements are usually embedded to provide additional
tensile strength and ductility under reasonable costs. This composite material is addressed as
reinforced concrete as shown in Figure 3.9.
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.1 Steel Reinforcement
Steel reinforcing bars, also known as rebars, is one of the most common reinforcement due to many
reasons. For example, concrete has an adequate compressive strength, whereas its tensile strength is
only about 10% of its compressive strength [20]. Steel sections on the other hand are strong in tension
but tend to buckle in compression. As mentioned in the previous section, steel itself is quite expensive
to use, however, it could be much cheaper to use as rebars in concrete. Moreover, steel generally has
low resistance to fire, and this problem could be mitigated by covering it with concrete since concrete
has a relatively high fire resistance [21]. Thus, the combined use of steel and concrete in the
reinforced concrete sections could take the advantage of properties in both materials.
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Prestressed Concrete
Evolved from reinforced concrete structures, French structural engineer Eugène Freyssinet introduced
the concept of prestressed concrete, which involves the use of high strength concrete and prestressing
tendons to control cracks and deflection [30]. Tendons are formed by high strength strands or wires
grouped together [31] (Figure 3.12). The use of tendons is twofold. First, it acts as additional
reinforcement in concrete member. Secondly, by prestressing the tendons, a compressive force is
introduced to the concrete member to counteract the tensile stresses resulted from an applied force
[31]. Because concrete material is much stronger in compression than in tension, pre-compress the
concrete member will greatly improve its overall “tensile” capacity before fracture. However,
prestressing the concrete does not increase its ultimate strength but rather shifted the initial point of
equilibrium.
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Prestressed concrete are widely used for bridge designs, especially for large bridge spans that are not
feasible or economical to design by typical reinforced concrete. Although the use of prestressed
concrete has significant advantages over reinforced concrete, it also exhibits several limitations. Table
3.1 summarizes the main advantages and disadvantages on the use of prestressed concrete, with
emphasis on bridge applications.
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Aside from the principle material used, a bridge could also be classified based on its main structural
type. Through the ages, various types of structure are being used to construct bridges including
Beam Bridge, Truss Bridge, Arch Bridge, Cantilever Bridge, Suspension Bridge and Cable Stayed
Bridge. Each type of these bridges has its unique advantages and disadvantages. Therefore,
structural engineers should have a clear understand of their applications and limitations to use them
accordingly based on the design requirements.
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1.3 - BRIDGE NOMENCLACTURE:

refers to the naming and classification system used to identify and differentiate various types of
bridges. It involves categorizing bridge based on their structure design, materials used, location, or
other characteristics. Bridge nomenclature helps engineers, architects, and researchers effectively
communicate and understand different bridge types and their unique features. Examples of bridge
nomenclature include Arch bridge and Suspension bridge.
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Bridge nomenclature
Figure4
1.1 Transition of joint: This is a joint consists of a prefabricated segmental joint of neoprene rubber
with reinforcing angles and plants. It is bolted down to the concrete.
1.2 Pavement: The pavement, which is 8 to 9cm thick, consists of a wearing course, a protective
course and a sealing course. The protective course and wearing course are made of asphalt. The
sealing course can be made from various materials but these must be tested construction
materials.
1.3 Water proofing: it’s a moder mix of membranes, coatings, sealants, and water stops help these
structures stand up to heavy loads, temperature fluctuation, road salts, and harsh environmental
conditions.
1.4 Superstructure: The superstructure is the part of the bridge that stabilizes supports the slab and
transfers the traffic load to the bridge substructures.
1.5 Bearing wall: Is a component of a bridge transmitting the loads received from the deck on to the
substructure and to allow controlled movement due to temperature variation or seismic activity
and thereby reduce the stresses involved.
1.6 Embankment Wall: It a raised area, or angled grading of fill used in roadway approaches. Fill
Earth, stone or other material used to raise the ground level, from an embankment or fill the inside
of an abutment or pier.
1.7 Wing Wall: Wing wall are adjacent to the abutments and act as retaining wall. They are generally
constructed of the same material as those of abutments.
1.8 Back Wall: This are the vertical wall at the ends of most bridges that extend up from the
abutment seats and support the expansion joint. Back wall are small retaining walls which also
support the approach slab and hold back the embankment under the approach slabs.
1.9 Foundation Plate: It a built under the pier or abutment and over the soil or rock that support the
entire weight of the bridge and the traffic loads that it will carry.
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1.10 Abutment: A abutment is a structure which connected the deck of a bridge to the ground at
the ends of a bridge span, helping support its weight both horizontally and vertically.
1.11 Span: The horizontal space between two supports of a structure. Also refers to the structure
itself.
1.12 Pile: A concrete post that is driven into the ground to act as a leg support for the new bridge.
3- BRIDGE CHOICE BASED ON SPAN

Bridges are classified into so many types based on different criterions. They are explained below.
1.4 Types of Bridges based on Span
 Culvert bridge
 Major bridge
 Long span bridge

