Science in Action 9-1-192

AUTHORS
Kirsten Mah
Josef Martha
Linda McClelland
James Milross
Joanne Neal
Lionel Sandner
ISBN 0-201-72963-6
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Addison Kirsten Mah
Wesley Calgary Roman Catholic School District No. 1, Calgary, Alberta
Science
Josef Martha
Authors
Northern Gateway Regional Division 10, Onoway, Alberta
Kyn Barker
Carey Booth Linda McClelland
Steve Campbell Formerly Calgary Board of Education, Calgary, Alberta
George Cormie James Milross
Dean Eichorn
Fraser Heights School, Surrey, British Columbia
Aubry Farenholtz
Gary Greenland Joanne Neal, Ph.D.
Douglas Hayhoe Faculty of Education, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta
Doug Herridge
Lionel Sandner
Kathy Kubota-Zarivnij
Saanich School Board, Saanich, British Columbia
Kirsten Mah
Josef Martha
Linda McClelland
James Milross
Joanne Neal, Ph.D.
Shelagh Reading
Lionel Sandner
Beverley Williams
Toronto
01_GR9_FRONTMATTER _R Fin 7/31/02 9:13 AM Page ii
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CONTENTS
Unit A: Biological Diversity 2 2.0 As species reproduce, characteristics
are passed from parents to offspring. 26
Exploring 4
Preserving Biological Diversity 4 2.1 A Closer Look at Variation 27
Skill Practice: Exploring Wolf Give It a Try: Observing Variation in

Population Trends 6 Human Characteristics 27
Focus On: Social and Environmental Heritable and Non-heritable
Context 7 Characteristics 28
Discrete and Continuous Variations 28
1.0 Biological diversity is reflected in the variety
Variation and the Environment 28
of life on Earth. 8
Give It a Try: Is It Discrete or
1.1 Examining Diversity 9 Continuous? 29
Check and Reflect 29
Understanding Biological Diversity 9
Give It a Try: Trekking Through 2.2 Asexual and Sexual Reproduction 30
Alberta’s Landscape 10 Asexual Reproduction 30
Classifying Biological Diversity 12 Skill Practice: Representing Asexual
Skill Practice: Representing Data 13 Reproduction 31
Activity A-1 Problem Solving: Sexual Reproduction 32
Representing Biological Diversity 14 Activity A-3 Inquiry: Investigating
Biological Diversity Under the Sea 15 Flower Reproductive Structures 34
Check and Reflect 15 Advantages and Disadvantages of
1.2 Interdependence 16 Asexual and Sexual Reproduction 35
Organisms That Reproduce Both Sexually
Symbiosis 17
and Asexually 35
QuickLAB: Searching for Symbiosis 18
Niches 18
Check and Reflect 19 Section Review: Assess Your Learning 37
1.3 Variation Within Species 20 Focus On: Social and Environmental Context 37
Variability and Survival 20

Skill Practice: Measuring Variation
in the Human Hand 21
Activity A-2 Inquiry: Protective
Coloration and Survival 22
Natural Selection 24
Section Review: Assess Your Learning 25
Focus On: Social and Environmental Context 25
iv
3.0 DNA is the inherited material responsible 4.0 Human activity affects biological diversity. 56
for variation. 38
4.1 Reduction of Biological Diversity 57
3.1 DNA—Transmitter of Genetic Code 39 Give It a Try: Choices in Our World 57
Give It a Try: Superdogs 39 Extinction and Extirpation 58
DNA 40 Natural Causes of Extinction
Chromosomes 41 and Extirpation 59
Activity A-4 Decision Making: Human Causes of Extinctions and
Useful Genes? 42 Extirpations 61
Genes 43 Activity A-6 Decision Making:
Activity A-5 Problem Solving: Showing Balancing Act 63
the Relationships 44 Activity A-7 Experiment on your own:
Check and Reflect 45 Changes in Biological Diversity 64
Effects of Extinctions and Extirpations 65
3.2 Cell Division 46
Cell Division and Asexual Reproduction 46
Cell Division and Sexual 4.2 Selecting Desirable Traits 66
Reproduction in Plants and Animals 46 Biotechnology 67

Give It a Try: Who Has What Number? 48 Biotechnology and Society 68
Check and Reflect 48 Activity A-8 Decision Making:
Careers and Profiles 49 Salmon Farming and Variability 70
3.3 Patterns of Inheritance 50
Purebred Versus Hybrid 50 4.3 Reducing Our Impact on Biological Diversity 72
Dominant Traits 50 Strategies to Conserve Biological Diversity 72

Recessive Traits 51 Activity A-9 Decision Making:
Give It a Try: Exploring Genetic Saving the Whooping Crane 77
Possibilities 52 Give It a Try: Do You Affect
Other Patterns of Inheritance 53 Biological Diversity? 78
Check and Reflect 54 Check and Reflect 78
Section Review: Assess Your Learning 55 Section Review: Assess Your Learning 79
Focus On: Social and Environment Context 55 Focus On: Social and Environment Context 79
Unit Summary 80
Science World Case Study: Zoos and

Biological Diversity 81
Project: Maintaining Local Biological Diversity 82
Unit Review 84
v
Unit B: Matter and Chemical Change 88 2.0 An understanding of the nature of matter
has developed through observations
Exploring 90 over time. 112
Aluminum Foam 90
QuickLAB: Foam in a Cup 91 2.1 Evolving Theories of Matter 113
Focus On: The Nature of Science 91 Stone Age Chemists 113

Give It a Try: Creating a Time Line
1.0 Matter can be described and organized
Story of Matter 113
by its physical and chemical properties. 92
Early Interest in Metals and Liquid
1.1 Safety in the Science Class 93 Matter 114
Emerging Ideas About the
Skill Practice: Safety in the Science Lab 93
Composition of Matter 116
Safety Hazard Symbols 94
From Alchemy to Chemistry 116
WHMIS Symbols 94
New Interest in Atoms 117
Understanding the Rules 95
Chemistry Develops as a New Science 117
Lab Safety Rules 95
An Atomic Theory Takes Shape 118
Keep Safety in Mind 96
Adding Electrons to the Atomic Model 118
A Canadian Contribution to
1.2 Organizing Matter 97 Atomic Theory 119
QuickLAB: Organizing the Properties Bohr’s Model 120
of Matter 97 Check and Reflect 121
Physical Properties of Matter 98 2.2 Organizing the Elements 122
QuickLAB: Observing a Physical Change 98
QuickLAB: Meet the Elements 122
Activity B-1 Inquiry:
Looking for Patterns 123
Identifying Mystery Substances 100
Finding a Pattern 124
Chemical Properties of Matter 102
Predicting New Elements 125
Pure Substance or Mixture? 102
2.3 The Periodic Table Today 126
1.3 Observing Changes in Matter 105
Understanding the Periodic Table 127
Skill Practice: Identifying Physical
Useful Information on Each Element 128
and Chemical Changes 105
Skill Practice: Using the Periodic Table 129
Activity B-2 Inquiry: Investigating
Physical and Chemical Changes 106
Building a Periodic Table 130
Controlling Changes in Matter to
Patterns of Information in the
Meet Human Needs 108
Periodic Table 132
From Corn to Nail Polish Remover
Skill Practice: Exploring Patterns
and Plastic Wrap 109
in the Periodic Table 133
Section Review: Assess Your Learning 110 Careers and Profiles 135
Focus On: The Nature of Science 111 Section Review: Assess Your Learning 136
Focus On: The Nature of Science 137
vi
3.0 Compounds form according to a set 4.0 Substances undergo a chemical change
of rules. 138 when they interact to produce different
substances. 156
3.1 Naming Compounds 139
Combining Elements to Make 4.1 Chemical Reactions 157
Compounds 139 QuickLAB: Rocket Science 157

Skill Practice: Make a Model of an Atom 139 Give It a Try: Identify the Reaction 158
Naming Chemical Compounds 140 Activity B-6 Inquiry:
QuickLAB: Common Chemicals in Observing Chemical Reactions 159
Your Home 140 Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions 160
Interpreting Chemical Names and Chemical Changes Involving Oxygen 160
Formulas from Compounds 141 Activity B-7 Experiment on your own:
Indicating the Physical State Reactions for Upset Stomachs 161
of a Compound 142 Check and Reflect 162
Skill Practice: Working with Compounds 142
4.2 Conservation of Mass in Chemical Reactions 163
Activity B-8 Inquiry: Conserving Mass 164
3.2 Ionic Compounds 144 Check and Reflect 165
QuickLAB: Using Batteries to
4.3 Factors Affecting the Rate of a Chemical
Investigate a Chemical Reaction 145
Reaction 166
Ion Charges 146
Catalysts 166
Naming Ionic Compounds 146
QuickLAB: Hydrogen Peroxide and the
Using Ion Charges and Chemical
Catalyst Manganese(IV) Oxide 167
Names to Write Formulas 147
Activity B-9 Inquiry: Rates of Reaction 168
Ion Charges and the Periodic Table 147
Other Factors Affecting the
Rate of Reaction 169
Modelling Ionic Compounds 148
3.3 Molecular Compounds 150
QuickLAB: Ionic or Molecular Focus On: The Nature of Science 171
Compound? 150
Activity B-5 Inquiry: Unit Summary 172
Modelling Molecular Compounds 151
Writing Formulas for Molecular Science World Case Study: Metal Contamination
Compounds 152 of the Environment 173
Comparing Ionic and Molecular Project: What’s in the Bottle? 174

Compounds 152
Unit Review 175
Focus On: The Nature of Science 155
vii
Unit C: Environmental Chemistry 178 1.4 How Organisms Take in Substances 204
Uptake of Substances by Plants 204

Exploring 180
Ingestion and Absorption of Materials
Medicine from the Environment 180 by Animals 206
QuickLAB: Testing Health Products 181 Activity C-5 Inquiry:
Focus On: Social and Environmental Breakdown of Starch by Hydrolysis 207
Context 181 Taking in Nutrients in
1.0 The environment is made up of chemicals Different Environments 208
that can support or harm living things. 182 Check and Reflect 209
Careers and Profiles 210
1.1 Chemicals in the Environment 183
Give It a Try: Chemicals in the
Focus On: Social and Environmental Context 211
Environment 183
The Nitrogen Cycle 184
Processes and Activities That Affect
Environmental Chemicals 185 2.0 The quantity of chemicals in the environment
Human Activities 186 can be monitored. 212
Activity C-1 Decision Making:
Viewpoints on Electric Power 189
2.1 Monitoring Water Quality 213
Check and Reflect 190 Biological Indicators 214

QuickLAB: Identifying Aquatic
1.2 Acids and Bases 191
Invertebrates 215
pH Scale 191 Aquatic Environments 215
Activity C-2 Inquiry: Chemical Factors That Affect Organisms 215
Measuring Acids and Bases 192 Measuring Chemicals in the Environment 216
Measuring pH 193 Skill Practice: Parts per Million 217
Neutralization 193 Dissolved Oxygen 217
Activity C-3 Inquiry: Neutralizing Acid 194 Activity C-6 Inquiry: How Does
Neutralizing the Effects of Acid Rain 195 Oxygen Get into the Water? 218
Check and Reflect 195 Phosphorus and Nitrogen Content 219
1.3 Common Substances Essential to Living QuickLAB: Phosphorus and “Foggy”
Things 196
Water 220
Acidity 220
Give It a Try: Organic or Inorganic? 196
Pesticides 221
Macronutrients 197
Measuring Toxicity 221
Maintaining the Right Level of Nutrients 198
Heavy Metals 222
Optimum Amounts 198
Activity C-7 Experiment on your own:
Types of Organic Molecules 199
What Killed the Fish? 223
Activity C-4 Inquiry:
Testing for Organic Molecules 200
viii
2.2 Monitoring Air Quality 225 3.3 Hazardous Chemicals Affect Living Things 248
Sulfur Dioxide 225 Biomagnification 248

Nitrogen Oxides 226 Activity C-11 Decision Making:
Skill Practice: Measuring Nitrogen Oxides 226 Mosquito Control 249
Carbon Monoxide 227 A Case Study: The Exxon Valdez
Ground-level Ozone 227 Oil Spill 250
Check and Reflect 228 New Oil Spill Clean-up Procedures 252
2.3 Monitoring the Atmosphere 229
Carbon Dioxide as a Greenhouse Gas 229 3.4 Hazardous Household Chemicals 253
Activity C-8 Inquiry: Analyzing Carbon Government Regulations 253

Dioxide Measurements 231 Give It a Try: Using a Hazardous
The Ozone Layer 232 Product 254
Check and Reflect 233 New Product Regulations 255
Storage of Hazardous Chemicals 255
Activity C-12 Inquiry: Household
Focus On: Social and Environmental Context 235 Chemicals and the Environment 256
Transportation of Consumer Goods 257
Disposal of Hazardous Chemicals 257
3.0 Potentially harmful substances are spread Hazardous Waste Collection Sites 257
and concentrated in the environment in Solid Waste Garbage 258
various ways. 236 Check and Reflect 259

3.1 Transport of Materials Through Air, Soil,
and Water 237 Focus On: Social and Environment Context 261
Transport in Air 237 Unit Summary 262

