TEFL PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT Nevertheless, it's fair to say that English is a

INSTITUTE relatively easy language to learn,

understand and speak when compared to
1.1. The English Language: Some Key very complex languages such as Arabic,
Characteristics Cantonese, Mandarin, Korean and
Let’s explore some key characteristics of the Japanese.
English language.
Latin alphabet
Why would you want to know and The English language uses the Latin
understand some characteristics of the alphabet. It is the most universal, short and
English language? Well, we imagine it's straightforward alphabet (only the Greek
quite helpful and useful to know, but there alphabet is shorter and simpler). Also, in
are other reasons. English, the Latin alphabet presents its
cleanest form as a true alphabet with only
For example, a native-Vietnamese teacher 26 basic letters.
colleague may ask: What is special about
the English language? You need to try and Its simple inflection
answer this question. Inflection is the name for the extra letters
added to nouns, verbs and adjectives in
Your colleagues-to-be in some countries their different grammatical forms, e.g., cat,
may view you as an expert and may think cats; eat, eats; big, bigger.
you know everything about the English
language. Again, this type of question may English is considered to be a weakly
come up in an advanced class. inflected language when compared to, say,
French or Russian. Its nouns have only
We have been in this situation, and it could traces of inflection (plurals, the pronouns),
happen to you. So, absorb this. It will and its regular verbs have only four forms,
enhance your knowledge, and it will get you e.g., look, looks, looked, looking.
out of a possible tricky situation.
Even for irregular verbs, there is almost no
However, there is also another critical variation in person (except the 3rd person
reason. There will likely be differences in singular in the present tense, e.g., I eat, you
language structures in the native/first eat, she eats). The English language can
language of the learners you will be indicate the relationship of words in a
teaching, compared to your native-English sentence with only the minimum of change
language. in their structure. There are other languages
which do this, but this is a strong
You'll have grasped the importance of this characteristic of English.
already if you have studied a foreign
language at school or university. Or if you Receptiveness
are a frequent traveller who likes to pick up A significant feature of the English language
a bit of the native language. is its receptiveness to accepting and
adopting words from other languages. Here
Specific Characteristics are a few examples:
Here are some specific characteristics of the
English Language: From Spanish:
- Alligator: from el lagarto meaning the lizard
Fairly easy to learn - Cargo: from the verb cargar, meaning to
English is one of the easiest and simplest load
natural languages in the world.
From Indian:
Of course, it's all relative. It depends on the - Bungalow: from the Hindi word bangla, a
learner's ability and previous language type of cottage built for early European
learning experiences settlers in Bengal.
- Jungle: from Hindi jangal, a desert, forest,
wasteland, uncultivated ground Articles (a, an, the)
The article system is another feature of
From Chinese: English grammar that causes some students
- Ketchup: from the Hokkien Chinese term enormous difficulties; mainly, of course,
kê-tsiap, a sauce made from fermented fish. those whose native language does not use
Europeans later added tomato as an articles.
ingredient.
- Gung ho: it means to show enthusiasm. Phrasal verbs
From a Chinese word, meaning work A phrasal verb is an idiomatic phrase
together. consisting of a verb and another item,
typically either an adverb, as in break down,
You can find out the derivation of many or a preposition, for example, see to, or a
common English words at combination of both, such as look down on.
https://www.etymonline.com. (An item is the word for small self-contained
pieces of language which you can teach or
English has accepted and adopted words practise in a lesson.)
from Asian, European, African, Indian,
Japanese, Chinese and other languages. These phrasal verbs are a VERY significant
Also, English has accepted words from feature of the English language and can
classical languages like Latin, Greek, and cause severe difficulties for learners.
Sanskrit. Sentences such as I put it down to the
weather, or I made it up with my sister, are
usually gobbledegook to beginner non-
Its (generally) fixed word order native-English speakers.
Another strong characteristic of the English
language is its (typically) fixed word order. Unfortunately for the English language
Most English sentences (clauses) conform learner, phrasal verbs are extremely
to the SVO word order. This means that the common in colloquial (informal, every day,
Subject comes before the Verb, which conversational) English language. We’ll
comes before the Object. Examples: explore these in Module 5.

I (S) bought (V) a new top (O). Non-tonal

English is a non-tonal language.
She (S) doesn't like (V) spiders (O).
In tone languages, e.g., Chinese and
Why did you (S) do (V) that (O)? Vietnamese, pitch (the degree of highness
or lowness of a tone) is used to distinguish
There are other word orders in English, but word meaning. So, a word said with high
the SVO order is by far the most used, pitch may have a different meaning from the
making it easy for learners to grasp. same word said with a low pitch.