Culvert Bridge
figure5
Major bridge when the span of the bridge is more 120 meter it is call
turned at long span bridge
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When the bridge span is less than 6meters then it is called

culvenrt bridge
Figure6
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1.5 Types of Bridges based on Materials
Timber bridge
Masonry bridge
Steel bridge
R.C.C bridge
 Timber Bridge
Bridges constructed using timber are called timber bridges. These are generally constructed for
short spans or as temporary bridges. They are not useful for heavy loads.
 Masonry Bridge figure7
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Masonry Bridge constructed by using bricks or stones. These are generally constructed for short
spans and in low depth canals.
Figure8
1.6 ACTION ON BRIDGE:
According to UNI EN 1991, the following actions should be considered on a bridge:
 Self weight and imposed loads

 Wind action
 Thermal action
 Actions during execution
 Accidental action
 Traffic load.
There are also other action, such as fire and snow loads, which are usually irrelevant seen in
other.
Additional action are foreseen in other Eurocodes, namely:
 Concrete creep and shrinkage (EN1992)
 Settlements and earth pressure (EN1997)
 Seismic action (EN1998).
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1.6.1 Self weight loads
Permanent loads
G G
max, min Self weight:
 Structural steel EN1991 part 1-1

 Concrete (by segment in
a selected order.
 Nonstructural equipment
(safety barriers,
pavement.
S
Shrinkage (drying, autogenous EN1992 part 1-1
and thermal shrinkage stains)
EN1994 part 2
Possible, prestressing by
imposed deformation (for
P instance, jacking on internal
supports)
VARIABLE LOADS
T
k Thermal gradient EN1991 part 1-5
UDL, TS
Road traffic (for instance, load
model LM1 with uniform design
loads UDL and tandem system EN1991 part 2
TS)
FLM3
Fatigue load model (for instance,
the equivalent lorry FLM3
EN1991 part 2
1.6.2 wind:
wind load on a bridge refers to the force exerted by the wind on the bridge structure. It is an
important consideration in the design of bridge to ensure structure integrity and safety. Wind
loads can cause structure vibrations, deflections, and potential failure if not properly accounted
for in the design.
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To calculate the wind load, the engineer considers the project area of the bridge components
perpendicular to the wind direction and the and the dynamic pressure caused by the wind. The
dynamic pressure is a function of the wind speed and the shape of the bridge.
Overall, wind load analysis is an essential aspect of bridge design and construction to ensure the
safety and integrity of the structure in varying weather condition.
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1.6.3 Thermal actions:
It is the continuous input loading for bridge structure. Which has substantial time
variant and spatial effects on the long span bridges especially [1]. Towers are the important
load resisting structure members in cable-stayed bridge, which are considerably influenced by
temperature.
The two types of temperature loading effects to consider:

 Changes in effective bridge temperature causing expansion and
contraction in the deck
 Difference in the temperature between the top surface of the deck and at
different levels throughout the depth of the deck causing the deck to
distort
1.6.4 ACTION DURING CONSTRUCTION
Construction of a bridge involves several action serval actions and processes that need to be
carried out for successful completion. Some of the key actions during construction of a bridge
typically include:
There are six different sourced of construction loads
Personnel and hand tools recommended value is: There are six different sourced of
construction loads
• Personnel and hand tools recommended value is:

uniformly distributed load
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• Storage and movable items recommended minimum values are: uniformly

distributed load concentrated load
• Non‐permanent equipment in position for use recommended minimum values

are:
• Movable heavy machinery and equipment
• Accumulation of waste materials
• Loads from part of structure in a temporary state
• Storage and movable items recommended minimum values are: uniformly

distributed load concentrated load
• Non‐permanent equipment in position for use recommended minimum values
are:
• Movable heavy machinery and equipment
• Accumulation of waste materials
• Loads from part of structure in a temporary state
1.6.5 ACCIDENTAL LOADS
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a) ACCIDENTAL ACTIONS CAUSED BY ROAD VEHICLES [4.3]

b) Impact on substructures [4.3.1]
Design values for actions due to impact on the supporting structures
(e.g. columns and walls of bridges or buildings) adjacent to various types
of roads should be defined. The indicative equivalent static design force
may be taken from the following table, where x is the direction of
normal travel and y is the perpendicular one.
Forimpactfrom lorriesthecollisionforceFmaybeappliedat
anyheight , , abovethelevelofthe
carriageway(orhigherwherecertaintypesofprotective
barriersareprovided.Therecommendedapplicationareais
, (heightxwidth)oCberwidth,
whicheveristhesmaller.
Forimpactfrom cars thecollisionforceFmaybeappliedat

