FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

MASTERS THESIS

Programme of study:
Petroleum Engineering with specialization in
Drilling
Spring semester, 2009
Open

Author: Olawale Kolade



(Authors signature)

Academic Supervisor: Erik Skugen

Deepwater Drilling Problems


Keywords:
Riserless Drilling
Riser Margins
Slim hole Drilling
Crtical Hydrostatic Seawater pressure
Riser Burst and Collapse pressure

No. of pages: 77
Stavanger, 15th June 2009


i

ACKOWLEDGEMET
My sincere gratitude goes to God for the success of this thesis. I must thank my wife, Adeola
for her moral support and for standing by me throughout this journey.
Most importantly, I want to thank my supervisor, Prof. Erik Skugen for his attention,
patience and guidance while working on this thesis; it would have been impossible to deliver
this work without him.
Finally, many thanks to the Department of Petroleum Engineering at the University of
Stavanger for all the help rendered to ensure the success of this thesis.



















ii

ABSTRACT
Several problems encountered in the deepwater makes it very difficult in terms of
accessibility for drilling. In this work, the major problems in the deepwater are identified, and
discussed from different perspectives.
Discussion of the deepwater environment provides a good basis in determining how this
environment contributes to deepwater problems and the extent of the problems encountered.
Two major categories of problems in deepwater are considered. The first category is the
problems associated with drilling facilities while the second are those associated with
operations. The former includes: modular offshore drilling units (MODU), the risers and
tension leg platforms; while the latter includes hydrate problems, loss of risers, cuttings
transport in the annulus and well control problems. Possible solutions were recommended for
some of these problems.
The calculations and analysis in this work focused on deepwater problems due to riser loss,
and this served as good basis to evaluate the integrity of the formation and that of the riser
when riser mud loss due to riser disconnect is experienced in the deepwater. To achieve this,
two parameters were defined and used: riser margin (in terms of pressure difference) for
evaluation of formation integrity and critical sea water hydrostatic pressure for evaluation of
riser integrity. The critical sea water hydrostatic pressure is equivalent to the collapse pressure
of the riser, and its relationship with bust pressure of the riser was established under the
deepwater condition. It is suggested that these values are compared with API pressure ratings
for safe operating conditions in the deepwater.








iii

TABLE OF COTETS
1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 1

2. Deepwater Environment Conditions ..................................................................................... 3
2.1. Currents ........................................................................................................................... 3
2.2. Temperature .................................................................................................................... 4
2.2.1. Salt Content and Temperature Effect ...................................................................... 4
2.3. Pressure ......................................................................................................................... 5
2.4. Density ........................................................................................................................... 6
2.5. Hydrostatic Pressure ...................................................................................................... 6
2.6. Other Considerations ...................................................................................................... 6

3. Deepwater Drilling Concepts ................................................................................................ 8
3.1. Conventional Riser Drilling ............................................................................................ 8
3.2. Riserless Drilling .......................................................................................................... 10
3.2.1. Definition .............................................................................................................. 10
3.2.2. Riserless Drilling Concept ..................................................................................... 10
3.2.3. Advantages of Riserless Drilling .......................................................................... 11
3.2.4. Disadvantages and Limitations of Riserless Drilling ............................................ 12

4. Deepwater Drilling Problems Associated with Drilling Facilities ...................................... 14
4.1. Rig Positioning Problems .............................................................................................. 14
4.1.1. Drive -Off ............................................................................................................. 16
4.1.2. Drift -Off ............................................................................................................... 16
4.2. Riser Management Problems ......................................................................................... 16
4.2.1. Axial Oscillation due to Weather/Environmental Conditions(heave of the ring) .. 17
4.2.2. Lateral Oscillation due to Ocean Loop Current ..................................................... 19
4.2.3. Failure due to Riser Emergency Disconnect from BOP ........................................ 22
4.3. Tension Leg Platform .................................................................................................... 22
4.3.1. Derivation of Equation ........................................................................................... 24
iv

4.3.2. Example .................................................................................................................. 26

5. Deepwater Drilling Problems Associated with Drilling Operations .................................. 27
5.1. Hydrates ........................................................................................................................ 27
5.1.1. Mechanism of Hydrate Formation ......................................................................... 27
5.1.2. Hydrate Formation Conditions ............................................................................. 27
5.1.3. Hydrate Formation Conditions by Gas-Gravity ...................................................... 29
5.1.4. Hydrates Problems in Real Life ............................................................................... 30
5.1.5. Hydrate Prevention Methods ................................................................................. 31
5.1.6. Hydrate Prevention during Drilling in Offshore/Deepwater Environment ............ 31
5.1.6.1. Hydrate Prevention in Drilling Fluids ............................................................... 32
5.2. Riser Loss ....................................................................................................................... 33
5.2.1. Well Barrier ............................................................................................................ 33
5.2.2. Riser Margin ............................................................................................................ 34
5.2.3. What Happens When Riser Mud Loss Occurs? ..................................................... 36
5.2.3.1. Sub-Seabed Section(Below the Seabed in the Well) ...................................... 36
5.2.3.1.1. Artificial Seabed: Proposed Solution to Riser Margin Problems in
sub-seabed ..................................................................................................... 38
5.2.3.2. Above-Seabed Section(Deepwater Interval) .................................................. 39
5.3. Cuttings Transport in Riser Annulus ............................................................................. 40
5.3.1. Riser Size and Diameter ........................................................................................... 41
5.3.2. Riser Length ............................................................................................................. 42
5.3.3. Slimhole Drilling : Proposed Solution to Cuttings Transport Problem in the Riser
Annulus ........................................................................................................................... 42
5.3.4. Application of Slimhole Drilling to Offshore Drilling ............................................. 45
5.3.4.1. Floating Drilling ............................................................................................... 45
5.3.4.2. Ultra Deepwater ................................................................................................ 46
5.3.4.3. Other Areas of Application ............................................................................... 48
v

5.3.5. Limitations ................................................................................................................. 48
5.3.5.1. Kick Control ..................................................................................................... 48
5.3.5.2. Other Concerns ................................................................................................. 48
5.3.6. Challenges ................................................................................................................ 48
5.3.6.1. Primary Challenges .......................................................................................... 48
5.3.6.2. Secondary Challenges ....................................................................................... 50
5.4. Well Control Related Problems ..................................................................................... 50

6. Analysis and Discussion on Riser Loss Problems .............................................................. 53
6.1. Sub-Seabed Section : Formation Integrity and Well Control ....................................... 53
6.2. Above-Seabed Section (Deepwater Interval) : Riser Integrity ..................................... 61
6.2.1. Pipe Friction Consideration on Critical Seawater Hydrostatic Pressure ................ 64
6.2.2. API Collapse Pressure Consideration .................................................................... 65
6.3. Riser Burst and Collapse Pressure ................................................................................ 66

7. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 68
Nomenclature ......................................................................................................................... 70
References ............................................................................................................................. 71
Appendix A ........................................................................................................................... 73
Appendix B ............................................................................................................................. 74
Appendix C ............................................................................................................................ 75
Appendix D ............................................................................................................................. 76
Appendix E ............................................................................................................................. 77





vi

TABLES
3.1. Conventional Riser Drilling Problems In Deepwater ....................................................... 8
3.2. Advantages of Riserless Drilling ...................................................................................... 12
5.1. Excerpt from NORSOK D-010 on Riser Margin .............................................................. 35





















vii

FIGURES
1.1. World Distribution of Deepwater Wells ............................................................................. 2

2.1. Density Distribution in Oceans ........................................................................................... 3
2.2. Temperature and Salinity Influence on Freezing Point of Surface Seawater ...................... 5
2.3. Deepwater Interaction with the Earth ................................................................................. 7

3.1. Sketch to Illustrate Riserless Drilling Concept ................................................................ 11
3.2. Sketch of a Seal Problem for Riserless Drilling ................................................................ 13

4.1. Drilling Ship ..................................................................................................................... 15
4.2. Semi -Submersible ............................................................................................................. 15
4.3. Riser Configuration for Drilling ....................................................................................... 18
4.4. Finite Element Model for Load Effect on Riser ............................................................... 19
4.5. Loads on Riser during Drilling .......................................................................................... 20
4.6. Vortex Induced Vibration Effect ...................................................................................... 21
4.7. Tension Leg Platform ....................................................................................................... 24

5.1. Water Temperature vs. Depth, Gulf of Mexico ................................................................. 28
5.2. Hydrate-Formation Curves for Various Gas Gravities ...................................................... 29
5.3. Well Barrier Schematic ..................................................................................................... 34
5.4. Conventional Configuration for Riser Margin(Before Artificial Seabed) ........................ 36
5.5. Deepwater Riser with Artificial Seabed ............................................................................ 39
5.6. Riser Disconnect Illustration for Above-Seabed Consideration ........................................ 40
5.7. Typical Casing Program as Compared to Slimhole .......................................................... 44
5.8. Ultradeepwater Slimhole Drilling ..................................................................................... 47

6.1. Diagrammatic Illustration of Deepwater Well Environment ........................................... 54
6.2. Riser Margin vs. Water Depth ........................................................................................... 56
6.3. Riser Margin vs. Water Depth with Safety Gradient ........................................................ 57
viii

6.4. Riser Margin vs. Water Depth for Depth Dependent Pore Pressure ................................. 59
6.5. Seabed Depth vs. Pore Pressure ....................................................................................... 60
6.6. Deepwater Pressure Consideration for Disconnected Riser .............................................. 61
6.7. Critical Seawater Pressure vs. Water Depth ...................................................................... 63
6.8. Collapse Modes Based on API Calculation ....................................................................... 66


























1

Chapter 1: ITRODUCTIO


As proven petroleum reserves decline through continued production, exploration for new oil
and gas resources will extend to environment that present significant economic risks and
technical hurdles such as the deepwater environment. For instance, a detailed study using
multi-company data disclosed about 8 to 10 billion bbls of oil equivalent in the deepwater
areas of the Gulf of Mexico (GOM) outer continental shelf.
1

What are Deepwaters? Deepwaters are typically water depths greater than 1000 ft (300m)
while water depths in excess of 5000ft are considered ultra deepwater. Well drilled in water
depths in excess of 5000ft will typically be drilled with dynamically positioned rigs, and not
the conventionally moored drilling vessels used to drill wells in shallow water.

The distribution of deepwater wells around the globe is illustrated in a pie-chart as provided
below (see figure 1.1) with almost 65% of the known world deepwater hydrocarbon reserves
located in the GOM.
2

2


Fig. 1.1- World Distribution of Deepwater Wells
Deepwater activities have been on the increase in recent years as worlds oil reserves are
being depleted. However, the deeper we go the more challenging it becomes due to
limitations in terms of facilities, operational and weather. Deepwater problems include
problems of dynamic rig positioning, riser management, tension leg platform, and hydrates-
formation, cuttings transport in riser annulus, riser loss and well control. Most of the problems
encountered in deepwater will be discussed in this work, with proposed solutions to these
problems. It is believed that future research or work on these solutions could be another
milestone in deepwater drilling activities.

This work is intended to introduce in details the deepwater environment and the various
problems encountered in the deepwater with emphasis on the riser problem. Riser is mostly
employed in most deepwater drilling except in cases of riserless drilling. It is important to
know the safe operational range or interval whenever the riser is employed in deepwater
drilling.

3

Chapter 2: DEEPWATER EVIROMET CODITIOS


This section is largely retrieved from Oceanography, an Introduction to the Planet Oceanus by
P.R Pinet.
3
To fully understand the deepwater drilling problems and to be able to suggest good
solutions to these problems, it is necessary to shed some light on what happens in the
deepwater environment (the environmental conditions). In this work, this is discussed under
the following headings.

2.1 CURRETS

Contrasts in water density may arise due to temperature, salinity and turbidity. The result is a
steep boundary interface, separating two distinct water masses. As a result, the light surface
water spreads over the dense deepwater inducing complex flow patterns (currents).