QuickLAB: Environmental Transport 238
Science World Case Study: Fuel Combustion in
Transport in Groundwater 239
Electrical Power Plants 263
Activity C-9 Inquiry: Acid Rain and Soil 240
Transport in Surface Water 241 Project: A Refinery Mega-Project—Considering
Transport in Soil 241 the Options 264
Unit Review 266
3.2 Changing the Concentration of Harmful
Chemicals in the Environment 243
Biodegradation 244
Activity C-10 Inquiry: Bury Your
Garbage 245
Phytoremediation 246
Photolysis 247
ix
Unit D: Electrical Principles and Section Review: Assess Your Learning 295
Technologies 270
Focus On: Science and Technology 295
Exploring 272
Electrical Energy 272 2.0 Technologies can be used to transfer and

QuickLAB: Charge It! 273 control electrical energy. 296

2.1 Controlling the Flow of Electrical Current 297
1.0 Electrical energy can be transferred and
A Unique Circuit 297
stored. 274
Conductors and Insulators 298
Activity D-3 Inquiry:
1.1 Static Electricity 275
Investigating Conductivity 299
QuickLAB: Static Charge 275
Using Conductors, Resistors, and
Electrical Charge 276
Insulators 300
Activity D-1 Inquiry:
QuickLAB: Make Your Own Dimmer
Investigating Static Electricity 277
Switch 301
Van de Graaff Generators 278
Switches and Variable Resistors 302
1.2 Current Electricity 279 Careers and Profiles 303
Electrical Current 279 2.2 Modelling and Measuring Electricity 304

QuickLAB: Electrical Current 279
QuickLAB: Funnel Power 304
Amperes 280
Modelling Voltage 305
Electrical Energy and Voltage 281
Modelling Resistance and Current 305
Measuring Voltage 281
Ohm’s Law 306
Skill Practice: Using Voltmeters 282
Applying Ohm’s Law 306
Skill Practice: Using Ohm’s Law 307
1.3 Electrical Safety 284 Using Test Meters 307
The Dangers of Electrical Shock 284 Skill Practice: Using Ammeters 308
Protecting Yourself from Activity D-4 Inquiry:

Electrical Shock 285 What’s the Resistance? 309
Electrical Safety Pointers 285 Types of Resistors 310
Plugs, Fuses, and Breakers 285 Check and Reflect 310
QuickLAB: Blow a Fuse! 286 2.3 Analyzing and Building Electrical Circuits 311
The Danger of Lightning 287
QuickLAB: Flashlight Design 311
Circuit Drawings 311
1.4 Cells and Batteries 288 Circuit Analysis Example—Bulldozer 312
Dry Cells 288 Parallel and Series Circuits 312
Wet Cells 289 QuickLAB: How Does That Toy Work? 313
QuickLAB: Fruit Cells 290 Activity D-5 Problem Solving:

Rechargeable Cells 290 Wiring a Secure and Safe Home 314
Activity D-2 Inquiry: Applications of Series and

Choosing Electrolytes 291 Parallel Circuits 315
Batteries 292 Check and Reflect 316
Electrochemistry 292 Section Review: Assess Your Learning 317

x
3.0 Devices and systems convert energy with Activity D-11 Decision Making: What
varying efficiencies. 318 Can We Do to Increase Efficiency? 341
Increasing Efficiency 342
3.1 Energy Forms and Transformations 319 Check and Reflect 342
Four Common Forms of Energy 319
Give It a Try: Going Shopping 320
Chemical Energy 320 Focus On: Science and Technology 343
Transformations Involving Chemical

and Electrical Energy 321
4.0 The use of electrical energy affects society
Activity D-6 Problem Solving: and the environment. 344
Transforming Heat into Electricity 322
Transformations Between Thermal 4.1 Electrical Energy Sources and Alternatives 345
and Electrical Energy 323
Using Heat to Generate Electricity 345
Using Water Power to Generate Electricity 346
3.2 Energy Transformations Involving Electrical Alternative Energy Sources 347
and Mechanical Energy 324 Give It a Try: Energy News 348
Electric Motors 325 Activity D-12 Problem Solving:

Activity D-7 Problem Solving: Harness the Wind 349
Get Your Motor Running 326 Renewable and Nonrenewable Energy 350
The Steering Analogy 328 Check and Reflect 350
QuickLAB: St. Louis Motor 328 4.2 Electricity and the Environment 351
Direct and Alternating Current 328
Air Pollution 351
Generating Electricity 329
Other Environmental Effects 351
Activity D-8 Experiment on your own:
Conserving Energy and Nonrenewable
Generating Electricity 330
Resources 352
Generating DC and AC 331
A Sustainable Future 353
3.3 Measuring Energy Input and Output 332
4.3 Electrical Technology and Society 354
Power 332
Benefits of Electrical Technologies 354
Energy 333
Give It a Try: Number Race 355
Skill Practice: Power Practice 333
Drawbacks of Electrical Technologies 355
Activity D-9 Problem Solving:
Computers and Information 355
Circuit Assessment 334
Electricity and Computers 356
Energy Dissipation 335
Electrical Transmission of Information 357
Understanding Efficiency 336
Skill Practice: Comparing Input and
Output Energies 336 Section Review: Assess Your Learning 359
Activity D-10 Problem Solving: Focus On: Science and Technology 359
Kettle Efficiency 337
Comparing Efficiencies 338
Unit Summary 360
Science World Case Study: Three Gorges Dam 361
3.4 Reducing the Energy Wasted by Devices 339
Give It a Try: Shopping for Appliances 339

Project: Building an Electrical Device 362
Limits to Efficiency 340 Unit Review 363
xi
Unit E: Space Exploration 366 Tracking Objects in the Solar System 399
Exploring 368
1.5 Describing the Position of Objects in Space 401
Short Excursion to the Moon 368
Give It a Try: Estimating Positions in
Give It a Try: Crater Patterns Space 401
on the Moon 369
Activity E-2 Problem Solving: Where
Do We Look? 402
1.0 Human understanding of both Earth and Determining the Motion of Objects
space has changed over time. 370 in Space 404
1.1 Early Views About the Cosmos 371
Give It a Try: Evolving Ideas About
Planetary Motion 371 Focus On: Science and Technology 407
Tracking Cosmological Events 372

Models of Planetary Motion 373
QuickLAB: Elliptical Loops 375 2.0 Technological developments are making
Check and Reflect 376 space exploration possible and offer
benefits on Earth. 408
1.2 Discovery Through Technology 377
QuickLAB: Telling Sundial Time 377 2.1 Getting There: Technologies for Space
The Astronomer’s Tools 378 Transport 409
The Immensity of Distance and QuickLAB: The Power of Steam 409
Time in Space 379 The Achievements of Rocket Science 410
Activity E-1 Inquiry: How Big Is the Sun? 380 QuickLAB: Stabilizing Rocket Flight 411
Give It a Try: Take a Walk Through The Science of Rocketry 412
the Solar System 382 The Future of Space Transport
Check and Reflect 383 Technology 413
1.3 The Distribution of Matter in Space 384 Activity E-3 Problem Solving: Designing
a Solar Sail-Powered Spacecraft 414
What Is a Star? 384
QuickLAB: What Colour and Shuttles, Space Probes, and Space
Temperature Tell Us About Elements 385
Stations 416
The Birth of a Star 386

The Next Step 416
The Life and Death of Stars 387 Check and Reflect 417
Give It a Try: Classifying Stars by Size 389 2.2 Surviving There: Technologies for Living
Star Groups 390 in Space 418
Galaxies 390
Give It a Try: Sharing a Small Place
in Space 418
1.4 Our Solar Neighbourhood 392 Hazards of Living in Space 419
The Sun 392 The Space Suit 420
The Planets 393 A Home in Space 421
Skill Practice: Building a Activity E-4 Experiment on your own:

Planetary Spreadsheet 393 Designing and Building a Water
Other Bodies in the Solar System 397 Filter 423
Give It a Try: How Can Collisions Activity E-5 Problem Solving: Space
Occur in All That Space? 397 Station Design: The Value of
Teamwork 424
xii
Check and Reflect 425 Section Review: Assess Your Learning 455
Careers and Profiles 426
2.3 Using Space Technology to Meet Human
Needs on Earth 427
Satellites 427 4.0 Society and the environment are affected

QuickLAB: Data Relay from Space by space exploration and the
to Earth 428
development of space technologies. 456
Skill Practice: On Location with GPS 430

4.1 The Risks and Dangers of Space Exploration 457
“Space Age” Inspired Materials
and Systems 431 The Dangers of Manned Space Travel 458
Check and Reflect 432 Space Junk 458

4.2 Canadian Contributions to Space
Focus On: Science and Technology 433 Exploration and Observation 460
Give It a Try: What Does It Take

to Become an Astronaut? 462
3.0 Optical telescopes, radio telescopes, and Check and Reflect 463
other technologies advance our
understanding of space. 434 4.3 Issues Related to Space Exploration 464
The Pros and Cons of Space Exploration 464

3.1 Using Technology to See the Visible 435 The Potential Value of Space’s Resources 465
Skill Practice: Sharpen Your Activity E-8 Decision Making:
Star-Gazing Skills 435 Should We Continue Investing in
Optical Telescopes 436 Space Exploration and Research? 466
Interferometry: Combining Telescopes Political, Ethical, and Environmental
for Greater Power 437 Issues 467
The Hubble Space Telescope 438 Give It a Try: Who Owns Space? 467
Check and Reflect 439 Check and Reflect 468
3.2 Using Technology to See Beyond the Visible 440 Section Review: Assess Your Learning 469
QuickLAB: Comparing Light Spectra 441 Focus On: Science and Technology 469
Radio Telescopes 441
Radio Interferometry 442 Unit Summary 470
Viewing More Than What the Eye Can See 443
Space Probes 444
Science World Case Study: Babies Beyond
Gravity’s Grip 471
3.3 Using Technology to Interpret Space 446 Project: Mission to Mars 472
Give It a Try: Light Bulb Stars 446 Unit Review 474

Measuring Distance 446
Activity E-6 Inquiry: How Far Is It? 448 Toolbox 476
Activity E-7 Inquiry: Analyzing Parallax 451
Glossary 511
Determining a Star’s Composition 452
Determining a Star’s Direction of Motion 452 Index 522
Give It a Try: Experiencing the
Photo Credits and Acknowledgements 525
Doppler Effect 454
xiii
WELCOME TO
You are about to begin a scientific exploration
using Science in Action 9. To assist you in
your journey, this book has been designed
with the following features to help you.
An outline gives you an overview of

what you will be learning. You may
want to use this as a guide to help
you study.
1 Unit Outline
The book is divided into five
units. Each unit opens with a
large photograph that
captures one of the ideas that
--
- - in the unit.
will be covered
-- -
--------
2 Exploring
This section is an introduction. It has an interesting
SKILL PRACTICE activities
real-world example to introduce the unit. A hands-
-
give you an opportunity to

------
on activity introduces the topic of the unit and

practice and reinforce skills.
allows you to start thinking about what you will be
exploring.
---
xiv
Each section has two to five subsections. Each subsection
3 The Sections heading clarifies and provides more information about the
Each section heading statement in the section heading.
summarizes what you will
learn in this section. These
can help you organize your
thoughts when you study.
The Key Concepts are the main

ideas you will learn in this
section. By the end of the
section, you should be able to
describe each concept.
The Learning Outcomes

outline what you should
know and be able to 8
demonstrate your
understanding of on
Check out this Web site for relevant links.
completing the section.
An infoBIT is an interesting
fact relevant to what you
will be investigating in the
subsection.
GIVE IT A TRY
activities will help you
think about what you
are learning.
The Focus On section has QUICKLAB is a hands-on

several questions to help you activity that explores a topic
think about what you are in the section.
learning and how it connects to
your life as you work through
the unit. The questions focus on
one of three areas or emphases Topic subheadings make
of science: the nature of the text easier to follow.
science, the relationship
between science and
technology, and the relationship
of science and technology to
society and the environment.
xv
At the end of the subsection
You will find numerous photos is a reSEARCH. This is an
and illustrations to help explain additional way to study one
or clarify many of the ideas in of the ideas in the subsection.
this unit.
Check and Reflect questions

provide opportunities for you
to review the main ideas you
have learned.
The Section Review has questions

relevant to the whole section.
Answering the questions will help
you consolidate what you have
learned in the various parts of the
section.
The Focus On feature helps you

organize and apply what you have
learned in the section.
4 Science Activities
There are three main types of activities.
Problem Solving Activity: These are

open-ended activities that allow you to
be creative. You will identify a problem,
make a plan, and then construct a
solution. These activities tend to have --
-
very little set-up and there is usually no - - -----

one correct solution.
xvi
- --------
- -- -Inquiry
- Activity: These activities provide the opportunity for
you to work in a lab setting. You will develop scientific skills
-
-
of predicting, observing, measuring, recording, inferring,
analyzing, and many more. In these activities, you investigate
many different phenomena found in our world.
---
--
--
---
Decision Making Activity:
These activities present
issues or questions related
to everyday life. You will
need to analyze the issue
and develop a conclusion
based on the evidence you
collect. Be prepared to
present your conclusion to
your classmates.
5 Unit Summary
At a glance, you can find out
all the key concepts you have
learned within the unit. You
can also read the summary of
ideas in each section of the
unit. This is a good page to
help you organize your notes
-
for studying. -------
6 Unit Project
A project at the end of each unit presents a
hands-on opportunity for you to demonstrate
what you’ve learned. You’ll work both in a
group and individually. The project requires
you to apply some of the skills and knowledge -
that you’ve acquired to a new situation. -------
xvii
7 Unit Review • questions that The Extend Your • opportunities
require you to use Understanding has: to express your
The Unit Review presents: the ideas in more • questions that have thoughts about
• a chance to review the than one section in you apply your ideas you have
important terms in the unit the unit to answer learning beyond what discovered in
you studied in the unit the unit
The Key Concept Review presents:

• questions designed to test your
basic understanding of the key
• questions that are related to specific • questions that relate
concepts in each section of the
skills you have learned in the unit to the specific
unit
emphasis of the unit
8 Other Features
Here are other features you will
find in each unit. Each one has a
different purpose and is designed
to help you learn about the ideas
in the unit.
Science World
-
This feature is a case study - - - - - -
about an issue that can have
more than one solution or may
involve several viewpoints.
-
-
Careers and Profiles -

- - - ---
Here you will find profiles or interviews
with people whose careers use the science
and technology you study in the unit.
xviii
-- ------
-- --
- -
--
---
Experiment on
----
mathLink your own
These are This is your
opportunities for chance to design
you to apply some your own
of your math experiment to
skills. check out a
hypothesis or to
solve a problem.
9 The Toolbox
These pages provide
references to lab safety and
other basic scientific skills
that will help you as you do
the activities. Remember to
check the toolbox when you
need a reminder about these
skills.
10 Icons
means you will be working with toxic or
unknown materials and should wear safety
goggles for protection or precaution 11 Glossary
means you should wear a lab apron to The Glossary provides a comprehensive,
protect clothing alphabetical list of the important terms
in the book and their definitions.
means you should wear rubber gloves for
protection when handling the materials
means you will be working with glassware and

you should exercise caution to avoid breakage
reminds you that you can find more information

in the Toolbox section of the book
Now it’s time to start. We hope you will enjoy your scientific
exploration using Science in Action 9 !
xix
UNIT
2
In this unit, you will cover the following sections:
1.0 Biological diversity is reflected in the variety of life on Earth.

1.1 Examining Diversity
1.2 Interdependence
1.3 Variation within Species
2.0 As species reproduce, characteristics are passed from parents

to offspring.
2.1 A Closer Look at Variation
2.2 Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
3.0 DNA is the inherited material responsible for variation.

3.1 DNA—Transmitter of Genetic Code
3.2 Cell Division
3.3 Patterns of Inheritance
4.0 Human activity affects biological diversity.

4.1 Reduction of Biological Diversity
4.2 Selecting Desirable Traits
4.3 Reducing Our Impact on Biological Diversity
3
Exploring
PRESERVING BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

In 1991, researchers with the Central Rockies Wolf Project captured a
female wolf. They fitted her with a satellite transmitter in Peter Lougheed
Provincial Park, Alberta. Dubbed Pluie, the wolf remained in Kananaskis
Country for six months. Then she took an amazing journey through
100 000 km2 of protected areas and legal hunting grounds in Alberta,
Montana, Idaho, and British Columbia. Pluie’s story drew attention to how
the Rocky Mountains are an important travel corridor for wide-ranging
carnivores such as wolves and grizzly bears.
Pluie has inspired the Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative
(Y2Y), a joint Canadian-U.S. network of over 270 organizations. The
mission of Y2Y is to “combine science and stewardship in order to ensure
that the world-renowned wilderness, wildlife, native plants, and natural
processes of the Yellowstone to Yukon region continue to function as an
interconnected web of life capable of supporting all of the natural and
human communities that reside within it, for now and for future
generations.”
4 Unit A: Biological Diversity

To reach this goal, Y2Y is working to establish a connected network of
protected areas and wildlife movement corridors that run from the Greater
Yellowstone ecosystem in Montana to the MacKenzie Mountains in the
Northwest Territories and Yukon. Co-operating organizations include
environmental advocacy groups such as the Canadian Parks and
Wilderness Society (CPAWS), research-based groups such as the Eastern
Slopes Grizzly Bear Project, and groups that represent recreation groups,
such as Orion—The Hunter’s Institute.
MA
CK NUNAVUT
EN
ZI
EM
OU
NORTHWEST
YUKON
NTA
TERRITORIES
ALBERTA
INS
Edmonton
BRITISH Jasper
COLUMBIA
ALBERTA
Edmonton Banff Calgary
Calgary
Waterton
WASHINGTON
Pacific MONTANA
Ocean
Yellowstone
OREGON
IDAHO WYOMING
The Y2Y initiative is based on the well-established guidelines of

conservation biology. Conservation biology is a wide-ranging field. It
combines aspects of landscape ecology, economics, species variation, and
genetics to help solve the difficult problems of preserving biological
diversity. How will protecting a fully functioning mountain ecosystem
help to preserve biological diversity? In this unit, you will find out by
investigating the processes that enable species to survive.
Exploring 5
S K I L L PRACTICE
EXPLORING WOLF POPULATION TRENDS

Alberta is home to 95 species of mammals, second only to British Columbia. One mammal,
the black-footed ferret, has disappeared from Alberta. Three of Alberta’s mammal species are
considered at risk, 10 species are considered sensitive, while 57 species are considered
secure by the Alberta Species at Risk Program.
Wolf populations in Jasper National Park have been monitored throughout the past 60 years.
The size of these populations has been influenced by factors such as environmental
conditions, availability of prey, and control programs. Four wolves per 1000 km2 is
considered to be a low number. .Are Jasper’s wolves in danger? Graph the numbers from
these studies to find out.
Jasper National Park Wolf Date Average Number of

Population Studies Wolves per 1000 km2
Study 1 1946 4
Study 2 1970 4
Study 3 1975 8
Study 4 1986 3
• On a single graph, plot the data from the chart by date (oldest to most recent). What
trends do you see in the data and in your graph? (You may wish to review Toolbox 7.)
• For each trend, suggest factors that may have affected the average number of wolves.
• Habitat loss can put a species at risk of extinction. It has been estimated that 97 ha of
natural Canadian habitat are destroyed every hour. Use that figure to calculate the
numbers of hectares lost in a day, a month, and a year.

Focus SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT
On
As you work through this unit, you will observe the tremendous variety of
life on Earth and how this diversity helps to ensure survival of species.
You will learn how species reproduce and will consider the role of
genetics in the continuation of species. You will explore how human
activity affects biological diversity and how science and technology can
have intended and unintended effects on species and the environment.
Your major goals will include developing your inquiry and decision-
making skills.
Consider the following questions as you read and discuss, perform
activities, and answer questions throughout the unit.
1. What is biological diversity?
2. How do living things pass their characteristics on to future
generations and why is this important?
3. What impact does human activity have on biological diversity?
The answers to these and other questions will guide your learning about
various life forms and how humans affect biological diversity. The project
at the end of this unit will allow you to apply your knowledge of
ecosystem, species, and genetic diversity and your skills in developing a
strategy to maintain biological diversity in a local area.
Exploring 7
1.0 Biological diversity is
reflected in the variety of
life on Earth.
Key Concepts
In this section, you will learn
about the following key
concepts:
• biological diversity
• species and populations
• diversity within species
• habitat diversity
• niches
• natural selection of genetic
characteristics
Learning Outcomes
When you have completed this
section, you will be able to:
• describe the relative abundance
of species on Earth and in
different environments
• describe examples of variation
among species and within
species
• explain the role variation plays
in survival If you took a trip to a wetland ecosystem or carefully observed the life
• identify examples of niches and
forms underneath a rotting log, you would realize that we are
describe how closely related
surrounded by an incredible diversity of life forms. If you consider the
living things can survive in the
wide range of environmental conditions that exist on Earth, from the
same ecosystem
• explain how the survival of one
frigid cold of the poles to the steamy heat of the tropics, there is no
species may be dependent on single kind of organism that can survive in all of Earth’s regions. Each
another species area possesses its own unique community of characteristic life forms.
• identify examples of natural Tropical regions such as Costa Rica, Central America, contain the
selection greatest variety of organisms. The picture above shows a small sample of
the scarab beetles found in Costa Rica. Although they have many
obvious similarities, each beetle is from a different species, each with its
own unique characteristics.
Globally, the rate of extinction is on the rise. In the past, natural
forces have caused extinctions, but increasingly they are being attributed
to human influences. As a consequence, the variety of genetic material is
decreasing.
8 For Web links relating to 1.0, visit www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction

info BIT
1.1 Examining Diversity
Species Numbers
Life exists on our planet in many forms. Biologists have identified over Even though scientists
1.5 million species of animals and more than 350 000 species of plants. A estimate that millions of
species is a group of organisms that have the same structure and can species live on Earth
reproduce with one another. There are more species of insect than all of today, this is just a tiny
the other kinds of life forms combined. It is no wonder that they are number compared with
considered the most successful form of life. Biologists estimate that there the total number of
are probably somewhere between 30 million and 100 million kinds of species believed to have
organisms existing today. They have described only a small percentage of lived on Earth since life
this total. Regardless of how unique they may appear, all life forms share began roughly 5 billion
certain characteristics. All living things are made of cells, need energy, years ago. Scientists
estimate that the species
grow and develop, reproduce, and have adaptations that suit them for the
alive today represent
environment in which they live.
only 1% of all the species
that have ever lived.
UNDERSTANDING BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
Biological diversity refers to all the different types of organisms on Earth.
However, scientists don’t usually examine the entire Earth’s biological
diversity. They examine it in smaller groupings.
Diversity Between Ecosystems

In an ecosystem, living (biotic) things interact with other living and non-
living (abiotic) things in a shared environment. Abiotic factors include air,
water, and sunlight. Together, the living and non-living factors function as
a system, hence the term “ecosystem.” There is a huge variety, or
diversity, of ecosystems on Earth. The number and types of species and
abiotic elements can vary from ecosystem to ecosystem. A boreal forest
ecosystem (Figure 1.1) has different types and levels of abiotic factors than
a prairie slough ecosystem (Figure 1.2). These differences affect the
number and type of species that can live there.
Figure 1.1 These woodland caribou share a boreal forest Figure 1.2 This prairie slough teems with life such as
ecosystem with mosses, lichens, pine trees, black spruce, dragonflies, mosquitoes, mallards and ruddy ducks, red wing
white spruce, poplars, wolves, grizzlies, wolverines, lynx, blackbirds, bulrushes, sedge, and muskrats.
and a variety of birds.
Biological Diversity Is Reflected in the Variety of Life on Earth 9

G I V E I T A TRY
TREKKING THROUGH ALBERTA’S LANDSCAPE

Alberta Environment and the provincial government • Look at the map showing the location of these
have approved the names of six natural regions regions supplied by your teacher or on the Web
making up the vast landscape of Alberta. Each site below. Brainstorm with a partner at least
region represents an ecological unit that has its own three plant and animal species you might
plants, animals, landscapes, and weather patterns. expect to find on a trek through each region.
Each ecological unit is home to many different Record your ideas in a table.
ecosystems. These regions are the Canadian Shield • Using the Internet or library resources, verify
Natural Region, the Boreal Forest Natural Region, whether the plant and animal species you
the Foothills Natural Region, the Rocky Mountain identified live in each region. Compile a class
Natural Region, the Parkland Natural Region, and table of all the different species for each region
the Grassland Natural Region. and post it in your class. Begin your search at
www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction.
Diversity Within Ecosystems

Scientists often examine the biotic factors of an ecosystem. When
members of a species live in a specific area and share the same resources,
these individuals form a population. For example, a population might be
all the magpies that live in a certain park. When populations of different
species live in the same area, these populations form a community. For
example, the park contains a community because there are other
populations that live in the park besides the magpies. It has populations of
aspen trees, grasses, gophers, and so on. The community is the biotic
component of an ecosystem. Different communities can also vary widely.
For example a park with many formal gardens (but no trees) has a
different community because it contains different populations of species
than the park mentioned above.
Figure 1.3 The wildebeests,

antelopes, and zebras in this
picture are all different
populations, but together
they form part of the diverse
community of living things
on the Serengeti Plain in
Tanzania, Africa.