Pronunciation In English, changes in pitch are used to

The pronunciation of English words such as emphasise or express emotion, not to give a
this, thin, clothes, thirteenth, months different word meaning to the sound. It is not
inevitably causes problems for learners who surprising that native speakers of tone
do not need to use the tip of the tongue to languages often have strong accents when
produce words in their language. speaking English.

Continuous tense Sound and Spelling

Many languages do not have a continuous A final feature of English that causes
tense form, so English learners may make problems for non-native learners (and some
mistakes such as: I had a bath when the native-English speakers) is the lack of a
phone rang; instead of I was having a bath connection between word sound and word
when the phone rang. spelling.
 The students are studying an ESL (English
It is difficult for non-native learners of as a Second Language) course.
English to predict the pronunciation of
English words they first come across in CLT (Communicative Language Teaching)
writing or the spelling of many English words is an umbrella term for learner-centred,
they first hear. authentic and meaningful language
acquisition principles that inform the most
The critical point is that this happens with widely practised language teaching
some of the most common words in the approach used in second language learning
language: classrooms today. It is also referred to as
Words containing ough: thought, although, the Communicative Approach. Our course
rough, will follow this approach.
Words which have different spellings but
they sound the same: ate, eight; hear, here; L1 is the term used for a student’s first
their, there language (the student’s native language). If
Words with silent letters, not pronounced: someone asks you if you allow L1 in the
know, could, hour classroom, they are asking if you allow your
Words that look the same but must be students to use their native language in
pronounced differently: read (present tense), class.
read (past tense); present (a gift), present
(to give to); close (near); close (to shut) L2 stands for the second language a student
1.2. Frequently Used Acronyms in the TEFL is learning. Your students’ L2 will be
Domain English.
The TEFL domain is full of acronyms. We
have listed some of the frequently-used PPP (Presentation, Practice, Production) is
acronyms. Try and get to grips with these a widely used model of classroom teaching
through time. for lesson planning and lesson delivery.
Some learning Providers call this the I do,
ELT (English Language Teaching) has quite We do, You do model of teaching. However,
recently come into use as an umbrella term we will adhere to our 5 Step Lesson Plan
which aims to include everything in the model, which will keep you firmly on track all
Teaching English field. of the time.

TEFL (Teaching English as a Foreign STT (Student Talking Time) is the amount of
Language) and EFL (English as a Foreign time that students spend talking in class
Language) are perhaps the most common (ideally as much as possible).
terms.
TTT (Teacher Talking Time) is the amount
TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of of time you spend talking during a class
Other Languages) is another umbrella term, (ideally as little as possible and much less
similar to ELT. In the USA, Canada and than STT).
Australia, the term TESOL (Teaching
English to Speakers of Other Languages) is There are more acronyms, but these will do
much more widely used than TEFL, but the us fine for the moment!
concept is much the same.
Later, we’ll look at another small group of
TEYL (Teaching English to Young Learners) acronyms, representing different types of
is encompassed within TEFL and is geared, EFL courses that students may be taking
as you would imagine, to teaching young and the specific examinations that some
learners of English. students may be preparing for.

TESL (Teaching English as a Second This course will prepare you to help
Language) is teaching immigrants in students to enhance their English Language
English-speaking countries, though this area level per se.
is also, confusingly, referred to as TESOL.
But it will also prepare you to help those The learning consists mainly of the accurate
students who are aiming for a specific EFL imitation and memorisation by students of
qualification, often for entry to university sentences or dialogues modelled by the
studies, for migration purposes or work teacher.
reasons. All you will need to do is familiarise Language is a matter of speech, and so
yourself with the specific syllabus relating to classroom work concentrates almost
the examination. exclusively on speaking.