Deepwater is characterized by low speed as compared to surface water due to low
temperature, high density and less exposure to ocean wind at ocean depths. Its masses move
continually and slowly, in response to density gradients that result from differences in salinity
and temperature of the water. Dense water sinks and displaces less dense water as illustrated
in figure 2.1 below.

Fig. 2.1- Density Distribution in Oceans
4

2.2 TEMPERATURE

Both vertical profiles and longitudinal cross sections of water temperature reveal that the
oceans have a layered thermal structure. Warm, tropical and subtropical surface water, several
hundred meters in depth, float over colder, denser water. These two water masses are
separated by a band of water, the thermocline, which has a steep temperature gradient.

Unlike the surface water, where temperature changes with seasons, water below the
permanent thermocline remains remarkably uniform to a particular depth and stable in
temperature over time, averaging < 4
o
C. The temperature of the ocean water decreases as
water depth increases. There are two major considerations regarding the behavior of the ocean
water in relation to temperature interactions:
(a) Salt Content and temperature effect: Exposure of the big ocean seawater (saltwater) to
fresh water could alter its salt content.
(b) Pressure and temperature

2.2.1 Salt Content and Temperature Effect

Deepwater is normally salt water (seawater). To understand how salt content affects the
temperature behavior of the seawater in the deepwater, we discuss a little comparism between
seawater and freshwater.
Freshwater: For fresh water, as water temperature decreases, density increases. This
continues until the temperature drops to +4
o
C. Below this temperature, water expands as
temperature decreases and becomes ice at 0
o
C. Hence, freshwater density normally increases
with deceasing temperature except for the range between 0
o
C and 4
o
C where the density
decreases due to expansion. Fresh water has a normal water density of 1000kg/m
3
(salinity =
0%) at standard atmospheric conditions.
Seawater: In the case of seawater, the presence of salt (salinity) affects this trend. Salt
presence further decreases the freezing point of water. Water freezes at a temperature lower
than 0
o
C due to salinity effect where freezing point decreases with increasing salinity. We
would observe that water will not freeze as easily as in the case of freshwater. Seawater has a
water density > 1000kg due to the salt presence .i.e. salinity >0%.

5

Figure 2.2 below illustrates the effect of salinity on freezing point for normal surface water.
From the figure, points A, B, C and D indicates the freezing point in the curves, and there is a
shift to the left with increasing salinity in the figure which indicates decreasing freezing point.
Hence, we have point A for freshwater having the lowest freezing point of 0
o
C and point D
with 3.5% salinity having a lowest freezing point of -1.5
o
C. Below +4
o
C, further decrease
in temperature of the water changes its response from expansion to contraction as salinity
increases from A to D.


Fig. 2.2 Temperature and Salinity Influence on Freezing Point of Surface Seawater
From the graph, increasing salinity of the water decreases the freezing point.


2.3 PRESSURE

For surface conditions, pressure is another factor that prevents freezing, or decreases freezing
point. Ice expands when it freezes, but it does this against pressure. Hence, the more pressure,
the difficult it is for ice to expand .i.e. it becomes more difficult for ice to form.



6

2.4 DESITY

The surface water layer is thin, averaging about 100m in thickness, and has the least density
of sea water largely because of its warm temperatures (but not the same in the far north). The
water of the deep layer constitutes the vast bulk of the total ocean volume (about 80 percent).
This cold (< 4
o
C), dense water sinks as it flows slowly.

2.5 HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE

As we go down in the seawater, there is a rapid increase in hydrostatic pressure (the pressure
created by the height of a static water column) as a consequence of the density of seawater.
The effect of temperature, salinity, and pressure on density increases with increasing
deepwater depths.

Calculations show that the pressure associated with a 10-m high column of water equals the
pressure exerted by the full height of atmosphere above the earth- a pressure amounting to 1
atmosphere.

2.6 OTHER COSIDERATIOS

Deepwater is usually saltier than surface water with increasing salinity with depth, which
decreases the freezing point of water (figure 2.3). Although deepwater is known for relatively
colder temperatures, sometimes, extremely cold surface temperatures in winter time could
make the surface water colder than that of the deepwater and this would make the surface
water to sink and displace the warmer deepwater. Also, the deepwater temperature could be
affected by the heating effect from hot magma present in the core or center of the earth;
though the effect is very mild.

7


Fig. 2.3- Deepwater Interaction with the Earth



















8

Chapter 3: DEEPWATER DRILLIG COCEPTS


With a view to overcome the problems of deepwater drilling, several alternative drilling
concepts have been investigated in the past. Riserless Drilling (RD) is a proposed concept
which has not yet gained confidence in the industry nor been tested to a convincing extent.
Hence, Conventional Riser Drilling (CRD) is still the most suitable method for deepwater
drilling up till today. The discussion below examines both Conventional Riserless Drilling
and the proposed Riserless Drilling.

3.1 COVETIOAL RISER DRILLIG

Conventional Riser Drilling is a technique usually used in deepwater drilling where normal
riser is employed to protect drill strings. The main function of a CRD is to provide pressure
control (or support) of the well and a return flow channel for mud and cuttings. CRD is the
most reliable single concept employed in deepwater drilling; even though there are various
problems associated with it that increase as water depth goes from shallow to deepwater
(discussed in the next chapter).

TABLE 3.1Conventional Riser Drilling Problems in Deepwater

Huge weight and space requirements
Large mud volume in a riser
Severe stresses in a riser
Difficult station keeping
Long tripping time
Numerous casing points due to narrow gap between pore and fracture pressures:
Mud column in the riser contributes to high hydrostatic pressure gradient, and
necessitates having more casing points to protect the fragile formation.
Highly limited fleet of rigs able to handle deepwater risers
Inability to drill an adequate hole size: Holes sizes could be reduced to limit the
extent of exposed formation section to hydrostatic mud column.

One of the basic and most challenging problems of deepwater operations is the use of a
marine riser.
1
A marine riser is used to provide a connection between the drilling vessel and
the wellhead. This serves as a guide for the drill pipe into the hole and as a mud return path to
9

the vessel. It also supports the choke and kills lines. Floating drilling operations in deepwater
presently involve the use of a 21 in. outside diameter (OD) marine riser. For a 19.5 in. internal
diameter (ID) marine riser, internal capacity is about 370 bbls for every 1,000 ft of length and
net steel weight of the riser is about 160kips for every 1,000ft of length. The riser weight in
seawater with 14.5 ppg mud in it will be 230 kips per 1,000ft of length without additional
buoyancy units which gives 2,300 kips for 10,000 ft water depth. The riser weight will further
increase because of choke and kill lines attached and the riser couplings. Therefore, it will
require huge buoyancy units which results in increase of riser OD and causes riser handling
problems. Only fifth generation semisubmersibles may have adequate space and weight
capacities to handle these requirements. Composite materials can be used to reduce the weight
requirement. Compared to a 6 in. ID returns line, the 19.5 in. ID riser would naturally require
an additional mud to circulate through the riser. It also costs more to prepare and maintain
such a large volume of mud.

The riser may be exposed to severe stresses resulting from the weight of the riser with mud
inside, the movement of a floating vessel, and the surface and subsea water currents. As water
depth increases, the riser wall thickness has to increase: to handle severe stresses, to resist
burst pressures resulting from mud weight, and to attach buoyancy units. These factors
significantly escalate riser unit costs and weight as water depth increases. The running of a
large-diameter, long riser can be very difficult, or even impossible, where high currents are
present.

In order to maintain station keeping within operational ranges, it may require a larger and
more expensive drilling vessel. It also increases waiting-on-weather time and takes a long
time to trip the riser in and out of its drilling position. Another crucial area is the casing
program. Because of the narrow gap between pore and fracture pressures, especially in the
deepwater areas of the Gulf of Mexico (GOM), Conventional Riser Drilling requires
numerous casing points. Although a super drill ship to be available in the future may
possibly drill in 10,000 ft water depth, it may not reach a target depth deeper than 10,000 ft
below the mudline. In other words, required hole size will not be achieved at target depth
using conventional riser drilling.



10

It is important to note that:
(a) These problems are not only associated with risers; they could arise due to some other
reasons.
(b) These problems become aggravated as water depth increases in deepwater.

3.2 RISERLESS DRILLIG

In the early stages of offshore development, especially for shallow water, it was possible to
solve problems associated with water depth increase by increasing the size of both marine
riser and subsea wellhead. However, it is impractical to extend current technologies with a
large diameter marine riser and wellhead to drill much beyond 6,000 ft water depth because of
the many problems listed in Table 3.1. Many alternatives to the use of the conventional
marine riser system for deepwater drilling have been investigated. One of such is the injection
of gas at the BOP level in order to reduce the effective density in the marine riser down to
seawater density. This process is similar to a gas lifting operation. Another is elimination of
the conventional large diameter marine riser which is called Riserless Drilling (RD).
1


3.2.1 Definition

Riserless drilling is suggested to be a concept that might probably eliminate all the problems
of conventional drilling in future, but its technology is still relatively new in the industry and
has not yet been tested for a long period of time like CRD. It is a term used to describe an
unconventional technique which uses a relatively small diameter pipe as a mud return line
from the sea floor instead of a large diameter riser.

Although marine risers have been used successfully for water depths in excess of 7000ft, it is
impractical to extrapolate current technologies with marine riser to 10,000ft water depth due
to the problems which have been highlighted in the previous discussion(see table 3.1). This is
what has led to the concept of riserless drilling, for deepwater operations above the reach of
conventional riser drilling.

3.2.2 Riserless Drilling Concept

The system consists of a bare drill string and a separated non-concentric return line (see figure
3.1). RBOP (rotating BOP) caps the return mud and forces the mud to circulate through the
return line to surface. More than one return line can be used for the returns depending on
11

system configuration and flow rate. One 6 in. ID or two 4.5 in, ID lines appear to be adequate
from a hydraulics point of view. Choke and kill lines can be used as return lines, to be tied
together with return line(s) or separated from the return line(s).

One of the important concepts for deepwater applications is to balance internal and external
pressures at the sea floor by reducing the internal pressure. Gases can be injected to reduce
mud hydrostatic pressure in the return line.


Fig. 3.1 - Sketch to Illustrate Riserless Drilling Concept

3.2.2 Advantages of Riserless Drilling

Studies and experience on the use of riserless drilling have highlighted the following
advantages listed under table 3.2 below:



12

TABLE 3.2Advantages of Riserless Drilling

No conventional riser and riser associated cost
Theoretically no limit on water depth
Use of smaller return line(s)
Less mud volume requirement
Less space and weight requirements
Reduced environmental forces
Easy Station keeping
Reduction of non-operational time
Reduction of casing points
No hidden choke effect
No riser loss in case of emergency disconnection
Mitigation of well control problems in deepwater
Adequate hole size at target depth for high production
rate expected
Extension of the capacity of existing drilling units
Possible rig upgrade

3.2.3 Disadvantages and Limitations of Riserless Drilling

One of the critical disadvantages for RD is that RD does not have proven technologies,
procedures and equipment to date. A particular and possible disadvantage that would be
envisaged if the concept of riserless drilling was practical or possible to drill deep wells,
would be the problem of having a leak proof seal on the strings at the wellhead(point of entry
into the well). Having a perfectly tight seal around the drill string to ensure that returning mud
are efficiently diverted to mud return line could be a big challenge as has been illustrated
below in figure 3.2.

13



Fig. 3.2- Sketch of a Seal Problem for Riserless Drilling

Despite the fact that presently the 36 and 26 inches sections are drilled riserless (centrifugal
pump moves cuttings 70m away from wellhead), cuttings still goes to the rig once the BOP is
installed. The problem is that deeper cuttings are contaminated by mud, and the mud usually
contains (often harmful) additives as one drills deeper. And since, environmental regulations
require cuttings to be brought onshore; this is thought to be the reason why a mud return line
is included in a case of the concept of riserless drilling.