Diversity Within Species
A species is a group of organisms that all have the same basic structure.
However, if you look closely at any population, you will notice that there
are subtle variations between the individual members of the population.
For example, if you examined a population of magpies very closely, you
might notice that bill shape or wingspan varied between individuals.
Genetic diversity refers to the variations between members of a
population. In any population, these variations are, for the most part,
caused by subtle variations in the cells of the organisms.
An organism that shows a great deal of genetic diversity is the banded
snail. Members of this species show a tremendous amount of variation in
shell colouring as well as the banding on their shells. The colour can
range from yellow to brown, and the bands on the shell can range from no
Figure 1.4 In a field of wheat,
bands to bands covering the whole of the shell. Each variation is a result
individual wheat plants show
of a variation in the genetic information in the animal’s cells. very little variation. This lack of
Some variations between individuals aren’t even visible. For example, variation is a result of years of
all human blood looks the same, but it can be classified into blood types. plant breeding.
An individual can have one of four basic blood types: A, B, AB, or O.
In certain cases, humans purposely reduce the amount of variation
between individual organisms. Over time, humans have bred plants and
animals so that as many individuals as possible show the same useful
characteristics. For example, individual wheat plants in a crop all have
strong stalks and many large seeds.
You will learn more about genetic diversity in later sections.
Species Distribution
The species on our planet are not
distributed evenly. Areas around the
equator have the greatest number of plant
species. These diverse plant communities 100
in turn provide food and shelter to a
100
wide variety of organisms. The number
of plant and animal species is greatest in 50
tropical regions. So the tropical rain

forests in equatorial regions contain the 150
greatest biological diversity. As you move
north to the temperate and then the polar 200
regions, you will find less biological
diversity. For example, a survey of snake 200
150
species in three regions revealed there
were 293 species in tropical regions of 200
Mexico, 126 species in the United States,

200 100
and only 22 in Canada. This trend is 150
150
found for all organisms. The Arctic and 100 250 200
25
Antarctic regions contain the lowest 300 0
biological diversity.
350
300
400
350
450
400
500
550 0
450
60
650
Figure 1.5 This map shows the number of bird species in different regions of North and Central America.

info BIT
How Many Kingdoms?
Increasingly, scientists
are using a six-kingdom
system of classifying
organisms. Research has
shown that one group of
bacteria is genetically
different from other
bacteria. As a result, the
kingdom Monera has
been divided into two
new kingdoms:
Archaebacteria and Figure 1.6 Although the two owls look alike, the northern spotted owl on the right does not
Eubacteria. breed with the barred owl on the left. As a result, they are considered two different species.
CLASSIFYING BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

In the 18th century, a Swedish scientist named Carolus Linnaeus,
developed a system for naming organisms and for classifying them in a
meaningful way. He used Latin because that was the common scientific
language of his time. Linnaeus’s naming system brought worldwide
consistency to the naming of species, which could not be accomplished
with common names. In his system, two words name each living thing:
the first word indicates the name of the genus to which the organism
belongs and the second word indicates the particular species. No two
species can have the same name. Closely related species can have the
same genus name, but not the same species name. The red wolf is called
Canis rufus, the timber wolf is called Canis lupus, and the dog, Canis
familiaris.
Linnaeus arranged species into groups based on their physical
structure rather than on their habitat, which earlier systems had done.
Modern scientists further developed Linnaeus’s classification system.
Latin continues to be the language of classification because it is a dead
language, one that does not change over time. Because the same Latin
names are used worldwide, each scientist will know which species
another scientist is discussing.
Scientists have been using a five-kingdom classification system:
math Link Animalia (animals), Plantae (plants), Fungi (yeasts, moulds, and
mushrooms), Protista (mostly single-celled organisms), and Monera
Using data set 2 from the
(bacteria). Each kingdom is divided into a series of phyla (the plural form of
Skill Practice on page 13,
convert each nanometre phylum) and possibly subphyla. Each phylum is divided into classes,
measurement into which are further subdivided into orders. Orders are divided into families,
centimetres. which divide into genera (the plural form of genus). Each genus is then
separated into species.
An example of this classification system is illustrated in Figure 1.7 on
page 13. Note that the classification of the three organisms becomes more
specific as you move from kingdom to species.

White spruce Wolf Bull trout
Kingdoms Plantae Animalia Animalia
Phyla Coniferophyta (Conifers) Chordata Chordata
Subphyla — Vertebrata Vertebrata
Classes Pinopsida Mammalia Osteichthyes (Fish)
Orders Pinales Carnivora Salmoniformes
Families Pinaceae Canidae Salmonidae
Genera Picea Canis Salvelinus
Species Picea glauca Canis lupus Salvelinus confluentus
Figure 1.7 Classification of three organisms from a montane ecosystem
S K I L L PRACTICE
REPRESENTING DATA
Information comes in many forms including information represented in numbers. Often numerical data are hard
to interpret, and scientists use charts or graphs to illustrate the patterns or trends in the data. For example,
scientists use a pie chart to display data that is part of a whole. They also use bar graphs to show relationships
between sets of data.
Below are two different sets of data. Determine which type of chart or graph would best represent these data
sets and create the appropriate chart or graph for each set. (You may wish to review graphing in Toolbox 7.)
Data Set 1 Data Set 2
• Two red-eyed, long-winged fruit flies could • The size in nanometres (nm or 109 m) for the
produce the following combinations for 16 offspring: following viruses are:
9 out of 16 would have red eyes and long wings smallpox virus 250 nm
3 out of 16 would have red eyes and small wings flu virus 100 nm
3 out of 16 would have white eyes and long wings yellow fever virus 22 nm
1 out of 16 would have white eyes and small wings polio virus 20 nm
foot and mouth virus 10 nm

ACTIVITY A-1
Problem REPRESENTING BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

Solving
Recognize a Need
Scientists working to classify the range of life on Earth have come to a startling
conclusion: Species of insects, centipedes, and millipedes outnumber mammals by a ratio
of 214 to 1. That is, for every recorded species of mammal, there are 214 species of bugs
Biological Diversity on Earth
that have been discovered. Scientists estimate that we have only just begun to uncover
Group of Number of the diversity of insects on our planet.
organisms species
The chart on the left lists the number of species in each of the major groups of
plants 270 000 organisms.
fungi and lichens 100 000
protozoans and The Problem
algae 80 000 For people to care about the biological diversity on Earth, they have to be aware of the
spiders and number and types of organisms that share the planet with us. Design a way to visually
scorpions 75 000 summarize the information in the chart to clearly represent the numbers of different
mollusks 70 000 species that have been identified. Your model may be two- or three-dimensional, and you
crustaceans 40 000 may use technology as appropriate.
roundworms 25 000
fish 22 000 Criteria for Success
flatworms 20 000 To be successful, your representation must meet the following criteria:
earthworms and 1 solve the problem described above
leeches 12 000 2 be accurate
reptiles and 10 500
3 reflect the proportions of different species in relation to one another
amphibians
4 be visually appealing to convey the information to a general audience
jellyfish, corals,
and anemones 10 000 Brainstorm Ideas
sponges 10 000
5 Work with a partner or in a small group. Brainstorm ideas that would fit the criteria.
birds 10 000
All ideas should be considered and written down.
bacteria 4 000
6 Look for ways to blend the best of the group’s ideas.
mammals 4 500
insects, centipedes, Design a Model
and millipedes 963 000
7 Plan the design. Write down all the steps you will follow.
other 10 000
8 Create your representation.
Test and Evaluate

9 How effectively does your design convey the information? How does your work
compare with that of your classmates?
Communicate
10 Share and compare your design with others in the class. Highlight the features that
make your representation both accurate and effective.

BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY UNDER THE SEA re SEARCH
Coral reefs have been called the “amazons of the oceans” because of the
richness of their species diversity. Like tropical rainforests, coral reefs “Cat-egories “
Trace the classification
support many different communities of organisms surviving on limited
for a house cat, including
nutrients. As in tropical rainforests, organisms that inhabit coral reefs
the kingdom, phylum,
have very efficient ways of recycling the limited nutrients that are
subphylum, class, order,
available. Coral polyps form the living layer of a coral reef. These tiny family, genus, and
organisms, in which some algae species live, provide energy for coral species. What are some
communities by converting sunlight to fuel. The hard, calcium carbonate of the house cat’s
layers of a coral reef are constructed by reef-building corals and certain relatives? Prepare a
types of algae. Coral reefs can be massive and thousands of years old. poster or an electronic
presentation of your
findings. Begin your
Figure 1.8 Large coral reefs, research at
like the Great Barrier Reef, can www.pearsoned.ca/
contain hundreds of species of
scienceinaction.
coral and thousands of
species of mollusks. Many
fish, bird, and whale species
are also associated with this
ecosystem.
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review
1. Explain what is meant by the term biological diversity.
2. In one or two sentences explain why so many different types of
organisms exist on Earth today.
3. Describe how scientists classify an organism.
Connect Your Understanding

4 Explain how the classification system helps us to understand how
living things are different from or related to each other.
5. Summarize, in your own words, ecosystem diversity, community
diversity, and genetic diversity.
6. Compare and contrast the meanings of population and community.
7. Why is there more biological diversity closer to the equator than in
Canada? Give reasons for your answer.
Extend Your Understanding

8. Imagine that you have to classify all the birds on Earth based on
where they live. Design a system that starts with very broad categories
of many members and goes to very specific groupings of one type of
member.
9. Explain why preseving biological diversity is important to life on
Earth.

info BIT
1.2 Interdependence
Sharing Resources
No species can survive by itself. Each species is dependent on many other
Many species—especially
birds—have restricted species in its environment. For example, plants produce oxygen as a by-
areas in which they product of photosynthesis and are therefore a major source of atmospheric
forage (collect food). oxygen needed by most other organisms on Earth. Plants also provide
Researchers have found shelter and cover for many organisms. Mule deer, for example, need trees
that the male red-eyed to shelter them from the wind and from predators such as wolves.
vireo forages for insect Animals such as insects depend on flowering plants for food. Flowering
food in the upper canopy plants depend on insects to transfer pollen from one flower to another,
(9–15 m) of the trees they providing a means of fertilizing the plants.
live in. The female In earlier studies, you learned that food chains and food webs
collects insects in the illustrate the relationships between populations of organisms. Herbivores
lower canopy and nearer
such as mule deer eat plants. Carnivores such as wolves eat herbivores.
the ground (0–3 m). Male
Decomposers such as bacteria and fungi break down both animals and
and female red-eyed
plants once they’re dead. The predator-prey relationship is one of the most
vireos overlap only about
35% in their feeding obvious examples of interdependence between populations of species. If a
areas. So even though population of predators such as the lynx grows so large that it eats too
they eat the same insects many of its prey, the snow-shoe hare, then lynx numbers must eventually
and are members of the decrease as its members die of starvation. As the lynx population
same species, these birds decreases, the hare population will have a chance to recover and its
find their food source in numbers will increase. The cycle will then continue.
different areas and don’t Although predators eat individuals in a prey population, the prey
compete with each other. population benefits in many ways from this relationship. Predators reduce
the size of the prey population. This prevents the prey from outstripping
their food supply, resulting in starvation for the prey population. Also,
predators tend to capture the old, sick, or weak members of the prey
population. In this way, the healthy and strong members of the prey
population survive to reproduce, producing healthy strong offspring.
Timothy grass Mule deer Wolf
Figure 1.9 This food chain in a montane ecosystem illustrates interdependence. Timothy grass
depends on the Sun’s energy for growth. Mule deer (herbivores) depend on timothy grass as a food
source. Wolves (carnivores) depend on animals such as mule deer for survival.

SYMBIOSIS
Another type of interdependence is called symbiosis (sym meaning
together, bios meaning life), which is an association between
members of different species. There are several types of symbiosis
and the difference among them is determined by whether the
organisms benefit from or are harmed by the relationship.
In commensalism, one of the participating organisms benefits but
the other does not. However, there is no harm done to the second
organism. A bird that builds its nest in a tree, or a plant that grows
high up on a tree to get sunlight but doesn’t take nutrients from the
tree are both examples of commensalism. Barnacles that attach
themselves to whales in order to move to other areas are involved in
commensalism. The barnacles benefit, but the whales are not affected
(Figure 1.10).
As its root word mutual suggests, mutualism benefits both
organisms. A lichen growing in the arctic tundra is a combination of
two organisms: a fungus and an alga. Algal cells produce food for
themselves and the fungus through photosynthesis, while the fungus
protects the algal cells from dehydration. The bull’s horn acacia tree
is home to large numbers of ants. The tree gives the ants food and
shelter, while the ants protect the tree from other animals feeding on Figure 1.10 The grey bumps on
it by attacking them. The ants have also been known to gnaw through this whale are barnacles. The
vines that attach to the tree. whale provides a method of
Another interesting example comes from Central America. The transportation for the barnacles.
flower Clusia dispenses medicine to bees. As a bee pollinates the
flower, it gets doused with a sticky resin spiked with a powerful
antibiotic. Scientists suggest that the antibiotic in the resin kills
bacteria commonly found in the bee’s nest. When the bee makes an
important house call to the plant, the bee gets medical attention free
of charge!
In parasitism, one organism benefits and the other is harmed. A
tapeworm attached to the intestinal wall of a human is an example.
The tapeworm absorbs nutrients from the food in the intestine,
leaving little food for the human host to absorb. Unlike the predator-
prey relationship, parasites usually do not kill their hosts because the
hosts represent their food supply. Parasitism is not limited to two
organisms. For example, the Mexican bean beetle is a plant parasite.
However, the beetle is parasitized by the tachinid fly which, in turn,
is parasitized by the ichneumon wasp.
Symbiotic relationships are extreme examples of interdependence. Figure 1.11 The interactions
One species’ survival—particularly in a parasitic relationship such as a between the fungi and algae
tapeworm and its host—depends directly on the health and survival of making up these lichens enhance
the survival of each species.
another species. For example, the tapeworm depends on its host for
both its food and its habitat. Organisms involved in symbiotic
relationships illustrate the importance of adaptations that help species
survive in their unique environments.