1.3. A Very Brief History of Some ELT From the 1970s onwards, other approaches
Methods arose, principally to counter the mimic-
Down through the years, there has been a heavy, pattern-based teaching approaches
wide range of approaches used to teach of the previous decades. These include
EFL. We will summarise some of these Total Physical Response (which we'll touch
‘traditional' approaches. We'll leave it to you on in a later Module), The Silent Way,
to decide if you want to explore these in Suggestopedia, and the Natural Approach.
greater depth. All these approaches have had different
degrees of success.
The Grammar-Translation Approach
Remember this! It would be silly not to
Developed in the 19th century to teach recognise that all of these approaches have
Latin and Greek. included some teaching elements that have
The main aim of studying a foreign been useful at some time or another for
language is to be able to read its literature. teaching. Beware of anyone who dismisses
The emphasis in class is on reading/writing, all these approaches. It's maybe because
not on listening/speaking. they do not know enough about them!
The foreign language is explained and
discussed in the students’ native language. When reflecting on teaching approaches,
Most lesson time is spent translating written one thing that should spark our interest is
sentences/texts, which have little when a profound and notable transformation
resemblance to spoken communication, takes place – a sea change or paradigm
from/into the foreign language. shift (a shift from one way of thinking to
Despite having little to no theoretical basis another).
underpinning it, this method is still used in
some institutions today. One such sea change in the approach to
teaching took place in the 1970s and 1980s,
The Direct Approach and it is still gathering strength at this
moment. This period saw the introduction of
Emerged in the late 19th century. what is commonly known as Communicative
It is based on the principle that a learner can Language Teaching (CLT) or the
learn a second language much like she Communicative Approach.
learns a first language.
Language is acquired ‘directly', and We'll come to this in a few moments.
exclusively, in the target language, e.g.,
English, via active demonstration by the 1.4. Teaching Approaches, Methods, and
teacher. Techniques
The students' native language and all 1.4.1. Approaches, Methods, Techniques
translation are excluded from the classroom.

Audiolingual Approach We will view an ‘approach’ as a way of

looking at teaching and learning. Underlying
Language learning is all to do with habit any language teaching approach is a
formation. Language classes should, theoretical view of what language is, and of
therefore, concentrate on the formation of how it can be learned. It contains a set of
speech habits by using a series of theoretical principles about teaching with
mechanical and repetitive oral drills. practical applications.
 somewhat broader concept and consists of
An approach gives rise to ‘methods', the words, phrases, collocations, chunks, and
way of teaching language items, e.g., via formulaic grammatical expressions. For
classroom activities or techniques. example, If I were you …; Do you mind if ...;
I’d like to …, etc.
A method is how a language is taught. A
method is made up of a set of techniques These words, chunks, and patterns are now
that usually reflect a particular view of often called lexical items.
language teaching.
Instruction focuses on fixed expressions that
Example: frequently occur in dialogues.

The Communicative Approach is the most We’ll explore lexis further in Module 5.
popular and most current approach to
language teaching. Task-based teaching is Task-based method
a methodology associated with teaching the In Task-Based Learning, the learning is
Communicative Approach. Other methods designed around a series of authentic tasks
are also associated with teaching the which give learners experience of using the
Communicative Approach. language in ways in which it is used in the
'real world' outside the classroom. In this
However, to confuse matters, some method, there is no predetermined language
methods have also been labelled syllabus, and the aim is for learners to learn
‘approaches’. from the tasks the language they need to
participate successfully in them.
1.4.2. Most Recent Methods/Techniques
Here is a list of some of the most popular A task could be working out the itinerary of a
methods of teaching ELT: journey from a timetable or requesting
information from a travel agent.
Presentation, Practice and Production (PPP)
In this method, the teacher presents the new Principled Eclecticism Method
language item for learning, using a situation This method involves the use of a variety of
(presentation stage). Then the teacher gets language learning activities, a mix of all the
the learners to practise the new language different activities above and other teaching
via exercises or other controlled practice methods. Proponents (supporters) of this
activities (practice stage). And then he asks method say that there are weaknesses as
learners to use or produce the same well as strengths in other methods. Thus, it's
language in a communicative and less best to use a mix of methods to ensure the
controlled way (production stage). learning does not become mechanical and,
therefore, the learners will benefit from
Audiolingual Method (mentioned above) several methods.
In this method, language learning is all
about habit formation, mainly by repetitive Communicative Method (often termed the
drilling. Error correction is considered 'Communicative Approach')
essential to prevent bad habits. In this method, the focus is on authentic,
meaningful communication, not structure.
The Audiolingual Method is largely Students accomplish tasks using language.
discredited in academic circles, though in They do not study the language, as
some places it is still practised. happened in the past.
The syllabus focuses on functions (e.g.,
Lexical method (often termed 'lexical asking permission, asking directions, etc.),
approach') not grammatical/structural development
The word lexis is used to signify both the (tenses, conditionals, etc.).
teaching of vocabulary and areas of Fluency and communication are more
grammar together. Vocabulary is typically important than accuracy.
seen as individual words, whereas lexis is a
The class becomes more student-centred The main principles of the Communicative
(or learner-centred). Students accomplish Approach you will be using can be
their tasks with other students, while the summarised as follows:
teacher plays more of a facilitator/observer
role. Communication
Classroom work aims to help students reach
This is the method/approach we will be an effective standard of communication
majoring on throughout the course. outside the classroom.
Accuracy in grammar and pronunciation is
important, but it is less important than the
1.5. Total Focus on Communicative ability to communicate meaningfully in real
Language Teaching (CLT) life (even if there are some mistakes in the
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), language).
also known as the Communicative There is a strong emphasis on listening and
Approach, is the approach we will major on speaking, but lessons can include reading
throughout the course. and writing. This depends on school policy
and learner needs.
It's not easy to define CLT in a few words as The principal achievement goal of
many teachers and linguists stress different Communicative Language Teaching is to
elements within this approach. However, it's enable students to communicate knowledge
safe to say that this definition from Richards and opinions surrounding a topic in the
and Schmidt (2002) will serve us well: target language (English). Remember this:
The target language is the language
It is an approach which emphasises that the learners are studying (i.e. English).
goal of language learning is communicative Attempts to communicate are encouraged
competence. Communicative competence from the very first lesson.
aims to make meaningful communication Practice activities are put in communicative
and language use the focus of all classroom contexts, wherever possible. So, there is
activities. frequent use of role-plays, discussions, etc.
at all levels.
CLT is a broad term for learner-centred,
authentic and meaningful language Meaning and use
acquisition principles that inform the most Language learning is mainly about learning
widely practised language teaching to communicate effectively. So, the primary
approach used in second language learning emphasis is always on the meaning and use
classrooms today. of language items.