Although riserless drilling has large potential benefits for deepwater applications, because of
the cost of installing and removing the riser, the technology has not been used in practical
terms for complete drilling in deepwater. Also, it has not gained as much acceptance and
confidence as CRD However, it is envisaged that this would change in the near future.

14

Chapter 4: DEEPWATER DRILLIG PROBLEMS
ASSOCIATED WITH DRILLIG FACILITIES


Deepwater drilling problems could take several forms due to environmental conditions,
equipment response/failure, operational limitations etc. In this chapter, some of these
problems due to drilling facilities in deepwater will be discussed.


4.1 RIG POSITIOIG PROBLEMS

Dynamic positioning (DP) is a computer controlled system used to automatically maintain a
vessel's position and heading by using her own propellers and thrusters.
2
Position reference
sensors, combined with wind sensors, motion sensors and gyro compasses provide
information to the computer pertaining to the vessel's position and the magnitude and
direction of environmental forces affecting its position. Examples of vessel types that employ
DP include, but are not limited to ships and semi-submersible Mobile Offshore Drilling Units
(MODU) as shown in figures 4.1 & 4.2.

The computer program contains a mathematical model of the vessel that includes information
pertaining to the wind and current drag of the vessel and the location of the thrusters. This
knowledge, combined with the sensor information, allows the computer to calculate the
required steering angle and thruster output for each thruster. This allows operations at sea
where mooring or anchoring is not feasible due to deepwater, congestion on the sea bottom
(pipelines, templates) or other problems.
15


Fig. 4.1- Drilling Ship

Fig. 4.2- Semi Submersible
16

Dynamic positioning may either be absolute in that the position is locked to a fixed point over
the bottom, or relative to a moving object like another ship or an underwater vehicle. One
may also position the ship at a favourable angle towards wind, waves and current, called
weathervaning. Dynamic positioning is much used in the offshore oil industry, for example in
the North Sea, Persian Gulf, Gulf of Mexico, West Africa and off Brazil. Nowadays there are
more than 1000 DP ships.

A dynamically positioned (DP) rig is required for ultra deepwater drilling. Redundant
computer based DP systems actively keep the rig on location. Redundancy is the ability to
cope with a single failure without loss of position. All rig operations in ultra deepwater must
identify and allow for a positioning system failure at any time. The most serious positioning
system problems are a drive-off or drift-off.

4.1.1 Drive-off

During a drive-off, the rig is powered to a position away from the well. In this situation, the
BOP must seal off the well and release the riser before the riser system, wellhead or casing is
damaged.

A drive-off results when the positioning system directs the rig away from the location. The
same result could be caused by the thruster misinterpreting its command.
4.1.2 Drift-off
A drift-off occurs when the rig loses its power and environmental forces push it away from
the location. Again the riser must be disconnected and the well integrity protected. A drive-off
can become drift-off by cutting power to the thrusters.
Apart from these operational problems mentioned above, one minor concern is power
consumption for the dynamic positioning system as it is a power consuming facility.

4.2 RISER MAAGEMET PROBLEMS
For a typical riser (figure 4.3), riser problems in deepwater could be discussed based on the
following considerations:
17

4.2.1 Axial Oscillation due to weather/environmental condition (heave of
the rig)
Most of the time, rigs being used in deepwater environment are subject to bad/violent weather
conditions that could sometimes lead to excessive heave of the rig (vertical oscillation).
During drilling, the riser management system in ultra deepwater must deploy, control, and
recover a heavy riser mass that may have an axial natural period close to the rigs heave
period.
2
Like the other ultra deepwater rig systems, it must also be designed for emergency
disconnect. Upon being disconnected, it must convert the riser from being fixed on the bottom
with a mud weight load to a hanging unlocked riser, thus releasing the mud weight.
Additionally, the rigs riser tensioners must maintain minimum riser angle to reduce potential
wear on the riser and the drill through equipment.
Accurately predicting the behaviors of a freely hanging riser particularly during storms is a
problem. Dynamics dominate and the riser spring mass system is close to resonance in
typically encountered seas. The drag on the risers varies significantly over its length
depending on vessel motion and current profile. The effect of the risers structural dampening
is not well known.
18


Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary
Fig. 4.3 - Riser Configuration for Drilling
26


Upon disconnect, the mud in the riser is dumped to the sea unless the Lowe Marine Riser
Package (LMRP) annular is closed. There is a temptation to try to save the mud by closing the
annular. The motivation is the expense of lost mud, avoidance of pollution, and the
elimination of collapse problems from U-tube mud. Unfortunately, when trapped by the lower
annular, the additional mass of this mud inside the riser increases the natural period of the
spring-mass system and causes the riser to become dynamically excited.
The natural period of a hanging drilling riser can be approximated by:
( ) k m/ 2 = k = the spring stiffness of the riser (lbf/ft)
m = the effective mass of the riser = dry mass of BOP + 0.4 mass of riser
For a typical 10,000 ft riser: mass BOP = 575,000 lbm
19

Mass of riser = 5,400,000 lbm
Stiffness k = 141,000 lbf/ft
Here, we do not consider the mass of the BOP because it does not form part of the
disconnected riser.

Thus, effective mass = 0 + (0.4 * 5,400,000) = 2,160,000 lbm

The natural period for this riser is approximately 5 seconds:

( ) onds sec 33 . 4 2 . 32 141000 / 2160000 2 = =

However, if the annular was closed to capture the mud, the riser mass is increased, hence, the
period. Although these oscillations end up creating some fatigue in the riser or the drill
strings, drilling rigs are usually provided with systems to prevent vertical oscillation of the rig
such as heave compensators in floating rig, tensioned legs in tensioned leg platforms, etc.
Hence, they minimize axial oscillation of the risers due to rig movements.
4.2.2 Lateral Oscillation due to Ocean Loop Current
This section is inspired by the paper presentation from subsea7.
5
Apart from the vertical
vibration (axial), we also have lateral oscillation of the riser. In ultra deepwater where several
stands of risers are used to get to the water depth at seabed from the surface, a similar
behavior to that of a long stand of string is believed to be existing. For a riser stretching over
thousands of feet in deepwater, lateral oscillations is believed to be inevitable in the manner
shown in the figure 4.4 (a subsea7 illustration) below:






Fig. 4.4 Finite Element Model for Load Effect on Riser.
5

20

Several loads (as illustrated in figure 4.5) result in lateral vibration of riser string used in
drilling in the deepwater. The following contribute to the load:

Fig. 4.5- Loads on Riser during Drilling.
5

Load on the riser includes:
Wave
Platform motions: Heave, sway, pitch and roll.
Direct wave forces on risers
Wave induced fatigue
Current
Slow drift of the platform: vessel offset
Direct current load along the waves
Vortex induced vibration (VIV) on risers: fatigue
21

Vortex induced vibration (VIV) is a type of lateral movement in deepwater drilling normally
due to ocean current as shown in figure 4.6 on the next page. As earlier mentioned in section
2.1 the deepwater current and wind near the surface water is very high while that near the
bottom of the deepwater is low. This creates the Vortex Induced Vibration.
Wind
Slow drift of the platform: vessel offset

Fig. 4.6- Vortex Induced Vibration Effect

Different failure modes for risers:
Metal risers
Pressure effects: internal or/and external pressure
22

Tension and bending stress: combined load effects
Fatigue
Flexible risers
Pressure effects
Tension and curvature
Fatigue
End fitting design
The lateral movements discussed during riser drilling in deepwater usually result in fatigue
due to oscillation or vibration of the strings, and seldom cause instant failure. However,
fatigue could pose future problems.
Fatigue
In metal risers
Is due to repeated loading and unloading
Critical failure mode for welds
4.2.3 Failure Due To Riser Emergency Disconnect From BOP
In a case of rig positioning problem where the riser emergency disconnect from BOP fails, the
riser will end up being damaged due to forceful disconnect.
4.3 TESIO LEG PLATFORM
A Tension-leg platform or Extended Tension Leg Platform (ETLP) is a vertically moored
floating structure normally used for the offshore production of oil or gas, and is particularly
suited for water depths greater than 300 meters (about 1000 ft).
4
Hence, it can be used for
deepwater drilling. The Tension Leg Platform (TLP) is a buoyant platform held in place by a
mooring system. The TLPs are similar to conventional fixed platforms except that the
platform is maintained on location through the use of moorings held in tension by the
buoyancy of the hull (figure 4.7).
23

The mooring system is a set of tension legs or tendons attached to the platform and connected
to a template or foundation on the seafloor. The platform is permanently moored by means of
tendons grouped at each of the structure's corners. A feature of the design of the tendons
(tethers) is that they have relatively high axial stiffness (low elasticity), such that virtually all
vertical motion of the platform is eliminated. The template is held in place by piles driven into
the seafloor. This method dampens the vertical motions of the platform, but allows for
horizontal movements. The topside facilities (processing facilities, pipelines, and surface
trees) of the TLP and most of the daily operations are the same as for a conventional platform.
The hull is a buoyant structure that supports the deck section of the platform and its drilling
and production equipment. A typical hull has four air-filled columns supported by pontoons,
similar to a semisubmersible drilling vessel. The deck for the surface facilities rests on the
hull. The buoyancy of the hull exceeds the weight of the platform, requiring taut moorings or
tension legs to secure the structure to the seafloor. The columns in the hull range up to 100
ft in diameter and up to 360 ft in height; the overall hull measurements will depend on the size
of the columns and the size of the platform.
Tension Legs (tendons) are tubular structures that secure the hull to the foundation; this is the
mooring system for the TLP. Tendons are typically steel tubes with dimensions of 2-3 ft in
diameter with up to 3 inches of wall thickness, the length depending on water depth. A typical
TLP would be installed with as many as 16 tendons.

24


Fig. 4.7 - Tension Leg Platform
To avoid problems in deepwater drilling, the cross-sectional area of the hull of the TLP is
constructed based on the load it would support. .i.e. the number or weight of risers and drill
strings it would support for drilling.
4.3.1 Derivation of Equation
To determine the permissible weight that can be supported by the TLP, we can employ this
calculation:
For a platform kept afloat with the tendon pipes in tension due to buoyancy, we can infer that
the more area of the hull we have, the more the buoyancy in water, and the more the tension
in the tendons.
Buoyancy = weight of water displaced = equivalent volume of seawater x density of water.
For safe operation, tensile strength of the tendons buoyed weight of the platform + weight
25

of weight of tendons in seawater i.e. (maximum buoyancy force weight of platform) +
weight of tendons in seawater.
The following are defined:
A= cross-section of all supports between platform and pontoons (hull), m
2

h = maximum wave height from bottom to top, m
D = sea depth, m
A
s
= minimum cross-section of all tendons, m
2

s

= density of tendon steel, kg/m
3

w

= density of seawater, kg/m
3
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s
2

F = maximum tendon load, Pa
K = buoyancy factor

y
= yield stress of tendon steel, Pa/m
2
We obtain the following:
s
w
K

=1
Weight of tendons in seawater Kg D A
s s
=
Load due to maximum wave height of seawater g Ah
w
=
Then,
Kg D A g Ah A F
s s w y s
+ = =
26

gK D
g Ah
A
s y
w
s

=
This means that the minimum cross-section of all the tendons must not be less than 1.32m
2
in
order to avoid the maximum tendon load being greater than the yield stress of tendons. The
tendons are normally kept taut or stretched by buoyancy force, and increased wave height
could also be contributing extra stretching force on the tendons as reflected in the derived
equation. In a stretched drilling string in deepwater, we should have the maximum tension at
the top of the string, and the minimum at the bottom.
However, we can envisage a scenario where we could have minimum wave height falling
below mean sea level. This might lead to having our neutral point in the string further higher
up from the bottom. In this case, the string might experience some buckling at the bottom
below the neutral point. A safety factor should be considered in our calculation to avoid this
scenario.
4.3.2 Example
If we have,
A = 1000m
2
, h = 50m,
w
= 1030kg/m
3
,
s
= 8000kg/m
3
, 9=10m/s
2
, D= 3000m,

y
=600,000,000 Pa(6000bars)
871 . 0
8000
1030
1 = = K
2 2
6
32 . 1 3173 . 1
871 . 0 10 8000 3000 10 600
10 1030 50 1000
m m A
s
=


=




27


Chapter 5: DEEPWATER DRILLIG PROBLEMS
ASSOCIATED WITH DRILLIG
OPERATIOS

5.1 HYDRATES
5.1.1 Mechanism of Hydrate Formation
Under favorable conditions of high pressure and low temperature, hydrocarbon gas and liquid
water can combine to form crystalline solids, which resemble wet snow or ice, these are
known as hydrates. The crystal structure is composed of cages of hydrogen bonded water
molecules which surround 'guest' hydrocarbon molecules such as methane, ethane and
propane. These ice-like structures agglomerate to block tubing, mud return lines, flow lines,
and/or mud handling facilities.
6
Note that hydrocarbon gas and liquid water must be present to
form hydrates.