Q U I C K LAB
SEARCHING FOR SYMBIOSIS Materials & Equipment

• galls from various plants
Purpose • scalpel
To observe a symbiotic relationship • magnifying glass
Caution!
• dissecting tray
Use care when
Procedure • insect identification
handling the scalpel. keys/guides
1 Your teacher will give you a leaf with galls.
Look for evidence of entry and/or exit holes.
2 Using the scalpel, cut open the gall. Use the magnifying glass to observe its
contents and look for the insects inside.
3 Draw what you observe. If possible, identify the inhabitants of the gall.
4 Wash your hands carefully.
Questions
5 What is the purpose of the gall? Look for evidence of entry and/or exit holes
to help you answer this question.
6 What type of symbiosis did you see when you cut open the gall? What
evidence do you have to support your conclusion?
Figure 1.12 What type of
7 What is the role of the gall for the insects’ survival?
symbiosis is shown here?
re SEARCH NICHES
There is one type of interaction between different species in which neither
Mycorrhizae species benefits. Interspecies competition happens when two or more
Mycorrhizae are species need the same resource. For example, if two different species
associations between compete for the same food, there is less of it for each species. Within each
plants and fungi. Use
population, each of its members has access to a smaller share of the
the Internet, your
resources, which leads to more deaths due to starvation. Interspecies
library, and other
competition limits the size of the populations of the competing species.
sources to find out what
kinds of associations If you take a walk through the woods on a summer morning, you
these organisms have might see many types of bird species that are similar to one another. If
and how they work. In a competition between species hurts the species, how can so many species
paragraph describe how exist together in the same location? The answer lies in the niches they
the survival of one of occupy.
the organisms is linked The term niche describes the role of an organism within the
to the survival of the ecosystem. An organism’s niche includes what it eats and what eats it, its
other. Begin your habitat, nesting site, or range, and its effect on both the populations
research at around it and its environment. If you were to describe your own niche,
www.pearsoned.ca/ you would have to describe where you live, what school you attend, jobs
scienceinaction.
you work at, the food you consume, the temperature you feel comfortable
in, and any influences you have on your community.

The niche occupied by a population in one area may not
be the same as the niche occupied in a different area because
the food supply and competitors may be different. In addition,
the niche occupied by a species may change throughout its
lifetime. The frog tadpole lives in an aquatic environment and
consumes plant matter while the adult frog lives in both
aquatic and terrestrial environments and is carnivorous.
Resource Partitioning
For similar species to coexist in an area, they must have
slightly different niches. For example, five species of warblers
(small songbirds) all feed on spruce bud worms. You would
think that competition among the five species would harm
them all. But because these species have different behavioural
adaptations, each prefers to feed on worms at different parts
of the tree. By doing this, the five species don’t directly
compete for the worms. Instead, they have divided up the
resource (worms) among them in what is known as resource Figure 1.13 These three warbler species feed on
partitioning. Resource partitioning doesn’t always involve spruce bud worms in different parts of a spruce
food. For example, species may have slightly different niches tree. Their niches differ in the feeding location
in terms of nesting preferences or heat tolerance. they prefer. Note that there is some overlap
between the species.
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review
1. List three different types of interdependence among living organisms.
Provide an example of each.
2. How does the prey population benefit when individuals in this
population are eaten by a predator?

3. Classify the following symbiotic relationships. Create a chart to record
your data, use the coding “+” to represent a benefit, “–” to represent
harm, and “n” to represent no benefit or harm. How would you use
this coding to represent each organism involved in the following
relationships? Explain your answer.
a) mutualism b) parasitism c) commensalism
2
4. A student observes the following organisms in a 30 cm section of the
front lawn of your school: a dandelion; a small butterfly on the flower
of the dandelion; a caterpillar eating the leaves of the dandelion; and a
worm in the soil. Describe the niche of each organism.

5. Imagine your school is an ecosystem. Create a concept map showing
the interdependence among students, teachers, classes, and grades in
this “ecosystem.”

1.3 Variation Within Species
Figure 1.14 Although the members of this species may look alike, they vary genetically from
one another.
So far in this unit, you have seen that the stability of an ecosystem relies
info BIT on the diversity of its communities and species and on the interactions
among species. The many different species survive because of the
Coats of Many Colours relationships established in this complicated “jigsaw puzzle.” Healthy
ecosystems have a great deal of genetic diversity among the species that
inhabit them. But biologists have also observed a great deal of variation
within a population of a single species. For example, you and your
classmates are all members of the same species, Homo sapiens, but each of
you differs slightly in appearance. Some may have black hair, others
blonde; some may be tall, others less tall. This kind of variation is seen in
all species. Variation within a species is called variability.
Even though its common
name is the red fox, VARIABILITY AND SURVIVAL
members of this species
can have a wide variety Variability is important if the environment of the species changes. When
of coat colours. Aside the species has a great deal of variation among its individuals, it is more
from the typical red coat, likely that some of the individuals will survive environmental changes.
individuals may have Environmental changes do not necessarily have to involve climatic
grey-brown, silver, or changes. The introduction of a new predator, the spread of a new disease,
even completely black the introduction of a toxic substance, or the elimination of a food source
coats. are all examples of environmental changes that could affect the survival of
a species. In these cases, variability within the species will help the
species survive.

For example, the fox shown in the infoBIT on page 20 has a dark coat
instead of the more common red coat. Its dark coat may make it more
re SEARCH
conspicuous in fields and woods. But if this fox roams into a new habitat
“Super Bugs”
that has many black rocks, its dark coat may blend in better with its Over time, some germs
surroundings. By blending in better, the fox could pounce on its prey have become very
more easily. The fox’s predators, such as wolves and lynx, might not spot resistant to medicines.
it as easily. So variations in coat colour may allow different fox Scientists sometimes refer
populations to survive in different habitats. to these as “super bugs.”
How variability helps in survival can also be seen in the growing Find out more about a
resistance of certain strains of bacteria to antibiotics. One of the first “super bug” and how it
antibiotics, penicillin, used to be very effective against some forms of is now treated in human
bacteria. Today, it is far less effective. Researchers think that the over- beings. Write a brief
prescription of antibiotics has allowed bacterial populations with report based on your
research. Begin your
variability to survive the application of antibiotics. A few resistant
research at
bacteria are not eliminated by the antibiotic that is administered, and
www.pearsoned.ca/
reproduce to produce new generations of resistant bacteria. There is some
scienceinaction.
fear that if this trend continues, resistant strains of bacteria may
completely replace current strains and antibiotics will no longer be
effective. To avoid this problem, most physicians believe that antibiotics
should only be used when absolutely necessary.
S K I L L PRACTICE
MEASURING VARIATION IN THE HUMAN HAND

Variation within a species may not be something that is immediately noticeable. Try
this activity to measure the amount of variation within one human characteristic—
hand span. Spread your left hand on a flat surface so that the tip of your thumb is as
far as possible from the tip of your little finger. Ask a partner to measure and record
your hand span in centimetres. Switch roles and measure your partner’s hand span.
Prepare a frequency distribution chart like the one below for hand span data from the
class. Then plot your results in a line graph. (Review Toolbox 7.)
Hand span in cm 12 or less 13 to 16 17 to 20 21 to 24 25 to 28 29 or more
Number of students
• What shape does the graph have? What does it show about variation in hand
span among your classmates?
• Predict whether the graph would have the same shape if you measured the hand
spans of students in grade 1 and in university.
• What advantage might large hands have given to early Homo sapiens? Small
hands?
• What other human characteristics might be measured in the same way? What
prediction could you make about index finger length in humans?

ACTIVITY A-2
Inquiry P R O T E C T I V E C O L O R AT I O N AND S U RV I VA L
Before You Begin
Many species show variation in colour and patterning which can allow individuals to blend
in with their surroundings. Species that are found in a variety of habitats may show a
wider range of colour and pattern variation than those that are found in only one habitat.
In this activity, you will model a population that exists in three different colours. Your
Materials & Equipment task will be to investigate the relationship between an organism’s survival and its colour
• 60 chips of each of three relative to the colour of its surroundings. Coloured chips or blocks will represent a prey
different colours (coloured population and some students in your group will play the role of predators.
counters, coloured algebra
tiles, lego blocks or similar) The Question
• a piece of paper or cloth Does the colour of an organism affect the organism’s chance of survival?
75 cm 75 cm, which
matches one of the chip The Hypothesis
colours Reword the question in the form of a hypothesis.
• graph paper
• colour markers or pencil Procedure
crayons
1 Your teacher will divide the class into groups of five. Three students are to play the
role of predator, one student monitors the population and sets up the population for
each generation, and one student records the results.
2 Your teacher will provide each group with a piece of paper or cloth, 75 cm 75 cm,
to represent the habitat. The colour of the paper or cloth will match one of the
colours of the prey organisms.
3 Set up a data table similar to the one below and record the colour composition of
generation 1. You will start with 20 chips of each colour in generation 1.
Number of Number of Number of

Colour #1 Colour #2 Colour #3
Generation 1
Survivors of Selection 1
Generation 2
Generation 3
Generation 4
Generation 5
4 With the predators looking away, the designated monitor will set up the first
generation of 60 individuals of the prey population on the habitat by randomly
Figure 1.15(a) Step 4. Set-up for scattering 20 chips of each of the three different colours on the habitat. See
generation 1. Figure 1.15(a) for the set-up. The predators continue to look away from the habitat.
5 Have a predator turn around and very quickly take any chip, and then turn back. This
represents selection of a prey animal to be eaten. Repeat the process with each of the
other predators until each predator has taken 10 chips. The 30 chips that remain are
the survivors.

6 Record the colour of the survivors and remove them from the habitat.
7 Assuming that each survivor produces 2 offspring of the same colour, the monitor and
recorder determine the population composition for generation 2. The recorder records the
number of chips of each colour that will make up generation 2.
8 The population monitor will set up generation 2 by placing the appropriate number of chips
of each colour on the habitat.
9 Repeat steps 5–8 until 5 rounds of selection have been completed.
10 Compare the number of survivors of each colour that remain after each selection.
Analyzing and Interpreting

11 Plot bar graphs to show the number of survivors of different colours that remain after each
selection. Decide first how you will show these results; for example, decide if you will show
the results on one graph or three. Examine your set of graphs for trends.
12 How does the composition of the prey population at the end of selection 5 compare with
the original composition of the prey population?
13 Share your results with groups who used a different background colour for the habitat.
Compare your graphs with the graphs of the other groups. Do you see any trends?
14 How do the colours of the survivors relate to their habitat background? Suggest a possible
explanation for this pattern.
Forming Conclusions
15 Based on class results, what conclusions can you draw about the role of coloration in an
organism’s survival?
Applying and Connecting

Imagine a species with two colour variations, one mostly green and one mostly brown. How
might populations of this species change:
a) if the environment changes from green to brown?
b) if the environment becomes a patchwork of tiny green and brown splotches?
Survival of the Banded Snail

The banded snail, Cepea nemoralis, shown in Figure 1.15(b), lives in a
wide range of habitats that vary from dark beech and oak woods to leafy
hedges and grassy meadows. Its shell colour can vary from yellow through
a range of pinkish browns to brown. Bands on the shell can be thin or
thick and can range from one band to many covering the whole shell.
Scientists explain this range in variation by referring to the colour of
the ground and vegetation in the snail’s habitat. The foliage changes with
the seasons. In spring there is little vegetation and the ground is brown,
giving brown snails an advantage. Predators, like the song thrush, may not
find them because they blend in with their surroundings. In summer,
brown snails are more at risk when their shells contrast with green
meadows. Because of the great variation, only part of the snail population
may be predated in any season, ensuring the survival of the species. Figure 1.15(b) Banded snails

NATURAL SELECTION
Another aspect of species survival and variability is natural selection.
Natural selection occurs when the environment “selects” which
individuals will survive long enough to reproduce.
An example of natural selection in our own time occurred in
southwestern Nebraska. In May 1996, a severe cold spell gripped the area
for six days. Dr. Charles Brown, who had been studying the same colony
of cliff swallows for 17 years, watched about 30 000 birds, or about half of
the colony, die of starvation. Why did some birds die and others survive?
To answer this question, Dr. Brown and Mary Bomberger Brown collected
more than 1800 dead cliff swallows. They measured the beaks, wings, and
Figure 1.16 Cliff swallows legs of the dead birds and then measured the same structures on about
1000 survivors. They discovered that the survivors were larger overall,
with bigger beaks and legs. They were also more symmetrical—both sides
of their bodies matched. Because of an extensive banding program, the
Browns were able to determine that before the severe weather, the non-
survivors were just as healthy as the survivors. The Browns hypothesized
that the bigger birds were selected for survival because their larger size
allowed them to store more fat and their greater symmetry allowed them
to forage with less energy loss. The offspring of the survivors were also
large and symmetrical.
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review
1. What is variability?
2. In your own words, define natural selection.

3. Describe several examples of changes in the environment that might
select some individuals in a species for survival over other
individuals. Explain your answers.
4. Describe an example where variability within a species has helped a
species survive an environmental change.

5. Suppose a population of sparrows migrating south for the winter is
blown off course by a storm and the sparrows become isolated on an
island. The only food source available on the island is a plant that
produces large seeds. Predict which birds in the population, those
with large beaks or those with small beaks, will survive to continue
their migration or to populate the island. Explain your answer.