That’s quite a bit to take on board. For the Context

moment, all you need to grasp is that in the New language items are presented and
1970s and 1980s there was a paradigm shift practised in realistic and meaningful
in the approach to teaching EFL. contexts which show their meaning and use.
It is the context which gives language
This shift witnessed a move away from and meaning.
reaction against what are often now termed
as ‘traditional' approaches, e.g., the Simply put, the language necessary for
Grammar-Translation Approach. ‘Traditional' buying a train ticket would be set in a train
isn't an easy word to describe precisely, but station (the context).
for our purposes here we will use it to
describe the teaching approaches which Fluency
were commonly in use before the It is assumed that the ability to communicate
Communicative Approach reared its head in effectively in a language will result from a
the 1970s and 1980s. combination of formal learning of rules and
holistic acquisition.

Creativity
Language learning and acquisition are
creative processes, and they involve trial Individual learning preferences
and error on the part of the student. The Your students will have different learning
learner should be encouraged to try out needs and different learning preferences.
language items in a supportive classroom You will, therefore, need to use whichever
environment and, with your help, he will techniques you feel will help your students
learn from his mistakes. most. That is, on occasion, you may discuss
grammar rules if this helps your students.
Functions Remember this: grammar is never taught in
To do this, the underlying premise is that isolation unless it is absolutely necessary.
students need to be able to go beyond the
learning of the grammatical structure of a Real English
language and into the functions (e.g. buying In some parts of lessons, students will be
a bus ticket; ordering a meal; applying for a exposed to fine-tuned input (language at or
job) or areas and ways such utterances are within the students' knowledge). In other
used in communication in the real world. parts, they will be exposed to rough-tuned
input (language which is a little above the
Form students' level). Even in Beginner classes,
Linguistic competence is only part of the students will be exposed to examples of
whole picture of language acquisition. authentic English: newspaper articles, etc.
Students must be able to choose the most
appropriate form for a situation, such as Occasional structured drills
when to use could you or would you as an Remember this! Drilling means repetition. It
issue of register or politeness. involves your learners, either individually or
Register is a variety of a language or a level as a group, repeating whatever you say.
of usage, as determined by the degree of Drilling is a way for your students to practise
formality and choice of vocabulary, new language, e.g., vocabulary,
pronunciation, and syntax (grammar), grammatical structures, and pronunciation,
according to the communicative purpose, in a controlled setting.
social context, and standing of the user. For Oral drilling and classroom-type exercises
example, we generally use a different may occupy a small proportion of lesson
variety of language when we speak to our time.
doctor than we do when speaking to our They are ways of helping students with
friends (unless the doctor is a close friend). pronunciation, grammar patterns, etc
Learners must also recognise that a variety
of forms can be used to achieve the same In summary, to obtain communicative
end or function such as It may rain and competence via the communicative
Perhaps it will rain, each of which achieves approach, lessons need integration of the
the same communicative purpose which is following:
the possibility of rain.
Situation/context: The situations one
Teacher role encounters in life, e.g., meeting a new
This is very important. friend; going to the doctor. A meaningful
context is set.
Your emphasis must always be on
communication in English. Your role is to Functions: Functions are speech acts that
facilitate, help, and advise your students and students are likely to face, e.g., seeking
also to be a language resource. The core advice, requesting information, expressing
principle is that you do not ‘teach' (as in the gratitude, complimenting someone,
past) but instead help and facilitate your expressing requests, asking permission,
students to learn or acquire. complaining, etc.
The classroom is student-centred, with
many activities taking place in pairs or Form: Socio-linguistic-language used in a
groups, monitored and unobtrusively social setting, social niceties, social
facilitated by you. situations, formal v informal expressions,
etc. You will integrate socio-linguistic 1.6.1. L1 and L2 and Second Language
competence (such as acceptable and Acquisition (SLA)
unacceptable ways to complain) as well as
strategies and methods to overcome Remember! Repetition is an excellent
communication breakdown when it happens. teaching attribute so, now and again, we’ll
remind you of a few things mentioned earlier
Meaning and use: These will be linked to the in the course.
form
As mentioned before, L1 is the label given to
Grammar: Always taught in context. It is a person’s first language (the student’s
linked to materials related to conversation, native language, e.g., Mandarin). When this
reading, listening, and writing. It is never person learns a second or foreign language
taught in isolation unless it is necessary. (e.g., English), this additional language is
labelled the person’s L2 language.
Notions: Days of the week, dates, months,
should be introduced in context. So, all the students you will be teaching will
have a non-English language, e.g.,
Mandarin, as their native/first language (L1)
For example, in lesson planning, you will and you will be teaching them English which
determine how to adapt these competencies will be a second or foreign language for
to student needs. To do this, you could: them, known as L2.