5.1.2 Hydrate Formation Conditions
7

1. Free water and natural gas components must be present. Gas molecules ranging in size
from methane to butane are typical hydrate components, including CO
2
,N
2
and H
2
S.
The water in hydrates can come from the free water produced in reservoirs, from
condensed water due to the cooling of the hydrocarbon fluids or from water based
drilling mud.
2. Low temperature is normally needed for hydrate formation; however, even though
hydrates are 85 mol% water, the system temperature does not need to be below 32
o
F
(the freezing point of water) for these ice-like solids to occur. Offshore, below
approximately 3000ft of water depth, the ocean-bottom (mudline) temperature is
remarkably uniform at 38 to 40
o
F and pipelines gas readily cool to this temperature
within a few miles of the wellhead. Hydrates can form easily at temperatures higher
than 70
o
F at the pipeline high pressures (as well).
3. High pressures commonly promote hydrate formation. At 38
o
F, commonly natural
gases form hydrates at pressures as low as 100psig; at 1500 psig, common gases form
hydrates at 66
o
F.
28


In deepwater drilling, one major unusual aspect is the water depth which may range from
6000ft to 10000ft. Such depths and distances provide cooling for the mudline fluids to low
temperature and high pressures, which are well within the hydrate stability region. At a
typical ocean temperature of 39
o
F, 400ft of water depth provides pressures required for
hydrate formation. The system temperature and pressure at the point of hydrate formation
must be within the hydrate-stability region, as determined.

Figure 5.1 shows a typical plot of the water temperature in the Gulf of Mexico (GOM) as a
function of water depth. The plot shows that a high temperature of 70
o
F (or more) occurs for
the first 250ft of depth. However, when the depth exceeds 3,000ft, the bottom water
temperature is very uniform at approximately 40
o
F, no matter how high the temperature is at
the air/water surface. This remarkably uniform water temperature at depths greater than 3,000
ft occurs in almost all the Earths oceans (caused by water-density inversion), except a few
that have cold subsea currents.


Comment: As explained in chapter 2, a possible reason for a slightly increasing temperature at the bottom is due to heating
effect from the earth core.
Fig. 5.1- Water Temperature vs. Depth, Gulf of Mexico
29

Presence of salt in the case of produced water in oil wells could prevent/inhibit formation of
hydrates. For gas wells, only saturated water vapour is produced, this partly condenses to
fresh water in the cooler part of the well. And if no salt is present in the condensed water, it
could result in hydrate formation if hydrate-formation conditions are present.
5.1.3 Hydrate Formation Conditions by Gas-Gravity
7

The simplest method to determine the hydrate-formation temperature and pressure is by
means of gas gravity, defined as the molecular weight of the gas divided by that of air. Figure
5.2 is a chart of hydrateformation curves for different gas gravities. To use this chart, the gas
gravity is calculated and the highest temperature of the hydrate formation process is specified.
The pressure at which hydrate form is read directly from the chart at the gas gravity and
temperature; to the left of every line, hydrates form with a gas of that gravity, while for
pressures and temperatures to the right of the line, the system is hydrate-free.

Fig. 5.2 Hydrate-Formation Curves for Various Gas Gravities

30

5.1.4 Hydrates Problems in Real Life
In real life, flowing well or mud being circulated for drilling never gives enough time for
hydrate formation due to constant agitation. In the case of flowing oil or gas from the well,
addition of warm or hot fluid from the well bore to the initial fluid being cooled at the
deepwater condition keeps the fluid constantly mobile and prevents hydrate formation; though
low temperature conditions could have an overall effect of cooling the flowing fluid.
In a case where we have temporary shut-in of the well, presence of gas from the formation in
the mud line or the well bore below the mud line due to gas migration or phase segregation
may result in hydrate formation and develop into blockage.

We could also have high pressure build up in the pipe when we have a hydrate plug. Hydrate
formation below the wellhead could also block off part of the high pressure from the well
flow, hence, not giving the true picture of the high well pressure. Should the well be shut-in
with a mud not heavy enough based on this false impression, opening up the well when re-
visited for drilling could be a catastrophe.
Shutting down a well could also be problematic due to hydrates if the formation contains
some gas, and oil and gas keeps accumulating at the hydrates blockage over time when the
well is shut in. This accumulation would cause high pressure build-up in the deepwater pipe
from the well. For such a pipe, should there be a leakage or loss of the hydrate plug or an
attempt to start production in the well, it could lead to a catastrophic kick.
One of the most commonly found hydrates in offshore drilling industry are those formed from
methane gas. These hydrates formed from reactions between water and methane under certain
conditions of high pressure and low temperatures can cause costly operational problems.
8

Other problems encountered due to hydrates include operational problems in the wellhead and
riser connectors. A modification can be made to the wellhead or riser connector to prevent
hydrate formation in critical areas susceptible to methane migration. For example, this can be
achieved through the addition of a methane gas seal, which is a large cross section excluder
seal that prevents the migration of hydrate forming methane gas in the connector.


31

5.1.5 Hydrate Prevention Methods
7

The three conditions necessary for hydrate formation lead to four classic thermodynamic
prevention methods used for general hydrates problems:
1. Water removal: This provides the best protection as separation removes free water
which we have identified as one of the main constituents necessary for hydrate
formation. Water condensation from the gas phase is prevented by drying the gas,
either with triethylene glycol to obtain water content less than 7lbm/MMscf or with
molecular sieves to obtain lower water content.
2. Maintaining high temperature: This keeps the system in the hydratefree region.
High reservoir fluid temperature may be retained through insulation and pipe
bundling, or heat may be added through hot fluids or electrical power, although this
latter option is not economical in many cases.
3. The system pressure may be decreased below the hydrate-formation pressure: To
do so, one can design system pressure drops at high temperature points, e.g.
bottomhole chokes. However this is not recommended for drilling systems.
4. Injection of inhibitor: Hydrate prevention is achieved most frequently by injecting an
inhibitor, such as methanol (MeOH) or monoethylene glycol (MEG) which acts as an
antifreeze, to decrease the hydrate formation temperature below the operating
temperature. There are two new means of hydrate inhibitors added to the industry list
that have been brought to common practice. They are:
Kinetic inhibitors: low molecular weight polymers and small molecules dissolved in
a carrier solvent and injected into the water phase in pipelines.
Antiagglomerants: dispersants that cause the water phase to be suspended as small
droplets in the oil or condensate. When the suspended water droplets are converted to
hydrates, pipeline flows are maintained without blockage.

5.1.6 Hydrate Prevention during Drilling in Offshore/Deepwater
Environment
7

In most onshore drilling, the reservoir temperature is sufficient to prevent hydrate formation
except large pressure drops in the downstream, such as at chokes. In Arctic and offshore
environments, however, low temperatures often cause hydrate formation in the drilling
process in addition to the hazards of drilling through hydrated reservoirs.
32

5.1.6.1 Hydrate Prevention in Drilling Fluids
The principal concerns in deepwater drilling fluids are the formation of plugs in choke and
kill lines. The presence of hydrate in deepwater drilling result in the following adverse effects:
Choke and kill line plugging, preventing their use in well circulation.
Hydrate-plug formation at or below the BOP, preventing well pressure monitoring
below BOP.
Hydrate-plug formation around the drillstring in the riser, BOPs, or casing, which
prevent drillstring movement.
Plug formation in the ram cavity of a closed BOP, which prevent the BOP from
opening fully.
Hydrate prevention in deepwater drilling can be achieved based on the following:
Synthetic Oil-Based Drilling Fluids: Synthetic oil-based drilling fluids have very low
toxicity and good bioremediation qualities-two properties that allow disposal of cuttings
offshore. Because of these inherent drilling advantages, synthetic oil-base drillings fluids
(mud) predominate in deepwater drilling. Hydrate occurrences are unlikely in oil-based fluids
(mud), particularly if the internal brine phase has a high salt content (e.g. 25 to 30% CaCl
2
).
Water-Based Drilling Fluids: It is becoming more difficult to use oil-based drilling fluids
(mud) offshore due to increasing stringent environmental regulations. Thus, acceptable water-
based fluids are needed. Their use are governed by the given rule of thumb to predict the
formation of hydrates,
The water and the water soluble drilling fluid components determine the conditions
of hydrate formation. Concentration of salts, alcohols, glycols, and glycerol in water
determine the hydrate-formation temperature and pressure.
7

Very few problems have been encountered with hydrates while using either oil base mud or
synthetic base mud systems. Inhibited water base mud is available to reduce potential for
forming hydrates in the wells if oil/synthetic base mud cannot be used. Most drill rig hydrate
troubles occur after a period of time without circulation.
2



33

5.2 RISER LOSS
5.2.1 Well Barrier
According to NORSOK Standard D-010 Rev. 3 August 2004,
9
it is recommended that well
barrier schematics are developed as a practical method to demonstrate and illustrate the
presence of the defined primary and secondary well barriers in the well. Well barriers are
always put in place before drilling operations start; however, deepwater drilling requires
special consideration due to the possibility of the occurrence of riser loss.

The well barrier elements that constitute the primary and secondary well barriers for general
drilling conditions are illustrated in figure 5.3:

34

Section 5.8.1, page 33- ORSOK Standard D-010
Fig. 5.3- Well Barrier Schematic
5.2.2 Riser Margin
Safety considerations require that an additional mud weight be included for drilling offshore,
to be able to contain the well pressure in a situation where you lose the riser, which in turn
would lead to loss of the mud column in the riser initially providing the hydrostatic support.
This additional mud weight is called the riser margin. Instead of a column of mud from the
rig deck and down to the well head, there would be a column of seawater from the sea surface
Comment: Only one barrier is not allowed in
Norway.
35

and down to the well head. This would significantly reduce the hydrostatic pressure due to
the vertical column of liquid above the well head as the density of seawater is usually less
than that of drilling mud. From the well barrier schematic, an additional requirement to the
fluid column in case we use marine riser as applies to deepwater is provided in table 5.1
below, as specified from NORSOK Standard D-010.
TABLE 5.1: Excerpt from ORSOK D-010 on Riser Margin

Section 5.4.2, Table 1, page 27- ORSOK D-010
During the drilling operation offshore, we start losing the mud inside the riser when we have
riser loss (the riser disconnects from BOP at seabed planned or unplanned). This condition is
called Riser Mud Loss. Several factors could be responsible for this disconnect ranging from
36

weather conditions to equipment failure. This condition could culminate into riser loss
problems.
5.2.3 What Happens When Riser Mud Loss Occurs?
5.2.3.1 Sub-Seabed Section (Below the Seabed in the Well)
When the riser is lost in the case of deepwater, fluid column inside the riser and the BOP are
majorly affected (mud is lost and BOP could get damaged). Hence, the fluid column (mud
column or water column) is the primary barrier while the BOP is the secondary barrier as
discussed under barrier requirements (see section 5.2.1).
The riser column of the mud hydrostatic could be completely lost when we have riser
disconnect for any reason, in which case we lose the mud in the riser to the seabed water. As
mentioned earlier, such an occurrence is referred to as riser loss. When this happens, how
much well control can be ascertained becomes questionable. Figure 5.4 below shows a simple
set up using the riser for deepwater drilling.