, above the level of the carriageway. The
recommended application area is ,
(heightxwidth)orthememberwidth.
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a) ACCIDENTAL ACTIONS CAUSED BY ROAD VEHICLES [4.3]

b) Impact on superstructures [4.3.2]
Design values for actions due to impact from lorries and/or loads carried by the lorries on
members of the superstructure should be defined unless adequate clearances or suitable
protection measures to avoid impact are provided. The recommended value for clearance,
to avoid the impact is the range 5‐6 m (excluding future resurfacing of the roadway
under the bridge). The equivalent static design forces are given in the following table:
On
Ontheundersidesurfaceso
loadsasabovewithanupwa
takenintoaccount:thereco
1.2.6 TRAFFIC LOADS:
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 Traffic loading
This is the role of the Pavement Engineer and involves determining the loading on the road to
be carried forward to the Pavement Design. The role of the pavement engineer is to provide
an adequate thickness of pavement to carry the expected loads without deterioration of the
network during the design life.
The estimated or projected magnitude and occurrence of the various traffic loading are
converted to the total number of passes of equivalent standard axle loading (ESAL), usually
the equivalent 80KN (18kips) single axle load. The total no. of ESAL is used as the traffic
loading input for design of pavement structure.
 Determination of cumulative equivalent standard Axle (Road Note
The steps are as follows;
1. Determine the daily traffic flow for each class of

vehicle weighed, using the results of the traffic
survey and any other recent traffic count
information that is available.
2. Determine the Avg-daily one directional
additional traffic flow for each class of vehicle.
3. Make a forecast of the one directional flow for
each class of vehicle to determine the total traffic
in each class that will travel over each lane
during design life.
4. Determine the mean equivalence factor for each
class of vehicle and for each direction form the
result of this axle load survey and any other
surveys that have recently been carried out.
the product of the cumulative one directional traffic flows (example, with reference to asphalt
institute) for each class of vehicle over the design life of the road and the mean equivalent
factor for that class should then be calculated and added together to give the cumulative
equivalent standard axle loading for each direction. The higher of the two directional values
should be used for design
 Asphalt institute:
Total volume of traffic expected during the design period
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Where
T1 = Traffic volume during first year.
R = Rater of growth expressed as a fraction
N = Design period (years)
Estimate the percentage of total trick traffic expected to use the design lane, the design lane is
the lane expected to receive the most sever service.
% of trucks in design lane
2 50
4 45
6 or more (35-
48)
40
(25-
48)
1.6.6 Dead Load
1.1 Dead load is the weight of the permanent components of a structure such as beams,
floor slabs, columns and walls. These components will produce the same constant 'dead'
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load during the lifespan of the building . Dead loads are exerted in the vertical plane. Dead
1
loads are also known as permanent or static loads . They are static forces that are relatively
2
constant for an extended time
 Calculation of Dead Load

How the dead load is calculated depends on the structural element that needs
to withstand the load.
For example, the dead load of a slab is usually calculated as an Area

load (��/�2) because the slab itself – 2D static element – needs to carry
the load.
On the other hand, the dead load applied on 1D static elements like beams,
columns, rods, etc. are usually either line (��/�) or point loads (��).
So let’s have a look at how to calculate the different dead load types.
 Area dead load

��=Density of element⋅thickness
The Area dead load of a concrete slab with a density of 2400 ��3 and a
thickness of 18 cm is calculated as
��=2400��3⋅0.18�=432��2
Now, as engineers don’t use kg in their calculations any more, the unit needs
to be transferred from kg to kN [Kilonewton].
To get kN you need to multiply the result by 0.0098. Or if you are a bit lazier,
in most structural engineering cases it’s enough to multiply it by 0.01
 Examples of Dead Load

Here are some examples of building materials which need to be
considered in the dead load if used:
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 MEP equipment
 Staircases
 Steel, concrete & wood beams
 Elevators
 Glass windows and panels
 Facade elements
 Timber & concrete slabs
 Insulation
 Roofing
 Bricks
 Tiles
 Ventilation ducts
 Steel, concrete & wood columns
 Heating systems
 Solar panels
 Garage ramps
 etc.
1.6.7 TRAFFIC LOAD MODELS:
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- Vertical forces: LM1, LM2, LM3, LM4.

- Horizontal forces: braking and acceleration centrifugal, transverse.
Groups of loads
- Gr1a, gr1b, gr2, gr3, gr4, gr5.
- Characteristic, frequent and quasi-permaner values.
- Combination with actions other than traffic actions
Traffic Load Models:

-Vertical forces: LM1, LM2, LM3, LM4.
-Horizontal forces: braking and acceleration centrifugal, transverse.
Groups of loads
- Gr1a, gr1b, gr2, gr3, gr4, gr5.
- Characteristic, frequent and quasi-permaner values.
- Combination with actions other than traffic actions
1.
 Load Model 1 (LM1)

Concentrated and uniformly distributed loads, which cover most of
the effects of the traffic of lorries and cars. This model should be
used for general and local verifictions.
• Load Model 2 (LM2)

A single axle load applied on specific tyre contact areas which
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covers the dynamic effects on the normaltraffic on short structural

members.