SECTION REVIEW
Assess Your Learning
Key Concept Review
1. Write a definition of biological diversity that includes a description of
its three main components.
2. Define the terms niche and symbiosis. Explain how these terms are
related.
3. How does variability within a species affect its survival?

4. Using examples, explain ways in which different species living within
an ecosystem depend on one another.
5. How does natural selection enhance or reduce the variability of a
species? Explain your answer using an example.
6. Restate the meaning of interspecies competition in your own words.
Use an example to illustrate.
7. How does variation within a species contribute to the health of the
species? Of an ecosystem?
8. Describe your niche.

9. To help you organize your learning about biological diversity,
construct a mind map as a frame in which to record your notes.
Compare your work with a partner to be sure you have captured all
the main ideas and important details in this section.
10. Rewrite the information in this section, simplifying it so that it could
be easily understood by a grade 4 student. Be sure to explain how
diversity among species and within species contributes to species
survival.

On
Activities designed to meet human needs and encourage technological
development can have intended and unintended effects on other species
and the environment.
1. Explain how you think biological diversity benefits humans and other
forms of life on Earth.
2. Almost half of all animal life forms on the planet are insects. How
important is it to preserve those species? Should we be concerned
about ensuring that something as small as the fruit fly is not
eliminated? Why or why not? Would we be better off without insects?
Support your answer.

As species reproduce,
2.0 characteristics are passed
from parents to offspring.
Key Concepts
concepts:
• asexual and sexual
reproduction
• inheritance
Learning Outcomes
• distinguish between asexual
and sexual reproduction and
describe examples of each type
of reproduction
• describe types of variations
found within a species and
determine whether they are
discrete or continuous
• distinguish between heritable
and non-heritable
characteristics
When you walk around a greenhouse, you might notice the number of
possible shapes and sizes of plants. You might also notice that
particular species have particular characteristics. For example, a Boston
fern has large green leaves and no real stem. The coleus plant, however,
has leaves of many different colours growing out of a central stem. What
process ensures that these characteristics in a species are passed down
from generation to generation? The answer is reproduction.
If you look at two coleus plants, you would see that although they
have many similarities in their characteristics, each plant can also have
its own unique versions of certain characteristics. For example, all
coleus plants have velvety leaves, but one plant’s leaf colour may be
dark purple, while another’s is red and yellow. In this section, you will
discover how these variations in characteristics occur.

info BIT
2.1 A Closer Look at Variation
Ancient Breeding
In subsection 1.0, you explored how variation contributes to species
Activities
survival. In the example of the coleus plant, you can see that certain Although the people
characteristics, such as leaf colour, can vary among plants of the same living near the Persian
species. Not all variations are as evident as leaf colour. For example, Jack Gulf during ancient
pines exhibit variation because some trees of this species resist drought times did not know
better than other Jack pines. Magpies show variation because some about modern-day
members of this species can fly longer distances. Different cells of the genetics, they did
same bacteria may vary, making some more resistant to antibiotics. understand that
characteristics were
passed from parents to
offspring. Archeologists
discovered a 6000-year-
old engraved stone
tablet that was used to
record the characteristics
of five generations of
horses. As well, they
found evidence that
these people followed
the same rules that plant
and animal breeders of
today use to “shape” the
characteristics of
Figure 2.1 Although these penguins look almost identical, they vary from one another in subtle ways.
offspring.
To better understand variation, scientists may explore which

characteristics species pass along from generation to generation, and how
these characteristics show up in individuals. Scientists may also examine
other factors, such as the role of the environment in variation.
G I V E I T A TRY
OBSERVING VARIATION IN HUMAN CHARACTERISTICS

Humans have many characteristics that can vary. Some of us are tall, others are short;
some have curly hair, some have straight hair. Some people can bend their thumbs back
toward their wrists. And some have earlobes that hang loose, but others have earlobes
attached to their heads. Even hairlines can vary.
Take a quick survey of your class to find out how many people:
• can or cannot bend their thumb joint “backward” without adding pressure
• have earlobes that are attached or separate
• have a pointed or smooth hairline
Draw a data table to record your results. Create a graph that will best illustrate your
results.
As Species Reproduce, Characteristics Are Passed from Parents to Offspring 27

round green coloured full green tall
wrinkled yellow white pinched yellow short
Figure 2.2 Some of the characteristics in pea plants that scientists have studied include seed shape,
seed colour, flower colour, pod shape, pod colour, and plant height.
HERITABLE AND NON-HERITABLE CHARACTERISTICS

Heritable characteristics are passed on from generation to generation.
Some examples of inherited characteristics are eye colour, hair type, and
skin colour. Non-heritable characteristics are acquired. That is, they are
not passed on to other generations. A person who has learned to play the
piano, for example, will not have children who are born knowing how to
play. The ability to play an instrument is an acquired characteristic.
Similarly, if someone dyes his or her hair a different colour, his or her
children will not inherit the dyed colour.
DISCRETE AND CONTINUOUS VARIATION

Variations can be either discrete or continuous. Discrete variation refers to
differences in characteristics that have a defined form. You can think of
discrete variation as being the “either/or” form of a characteristic. For
example, a cat either has blue eyes or does not have blue eyes. A mouse is
either an albino or it is not an albino. Your earlobes are either attached or
they are not. Continuous variation refers to differences in characteristics
that have a range of forms. They are not one form or another. For example,
the height of adult humans can range from 1.2 m to 2.1 m. In squirrels,
mass can range anywhere between 133 g and 249 g.
VARIATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Figure 2.3 This kangaroo is
an albino. Pigmentation is a Some variations in individual organisms result from interactions with the
discrete variation: albino or environment. Imagine, for example, you have two plants that are
pigmented. completely identical. If you put one plant in a sunny window and the
other in a dim closet, they would soon begin to look very different. The
one in the sunlight would be green and bushy, but the plant in low light
would be a pale green and spindly.

Height is a heritable characteristic. But height can be affected by diet. re SEARCH
In general, North Americans are taller than they were in the 19th century
because of better nutrition and access to a wide variety of food. There Environment’s Role
have always been shorter people and taller people, but North Americans Investigate how plants,
living in the 19th century would likely have been somewhat shorter than such as hydrangea and the
North Americans living today. water buttercup, exhibit
Variations caused by interactions with the environment are not variation depending on the
heritable. You would not expect all the offspring of a plant grown in dim environment they live in.
light to look like its parents unless they too were grown in low-light Use books or electronic
conditions. Similarly, if a child of tall parents doesn’t receive proper resources for your research.
Prepare a chart to display
nutrition, he or she probably will not be as tall as his or her parents.
your findings.
G I V E I T A TRY
IS IT DISCRETE OR CONTINUOUS?
On a signal from your teacher, and with your eyes closed, quickly clasp your hands
together above your head, interlocking your fingers. Now look to see which thumb is on
top: left or right? Try clasping your hands with the other thumb on top. Note which way
feels more natural. Report your personal hand-clasping preference.
• On a chart, record the observations of the class for Left Thumb on Top versus Right
Thumb on Top.
• From the class data, try to determine if there is a hand-clasping preference. Decide
whether it seems to be discrete or continuous. Explain your answer.
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review
1. Give one example of a heritable characteristic and one example of a
non-heritable characteristic. Use examples different from those in the
text.
2. What is discrete variation? What is continuous variation?

3. Some characteristics are heritable but can also be affected by the
environment. Explain how this is true for height in humans.
4. Describe how the environment may affect variation in plants.
5. A scientist wants to study continuous variation in a mouse population.
What mouse characteristics would she or he investigate?

6. Observe your thumb and the thumbs of your classmates. You will see
that there are two types: a straight thumb and a bent-backward (or
hitchhiker’s) thumb. What type of variation does thumb shape show?

info BIT
2.2 Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
Parthenogenesis
Reproduction produces new individuals of a species. The way a species
In some species of animals,
particularly social insects, reproduces determines how much variation the new individuals will have.
such as ants and bees, and Reproduction can produce new individuals that are identical to or
in rotifers (microscopic very different from one another.
invertebrates), a unique
method of asexual ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
reproduction has been
Asexual reproduction involves only one parent. All the offspring that
observed. Parthenogenesis,
meaning “virgin birth” in result from asexual reproduction are identical to that parent. In other
Greek, is the term used to words, they all inherit identical characteristics because the adult makes an
describe the process that exact copy of itself. There are several different forms of asexual
transforms unfertilized reproduction, such as binary fission, budding, spore production, and
eggs into mature vegetative reproduction.
organisms. In bees,
unfertilized eggs become Binary Fission
male drones, while the Only one-celled organisms, such as bacteria, and some protists, such as
fertilized eggs become amoebas and some algae, reproduce by binary fission. During binary
female workers and fission, a cell splits exactly in two, producing two identical individuals.
queens. The process has
also been observed in more
Budding
complex animals, such as
snakes, and more rarely in Organisms such as hydra and yeast reproduce asexually by budding.
plants, such as figs, where During budding, the parent produces a small bud, or a smaller version of
it is called parthenocarpy. itself. In animals, such as hydra, the bud eventually detaches and becomes
a new individual identical to its parent. This is also true of yeast, which is
a unicellular fungus. In other animals, such as coral, the offspring remains
attached to the parent, forming a large structure composed of many
identical individuals.
Spore Production
Many fungi, green algae, some moulds, and non-flowering plants such as
ferns reproduce by producing spores. Spores are similar to seeds, but are
produced by the division of cells of the parent, not by the union of two
cells. One individual will produce many spores, and each spore can
develop into a new individual identical to the parent.
Figure 2.4 Yeast cell budding
Figure 2.5 Spores can

survive unsuitable growing
conditions because they
remain dormant. When
conditions improve, spores
can produce new plants.

Vegetative Reproduction
Most plants are able to reproduce by vegetative reproduction, another
form of asexual reproduction. Vegetative reproduction is the reproduction
of a plant that does not involve the formation of a seed. If you take a
cutting from a coleus plant and place it in water, the cutting will grow
roots and eventually develop into a whole new plant. This is one form of
vegetative reproduction. Many plants, such as strawberries or spider
plants, grow runners that produce new plants along them. Tubers, such as
potatoes on a potato plant, and bulbs, from which daffodils and tulips
develop, are also forms of vegetative reproduction. The roots of aspen
trees produce a form of shoot called a sucker. If the sucker becomes
physically separated from the original tree, it will grow into a new aspen
tree (Figure 2.6). In all these cases, the new individual plants that are
produced will be genetically identical to their parent plant and to one
another.
Figure 2.6 The individual trees in

a stand of aspens are often
identical to one another, as a
result of vegetative reproduction.
Figure 2.7 Offspring of this plant form at the edges of the leaf.
S K I L L PRACTICE
REPRESENTING ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

To help them better understand the processes of asexual reproduction, scientists
use diagrams to record their observations. By comparing such illustrations, they
can identify differences and similarities among asexually reproducing organisms.
Review the different forms of asexual reproduction described on pages 30–31.

Make notes on each type and make a labelled diagram to show how an organism
reproduces by that form.
• Compare your diagrams. Describe any similarities among them.

• Describe any differences.
• Using print and electronic resources, find and illustrate an example of an
asexually reproducing organism not described in this section. Figure 2.8 Diagrams help
scientists compare organisms.

info BIT SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Sexual reproduction usually involves two individuals. Most species of
Hermaphrodites animals and flowering plants reproduce sexually. The offspring of sexual
Common garden worms reproduction will have a mix of the characteristics of both individuals,
and slugs are
ensuring that there is always a mix of characteristics in each generation.
hermaphrodites.
You might think that sexual reproduction always involves a male and
Hermaphrodites can
a female, as it does in humans and other mammals. However, sexual
produce both male and
female gametes. reproduction also occurs in species that we may not think of as having
Although most slugs and males and females, such as flowering plants and coral. These species have
worms usually prefer to specialized forms of sexual reproduction.
mate with other Sexual reproduction in plants or animals relies on the union of two
individuals of their specialized cells known as gametes. A gamete is a cell that has one role
species, in times of only, which is to join with another gamete during reproduction.
environmental stress,
they can fertilize Sexual Reproduction in Animals
themselves. Almost all animal species, from fungi to protists, from salmon to
dragonflies to bears, reproduce sexually. Although the details may vary,
the important events in animal reproduction are the same. Sexual
reproduction involves specialized cells known as gametes (sex cells). The
male gametes are called sperm cells, and the female gametes are known as
egg cells (ova). The union of the sperm cell with the egg cell occurs during
mating and is called fertilization (Figure 2.10). The cell created by the
joining of the two gametes is known as a zygote. The zygote is the first cell
of a new individual. The zygote then divides into two cells. The same
divisions are repeated during a process called cleavage. Continued cell
division results in a new multicellular life form referred to as an embryo.
Depending on the species, the development of the embryo may occur
inside the female parent, which happens in most mammals, or outside, in
an egg, which happens in most other types of animals. The new
individual will show some of the characteristics of its female parent and
Figure 2.9 Only one of the
many sperm cells some of its male parent. Although the new individual may resemble one
surrounding the egg will parent more than the other, it will not be identical to either parent.
fertilize the egg.
male gamete
(sperm cell)
zygote
female
gamete
(egg cell)
fertilization the joining of cell division cell division a multicellular

occurs the male of the continues embryo
when a gamete with the zygote develops
sperm cell female gamete (cleavage)
penetrates produces a takes place
an egg cell single-celled
zygote
Figure 2.10 Sexual reproduction in animals involves specialized cells called gametes.