Fig. 5.4 - Conventional Configuration for Riser Margin (Before Artificial Seabed)

37

Consider a deepwater well being drilled with mud column in the riser contributing to the
hydrostatic pressure in the deepwater for well control. Since water is not as dense as mud; if
the riser column of mud is lost, a kick (or worst case of a blowout) would most likely occur
when this mud column is replaced by the water column which in turn is dependent on the
hydrostatic parameter and wellbore pressure.
In order to avoid this, mud weight just a bit higher than the exact weight required to drill in
deepwater is used, so that well control can be maintained even when riser loss occurs and sea
water column replaces the hydrostatic column initially provided by the mud in the riser(as
mentioned under riser margin discussion(see section 5.2.2). . For shallow water drilling, this
riser margin is usually small and easily determined with no complications.
However, in the case of deepwater, the situation is much more complex and it is difficult to
determine the most suitable riser margin to be applied to the drilling mud.
For deepwater resources, a narrow margin between formation pore and fracture pressure
exists in many over-pressured basins around the globe including the Gulf of Mexico.
10
This
limited margin between pore and fracture pressure often becomes narrower with increasing
water depth due to reduced overburden pressure and shallow onset of abnormal pressure. As a
result, reaching the target depth for deepwater wells while retaining a useable borehole size is
often difficult, and this complication limits the extent to which we can increase the weight of
the mud used for deepwater drilling in case we lose our riser.
A too low riser margin, in order to avoid damaging the formation, would not be enough to
provide adequate initial hydrostatic column by the drilling mud. Hence, it could lead to loss of
well control and eventual blowout when the riser is lost. On the other hand, a too high value
of riser margin, in order to provide adequate hydrostatic weight to compensate for the lighter
seawater column that cannot alone give as much hydrostatic support as the drilling mud, poses
a threat of damaging the fragile formation which as highlighted in this paper is a characteristic
of the deepwater environment.
There is a major concern in the case of deepwater about how to determine what is the safest
value of riser margin to be used in drilling in view of these two contradicting constraints. The
first being how to determine how heavy mud can be made to ensure adequate riser margin in
the case of deepwater since we have a very large column of mud in the riser to account for.
While the second constraint is determining how light the mud should be (considering the
38

fragile nature of most deepwater formation) in order to avoid damage of the formation at
wellbore.
For deepwater drilling, we introduce the riser margin. The analysis for this concept is
discussed in details in the next chapter. There is a need to accurately determine the best option
or value of mud weight (MW) that would ensure well control. Also, consideration for
unexpectedly high well bore pressure build-up overtime after shut-in due to gas migration
would even tempt one to employ much higher value for riser margin for well control purposes
posing further threat to the formation.
5.2.3.1.1 Artificial Seabed: Proposed Solution to Riser Margin Problems
in Sub-Seabed
Considering the complication involved in choosing the safest mud weight (riser margin) for
the sub-seabed section, a concept of artificial seabed could be suggested in order to eliminate
the challenges over choosing the most suitable riser margin.
For this suggestion of artificial seabed, an artificial floating sea bottom could be conceived.
Here, we consider an artificial seabed far above the real seabed and very near to the water
surface supported like a tension leg platform with a column of riser attached to it running
from this artificial seabed to the real seabed as shown in figure 5.5. Another riser can be
assumed to connect the artificial seabed to the rig, and this is the riser that can be lost i.e.
removable riser. This means that the distance between the artificial seabed and water surface
is small, and this distance is equivalent to the mud column in the riser that would be lost when
riser disconnect is experienced.
The mud in the riser below the artificial seabed would remain and still provide hydrostatic
support in the case of loss of the unstable riser above it. Therefore, only the relatively short
column of mud in this removable riser would be lost in case the riser is lost (could be 100 -
200m). The effect of riser margin for a very short column of removable riser can be
considered negligible. However, cost consideration is important in evaluating this option.
39


Fig. 5.5- Deepwater Riser with Artificial Seabed
Note: The depth of the artificial seabed should be sufficient to avoid significant water
movements due to large waves (influence of sea current at the surface is relatively much
higher than at the sea bottom).
5.2.3.2 Above-Seabed Section (deepwater interval)
Having looked at the problem associated with riser loss in the sub-seabed section for the in-
hole condition (integrity of the formation versus well control), it is important to also describe
the kind of problem faced in the deepwater above the seabed. If riser disconnect occurs, and
the weather condition becomes so bad that the rig would have to move away or shift, it would
be observed that the mud gradually pours out at the bottom of the riser. We are considering
the integrity of the riser when losing its mud content in the deepwater as the pressure from the
sea water might damage/collapse the column of the riser being emptied. Calculations could be
made to determine/ascertain if our riser is good enough to continue the drilling when
reconnected to BOP as discussed in the next chapter under analysis and discussion. This
problem can be illustrated in the schematics below in figure 5.6.
40


Fig. 5.6- Riser Disconnect Illustration for Above-Seabed Consideration.
The figure above describes the situation where the mud starts pouring out at the seabed as we
experience riser disconnect from the BOP in the deepwater. The mud is gradually poured onto
the sea floor as the rig drifts away from its position after riser disconnect.
5.3 CUTTIGS TRASPORT I RISER AULUS
The use of riser to protect the drill string, provide well control and a return channel for mud
and cuttings(hole cleaning) is almost unavoidable in drilling except in the case of riserless
drilling. Risers are often employed for deepwater drilling purposes where cuttings transport in
the riser annulus is affected by several factors among which are
Well hydraulics
-Fluid density: mud weight
- Fluid rheology: viscosity, rheological model, rheological properties (plastic viscosity
(PV), yield point (YP), gel strength
41

-Shear characteristics: shear strength, shear rate
Flow rate
Flow regimes: laminar or turbulent
Riser design: size , riser booster
Amongst these factors, riser size and design is mainly based on deepwater considerations.
However, the challenge is choosing the right riser specification and design to allow cutting
transport and at the same time withstand the harsh deepwater environment at the seabed. Mud
carrying heavy cuttings flows from the relatively smaller diameter annulus in the hole into a
larger diameter riser; this significantly reduces the flow rate and thus necessitates several
ECD management methods to ensure the cuttings are transported to the surface. Basically, the
following are among the considerations related to the riser and are very critical for cutting
transport.
Riser size and diameter
Riser Length
Both are points under riser dimensions.
5.3.1 Riser Size and Diameter
Deepwater risers come in relatively bigger sizes than casings depending on the material and
specification in order to withstand the high hydrostatic inside or outside pressure condition,
associated with deepwater. The bigger the riser , the lower the velocity of return cutting
carrying return mud being transported to the surface, and the lower the cutting carrying
ability of the return mud. Riser sizes in deepwater determine to a large extent the flowrate of
the cuttings carrying mud; hence, a limiting factor to the hole cleaning (cutting transport top
surface) when a wrong size is used. Right choice of riser is important to permit enough
velocity for the cutting.
Risers used for deepwater drilling are called top-tensioned risers and the range of sizes is
mostly within the range of 8 to 24 in sizes depending on the type of application. Cutting
transport is more difficult in the big sizes i.e. 24 because of the extremely high flowrate high
values required for such riser sizes. Such high flowrate is usually above the pump limit, but
riser boosters are often employed to achieve the required flowrate.
42

The area of the riser and flow velocity is related by the simple equation:
11

A
Q
v =
A= cross-sectional area of riser for flow, Q= flowrate
The equation above shows, that the bigger the riser size, the larger the area and the smaller the
average flow velocity. However in practical terms, there are two constraints:
Deepwater of several hundred of meters of water depth require a riser that is big
enough to withstand the deepwater condition so that it does not collapse.
The riser must be as small in size or diameter as possible to make cuttings transport to
the surface possible.
5.3.2 Riser Length
Deepwater of several thousands of feet requires several connections of riser forming a great
distance to the seabed. However, the challenge here is that the longer the riser, the more
difficult it is to achieve the required velocity for cuttings transport because the mud return
flow would experience more pressures losses over long distances.
In summary, although riser booster has proven to be very helpful in achieving required
flowrate for cutting transport, riser dimension remains an area requiring attention to avoid
cutting transport problem in the riser. To achieve a particular required mud flowrate for
cuttings transport in the riser annulus to the surface in deepwater, riser consideration is an
important limiting factor even when riser booster is employed. In this work, Slimhole Drilling
is a proposed method/solution to the riser cutting transport problems.
5.3.3 Slimhole Drilling: Proposed Solution to Cuttings Transport Problem
in the Riser Annulus
Slimhole drilling is believed to be a possible solution to the riser annulus cuttings transport
problem in deepwater due to the inadequate flowrate for cutting transport in the big risers
sizes used in conventional deepwater. Slimhole wells may be defined as wells where 90% or
more of the length of the well is drilled with bits less than 7 inches in diameter.
12
Such small
43

drill bits diameter drilling would require similar small diameter size risers which would
greatly improve cuttings transport flowrate in the riser annulus.
Slimhole drilling involves drilling a major portion of the length of the well with drillbits less
than 7 inches (17.8 cm) in diameter. It is not necessarily new technology.
13
Slimhole drilling
has been actively utilized since the early 1920s and was studied in-depth in the 1950s by at
least one major company which had an active slim hole development program. The
technology as described is not new, but is a technology borrowed from the continuous coring
mining drilling industry.

The sole reason for drilling a slimhole is cost reduction. Slimhole drilling is a method for
lowering cost by reducing consumables used in drilling and completions processes.
14
It is a
system to drill small holes at total depth rapidly and reliably which would allow wells to be
made slimmer from top down. Further cost savings would accrue through the following areas:

15

Use of smaller surface casing and the substitution of liners for intermediate casing
strings.
The smaller upperhole sections could be drilled with improved penetration rates
Reductions in cement and mud costs, and environmental impact would be achieved
and with increasing confidence, rig size could also be reduced.

Although typically only the bottom five percent of the well is slim (< 6 1/4"), cost reductions
apply to the whole well.

Figure 5.7 illustrates the generic differences between the drilled hole diameter and sizes of
casing typically run in conventional and slim hole wells.
16
A major characteristics of Slim
Hole Drilling are the utilization of high RPM diamond bits with low weight on bit (WOB) to
achieve optimal penetration rates. This result in primary equipment differences as compared
to conventional drilling rigs, the precise WOB control is typically accomplished using
hydraulics for feed and WOB control. Because of the high RPM requirements, the diameter of
the hole being drilled is only fractionally larger than the drill rod because of lateral drill string
stability requirements. Therefore, smaller annular clearances are associated with slimhole well
than with conventionally drilled wells.

44



Fig. 5.7 - Typical Casing Program as Compared to Slimhole.

The reduced annular clearance affects several major areas of drilling engineering
requirements. In conventional well bores, the cross sectional area of the annulus is much
larger than the inner area of the drill pipe. For long strings of pipe, or deep holes, the pressure
loss in the drill pipe dominates over the annulus because of flow area. However, in slimholes,
the cross section area of the drill rod is greater than the area of the annulus, Therefore, the
greatest pressure loss would occur in the annulus. With the pressure losses occurring in
different geometries of the wellbore between conventional and slim hole, the historic data and
equations for hydraulic design of wellbores of conventional wells are not valid. Major
features of slimholes include:

45

Penetration Rate
Generally diamond core heads are used in slim hole coring. And in combination with low
weight (2,000- 8,000 lbs) and high RPM (350-1000),they provide adequate penetration rates
(2-15m/hr). The single most important factor in rate of penetration appears to be RPM. The
small annular clearances seem to benefit the rotational capability by providing lateral stability
to the drill string.