A set of assemblies of axle loads representing special vehicles (e.g.
for industrial transport) which cantravel on routes permitted for
abnormal loads. It is intended for general and local verifications.

crowd loading, intended only for general verifications, consisting of a
uniformly distributed load (which includes dynamic amplification), tipically
equal to 5 kN/m2
1.7 LIMIT STATE AND REPRESENTATION OF

LOAD
a) Ultimate Limit state. The ultimate limit state capacity of a bridge is

the maximum shakedown (incremental collapse) limit of the multigender system. The
limit state is defined as the capacity of the structure to resist a live load displacement in a
main longitudinal member equal to the span length/100. Table 6-1 shows the capacity and
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the redundancy factors of the bridge with different damage levels in this limit state
I. EQU: Loss of statice equilibrium of the structure or any part to fit considered as
rigid body:
II. STR: internal failure or excessive deformation of the structure or structural
members;
III. GEO: failure or excessive deformation of the ground where the strength of the soil
or rock are significant in proving resistance;
IV. FAT: fating failure of the structural or structural members.
V. . ULS: COBINATION FACTORS
VI.
VII.
1.2.9 TRAFFIC LOAD MODLE 1(LM1)
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1.3 TRANSVERSE LOAD DISTRIBUTION (ENGESSER-COURBON

METHOD
An I-beam is very simple to design and build and works very well in
most cases. However, if the bridge contains any curves, the beams
become subject to twisting forces, also known as torque. The added
second web in a box girder adds stability and increases resistance to
twisting forces. This makes the box girder the ideal choice for bridges
with any significant curve in them.
Box Girders
Box girders, being more stable are also able to span greater distances
and are often used for longer spans, where I-beams would not be
sufficiently strong or stable. However, the design and fabrication of box
girders is more difficult than that of I beams. For example, in order to
weld the inside seams of a box girder, a human or welding robot must
be able to operate inside the box girder.
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1.4 BRIDGE DECK
1.5 BEARINGS
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2 2 CHAPTER TWO METHODOLOG
2.1 Scope
To start a project, the scope must be defined in the first place so that the design team could
have a clear understanding regards to the objective of the project or design and the amount
of work that needs to be accomplished. As for a bridge project, the design team must first
understand whether it is a partial replacement of a bridge or building a completely new
bridge, and where it needs to connect. In some cases, the design team and clients may
realize the objective can be achieved without building a bridge. A clearly defined bridge
certainly brings convenience to the budget and schedule setting.
For this case study we considered the design based on the following parameters;
Actions
 Permanent actions
Self-weight
Shrinkage loading is ignored
 Variable actions
Traffic load :( load model LM 1)
Uniformly distributed load
2.2 location
2.3 Geometry
2.3.1 Geometry of the deck

a. Longitudinal elevation
As shown in Fig. 2.1, the bridge, with a simply supported three-span deck: one span is 10
m, has a total length of 30 m. The deck has a constant depth along the whole length and its
longitudinal axis is straight and horizontal.
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b. Transverse cross section

The deck is made up of a symmetrical slab suspended on four reinforced concrete beams.
The depth of the beams is 700 mm. The slab depth is 500 mm. The total slab width is 10 m.
The centre-to-centre spacing between the beams is 2.5 m and the slab cantilever either side
is 1.05 m long. In Fig. 2.2, it is represented a typical cross-section of the deck
2.3.2 Geometry of sub structure

a. Piers
The piers are 4.6 m high with a solid rectangular cross-section of 0.60 m x 1.2 m. They
have a pier head or pier cap to receive the deck, 10.0 m x 0.8 m in plan (see Fig. 2.5). The
bridge elevation with squat piers is shown in Fig. 2.1. The dimensions of the pier with its
foundation pad are represented in Fig. 2.5.
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b. Abutments
The abutment is in the form of a retaining wall and its geometry is represented as in fig 1.6
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c. Bearings
Bearing are used to transfer loads from the superstructure to the substructure. While either
tolerating or constraining relative movement. The principal actions that causes movement
or rotation are;
 Shrinkage of concrete deck slab
 Permanent actions
 Temperature changes
 Variable actions
 Settlement of supports
 Accidental actionns
There are two bearings at each abutement and pier.
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2.4 Design specifications

2.4.1 DESIGN WORKING LIFE
The bridge will be designed for 100 year working life.
2.5 Materials
When designing a bridge or a bridge component, various materials would be involved. After
considering the design requirements and the external limitations, structural engineers must select
these materials according to their strengths and weaknesses. Therefore, it is worth reviewing the
design criteria of materials that are commonly used in bridge constructions. In this section,
similarities and differences of three bridge design code would be identified regarding to the material
properties.
2.5.1 2.5.1 Concrete
Concrete is one of the most common materials found in a bridge design. Its popularity came from
the fact that it could provide a moderate performance under reasonable costs. It is also highly
combinable with other materials, such as reinforcing steel, to gain additional strength easily. When
designing concrete structural components, codes from various countries through ages would provide
different requirements to ensure the design viability.
2.5.1.1 Strength of concrete
The compressive strength is denoted by concrete strength classes which relate to the characteristic
(5%) cylinder strength f ck, or the cube strength f ck,cube, in accordance with BS EN 206-1
Concrete: Specification, performance, production and conformity[14] .
The value of the design compressive strength of concrete, f cd, is defined as:
f cd = acc f ck/gC
where f ck = characteristic compressive cylinder strength of concrete at 28 days
gC = partial factor for concrete (See Table 2.9)
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acc = a coefficient taking account of long term effects on the compressive strength and of
unfavourable effects resulting from the way the load is applied.
Concrete class C35/45 is used for all the concrete elements in the example (deck slab, piers,
abutments and foundations).
2.5.2 Steel reinforcement