Choose a situation such as a visit to a Now, let’s explore the critical area of Second
doctor. Language Acquisition (SLA). SLA is the
Present the language functions such as term used for learners learning a second
giving formal greetings, requesting advice, language after their first language is already
giving advice, demonstrating gratitude. established.
Present the form related to the situation and
its meaning and usage. There's no doubt that L1 learners learn
Choose the necessary grammar and differently from L2 learners. It's vital that you
vocabulary to complete the exercise. reflect on the key differences.
Construct and choose communicative
activities for the students to practise and You can probably work out for yourself the
produce. key points relating to L1 learning as you
have been an L1 learner. Let's reflect on
So, this integrated communicative approach this.
is the one we will focus on. It’s an exciting
approach where skills are integrated. Each Time to reflect
of your lessons may include a bit of Can you identify any differences there may
speaking, listening, writing and reading, be between an L1 learner learning her
where possible. native language and an L2 learner learning
his second or foreign language? Try and do
The achievement goal at all times is to this without looking at the next Section.
enable students to communicate knowledge
and opinions surrounding a topic in the Take some time out to make a drink or
target language - English. There’ll be very sandwich and reflect on this.
few standalone grammar lessons, but you
will still need a sound grasp of basic Then you can return to check your thoughts
grammar so that you can handle queries with what we think below.
and questions seamlessly.
Well done!
We’ll be tackling bits of grammar in various
parts of the course. It’s not too stretching! L1 learner
Generally immersed in language at all times regularly when you are on the job. They are
from birth not in any specific order.
Wants, needs and is motivated to
communicate by signs or baby words, with Degree of intellect
meaning, e.g., I want some food! Some L2 learners are just brighter than
Adults often praise and encourage the others. If they are motivated to learn, they
child's use of language, spurring her on to will achieve higher levels of learning.
more significant linguistic achievements
Gets a lot of attention to aid the learning Age
Learns by playing and experimenting with So many studies have been carried out to
the new language, and lots of time to do so prove or disprove that age is or isn’t a key
Not often corrected influence on learning. None have achieved
their purpose successfully. When we
compare SLA with, say, learners at age 6,
Let's now consider the L2 learner's learning 16, 26, or 56, there are so many other
situation variables involved. How can the acquisition
of a 6- year-old with an open mind and no
L2 learner cares in the world be compared to the
acquisition of a 26-yearold who is learning
Not intensively exposed to the L2 part-time and has lots of concerns?
Most often exposed by being taught the
English language in the classroom; often There is no definitive answer.
limited exposure outside the classroom
May not be motivated, but could be, though However, our experience tells us that,
Often only learns through interaction with generally, the older a person becomes, the
you and his classmates – may not be more difficult it is to acquire a second
motivated to try out functions outside of the language. Even although that older person
classroom. has a broader view of the world and more
Often learns by using language in a extensive experiences, he also has many
controlled setting with you and other more things requiring his focus and
students and often with lots of controlled concentration.
practice activities
Teachers vary in the amount they praise or Learning preferences
encourage L2 learners – some teachers If the teaching is not carried out in line with
may not do this effectively, certainly not as the student's preferred learning preference,
effectively and frequently as a e.g., lots of visuals or lots of audio or lots of
mother/father/caregiver would do in an L1 discussions and activities, etc., learning may
situation. When you see good, specific very well be curtailed. We will explore
examples of positive behaviour, praise your ‘learning preferences’ in-depth in Module 3.
students.
The learner typically receives limited Motivation
attention from the teacher. Whether this is intrinsic (learning for its own
Many teachers regularly correct learners for sake) or extrinsic (for some goal or reward,
accuracy; this can be demotivating for some e.g., securing a new job), every student has
learners. varying degrees of motivation. It's also
challenging to keep students motivated all of
So, there are some significant differences in the time.
L1 and L2 learning. Remember these and
another piece will be in place in your ‘Good Remember this! The whole person comes to
Teacher Jigsaw'. school, be it your students or you. Students
have their ups and downs. They come with
1.7. Key Influences on L2 Learning all their personal baggage, e.g., worrying
Why do some L2 learners learn faster and about a sick parent/caregiver/child, or upset
better than others? Here are some vital due to a breakdown in some personal
points for you to remember and reflect on relationship. So, the motivated person
yesterday may not be the motivated person Prior learning
today. Help and show empathy wherever Learners may bring to class their
you can. expectations regarding teacher
relationships, teacher behaviour and teacher
And the same applies to you. approaches to learning that prevailed in their
home countries, especially if they had
You may feel a little bit down due to some extensive schooling there.
personal issue. Alternatively, you may have
had just one too many social events the Therefore, some learners from more
nights before. You'll need to make a traditional educational systems may expect
supreme effort not to let these events affect you to behave in a more formal and
your teaching. Your learners need you to be authoritarian fashion during classes. They
constant, i.e., positive, welcoming and full of may be displeased, puzzled, or offended if
life all the time. you use an informal instructional style, such
as using their first names in class or
Language proficiency in L1 allowing the students to move freely around
There's no doubt that a learner who is the room. They may believe that this will
proficient in her L1 language (grammar, affect their learning.
structure, mood, etc.) and understands all of
this, has a great head start when learning an When teaching students, you must try to find
L2. out how they have learned previously and
how they would prefer to learn in your
Awareness of L2 classroom. Simply put, you need to ask
Again, a student will have a great head start them.
on others if she already has an awareness
of the L2, perhaps through living in a bi- Pattern of classroom activity
lingual environment. Some learners may also want you to
maintain a clearly ordered pattern of
Autonomy classroom activity and, perhaps, engage in
Some educators say that students should extensive correction of grammatical form or
play a more active role in designing or pronunciation during all activities rather than
selecting learning experiences in schools. at irregular points in a lesson or not at all.