High ECDS
High ECDS are associated with the small annular clearance of slimhole coring. This can lead
to lost circulation in fractured or non competent formations. Care must be taken to plan and
control fluid properties, especially viscosity during drilling.

Depth Limitations
Depth limitations for slim holes vary, depending on how the rigs can be modified for slim
hole drilling. The rig could be rated to 15,000 feet and above.

5.3.4 Application of Slimhole Drilling to Offshore Drilling

The application of slimhole technology was primarily for economic reasons. However, its
application can be extended to deepwater environment which to a large extent would reduce
costs and at the same time probably serve as a solution to the cuttings transport problem in the
riser annulus. Offshore applications include jack-up, shallow water floating drilling and
deepwater.

5.3.4.1 Floating Drilling

Essentially all of the necessary technology for this design already exists in other applications
in the drilling industry; the development of this system would not require major research
effort. Rather, the majority of the development efforts would be spent repackaging existing
designs for this application. Existing motion compensators on floating drilling rigs are used to
reduce the bit weight variation to within 3000 to 6000 pounds with an average bit weight of
about 40,000 lb.

Slim Hole Technology requires weight on bit that may be as low as 2000 lb and the high
speed diamond coring bits would not tolerate any significant fluctuation of the weight on bit
without damage to the bit. This technology uses high RPM diamond bits with relatively low
weight on bit to achieve optimal penetration rates. The reason slimhole drilling has not been
46

very successful offshore is due to the problem of maintaining a constant precise weight on bit.
This because the motion compensators used on offshore drilling rigs do not have the
capability to maintain accurate low weight on the bit.

To utilize slimhole technology in offshore drilling applications, a means which would allow
accurate control on bit is necessary. To modify the existing designs would present difficult
and costly solutions. This design would allow existing surface motion compensation to be
utilized with the addition of a seafloor device to remove the remaining load fluctuations in the
drill pipe, provide a controlled weight on bit and controlled feed rate to control the rate of
drilling penetration. The seafloor compensator concept essentially takes the important
components of a surface slimhole drilling rig and places them on the seabed. These
components control the weight on bit and hydraulically feed the drill pipe down hole. The
only difference is that the driller controls the components remotely at the surface and the pipe
is rotated from the surface.

5.3.4.2 Ultradeepwater

Todays economics do not warrant huge expenditures by any single company or group of
companies to develop equipment for ultradeepwater exploration (ultra-deepwater refers to
water depths between 6000 and 11,000 feet). Therefore, in order to justify deepwater and
ultradeepwater exploration, a lower cost alternative must be available.

Slim Hole Drilling Technology has been used in more than 8000 feet of water by Mobil.
A schematic of the system is shown in Figure 5.8.
47


Fig. 5.8- Ultradeepwater Slimhole Drilling

The design, which has been developed essentially, includes the same type of components
normally found on deepwater drilling systems; the only differences are the size and the
addition of the seafloor compensator. A dedicated built design uses a reduced diameter riser
with much lower weight than a conventional riser. This allows the system to be utilized on
existing dynamically positioned drilling vessels with minimal modification. The smaller riser
allows a smaller Blowout Preventer (BOP) and a smaller wellhead to be used. Smaller casing
sizes are also used. In this case utilizing smaller equipment translates directly into reduced
costs and also a reduced cross-sectional mud flow area in the smaller riser which would
translate into increased cuttings velocity to achieve good hole cleaning. Because of the unique
system design, it is perceived that total depths of greater than 20,000 feet can be achieved in
48

water depths to 10,000 feet. As with conventional slimhole drilling systems, drilled depths
approaching 12-1500 feet are feasible.
5.3.4.3 Other Areas of Application
Slimhole drilling techniques have been applied in drilling High-Pressure and High-
Temperature wells in the North Sea using an Enhanced Kick Detection System.
14
Also,
slimhole drilling technology has been successfully used in drilling horizontal wells.
13

5.3.5 Limitations

5.3.5.1 Kick Control

The key issue in slim hole well control considerations is the reduced annular volume as
compared to larger conventional holes. This condition can greatly reduce kick tolerance in the
sense that a conventional size influx can evacuate enough of the annulus to produce a well
control problem. For this reason, flow returns must be monitored closely and may include
calibrating PVT equipment to measure in gallons versus barrels. Depending on the hole size
and drill string used, pressure drop scenarios may reverse with the annulus having the greatest
pressure drop due to the reduced annular clearance. Selection of the well control method is
dependent on the annular clearance available.

5.3.5.2 Other Concerns

Another concern against drilling a convectional slimhole well has been production limitations
imposed by the small-diameter pipe and the difficulty in working over such wells. Other
arguments often cited are the lack of good penetration rates with small diameter three-cone
bits, cementing a small hole, the apparent deficiency of logging tools that would fit into
slimholes, and problems of inability to do multiples completion.
12
5.3.6 Challenges
5.3.6.1 Primary Challenges
Kick control is the major problem or challenge of drilling a slimhole. What was cited initially
by most opponents for the use of slimhole was the heightened chance of blowout.
17
The
greatest operational deterrent for the use of slim hole drilling is the critical issue of detecting
kick quickly and taking the corrective action to handle the influx.
12

49

A unit of reservoir gas entering a slimhole would occupy a much greater height in the annulus
than in conventional wells due to the smaller annular clearances in the slimhole. This could
result in the maximum allowable pressure in the casing being approached faster than in a
conventional well. The capability of early kick detection is therefore essential.
18


For example, the containment of a kick within 10-15 bbl (1.5-2.5 m3) in a conventional well
is considered reasonable. This volume of gas in a slimhole would give a blowout. The
capability to detect an inflow of about one barrel (0.2 m3) would be required for slimhole to
be sure of retaining safe control.

The small hole diameter and narrow annulus in slimholes pose many challenges which are not
experienced in conventional holes. Unlike conventional hole or drill string geometries, the
frictional pressure losses in slimholes are very sensitive to rotation speed of the pipe. As drill
pipe rotation is increased, a significant additional pressure loss can be added to the annular
pressure loss. In addition, the pressure measured at the standpipe would be affected by other
operational changes such as pump rate, pipe movement and coring. The cause of an increase
in return mud flow-rate is more difficult to identify when the effects of more than one of the
above operations occur simultaneously. Also, the most likely time for the occurrence of a kick
is during a connection, when the pumps are switched off and the pressure exerted against the
formation is reduced to mud hydrostatic.

However, in order to detect kick early enough in slimhole, sensitive Kick detection System
(KDS) is used based on measurement of mud flow-in and flow-out of the well, corrected for
system dynamics using a computer.
15
The system is continuously manned at present but is
being developed to be capable of detecting kicks while drilling, making connections, reaming,
tripping, running liners, wire line logging, etc. with minimum false alarms and lower manning
requirements. The system is used in addition to other kick indicators such as the drilling
break.
The second challenge is the reduced borehole diameter which limits the stimulation
possibilities (fracturing, injection rates), production rates, and the inability for multiple
completions.

50

5.3.6.2 Secondary Challenges
Secondary criticisms of slimhole are the inability to log, test, cement, fish, obtain adequate
penetration rates, to handle wellbore stability problems to do directional work and the lack of
good commercially available tubular.
5.4 WELL COTROL RELATED PROBLEMS
Ultradeepwater well control problems are expansion of problems encountered in floating
drilling of shallow water, but worsens due to increased water depth.
2
The friction pressure
seen circulating through choke and kill lines are increased relative to shallow water due to
greater length and higher fluid viscosities caused by colder temperatures. Many new rigs
designed to drill in up to 10000ft water depth will utilize 4 1/2 ID choke and kill lines rather
than the 3 lines currently in service. The larger diameter reduces the back pressure applied to
the well bore when circulating and allow higher rates of circulation.
Deepwater drilling mud at the seabed belongs to one of group of fluid under the Power law
model. Using the Power law model for mud viscosities, the best mathematical description of
the viscosity of a mud at constant temperature and pressure can be obtained. A Power-law
fluid is a type of generalized fluid for which the shear stress, , is given by
19

( )
n
n
K
dy
du
K =
|
|

\
|
=
Where:
K is the flow consistency index , Pa.s
n

du/dy is the shear rate or the velocity gradient perpendicular to the plane of shear, s
1
a
n is the flow behaviour index (dimensionless).
, is the shear stress, N/m
2
.i.e.Pa
The general equation for
Shear stress,
dy
du
=
51

We can combine the power law equation and the shear stress equations to give effective
viscosity which for non-newtonian fluids is a function of shear rate.
i n
eff
dy
du
K

|
|

\
|
=

By considering the logarithm of the equation for shear rate, we obtain a linear form of the
Power Law model,
20

n
K =
n n nK n l l l + =
The analysis of the pressure and temperature effects shows that the logarithm of the shear
stress is directly proportional to the pressure p, and inversely proportional to temperature, T.
These relationships can be expressed by the following equations

( )
t cons T
Ap n p n
tan
,
=
= l l
t cons p
T
B
n
T
n
tan
,
1
=
|

\
|
= l l
Where A and B are constants
Then,
For a given mud, the linear form of the power-law model can be modified to describe the
effect of temperature and pressure on the flow properties by the equation.
n l is a linear function of p if T is constant, and 1/T, that is n l =constant + Ap + B(1/T).
For p= p
o
and T= T
o
n n nK n l l l + = is linear
( )
|
|

\
|
+ + + =
o
o
T T
B p p A n n nK n
1 1
l l l
|

\
|
+ + +
|
|

\
|
=
T
B Ap n n
T
B Ap nK n
o
o
1 1
l l l
52

|

\
|
+ + + =
T
B Ap n n nK n
1
' l l l
|
|

\
|
=
o
o
T
B Ap nK nK
1
' l l

|
|

\
|

=
o
o
T
B Ap nK
e K
1
'
l

|
|

\
|
+
=
o
o
T
B Ap
e
K
K
1
'

In essence, pressure losses in a circulating well can be estimated provided the viscosity of the
mud is known or can be determined as in the case of deepwater. If the viscosity of the actual
mud is determined under temperature and pressure conditions, it can be reduced to
|

\
|
+ + + =
T
B Ap n n nK n
1
' l l l
Once the shear stress is obtained from the power law model obtained, this can be used to
obtained our frictional pressure losses in the annulus by considering the following:
For a pipe of
l length =
d diameter =
Frictional pressure loss = P
4
2
d P
dl

=
d
l
P
4
=


53

Chapter 6: AALYSIS AD DISCUSSIO O RISER
LOSS PROBLM

For the purpose of this work, this analysis is based on the riser loss problem among the
deepwater drilling problems discussed in the previous chapter. From the previous discussion
on the deepwater riser loss problems, two major categories of problems associated with riser
loss were identified:
Sub-seabed section (below seabed in the well): Integrity of the formation vs.
well control depending on the hydrostatic of the drilling mud after riser loss.
Above-seabed section (deepwater interval): Integrity of the riser on losing the
mud content.
6.1 SUB-SEABED SECTIO: Formation Integrity and Well Control
The concept of riser margin can be translated to reasonably accurate calculations which are
described in this chapter. In order to clearly illustrate riser margin environment, figure 6.1
below was proposed, and proper analysis presented.
54


Fig. 6.1 Diagrammatic Illustration of Deepwater Well Environment
We define the following:
D = total well depth from platform
D
w
= water depth from ocean surface
D
sb
= seabed depth from seabed surface
D
a
= depth of air column from platform

p
g = pore pressure gradient

w
= seawater density

m
= drilling mud density
P
p
= pore pressure
P
w
= well bore pressure
55

Then, we have
sb p w sw p
gD gD P + =
( )
sb w a m m w
D D D g gD P + + = =
Minimum requirement for riser margin is as follows,
sb p w sw p sb m w sw
gD gD P gD gD + = > +
sb p w sw sb m w sw
gD gD gD gD + = +
p m
>
Then,
( )
sb w a p sb w a m w
D D D g D D D g P + + > + + = ) (
If we define riser margin as MW, our minimum pressure difference between well and pore
pressure must then be
( ) ( )
sb p w sw sb w a p p w
gD gD D D D g P P MW + + + = =

( )
sb p w sw sb p w a p
gD gD gD D D g + + =
( )
w sw w a p
gD D D g + =
( )
w sw p a p
gD gD + =
ote: all generated data and plots were prepared in the excel sheet attached to this report.
In the equation above, if we make a plot of MW against D
w
in order to analyze that effect
water depth on riser margin when we lose our riser, a straight line as shown in figure 6.2
with intercept of
p
gD
a
on the x-axis (MW) with a gradient of (
p

sw
)g, and y-axis would
be D
w.