The properties of steel reinforcement to BS 4449: 2005[16] are shown in Table 3.3. This British
Standard complements BS EN 10080[17] and Annex C of BS EN 1992-1-1. Annex C allows for a
strength range between 400 and 600 MPa. BS 4449: 2005 adopts 500 MPa.
BS EN 1992-1-1 table C1
2.6 Actions
Actions refer to a set of forces (loads) applied to the structure (direct action), or to a set of imposed
deformations or accelerations caused, for example, by temperature changes, moisture variation,
uneven settlement or earthquakes (indirect action).
Actions are classified by their variation in time as either (see EN 1990:2002 clause 4.1.1(1)P):
 permanent actions (denoted G), e.g. self-weight of structures, road surfacing and indirect
actions such as uneven settlements;
The density of reinforced concrete is taken equal to 25 kN/m3
 variable actions (denoted Q), e.g. traffic load, wind and thermal actions; or,
 accidental actions (denoted A), e.g. impact from vehicles.
2.6.1 Static load
For permanent actions, EN 1990:2002,4.1.2(2)P explains that their characteristic value should either
be taken as a single value, Gk, or if the variability of G cannot be considered as small, as the worst
case of an upper value, Gk,sup, or a lower value, Gk,inf. Further guidance is provided on where the
47 | P a g e
variability can be considered to be small and specifically, EN 1990:2002, 4.1.2(5) states that the self
weight of the structure may be represented by a single value Gk based on mean density and nominal
dimensions. In bridge design, important cases where the variability of G cannot be considered as
small are loads due to surfacing and ballast (see EN 1991-1-1:2002, 5.2.3). When the variability in
G cannot be considered as small, it is helpful to note that 4.1.2(2)P does not require upper and lower
values of G to be applied to the adverse and relieving areas of the influence surface. Rather,
whichever single value gives the worst case is taken throughout.
For variable actions, EN 1990:2002, 4.1.3 introduces another new concept for many bridge
designers. This is the concept of the four representative values of a variable action, and it is the third
key concept, as summarised in Section 2.9. As discussed later, these representative values are used
in the different combinations of actions
2.6.2 Traffic load
a) Vertical loads
Static and fatigue traffic load models for bridges are given in EN 1991-2, while bases for
combinations of traffic loads with non-traffic loads are given in EN 1990. Traffic models for road
bridges have been derived and calibrated starting from the real traffic data recorded in Auxerre (F)
on the motorway Paris- Lyon in May 1986.
For the evaluation of road traffic effects associated with ULS verifications and with particular
serviceability verifications, four different load models, LM1 to LM4, are considered in EN1991-2
Traffic load model LM 1
a) Double‐axle concentrated loads (tandem system: TS), each axle having the following
weight:
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αQQk where αQ are adjustment factors
b) Uniformly distributed loads (UDL system), having the following weight per square metre
of notional lane:
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The 1st class shall be considered for this case study.
The centrifugal force ࢑࢚ࡽ should be taken as a transverse force acting at

the finished carriageway level and radially to the axis of the carriageway.
It should be assumed to act as a point load at any deck cross ‐section. The
characteristic value, in which dynamic effects are included, should be taken
from Table 4.3.
• r is the horizontal radius of the carriageway centreline [m];

• ࢜ࡽ is the total maximum weight of vertical concentrated loads of the
tandem system of LM1.
Where relevant, lateral forces from skrew braking or skidding should be taken
into account. A transverse braking force, ࢑࢚࢘ࡽ, equal to 25% of the
longitudinal braking or acceleration force ܳ௧௞, should be considered to act
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b) horizontal load
GROUPS OF TRAFFIC LOADS ON ROAD BRIDGES

According to table 4.4.a of EN1991-2, the characteristic values of the traffic actions acting
simultaneously with non-traffic actions can be determined considering the five different, and
mutually
exclusive, groups of loads reported in Table 3.7, where the dominant action is highlighted. Each
group
of loads should be considered as defining a characteristic action for combination with non-traffic
loads, but it can be also used to evaluate infrequent and frequent values.
To obtain infrequent combination values it is sufficient to replace characteristic values with the
infrequent ones, leaving unchanged the others, while frequent combination values are obtained
replacing characteristic values with the frequent ones and setting to zero all the others. The
recommended values of y-factors for traffic loads on road bridges, as indicated in table A2.1 of
EN1990 are reported in Table 3.8.
The values of y0, y1, y2 for gr1a, referring to load model n.1 are assigned for routes with traffic
corresponding to adjusting factors aQi, aqi, aqr and bQ equal to 1, while those relating to UDL
correspond to the most common traffic scenarios, in which accumulations of lorries is not frequent.
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Table 3.7 Characteristic values of multicomponent actions for traffic loads on road bridge
Table 3.8 Recommended values of y- factors for traffic loads on road bridges
2.6.3 Limit State and combination of Actions