Sexual Reproduction in Plants
As in animals, sexual reproduction in plants requires the joining of a male
gamete with a female gamete to produce a zygote and an embryo. Most
plants produce both male and female gametes. However, some produce
only female gametes and others only male.
Figure 2.11 shows the parts of a flower that are involved in
reproduction. Most flowers have all of these parts, although the shapes
and sizes of each flower vary. Some flowers are large and showy. Others
are hardly noticeable (Figure 2.12). Pollen contains the male gametes of a
plant. Pollen is found on the stamen, or male part, of the plant. Ovules
contain the female gametes of a plant. Ovules are found in the pistil, or
female part of the plant.
stamen
stigma
style filament anther
Figure 2.11 Flower parts

pistil involved in reproduction
ovary
ovule
petal
sepal
receptacle
Pollination occurs when pollen is transferred from the anther of the

stamen to the stigma of the pistil. Fertilization occurs when the male and
female gametes unite. Cross-pollination occurs when the pollen of one
plant is carried to the stigma of another by wind, water, or animals, such
as bees or butterflies. Cross-fertilization occurs when a grain of this pollen
produces a long tube that eventually grows down the style into the ovary
that contains the ovules. (Pollen grains and ovules are sacs that contain
sex cells.) A gamete in the pollen grain and a gamete in an ovule join and,
as in animals, a zygote is formed. The zygote then begins a series of
divisions to produce an embryo.
The embryo will eventually develop into a new individual. In most
plants, the embryo is produced inside a seed. The seed protects the
embryo and stores food for the embryo to use when it begins to grow into
a new individual. Unlike animals, the new embryo may not begin to grow Figure 2.12 Unlike roses and
lilies, the flowers of prairie
for some time, but stays dormant within the seed until it has suitable
cord grass are very small and
growing conditions. Plants that are produced from cross-fertilization will hardly noticeable. Grasses
show some of the characteristics from the parent that donated female like this depend on wind for
gametes and some from the parent that donated male gametes. It will not pollination.
be identical to either parent.

ACTIVITY A-3
I N V E S T I G AT I N G F L O W E R R E P R O D U C T I V E S T R U C T U R E S
Inquiry
The Question
What are the reproductive structures of a flower?
Procedure
1 On a piece of blank paper, sketch a cross section of the flower as it appears now,
Materials & Equipment
before you dissect it. Label the parts.
• small scalpel with sharp blade
2 Shake the lily gently over the piece of dark cloth. If pollen does not fall onto the cloth,
• magnifying glass
• lily carefully rub the anthers over the material. Using the probe, gently separate out
• piece of dark cloth grains of pollen.
• microscope 3 Prepare a slide to examine the pollen under the microscope. (Review Toolbox 11 on
• slide microscopes.) What do you see at each level of magnification? Record your
• coverslip observations on a recipe card labelled pollen.
• water
4 Peel back the petals of the flower. Label a card petals and use a small amount of glue
• eyedropper
to affix the petals to the card.
• probe
• labelled diagram of parts of a 5 Gently pull away the stamens from the base of the pistil. Label a card with the word
flower (in text) stamen at the top and then draw two lines leading away from the word. At the base
• 5 recipe cards of one line, write the word anther and at the base of the second line, write the word
• white glue filament. Carefully separate the two parts of the stamen and glue them under the
• poster board correct headings.
6 Dissect the pistil, cutting lengthwise from the stigma through the style, then through
the ovary at the bottom. Label a card pistil and glue one-half of the cross section to
Caution! it. Label the section of the pistil.
Use care when 7 Using a magnifying glass and probe, examine the ovule inside the ovary. Record your
handling the scalpel observations on a card labelled ovary.
and the probe.
8 Review the recipe cards that you have assembled as you dissected the flower. How
do you think these separate pieces work together to reproduce a new plant?
9 Go back to your sketch of the parts of the flower before you dissected it. In pencil,
show the process of reproduction as you think it occurs.
10 What characteristics do a pollen grain and an ovule have that help them carry out
their roles in sexual reproduction?
11 Review your work with a partner or other group, and then share ideas with the whole
class. Revise your sketch as necessary.
12 Arrange your recipe cards and sketch on a piece of poster board to create a display
of your work.
Forming Conclusions
13 In a paragraph, summarize the roles each of the plant parts play in sexual
reproduction and how these parts have characteristics that help them perform their
roles.
Figure 2.13 Examining flower
structures

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL AND SEXUAL re SEARCH
REPRODUCTION
Alternating Asexual and
Variation helps a species survive by giving it the ability to survive
Sexual Reproduction
changes in its environment. You have seen that the way an organism
Some simple life forms,
reproduces affects how much variation will occur in its offspring. Asexual
such as the jellyfish, will
reproduction produces no variation in heritable characteristics. Could it
alternate between sexual
ever help a species not to have variation? and asexual
reproduction. That is,
Advantages and Disadvantages of Asexual Reproduction one generation will be
Asexual reproduction does not require any specialized cells or a way of produced sexually and
bringing gametes together. As a result, asexual reproduction can produce the next, asexually.
lots of individuals very quickly. For example, if conditions are right, a Mosses also follow this
bacterium can reproduce asexually every 20 min. Over a 12-h period, a pattern. Research other
single bacterium can divide to produce 10 million copies of itself. This is a examples of life forms
great advantage in environments that do not change very much. For that fall into this
category. Write a
example, bacteria that live in the gut of an animal will always have a
paragraph about the
warm, moist environment to live in while the animal is alive. Producing
advantage to a species of
many copies of a bacterial cell that is suited to that environment is a safer
alternating different
bet for survival than producing a smaller number of bacteria with many forms of reproduction?
variations that may never be needed. Species that reproduce asexually Begin your research at
invest energy to produce as many identical copies of themselves as www.pearsoned.ca/
possible to build a large population quickly. scienceinaction.
The main disadvantage of asexual reproduction is that if conditions
become unfavourable, the entire population may be wiped out. For
example, every single one of those 10 million identical bacteria could be
killed if they have no resistance to an antibiotic that is applied to them.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction has the advantage of providing lots of variation,
which helps species survive environmental change. The main
disadvantage of sexual reproduction is that it takes a lot of energy. A
flowering plant, for example, has to produce all the parts of its flower, as
well as pollen grains and ovules in order to reproduce. The flower parts
must provide a way for the gametes to meet, such as producing lots of
pollen to be blown by the wind or by attracting pollinators. The flower
must also protect and nurture the embryo in a seed until the seed is
dispersed. Therefore, an organism that reproduces sexually puts a lot of
energy and time into producing variable offspring. Because of this great
demand, sexually reproducing organisms can only produce a limited
number of offspring.
ORGANISMS THAT REPRODUCE BOTH SEXUALLY AND ASEXUALLY

Some species have the ability to reproduce both sexually and asexually by
various means. Most plants that produce seeds by sexual reproduction can
also reproduce asexually, either from cuttings or by producing structures
such as bulbs or runners.

Some plants can use their seeds to reproduce both asexually and
sexually. In the asexual method, embryos develop in the seeds without the
contribution of sperm cells. These seeds will grow into plants that are
genetically identical to the parent plant. Some species of grasses,
sunflowers, and roses can do this.
Some animal species can also reproduce both ways. Aphids are small
insects that feed on the sap of certain plants. Throughout the growing
season, females produce live female young without fertilization, or
asexually. These all-female young mature and also reproduce asexually.
Over the summer, several generations are produced. In the fall, when days
shorten and the temperature drops, the females produce a generation that
Figure 2.14 To reproduce
includes both males and females. These males and females reproduce
sexually, sponges release
sperm cells into the water,
sexually and lay eggs that will hatch in the spring to produce new colonies.
which are captured by special Sponges can also reproduce both sexually and asexually (Figure 2.14).
cells and carried to egg cells.
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review
1. What is a zygote and how is it formed?
2. Define asexual reproduction. List three examples of asexual
reproduction.
3. Make a table to compare the male and female gametes in plants.
Indicate where they are found.
4. List three ways in which pollination can occur. Give an example of
each.

5. What is similar about sperm cells and egg cells? What is different?
6. List the steps of fertilization and embryo development in animal
sexual reproduction. Be sure to include the words “gametes” and
“zygote” in your description.
7. Explain what happens to male and female gametes during sexual
reproduction in plants and animals.
8. Using a Venn diagram, compare and contrast sexual and asexual
reproduction.

9. An individual produced by asexual reproduction may be identical to
one of its parents. Do you agree or disagree with this statement?
Support your answer.
10. Use a simple sketch to illustrate the process of fertilization in plants.
11. A flower produces a seed. Explain why this is an example of sexual
reproduction.

SECTION REVIEW
Key Concept Review
1. Give three examples of a heritable characteristic.
2. Make a table to compare the advantages and disadvantages of sexual and
asexual reproduction.
3. An amoeba reproduces by binary fission. Briefly describe the process of binary
fission. Explain whether it is an example of sexual or asexual reproduction.

4. A person with hitchhiker’s thumb plays guitar with a local rock band.
Explain how she displays both heritable and non-heritable characteristics.
5. Compare the process of fertilization in plants and animals.
6. Using a diagram, explain how a zygote forms in a flowering plant.
7. Compare discrete and continuous variation using a Venn diagram.
8. Describe the steps of vegetative reproduction that occur when a plant is
grown from a cutting. Why is this process considered to be an example of
asexual reproduction?

9. Imagine a population of Martians. In this population, there are only three
types of eye colour: black, bright purple, and orange. However, there are
many different leg and arm lengths in the population. How would you
describe the variation for eye colour as opposed to the variation for arm
and leg length in the Martian population?
10. Imagine an organism that lives where there are often big changes in
environmental conditions. What type of reproduction would be more
advantageous for this organism? Explain your answer.

On
Our knowledge about how organisms reproduce and how variation within
species is maintained has been enhanced by increasingly sophisticated
technology. Think about what you have learned in this section about variation
and answer these questions.
1. If you were researching plants to grow in colder climates, why would an
understanding of the variations within a plant species be important?
2. Why is it important to understand the advantages and disadvantages of
both sexual and asexual reproduction?
3. Based on what you have learned in this section, what are three questions
you have that are related to the information presented?

DNA is the inherited
3.0 material responsible for
variation.
Key Concepts
concepts:
• chromosomes, genes, and
DNA
• cell division
• inheritance
Learning Outcomes
• describe the relationship
among chromosomes, genes,
and DNA, and their role in
storing genetic information
• distinguish between cell
division during asexual
reproduction and cell division One of the most endangered species on Earth is the Bengal tiger. These
during sexual reproduction tigers, once plentiful on the subcontinent of India, have dwindled from
• investigate the transmission of 40 000 in 1900 to 4500–6000 today. Most scientists speculate that the
characteristics from parents to Bengal tiger will disappear unless humans act to prevent its extinction.
offspring, and identify
One important way to save the Bengal tiger (and other species threatened
examples of different patterns
with extinction) is to develop captive breeding programs.
of inheritance
Like all sexually reproducing species, the Bengal tiger has the best
• identify examples of dominant
and recessive characteristics
chance of long-term survival if there is a lot of variation within the
species. Without variation, the species would be unable to survive
changes in the environment, and would be more vulnerable to
extinction. But with so few Bengal tigers left, how can that variation be
maintained?
One tiger looks very like another to our eyes, but there are ways of
finding subtle differences between individuals. Using modern
technology, geneticists and zoo staff can analyze the tigers’ genetic
material to determine how similar two tigers are. To do this, scientists and
breeders must have a thorough knowledge of the structure of genetic
material and how it functions. They also have to be familiar with patterns
of inheritance. This knowledge helps them analyze the tigers’ genetic
material, decide if the two tigers are different enough from each other to
breed, and predict the characteristics the cubs are likely to have.

info BIT
3.1 DNA—Transmitter of Genetic Code
Gene Map Complete
In section 2.0, you learned that the offspring of a sexually reproducing In February 2001, two
species are not genetically identical to their parents. If they were groups of scientists
identical, there would be little variation among the members of a species. simultaneously
However, these offspring do resemble their parents because particular announced they had
characteristics are passed on from generation to generation. People have completed a first draft
taken advantage of this transmission of genetic information between of a map of all the
parents and offspring to produce many breeds of domestic plants and genes in a human.
animals. However, unlike breeding programs to help save the Bengal tiger, They estimated that
the breeding of purebred dogs was not intended to promote variation. But humans have about
many different breeds of dogs were developed that had specific, desired 30 000 genes.
Previously, scientists
characteristics. This has made Canis familiaris one of the most physically
had thought we had
varied species on Earth (Figure 3.1).
about 100 000 genes.
G I V E I T A TRY
SUPERDOGS
Humans and dogs have had a close relationship since the end of the Ice Age, roughly
12 000 years ago. Descended from wolves, many of the approximately 400 modern breeds of
dog we see today still share many physical characteristics with wolves. Some scientists think
that canids (early dogs) adapted to human settlement. Others think that humans chose
canids whose aggressive behaviours had been selected out. One of the extraordinary abilities
of dogs is their capacity to learn and be trained.
As a class brainstorm a list of superdogs, such as TV show dogs or dogs that perform
special tasks, such as police dogs.
• Determine the breed of each superdog.
• Choose one dog and, in pairs, brainstorm a list of characteristics your dog displays that
help it do its job. Infer which characteristics are typical of the breed.
• If you have time, research the characteristics your dog’s breed typically has. Begin your
search at www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction.
• Prepare a chart to compare and contrast the
characteristics of your superdog with those
of a typical dog of the breed. What
similarities and differences do you find?
Figure 3.1 These animals are all the

same species. Selecting parents,
over many generations, for a
particular characteristic, such as ear
shape, eventually produced these
very different breeds.
DNA Is the Inherited Material Responsible for Variation 39