This approach can encourage students to Failure to conform to these ideals may give
be more interested in school, more some learners the impression of lazy or
motivated to learn, and more likely to take inadequate class preparation on your part.
responsibility for their education.
Your behaviour
That is, students should be given some You, similarly, bring to the classroom your
degree of autonomy. There is no doubt that expectations regarding teacher behaviour.
most learners thrive on autonomy. Studies This includes your views on appropriate
have shown that as learner autonomy behaviour within society in general, as well
increases, so does learner motivation. And, as in the classroom.
thus, so do learning results.
For example, if you come from a culture of
An example of autonomy would be to let self-reliance, are at ease in expressing and
students pick from a list of topics to debate defending personal opinions, and are
instead of being told what to do. interested in personal advancement, you will
likely provide instruction that addresses
Of course, there are those students who shy these goals. You may unconsciously
away from autonomy. These students want attribute these same goals to your students.
the teacher to lead them. However,
generally, the more autonomy there is, the The potential for conflicting expectations
better the learning results will be. and evaluations of behaviour between you
and your learners is evident.
 There are communicative approach
Gender proponents who see pair work and group
Find out whether learners have ever work as the answer to everything. This is not
experienced mixed educational groupings, the case. We need to observe well and
whether they expect male and female consider our students’ preferences, at least
teachers to behave differently, and how for some of the time.
different classroom activities, e.g., role-plays
or dialogue practice, might affect learners Communication styles
adversely because of their native cultural There are patterns of expression and rules
constraints. of interaction that reflect the norms and
values of a culture.
Failure on your part to take this into account
may affect student learning. If you lack understanding of these
communication styles, this could lead to
Female participation confusion, anxiety and conflict – and a
In encouraging women students to speak up reduction in learning. Let’s consider just two
and take an active role in class, you may of these styles.
sometimes encounter reluctance from both
men and women from cultures in which A. Direct Style v Indirect Style
women have historically been constrained
by social roles that do not promote active Direct style
participation in mixed-sex settings.
Here are the key indicators of a direct style
You must reflect on this point continuously. of communication presented by the teacher
and, perhaps, some students in the
Culture: Appropriate topics for learning classroom:
Cultural expectations regarding the nature of
education and what is appropriate to talk Straightforward talking
about may also affect the kinds of topics No beating about the bush – straight and to
students are willing to pursue in class and the point
their motivation to learn. Cultural as well as Directness means there is respect for the
personal sensitivity is vital in knowing if, other person.
when, and how to introduce topics or Avoiding ambiguity
lessons that may be inappropriate (for
some) or complicated. Here are the key indicators of an indirect
style of communication presented by the
Classroom Participation teacher and, perhaps, some students in the
The communicative classroom creates a classroom:
lively, vibrant environment. This is generally
a motivating learning environment for those Indirect style
who enjoy working with others. But not
always. Meaning is conveyed by subtle means,
stories, implication – not getting to the point
What about the student who prefers to work Indirectness means politeness and respect
alone? Verbally expressing ideas and for the other person.
asking questions during class can prove Frequent use of implication – not directness
difficult for students who are unaccustomed
to this form of active and lively pair and
group participation. B. Idea-Focused Style V Person-Focused
Style
And what about the situation where a
student loves to be with the same partner all Idea-focused style
of the time, in a pair? She may not like being
moved into a group. Ideas and person are separate
Open disagreement is acceptable