Limit states are states beyond which the structure no longer fulfils the relevant
design criteria:
■ Ultimate limit states (ULS) are associated with collapse or other forms of structural
failure.
■ Serviceability limit states (SLS) correspond to conditions beyond which specified
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service
requirements are no longer met.
Limit states should be verified in all relevant design situations selected, taking into account
the circumstances under which the structure is required to fulfil its function.
Load combinations to be considered for ULS verifications of the bridge considered in the case study
are summarized in the following.
Ultimate limit states

The following ultimate limit states shall be verified as relevant:
EQU Loss of static equilibrium of the structure or any part of it considered as a rigid
body.
STR Internal failure or excessive deformation of the structure or structural members.
GEO Failure or excessive deformation of the structure where the strengths of soil or rock
are
significant in providing resistance.
FAT Fatigue failure of the structure or structural members.
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Fundamental combinations of actions

The fundamental load combinations to be considered for structural (STR) ULS
verifications,
determined according to §4.2 and table A.2.4(B) of EN1990, applying equation (6.10) of
EN1990 are
synthesized below
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where S represents the settlements, TS and UDL indicate the tandem system and the
uniformly
distributed load of the LM1, respectively, q*
fk the combination value of the crowd loading, QSn,k the
snow load, FW,k the wind force, F*
W the upper limit of the wind force compatible with normal traffic, and
Tk the thermal action.
It is important to recall that partial factor gQ for unfavourable effects of traffic actions on
road bridges is
1.35
Characteristic, frequent and quasi-permanent combinations of traffic actions
With the same meaning of the symbols, the combinations of actions to be considered for
SLS
verifications can be easily written. So the characteristic combinations of actions become
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2.6.4 Transverse load distribution

in modelling for ULS for box-girder bridges, where transverse frames are usually designed for load
distributing forces calculated on the basis of rigid cross-section shapes,
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2.7 Solicitation
2.8 Design of deck
2.8.1 Design for bending

■ Determine whether K ≤ K’ or not (i.e. whether under-reinforced or not).
where
K = MEd/(bd2fck)
where
d = effective depth = h – cover – flink – f/2
b = width of section
For rectangular sections K' may be determined fromTable 17.1 or, for slabs
only,Table 17.2
may be used . K' is dependent on the concrete strength and the redistribution ratio
used.
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For non-rectangular section x/d limits given in Table 17.1 may be used.
■ If K ≤ K', section is under-reinforced.
For rectangular sections:
As1 = MEd/fydz
where
As1 = area of tensile reinforcement
MEd = design moment
fyd = fyk/gS = 500/1.15 = 434.8 MPa
z = d[0.5 + 0.5(1 – 3.53K/n)0.5] ≤ 0.95d
n = factor defining effective strength
= 1.0 – (fck – 50)/200 (see Table 6.1)
For flanged beams where x < 1.25hf ,
As1 = MEd/fydz
x = depth to neutral axis
hf = thickness of flange
For flanged beams where x ≥ 1.25hf
, refer to How to design concrete structures using
Eurocode 2: Beams[25]
■ If K > K', section is over-reinforced and requires compression reinforcement.
As2 = (MEd – M'Ed)/fsc(d – d2)
where
As2 = compression reinforcement
M'Ed = K'bd2fck
fsc = 700(xu– d2)/xu ≤ fyd
where
d2 = effective depth to compression reinforcement
xu = (d – l/z)d
d = redistribution ratio
When fyk = 500 MPa,
fsc = fyd unless d2/xu ≥ 0.379.
Total area of tension steel As1 = M'Ed /(fydz) + As2 fsc/fyd
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Table Limiting values of K' and xu/d for slabs

Design for beam shear
Requirement for shear reinforcement
If vEd > vRd,c then shear reinforcement is required
where
vEd = VEd/bwd, for sections without shear reinforcement (i.e. slabs)
vRd,c = shear resistance without shear reinforcement, from Table
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Section capacity check