56


Fig. 6.2- Riser Margin vs. Water Depth
To include safety gradient, we define
h
P
g SG
SGh P gh
SGh P P
p
m
p m
P w

Hence,

( ) ( )
sb p w sw sb w a p
gD gD D D D SG g MW + + + + = ) (

( )( ) ( )
sb p w sw sb p w a p
gD gD D SG g D D SG g + + + + =
( )( )
sb p w sw sb sb p w a p
gD gD SGD gD D D SG g + + + + =
( )( )
w sw sb w a p
gD SGD D D SG g + + + =
( ) ( )
w sw sb w a w a p
gD SGD D D SG D D g + + + + = 2

( ) ( )
sb w sw p a p
SGD D g SG g D SG g + + + + =

57


Safety gradient, SG gives that at a depth h, the pressure P
w
is larger than the pore pressure,
P
p
by SGh.
In figure 6.3, the intercept on x-axis would now be (
p
g+SG) D
a
+ SGD
sb ,
which is higher

and the new gradient would be (
p
g+SG
sw
g ).

Fig. 6.3- Riser Margin vs. Water Depth with Safety Gradient
The calculation done so far assumes a constant pore gradient for the formation. However, it is
possible to have a formation having depth dependent pore gradient .i.e. pore gradient
changing with depth. In this case, we have an increasing pore gradient with increasing depth
of seabed.
If we define the following:
g = increase in pore pressure gradient per specific depth, D
o
D
o
= depth increase for which we experience pore pressure increase, g

d
g = pore pressure gradient at a particular depth

58

g D
D
g
sb
o
sw d
|
|

\
|
+ =


If we insert this into original equation for riser margin,
( )
w sw p a p
gD gD MW + =
w sw sb
o
sw a sb
o
sw
gD D
D
gD D
D
)
`

|
|

\
|
+ +
|
|

\
|
+ =

By expanding this, we have
w sw w sb
o
w sw a sb
o
a sw
gD gD D
D
gD gD D
D
gD

+ +

+ =
w sb
o
a sb
o
a sw
gD D
D
gD D
D
gD

+ =

Figure 6.4 shows the result of the calculations done at each seabed depth, D
sb
f or increasing
water depth and a changing pore pressure gradient due to increasing seabed depth. Each
straight line using this equation would have an intercept
|
|

\
|
+
a sb
o
a sw
gD D
D
gD

on the y-axis
and gradient g D
D
sb
o

.
59


Fig. 6.4- Riser Margin vs. Water Depth for Depth Dependent Pore Pressure
Note:
For well of constant total depth from the drill floor i.e. D = D
a
+ D
w
+ D
sb,
If D
a
is constant, then, (D
w
+ D
sb
) is also constant, K
D
w
= K - D
sb
(decrease in water depth means equivalent increase in depth of seabed).
We can also do the analysis for the pore pressure.
For a particular water depth, D
w
and varying depth of seabed, D
sb
:
sb d w sw p
gD gD P + =
sb sb
o
sw w sw
gD D
D
gD
|
|

\
|
+ + =


60

2
sb
o
sb sw w sw
gD
D
gD gD



+ + =

This results in a quadratic equation. A plot of
p
P against
sb
D would give a curve as shown in
figure 6.5.

Fig. 6.5- Seabed Depth vs. Pore Pressure
From the graph above, at shallow seabed depths, an increase in pore pressure in response to
increasing depth is not as much as the increase in pore pressure due to increasing depth at
greater depths further down in the formation. This is an indication that the pore pressure needs
to be more closely monitored at this great depth.

61

6.2 ABOVE SEABED SECTIO (Deepwater Interval): Riser Integrity
Figure 5.6 can be re-presented as given below (figure 6.6) for the analysis in this section.


Fig. 6.6 - Deepwater Pressure Consideration for Disconnected Riser
Figure 6.6 shows the pressures acting on the riser in the deepwater.
We consider a riser with an inside drilling mud of density,
m
and the outside or surrounding
seawater of density,
w
.
If the height of the riser mud column lost is,
m
h and the total vertical height of the riser
column is h , then length of column still filled with mud in the riser becomes ,
m
h h . The
mud level in the riser falls to a level referred to as critical level with a critical seawater
62

hydrostatic pressure,
l
w
outside the riser at this point. This pressure is most critical in the
investigation of the riser integrity when the inside mud is lost.
The mud column in the riser continues to fall as mud pours off on the ocean floor until a point
is reached where the hydrostatic pressure of the mud column in the riser equals the hydrostatic
pressure of seawater at the bottom of the riser where mud is released to the ocean floor.
At this point, the mud is expected to have enough resisting pressure from the water column to
stop it from pouring off from the bottom of riser, thus we have:
w m
P P =
Hence, we have the following in our calculation:

m
= density of the mud in the riser

w
= density of the seawater

m
= density of the mud in the riser
m
h = height of lost column of mud

m
= hydrostatic pressure due to remaining mud column in the riser
P
w
= critical seawater hydrostatic pressure due to seawater column at the bottom
l
w
P = critical seawater hydrostatic pressure
( )
m m m
h h g P =
( )
a w w
h h g P =
Then, to have a stabilized condition where the mud stops pouring off,
( ) ( )
a w m m w m
h h g h h g P P = =
Which gives
63

( )
m
a w w m
m
h h
h

+
=
( )
( )
)
`

+
= =
a
m
a w w m
w a m w
l
w
h
h h
g h h g P

( )( ) | |
a w m
m
w
h h g =

This pressure plays an important role in determining the state of our riser.
If this pressure is greater than the riser collapse pressure rating, then we might have a failure
or a problem. Equation above assumes that space above the mud in the riser i.e.
m
h is an
empty space. Figure 6.7 below shows how changing hydrostatic seawater pressure varies
drilling mud weight.

Fig.6.7- Critical Seawater Pressure vs. Water Depth
64

From the graph, increasing mud weight leads to increased fallen height of the mud in the riser
.i.e. length of empty space in the riser, hence, increased risk of riser collapse.
A critical seawater pressure of about 180 bars in a 3000m deepwater when we use a mud of
2.5s.g is too close to collapse limit. We seem to face risk of failure due to riser disconnect by
using a too heavy mud as some big casing sizes(not risers) from the drilling data handbook
have collapse resistance value of far less than 100bars depending on the steel material.
In reality, if this problem occurs, seawater at the bottom mouth of the riser forces its way up
the riser through the heavier mud in the riser since seawater is lighter than mud after pressure
balancing.
This should not be a problem as it does not happen so quickly. One can envision this to be
actually good as water in the riser annulus provides more support from the inside against the
high hydrostatic pressure of seawater column outside the pipe in this column as this leads to
increased level of mud when the mud mixes with seawater.
6.2.1 Pipe Friction Consideration on Critical Seawater Hydrostatic
Pressure
Pipe friction present in the riser annulus seems to reduce the height of the hydrostatic mud
column for the lost mud,
m
h . This can be thought of as a situation where the mud level must
have initially fallen to a lower level in the riser, where a higher value of critical pressure,
l
w
P is
present.
The actual height
m
h must be somewhat more than the observed value for the initial fall of
mud level due to riser disconnect before it comes up a little bit due to friction present inside
the riser. Hence, the critical pressure,
l
w
P which could actually lead to collapse of the riser, is
higher than the calculated value when friction is not included.
When riser disconnects occurs, mud level falls due to mud being lost through the bottom at
slow rate. Also, at a point in time, seawater starts entering from the bottom at slow rate
because it is difficult for the system to keep the pressure balance at the bottom for a long time
without seawater breaking through.
65

There has to be a balance among the falling riser mud due to its hydrostatic weight, friction in
the riser trying to reduce the falling height, and seawater from the bottom which mixes with
the mud which can cause relative increase in mud height. At this point, it would be difficult
to define the state of pressure balance or categorically say what happens in the mud inside the
riser.
6.2.2 API Collapse Pressure Consideration
To ascertain the condition of the riser after mud loss and for the purpose of the riser integrity,
the seawater hydrostatic pressure values should be compared to the collapse pressure of the
riser. The Drilling data handbook provides collapse pressure for various sizes of casing.
21

API method of collapse pressure calculations serves as the foundation for most other methods
of calculating the collapse pressure of the pipe. The API 5C3 bulletin is based on empirical
collapse data and offers four recognized collapse failure modes and a set of formulas which
are able to predict the minimum collapse resistance value for each mode: elastic, transition,
plastic and yield. The factor that decides which collapse mode formula to use, is the ratio of
outside diameter D, to wall thickness; this is D/t ratio. The different collapse modes include
as illustrated graphically in figure 6.8 (on the next page), for N-80 pipe:
22


Yield collapse
Plastic collapse
Transition collapse
Elastic collapse

According to API, plastic collapse formula for thick wall pipe (low D/t) was too liberal
22

therefore, a yield collapse formula was derived for thick-walled pipes. For large D/t,
Elastic Collapse (buckling) equation was derived. Most risers, because of the dimensions
i.e. large diameter would be thought of being associated with Elastic Collapse because of high
D/t.

Plastic and elastic collapse curves do not intersect. Therefore, a transition region was defined
to connect these two curves. For example, for an N-80 pipe, figure 6.8 below illustrates the
different collapse mode as dictated by the pipe dimension factor, D/t.
23

66


Fig. 6.8 Collapse Modes Based on API Calculation

6.3 RISER COLLAPSE AD BURST PRESSURE
Having obtained an equation for determining collapse pressure in the riser due to disconnect,
an equation can be obtained for riser burst pressure in like manner. From figure 6.6, burst
pressure can be expressed as follows:
P
B
= burst pressure
Pressure inside the riser gh
m
=
Pressure outside the riser ( )
a w
h h g =
( ) | |
a w m B
h h g gh P =
( ) | |g h h P
a w w m B
+ =
67

From section 6.2, collapse pressure was already defined by the critical seawater hydrostatic
pressure,
l
w
P . However in this section, collapse pressure of the riser is redefined as P
c
.
Hence,
( )( ) | |
a w m
m
w l
w C
h h g P P = =

The values for the collapse and burst pressure for a riser at any particular deepwater depth can
then be obtained. It is important to determine if the burst pressure requirement makes the riser
safe against mud loss even when the collapse pressure is already calculated.
If no air column scenario is assumed, then h
a
= 0.
( )hg P
w m
m
w
C

=
( )hg P
w m B
=
Then,
m
w
B
C
P
P

=
Since the mud is heavier than seawater, it can be inferred from the equation above that for a
deepwater riser experiencing mud loss, the collapse pressure is less than burst pressure.