Disagreement with a person's views is not Using combinations of strategies often has
seen as a personal attack more impact than relying on a single
strategy.
Person-focused style use specific strategies or clusters of
strategies that are linked to particular
Ideas and person are not separate language skills or tasks.
Feelings are important Learners may have created their own
Disagreement is handled very carefully strategies or may have picked up some
Disagreement is an attack on the person strategies from their teachers, their
parents/caregivers or siblings, or their
So, here we have conflicting ways of looking friends. They may also have gained some
at communication. This is a potential boiling useful strategies from a library or internet
pot. Learning will be affected, and your search.
critical task will be to find a balance. It's not
your role to try and change people's cultural There are many different and preferred
ways of working. It is your role to find a strategies that learners may use. The
solution to this. following list is not definitive but it will give
you a good idea of the commonly-used
So, there are lots of ways an L2 student’s types of strategies that some students use.
learning can be influenced. Note that no definitive list of strategies has
been agreed on by language researchers.
1.8. Effective L2 Learning Strategies
Language learning strategies are the Anyhow, you can pass on some of these
conscious steps or behaviours used by ideas to those of your students who have no
language learners to enhance the concrete strategies for learning and
acquisition, storage, retention, recall, and studying.
use of new information.
1. Circumlocution
The more proficient learners use learning
strategies that are appropriate to the This is best explained via an example. The
material, to the task, and their own goals, more proficient learner doesn’t know the
needs, and stage of learning. word ‘nephew’ but she doesn’t give up. So,
she uses different words or phrases to
For example, strategies could be techniques express the intended meaning, e.g. my
such as diaries, think-aloud procedures, brother’s son.
observations, and surveys.
2. Avoidance
More proficient learners appear to use a
broader range of strategies in a significant Avoidance is where a more proficient
number of situations than less skilled learner may learn to avoid talking about
learners. For example, more proficient topics for which she lacks the necessary
learners: vocabulary or other language skills. She
may also come to a halt mid-utterance once
employ appropriate language learning she realises she does not have the
strategies that often result in improved language resources needed to complete her
proficiency or achievement overall or in communication.
specific skill areas.
tend to use strategies that work well 3. Word coinage
together and which are tailored to the
requirements of the language task. These This is the term for more proficient learners
learners can easily explain the strategies creating new words or phrases for words
they use and why they employ them. that they do not know. For example, the
use metacognitive strategies, such as learner doesn’t know the word freezer and
translating and analysing, and other she constructs and uses a new word ice
strategies, such as planning and organising. cabinet instead.
 use a general, empty lexical word or phrase
4. Language switching, also called ‘code to replace it; for example, stuff, thingie.
switching’
9. Using minimal responses
This is where a more proficient learner
doesn’t know a word and uses a word with More proficient learners build up a stock of
the same meaning from her first language, minimal responses, to help them engage.
hoping that her communication partner will
understand. For example: My aunt and Minimal responses are predictable phrases
uncle are coming for Christmas. They will be that conversation participants use to indicate
staying chez nous. understanding, agreement, doubt, and other
responses to what another speaker is
5. Clarification and comprehension checks saying; for example: Oh, I see. Is that so?
That’s good. Oh, sorry. I didn’t catch that.
Some learners are often too shy or
embarrassed to say anything when they do These minimal responses enable a learner
not understand the other speaker. More to concentrate on what the other participant
proficient learners, however, use clarification is saying, without having to plan a reply
and comprehension checks. For example: simultaneously.