If vEd,z > vRd,max then section size is inadequate
where
vEd,z = VEd/bwz = VEd/bw0.9d, for sections with shear reinforcement
vRd,max = capacity of concrete struts expressed as a stress in the vertical plane
= VRd,max/bwz
= VRd,max/bw0.9d
vRd,max can be determined from Table 17.4, initially checking at cot y = 2.5. Should it be
required, a greater resistance may be assumed by using a larger strut angle, θ
Shear reinforcement design
Asw/s ≥ vEd,zbw/fywd cot y
where
Asw = area of shear reinforcement (vertical links assumed)
s = spacing of shear reinforcement
vEd,z = VEd/bwz, as before
bw = breadth of the web
fywd = fywk/gS = design yield strength of shear reinforcement
Alternatively, Asw/s per metre width of bw may be determined from Figure 17.1a) or
17.1b) as
indicated by the blue arrows in Figure 17.1a). These figures may also be used to estimate
the
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value of cot θ.
Beams are subject to a minimum shear link provision. Assuming vertical links,
Asw,min/sbw ≥ 0.08 fck0.5/fyk (see Table 17.5 ).
Capacity of concrete struts expressed as a stress, vRd,max, where z = 0.9d
2.9 Detailing
Bridge Elements
Generally, for a typical bridge, there are 6 major parts: deck, girder, abutment, footing
and foundation and column. Decks are used to provide a flat plane for transportation.
Girders are used to support the decks above and transfer the load to the columns.
Columns are used to support the girders and transfer the load to the ground. Footings
and abutments are used to connect the structures and the foundations. Finally,
foundations are used to support all the loads.
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Furthermore, the different elements are summarized into 2 parts, substructure and
superstructure. Generally, substructure refers to all the structural components below the
deck, which are mostly invisible such as footings and foundations. Superstructure refers to
the rest of structures that are visible such as decks and girders. Substructure design includes
the design of foundations and geotechnical system, which could be designed based
Eurocode. Superstructure design includes the design of girders,
decks, arches or other components which are used to transfer the load to substructure.
Material
As discussed , designers must choose materials that satisfy the design
requirements in their designs. Thus, this section would provide a guideline about how
designers may choose the appropriate materials, such as concrete, reinforcing bars and
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prestressing tendons, in a detailed design specification.

Concrete
Concrete as a common construction material are extensively used on this design. For
reinforced concrete components in this design, concrete with ultimate strength between
30 MPa and 85 MPa must be used if the bridge is designed based on S6-14 [2]. If the
design is based on AASHTO, then the ultimate strength of the concrete must be between
2.4 ksi (16.5MPa) to 10.0 ksi (68.9 MPa) . Within these limits, the designer may choose the
grade of concrete
that is needed based on the nature of the designed component and the external
environments. Concrete with ultimate strength outside of the limit may be used only if it
is proven by additional physical tests that have been done . Once the specific type
of concrete is chosen, any physical properties, including thermal expansion, shrinkage
and creep, could be determined according to what has been discussed , and
these properties will be used for design purposes.
Normal Reinforcing Steel
For normal reinforcing steel bars that are embedded in the concrete, S6-14 requires them
to have the yield strength between 300 MPa to 500 MPa with modulus of elasticity to be
200,000 MPa . Figure 8.3 provides an overview of the standard available rebars in
Cameroon. Thus, designers may choose rebars that are listed in this table when doing the
Design.
As for AASHTO, it requires rebars to have the yield strength between 60.0 ksi (413.7 MPa)
to 75.0 ksi (517.1 MPa) with modulus of elasticity to be 29,000 ksi (199,948 MPa) [3]
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3 Chapter 3 Results and analysis
3.1 Actions
3.1.1 Load Evaluation
1. Dead load G:
a. Self-weight of slab: DL1

b. Self-weight of waterproof material: DL2
c. Self-weight of asphalt layer: DL3
Symbo Applied
Load Case l Value Unit Thickness Value
Permeant Loads g
1 Self -Weight concrete slab g1 25.0 kNm-3 0.3 7.50
2 Self -Weight waterproof material g2 24.0 kNm-3 0.1 2.40
Self -Weight of Asphalt g2 24.0 kNm-3 0.2 4.80

Self -Weight Barrier g2
These loads are model along the transverse section of the bridge. The result of shear forces on the
assumed rigid transverse beams are applied as distributed loads on the longitudinal beams along the
length of the bridge.
Model
The bridge deck is considered to be supported by a series rigid horizontal transverse beams
supported by the longitudinal beams (girders) modeled as in Figure……. the beam reactions are
statistically undetermined since only two equilibrium equations with at least 4 unknowns (reactions
and moment) so an analysis was run in Robot obtain the solicitations shown in Figures ………...
Figure 1 Model of transverse horizontal beam supported by longitudinal beams
Load Cases
Three load cases dead considered were identified as DL1,DL2,and DL3
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Load combination
A linear combination these loads expressed
DL 1+ DL 2+ DL 3=7.5+2.4 +4.8=14.7 kN
Load definition
4 : COMB2
Analysis Results
Bending moment My [kNm]
Shear Fores N = Reactions at beams(support)
DEFORMATION [ x10-2 cm]
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Distributed loads applied on the girders (longitudinal beams)