68

Chapter 7: COCLUSIO

Deepwater environmental conditions pose a lot of problems in deep offshore drilling.
Interactions of these conditions make it difficult to analyze problems associated with each
of these conditions in isolation.
Some of the proposed solutions to the deepwater problems require critical evaluation. In
the case of the artificial seabed being a proposed solution to formation integrity problem
when we have riser loss, the associated risks and costs of such a solution should be
compared with the gain in overall performance. Slimhole drilling was proposed as a
possible solution to cutting transport problems in deepwater risers. However, there are
limitations such as low weight-on-bit, risk of a kick, etc. Slimhole drilling therefore
requires critical considerations to ensure if it is a worthwhile application for the particular
well.
The two aspects of riser loss highlighted in this work require close monitoring, that is,
formation integrity and riser integrity. In ensuring formation integrity, application of riser
margin to our drilling mud in deepwater drilling should be done with great care. This is
because at shallow sea depths, increases in pore pressure with depth are lower than that
occurring at greater depths. Hence, close monitoring of pore pressure at such great depths
in deepwater is required. Indeed, a constant riser margin should not be assumed when
drilling such sections. In the case of riser integrity, as the analysis in chapter 6 shows
high mud weight used in deepwater riser poses a higher risk of riser collapse due to the
effect of critical seawater hydrostatic pressure on the outside of the riser. Hence, minimum
mud weight should be considered due to the possibility of riser collapse in case mud loss
is experienced.
If the air gap is assumed to be negligible compared to water depth, riser collapse pressure
would always be less than the burst pressure as mentioned in chapter 6. And as
highlighted, for deepwater drilling, the ratio of the collapse pressure to the burst pressure
is always equal to the ratio of seawater density to mud density under the same conditions.
Thus, collapse pressure due to riser mud loss would be less than the operating burst
69

pressure during drilling. However for risers, collapse resistance is usually less than
internal yield pressure, making collapse pressure rating for these risers critical.




















70

omenclature
BOP- Blow Out Preventer
RBOP- Rotating BOP
CRD- Conventional Riser Drilling
DP- Dynamic Positioning
ECD- Equivalent Circulation Density
GOM- Gulf of Mexico
ID- Internal Diameter
KDS- Kick Detection System
LMRP- Lower Riser Package
MW- Mud Weight
MODU-Modular Offshore Drilling Unit
OD- Outside Diameter
TD- Target Depth











71



REFRECES
1. Choe, J. and Juvkam-Wold, .H.C.: Well Control Aspects of Riserless Drilling ,
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition , Paper 49058, New Orleans, Louisiana,
27-30 September, 1998.
2. Shaughnessy, J.M. and Armagost, W.K.: Problems of Ultra-Deepwater Drilling,
SPE/IADC Drilling Conference, Paper 52782, Amsterdam, Holland, 9-11, 1999.
3. Pinet, P.R.:Oceanography, an Introduction to the Planet Oceanus, by West
Publishing Company, USA, 1992 (ISBN 0-314-77008-9).
4. http://www.globalsecurity.org
5. Daniel Karaunakaran , subsea7 presentation, www.subsea7.com
6. Harun, A.F. and Krawietz, T.E.:Hydrate Remediation in Deepwater Gulf of Mexico
Dry-Tree Wells: Lessons Learned, OTC Paper 17814, Houston, Texas, 1-4 May
2006.
7. Sloan, E.D Jr.:Hydrate Engineering, SPE Monograph Volume 21, Spe Henry L.
Doherty Series, Society of Petroleum Engineering Inc., page 4-11 and 31-32, 2000.
8. Shawn, P.V.:Deepwater Driven Advancements in Well Control Equipment and
Systems, IADC/SPE Drilling Conference, Paper 39298, Dallas, Texas, 3-6 March,
1998.
9. NORSOK STANDARD D-010: Well Integrity in Drilling and Well Completions,
Rev. 3, August 2004.
10. Stanislawek, M and Smith, J.R.:Analysis of Alternative Well-Control Methods for
Dual-Density Deepwater Drilling, IADC/SPE Drilling Conference, Paper 98957,
Miami, Florida, U.S.A., 21-23 February, 2006.
11. Time, R.W: Two-phase flows in Pipelines, Course Compendium, University of
Stavanger, Jan. 1, 1999.
12. Walker, S.H., and Millheim, K.K.:An Innovative Approach to Exploration and
Exploitation Drilling: The Slimhole High Speed Drilling System, 64
th
Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition, Paper 19525, San Antonio, Oct. 8-11, 1989.
13. Hall, C.R and Ramos, A.B. Jr.: Development and Evaluation of Slimhole
Technology as a Method of Reducing Drilling Costs for Horizontal Wells, 67
th

Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Paper 24610 ,Washington DC, October
4-7, 1992.
14. Elde, E., Hage, J.I. , Burge, P.M. and Jurgens, R.:The Application of Slim-Hole
Drilling Techniques to High-Pressure and High-Temperature Exploration Programs in
the North Sea, Offshore European Conference , Paper 26340, Aberdeen, 7-10
September 1993.
15. Worral, R.N., Van Luijk, J.M., Hough, R.B., Rettberg, A.W., and Makohl, F.: An
Evolutionary Approach to Slim-Hole Drilling, Evaluation and Completion, European
Petroleum Conference, Paper 24965, Cannes, France, 16-18 November 1992.
16. Shanks, F.E. and Williams, K.R.: Slimhole Exploration Requires Proper Technical
Preparation", 68
th
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition , Paper 26337,
Houston, Texas, 3-6 October, 1993.
17. Millheim, K.K.: Slim Hole Drilling Technology Past ,Present , Future, SPE
PetroVietnam 95,Paper 30151, Ho Chi Minh City, SR. Vietnam, 1-3 March 1995.
72

18. Murray, P.J. and Spicer, P.J., Jantzen, R.E., Syrstad, S.O., and Taylor, M.R. :
Slimhole Exploration: A case for Partnership in the Nineties, SPE/IADC Drilling
Conference, Paper 25724, Amsterdam , 23-25 February 1993.
19. Hamouda, A.A.: Production Technology, Course Compendium, University of
Stavanger, Jan., 2008.
20. :The Effect of Temperature and Pressure on the Viscosity of Oil-Base Muds,, Paper
4974 (Journal of Petroleum Technology).
21. Gabolde, G. and Nguyen, N.: Drilling Data Handbook, 7
th
edition, Institut Francais
du Petrole Publication, 1999, (ISBN 2-7108-0756-4).
22. American Petroleum Institute: API Bulletin 5C3, 6
th
edition, Oct. 1994,page 1-10
23. Advance Well Technology Group 1 project: Collapse of Round Pipes, Department
of Petroleum Engineering,fig. 1, Oct. 2008.
24. J. Shaughnessy and W. Daugherty: More Ultradeepwater Drilling Problems, paper
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Netherlands,20-22 February, 2007.
25. BakerHughes INTEQ: Drilling Fluids and Hydraulics.
26. Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary
















73

Appendix A
DEEPWATER RISER MARGIN WITHOUT SAFETY GRADIENT

air depth Da 30,00 MW =
p
gD
a
+ (
p

sw
)gD
w

air gradient pa 0,010
seawater
gradient psw 1,035
pressure=
hx0.0981xs.g

pore gradient pp 1,130

Gravity g 9,810


#
Dw
(m)
riser margin, MW
(bar)

1 0 3,33

2 200 5,19

3 400 7,05

4 600 8,92

5 800 10,78

6 1000 12,65

7 1200 14,51

8 1400 16,37

9 1600 18,24

10 1800 20,10

11 2000 21,96

12 2200 23,83

13 2400 25,69

14 2600 27,56

15 2800 29,42

16 3000 31,28










74



Appendix B
DEEPWATER RISER MARGIN WITH SAFETY GRADIENT

MW = (
p
g+SG)D
a
+(
p
g+SG
sw
g )D
w
+ SGD
sb



Assume

safety gradient SG 0,05

seabed depth Dsb 5000



# Dw (m) riser margin, MW (bar)

1 0 28,00

2 200 30,84

3 400 33,69

4 600 36,53

5 800 39,38

6 1000 42,22

7 1200 45,07

8 1400 47,91

9 1600 50,76

10 1800 53,60

11 2000 56,45

12 2200 59,29

13 2400 62,14

14 2600 64,98

15 2800 67,83

16 3000 70,67








75


Appendix C
DEEPWATER RISER MARGIN FOR DEPTH DEPENDENT PORE PRESSURE

MW =
sw
g D
a
+ (
p
/ D
o
)D
sb
g D
a
+ (
p
/ D
o
)D
sb
gD
w



air depth Da 30,00

air gradient pa 0,010

seawater gradient psw 1,035

pore gradient pp 1,130


let maximum seabed depth be 5000m

Seabed depth for 0.1sg porepressure increase= Do 1000m

pore pressure increase for every 1000m= pg 0.1sg



riser margin, MW (bar)
#
Dw
(m) Dsb= 1000 Dsb= 2000 Dsb= 3000 Dsb= 4000
Dsb=
5000
1 0 3,340305 3,634605 3,928905 4,223205 4,517505
2 200 5,302305 7,558605 9,814905 12,07121 14,32751
3 400 7,264305 11,482605 15,70091 19,91921 24,13751
4 600 9,226305 15,406605 21,58691 27,76721 33,94751
5 800 11,188305 19,330605 27,47291 35,61521 43,75751
6 1000 13,150305 23,254605 33,35891 43,46321 53,56751
7 1200 15,112305 27,178605 39,24491 51,31121 63,37751
8 1400 17,074305 31,102605 45,13091 59,15921 73,18751
9 1600 19,036305 35,026605 51,01691 67,00721 82,99751
10 1800 20,998305 38,950605 56,90291 74,85521 92,80751
11 2000 22,960305 42,874605 62,78891 82,70321 102,6175
12 2200 24,922305 46,798605 68,67491 90,55121 112,4275
13 2400 26,884305 50,722605 74,56091 98,39921 122,2375
14 2600 28,846305 54,646605 80,44691 106,2472 132,0475
15 2800 30,808305 58,570605 86,33291 114,0952 141,8575
16 3000 32,770305 62,494605 92,21891 121,9432 151,6675





76


Appendix D
PORE PRESSURE VARIANCE PLOT AGAINST DEPTH OF SEABED


For a chosen water depth, 2000m, we have

Pp =
sw
g D
w
+
sw
gD
sb
+ (
p
/ D
o
)gD
2
sb



# Dsb (m) Pp

1 0 203,07

2 1000 314,41

3 2000 445,37

4 3000 595,96

5 4000 766,16

6 5000 955,98

7 6000 1165,43

8 7000 1394,49

9 8000 1643,18

10 9000 1911,48

11 10000 2199,40

12 11000 2506,95

13 12000 2834,11

14 13000 3180,89

15 14000 3547,30

16 15000 3933,32

17 16000 4338,96

18 17000 4764,23

19 18000 5209,11

20 19000 5673,61

21 20000 6157,74

22 21000 6661,48

23 22000 7184,84






77


Appendix E




=Pwl




water gradient = 1.035s.g





water gradient =1.035s.g


h= Dw
water
depth



Hydrostatic pressure due to water column for empty riser column, Pwl(bar) @

# h (m) m=1.10s.g m=1.30s.g w=1.50s.g m=1.70s.g m=1.90s.g m=2.10s.g m=2.30s.g m=2.50s.g
1 500 3,00 10,35 15,74 19,86 23,11 25,75 27,92 29,75
2 1000 6,00 20,70 31,48 39,72 46,22 51,49 55,84 59,50
3 1500 9,00 31,05 47,21 59,58 69,34 77,24 83,77 89,25
4 2000 12,00 41,39 62,95 79,44 92,45 102,98 111,69 119,00
5 2500 15,00 51,74 78,69 99,29 115,56 128,73 139,61 148,75
6 3000 18,00 62,09 94,43 119,15 138,67 154,48 167,53 178,50
7 3500 21,00 72,44 110,16 139,01 161,79 180,22 195,45 208,25
8 4000 24,00 82,79 125,90 158,87 184,90 205,97 223,37 237,99
9 4500 27,00 93,14 141,64 178,73 208,01 231,71 251,30 267,74
10 5000 30,00 103,49 157,38 198,59 231,12 257,46 279,22 297,49
11 5500 33,00 113,83 173,11 218,45 254,23 283,21 307,14 327,24
12 6000 36,00 124,18 188,85 238,31 277,35 308,95 335,06 356,99



( )
m
w m
w
l
w
gh p

=
3
/ 1035 m kg
w
=
3
/ 1300 m kg
m
=