For clarification check: 10. Recognising scripts/patterns

opportunities
Do you mean ...?
Could you explain what you mean by ...? More proficient learners understand that
Could you give me an example, please? many communication situations are
For comprehension check: associated with a predictable set of spoken
exchanges. For example, greetings,
Sorry, I don’t understand. compliments, apologies, invitations, and
Sorry, I don’t know what you mean. other functions that are influenced by social
Sorry, I’m not sure I’m following you. and cultural norms often follow scripts or
Note that this appeal for assistance may patterns. For example:
also be done indirectly via a puzzled
expression, raising the eyebrows, etc. Can I help you?

6. Non-verbal strategies Yes, please.

This refers to strategies such as the use of It's the same with exchanges involved in
body language, gestures, mime, facial activities such as obtaining information and
expressions, sound imitation to support or making a purchase. In these scripts, the
replace verbal communication. relationship between a speaker's turn and
the one that follows it can often be
7. Approximation anticipated.

This is where the more proficient learner 11. Fillers and hesitation devices
uses an alternative term which
approximates to the meaning of the target This is where the more proficient learner
word or phrase as closely as possible. For uses fillers or hesitation devices to fill
example, she may say ship instead of (the pauses and to gain a bit of time to think.
more difficult) word yacht.
Fillers:
8. Use of all-purpose words
em …
When the more proficient learner lacks a er …
specific word in a conversation, she may mm …
uh …
As a matter of fact, … the classroom, in different formats, is vital
Well, … for fluency success. As is practising the
Actually, … language in real-life situations with native
To be honest/frank, … speakers.
Hesitation devices/stalling for time to think
14. Self-monitoring
Let’s see, …
The more proficient learner does not just
Wow, that’s a difficult one. rely on teacher comments and the
institution’s assessments to tell her how she
Now, let me think. is doing. She assesses her own capabilities
frequently by taking relevant, external
Now, just a minute. proficiency tests and quizzes. This helps her
to further determine what areas she needs
That’s a good question. to develop.

I’ll have to think about that for a moment. She knows that another way to assess her
own skills without a proficiency test/quiz is to
What I’m trying to say is… think through what she’s most comfortable
with. If she had to communicate with a
How shall I put it? native speaker, would she feel more
comfortable with:
How can I best explain this?
Listening to the native speaker, then
Let’s put it this way. responding in speech
Speaking with the native speaker and
Where should I start? responding in speech
Writing to the native speaker
12. SMART goals Reading about the native speaker and then
responding to some questions
More proficient learners know how to set It’s likely that the option she chooses is her
SMART goals: strongest skill and, thus, she knows what
other skills she needs to focus on.
Specific
Measurable 15. The four skills (listening, speaking,
Achievable writing, reading)
Realistic
Time-based Finally, with regard to the four skills, the
Smart goals provide the benchmark, focus more proficient learner will likely
and plan for surging ahead. The more demonstrate a cocktail of some of these
proficient learner also knows and strategies:
understands what it is to be too ambitious. It
will take lots of practice and lots of time 1. Listening: Comprehension gains from
before she can consider how fluent she is. strategies of elaboration, inference,
But it will all be worth it in the end. selective attention, and self-monitoring.

13. Using authentic material and practising 2. Speaking: Speaking demands strategies
in authentic situations such as risk-taking, paraphrasing,
circumlocution, self-monitoring, and self-
The more proficient learner listens to the evaluation.
teacher’s advice that the best route to
fluency is through consuming lots of 3. Writing: Writing benefits from the learning
authentic material. What is learned and strategies of planning, self-monitoring,
practised in the classroom is not enough. deduction, and substitution.
Consuming lots of authentic material outside
4. Reading: Comprehension benefits from
using strategies like reading aloud,
guessing, deduction, and summarising.

Help your students to develop and enhance

their learning strategies so that, eventually,
they will become independent learners with
the ability to use robust strategies in a
variety of contexts.

That was a breeze! Well done! You have

learned a lot already. Every piece of
information above will help you become a
competent and effective EFL teacher. And
there’s lots more to come!

Assessment
Time for a break. Then, come back and
have a go at Quiz 1.

It’s not difficult. Good luck!

After that, we’ll move on to Module 2, where

we will focus in-depth on what it takes to
become a competent EFL Teacher. Absorb
everything!