In the analysis of Girder beam the distributed dead load used are the reactions at the beam. For
safety reasons, the maximum values of shear forces are used as DLS of Girder or longitudinal
beams. The selected values in this project are displayed in table.
Beam number B1 B2 B3 B4
DL2 [kN/m] 27.49 17.87 17.87 27.49
Variable Loads
Generally variable loads on bridges include wind loads, thermal actions, accidental action,
seismicactions, traffic loads, action during construction snow loads and distributed load of
pedestrians and motorcycles. For simplicity, this work limits at traffic (Tandem systems) load which
is the dominant variable load of bridges and uniform distribute load (UDL).
Traffic Load
Different Load models are
Evaluation of loads on Beams Longitudinal Section of the bridge
Load cases
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Loads combinations
Load definition
DL 1 self-weight of beams 7kN/m
Load case1 [TS1]1
4 : [TS1]2
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5 : [TS1]3
6 : [TS2]1
7 : [TS2]2
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8 : [TS2]3
9 : UDL1
10 : UDL2
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11 : COMB1
12 : COMB2
13 : COMB3
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14 : COMB4
15 : COMB5
Results of Analysis
11 : COMB1
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12 : COMB2
13 : COMB3
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14 : COMB4
15 : COMB5
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SHEAR FORCES
11 : COMB1
12 : COMB2
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13 : COMB3
14 : COMB4
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15 : COMB5
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DEFORMATION
14 : COMB4
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3.1. Design and detailing

3.3.1 Design Steps
Based on the review of standards and code, the following steps are generally used for
the design of a reinforced concrete bridge.
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General conclusion
In order to provide appropriate design service as a bridge designer, it is essential to develop a

comprehensive understanding and knowledge on typical bridge types, common bridge construction
materials and cross sections and available construction technologies. These knowledges combined
with the well-established engineering toolbox is valuable especially in the early conceptual design
stage to determine the most appropriate bridge design proposal for each site. Having a well-
established knowledge on the above mentioned area can greatly reduce the time of conceptual
design phase, improve the feasibility of the conceptual design, potentially lower the project cost, as
well as optimize the final output of the project
The engineers must be due diligence on the entire design process through the material used to
geometric of each section that can resist any possible and reasonable loads acting on the bridge
structure. The engineers must understand how the bridge behave and study the surrounding
thoroughly in order to follow the code to make design happens.
The result of the structure analysis will give designer the knowledge to optimize capital usage and
the design itself.
. Once the detailed design is developed, the deflection of the member, its flexural and shear
strength, the initial and final stress limits should be checked based on the corresponding
design codes. The serviceability, fatigue, durability and ultimate limit states must all be
satisfied under the respective extreme loading conditions.
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DISGEN OF A 10METER SPAN OF BRIDGE

LOVIS YENWOMBUE, FOKA TOCHE GIOVANNI JESS, NGADJI SAIDOU

We fully dedicate this work

We will like to express my special thanks of gratitude to:

• GOD for his wisdom in us who permitted us to do this project

• The general president of Siantou University institute, Honourable Wantou

• The instructors of Siantou in particular the instructors of the software

• Our families for their encouragements.

2.6.1 Static load....................................................................................................................48

1 CHAPTER 1 :LITERATURE REVIEW

Once the background information about bridge design was discussed

1.2 FUNDAMENTAL OF BRIDGE AND BIRDGE

1.2.1 1 TYPE OF BRIDGE

1.3 - BRIDGE NOMENCLACTURE:

3- BRIDGE CHOICE BASED ON SPAN

1.4 Types of Bridges based on Span

 Long span bridge

When the bridge span is less than 6meters then it is called

1.5 Types of Bridges based on Materials

 Masonry Bridge figure7

1.6 ACTION ON BRIDGE:

According to UNI EN 1991, the following actions should be considered on a bridge:

 Self weight and imposed loads

1.6.1 Self weight loads

 Structural steel EN1991 part 1-1

1.6.3 Thermal actions:

The two types of temperature loading effects to consider:

1.6.4 ACTION DURING CONSTRUCTION

There are six different sourced of construction loads

• Personnel and hand tools recommended value is:

• Storage and movable items recommended minimum values are: uniformly

• Non‐permanent equipment in position for use recommended minimum values

• Movable heavy machinery and equipment

• Accumulation of waste materials

• Loads from part of structure in a temporary state

uniformly distributed load

• Storage and movable items recommended minimum values are: uniformly

uniformly distributed load

• Movable heavy machinery and equipment

• Accumulation of waste materials

• Loads from part of structure in a temporary state

1.6.5 ACCIDENTAL LOADS

a) ACCIDENTAL ACTIONS CAUSED BY ROAD VEHICLES [4.3]

Forimpactfrom cars thecollisionforceFmaybeappliedat

a) ACCIDENTAL ACTIONS CAUSED BY ROAD VEHICLES [4.3]

1.2.6 TRAFFIC LOADS:

 Determination of cumulative equivalent standard Axle (Road Note

The steps are as follows;

1. Determine the daily traffic flow for each class of

% of trucks in design lane

1.6.6 Dead Load

constant for an extended time

 Calculation of Dead Load

For example, the dead load of a slab is usually calculated as an Area

 Area dead load

 Examples of Dead Load

1.6.7 TRAFFIC LOAD MODELS:

- Vertical forces: LM1, LM2, LM3, LM4.