DNA
Why do the puppies of Chihuahua dogs turn out to be Chihuahuas? Why
don’t they turn out looking like Dalmations instead? The reason is that the
Chihuahua parents pass on a “blueprint” to their offspring, so that each
puppy receives a complete set of instructions for making a Chihuahua
dog. Every multicellular organism on Earth contains a blueprint for
making a copy of itself in each of its body cells.
Imagine how much information must be in these blueprints and how
many different blueprints there are. For example, a parrot’s blueprint must
describe how to make all its different coloured feathers, its specially
designed beak, and its remarkable voice. The blueprint for a spruce tree
must have instructions for making the straight, slim needles, the sticky,
Figure 3.2 Micrograph of
perfumed resin, and the thick, tall trunk. What could store so much
DNA information, and pass it on from generation to generation? Canadian
scientist Oswald Avery helped to answer this question when he proposed
that a large molecule first found in cells’ nuclei is responsible for storing
such information and passing it on. This molecule, deoxyribonucleic acid,
or DNA for short, is the inherited material responsible for variation.
All living organisms contain DNA in their cells. When the cells of the
organism, such as the cells of mammals and plants, contain a nucleus,
DNA is found in the nucleus. Figure 3.3 will remind you of where the
nucleus of a cell can be found.
nucleus nucleus
Animal cell Plant cell
Figure 3.3 Study the location of the nucleus in the animal cell diagram and the plant cell
diagram. Now locate the nucleus of each cell in the micrographs below the diagrams.

DNA and the Genetic Code
DNA was first identified in 1869, but little was known about the
structure of the molecule or its role in heredity. After analyzing cells of
many different organisms—ranging from bacteria to plants and
animals—scientists found DNA in all of them. In 1944, Avery confirmed
that DNA was the material of inheritance and this posed a new
question. How could the blueprints for so many different organisms be thymine
passed on by what seemed to be exactly the same molecule? Solving adenine
this puzzle was one of the greatest scientific achievements of the last
century, and involved two scientists whose names became known
worldwide, James Watson and Francis Crick. By unravelling the guanine
structure of DNA, Watson and Crick revealed how the same chemical cytosine
building blocks could carry such a wide range of instructions needed
for the diversity we observe in the living world.
The DNA molecule can be compared to a ladder that has been
twisted into a continuous spiral (Figure 3.4). The uprights of the twisted
molecular ladder are identical all along its length. However, the rungs
vary in composition. Each individual rung pairs up just two of the
following four chemicals: guanine (orange), cytosine (blue), adenine
(green), and thiamine (violet), or G, C, A, and T, for short.
The arrangement of these four chemicals, G, C, A, and T, forms a
code that cells can read. You know that the 26 letters in our alphabet
can be rearranged to form the millions of words we can read. Similarly,
the genetic code is based on arranging the four chemical “letters” into
“words,” or instructions, that describe how to make any particular
organism. In other words, all the blueprints for all the species on Earth
are written in the same language!
CHROMOSOMES
DNA contains all the instructions for an organism’s characteristic Figure 3.4 Paired
features. Because every organism has so many physical and chemical chemicals make up the
characteristics, there is a lot of DNA in a cell. If the DNA from a typical “rungs” of the DNA
human body cell was stretched out, it would be about two metres long, “ladder” and form the
genetic code. The overall
more than 1 000 000 times longer than the cell it came from! To fit such
shape of the DNA molecule
a large amount of DNA into their cells, organisms arrange their DNA is helical, like the spiral
into packages. These packages are called chromosomes. binding on a notebook.
In organisms such as plants and animals, the chromosomes are
located inside the cell nucleus. Each human cell nucleus, for example,
contains 46 chromosomes. You could think of one chromosome as a
single volume of an encyclopedia, and the set of chromosomes as the
complete encyclopedia. If you were missing a single volume of an
encyclopedia, you could be missing information you might need some
time in the future. This is also true for our chromosomes. One
chromosome contains only part of the instructions for making a human.
All of our nuclei, except for those in the gametes, must have a complete
set of chromosomes.

ACTIVITY A-4
Decision USEFUL GENES?

Making The Issue
What are the questions and issues raised by new technologies for recombining genetic
material?
Background Information
New genetic technologies and research like the Human Genome Project have allowed
scientists to investigate the human genetic code better than ever before. The goal of the
project was to identify all of the genes that comprise the human body. In the course of their
research, scientists discovered that the human genome consists of about 30 000 genes.
This was surprising as scientists expected to find 100 000 genes. Scientists now suggest
that the role of human genes is much more complex than originally thought.
Having such detailed information on human DNA has advanced research on a variety
of genetic technologies, such as cloning, and genetic disorders, such as cystic fibrosis,
muscular dystrophy, and Huntington’s disease. Such emerging technologies have led to a
variety of questions and issues related to their development and application in both
genetic research and treating genetic disorders.
Analyze and Evaluate

Select Part A or B and write a short report using the following questions as your guide.
Use library resources and internet resources that have been approved by your teacher.
Begin your search for information at www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction. Be sure to
evaluate your sources in terms of how recent they are and how reliable the information
seems.
Part A—New Genetic Technologies to Treat Genetic Disorders

1 Select one of the genetic disorders mentioned on this page or a disorder of your choice.
2 Research how the disorder is being treated today.
Figure 3.5 Collecting samples 3 Describe how emerging genetic technologies may be used to treat this disorder in the
for the Human Genome Project future.
4 What potential questions or issues may arise from the use of this new treatment?
Part B—Emerging Recombinant Genetic Technologies

1 Select one of the genetic technologies from Section 4.2 on pages 67 and 68 or
another genetic technology you have heard about.
2 Research and describe how this technology works.
3 Describe possible applications for this technology.
4 What potential questions or issues may arise from the use of this new technology?

For humans, a complete set has 46 chromosomes. For dogs, however, a
complete set has 78 chromosomes, and for cats, the number is 38. In most
re SEARCH
familiar organisms, the chromosomes are organized into pairs. So the
Canadian Contributions
body cells of a human contain 23 pairs of chromosomes, while a dog’s
to Genetics
body cells contain 39 pairs, and a cat’s body cells contain 19 pairs.
Research the work of
These examples show that chromosome number varies from one Canadian scientists, such
species to another. It is important to realize that the composition of the as Oswald Avery and
chromosomes varies as well. For example, the eyes of a typical dog have Irene Ayako Uchida, and
round pupils, while the eyes of a typical cat have slit-shaped pupils. So their contributions to our
the dog’s chromosomes must contain genetic code that reads “make round knowledge of inheritance
pupil.” The cat’s chromosomes must contain a different genetic code, one and genetics. Develop a
that reads “make slit-shaped pupil.” Such differences are the source of short script for a
diversity from one species to another. documentary that could
be made about their
achievements.
Figure 3.6 The 23 pairs of chromosomes of the human male.

On the right, a close up of the X chromosome.
GENES
Current scientific thinking is that genes are responsible
for the inheritance of an organism’s characteristic
features. A single gene is an uninterrupted segment of
DNA, which contains coded instructions.
Much of the early research into genes was carried
out on the fruit fly. Researchers found that:
• Genes are located on the chromosomes.
• Each chromosome contains numerous gene
locations.
• Like chromosomes, genes come in pairs.
• Both genes in a pair carry DNA instructions for
the same thing. Leg length in the fruit fly is an
example.
• In the fruit fly, the two leg-length genes occupy Figure 3.7 David Vetter, the “bubble boy,” lived for 12
years inside a plastic bubble. He had Severe Combined
matching locations on the two chromosomes.
Immune Deficiency (SCID), a genetic disorder that made
• The DNA code may not be exactly the same in his body incapable of fighting disease. The gene for
both locations. SCID is found on the X chromosome.

ACTIVITY A-5
Problem SHOWING THE R E L AT I O N S H I P S

Solving Recognize a Need
A grade 8 class has just studied the structure of cells and the students are interested in
learning more about genetic material and how it is organized. Their science teacher has
asked you to explain to them the relationships among DNA, genes, and chromosomes.
The Problem
Design a way to visually summarize the relationships among DNA, genes, and
chromosomes. Be creative. It could be a poster, Web page, model, skit, story, song, or
any other method you choose to convey the information.
Criteria for Success

To be successful, your presentation must meet the following criteria:
• solve the problem described above
• show the relationships accurately
• be appealing and understandable for grade 8 students
Brainstorm Ideas
1 Work with a partner or in a small group. Brainstorm ways to convey the information.
All ideas should be considered.
2 Look for ways to blend the best of the group’s suggestions.
Design Your Presentation

3 Plan out your presentation. Write out your plan in detail.
4 Create your presentation.
Test and Evaluate

5 How effectively does your presentation convey the information?
6 How does your work compare with that of your classmates?
Communicate
7 Share and compare your design with others in the class. Highlight the features that
make your presentation both accurate and effective.
8 Is there anything you could do to improve your design?
Figure 3.8 Planning a 9 As you were completing your presentation, did you have any questions about the
presentation to explain relationships among DNA, genes, and chromosomes?
relationships among DNA,
10 Assess your group’s effectiveness at planning and creating your design. What did you
genes, and chromosomes
do well? What could you improve?

Offspring inherit genes from both parents. For example, a fruit fly
inherits one gene for leg length from its mother and one from its father.
However, the leg-length gene exists in two possible forms: short leg or long
leg. The wing-shape gene also exists in two possible forms: long or dumpy.
So the two genes in a particular pair may not be identical.
Much of what scientists have learned about inheritance in fruit flies can
be applied to most other organisms, including humans. In fact, most genes
in most species exist in an array of possible forms that differ as to their exact
DNA sequence. These possible forms are known as alleles.
To understand how chromosomes, genes, and alleles are linked to
inherited characteristics, think about dogs. All dogs belong to the same
species, and all ordinary, healthy dogs have a hairy coat. So we could begin
by thinking of “hairy coat” as an example of an inherited characteristic.
But when we observe dogs, we see many different versions of “hairy
coat.” The hair may be straight or curly, short or long, coarse or fine, and the Figure 3.9 A chromosome
alternative versions of coat colour are almost too numerous to count. pair. Each member carries
Observing this variation, we can make three inferences. First, “hairy the same genes. The different
alleles are marked by
coat” is almost certainly more than just a single characteristic, it must
uppercase and lowercase
involve a combination of several characteristics. Second, more than one letters.
gene pair may be involved in determining the individual details of a dog’s
hairy coat. For example, there could be one gene pair for hair length, a
second gene pair for waviness, and another gene pair for texture. Third,
there may be several possible alleles for each gene pair. For coat colour
alone, there must be ten or more possible alleles, all in just one species!
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review 7. Which of the following contain DNA?
1. Define the term DNA in your own words Explain your answer.
and explain its function. a) chromosome
2. What four chemicals make up the genetic b) nucleus of a cell
code? Describe how these chemicals are c) gene
arranged in a DNA molecule. 8. Explain how a chromosome may be
3. What is a chromosome? Describe its involved in the inheritance of a disease,
function. such as Severe Combined Immune
Deficiency.
4. What is an allele? Describe its function.
5. Create a mini-dictionary of the key terms Extend Your Understanding
in this subsection. Use colours or 9. Create a mind map illustrating the
illustrations as aids for remembering the relationship among DNA, genes, and
terms and their meanings. chromosomes. What is their role in storing
genetic material?
10. If a chromosome is compared to a book,
6. Explain why chromosomes are considered
what would the words in the book be
to be the “source of diversity.”
compared to? Explain your answer.

3.2 Cell Division
You have learned that the outcome of asexual reproduction is the
info BIT production of offspring genetically identical to the parent. You have also
seen that the outcome of sexual reproduction is the production of
A Hypothesis That offspring that are genetically different from their parents. Scientists have
Changed spent many centuries exploring the processes that result in these
outcomes.
CELL DIVISION AND ASEXUAL

REPRODUCTION
When a unicellular paramecium
splits to form two new organisms
during binary fission, its cell
contents are divided equally
Until the late 1600s, Figure 3.10 In asexual reproduction, the two
scientists hypothesized between the two new cells (Figure new paramecium cells must get the same
that a human child was 3.10). But if its DNA molecules amount of DNA.
the product of only one were divided between the two
parent. They thought that organisms, each new individual would have only half the DNA of the
sperm held a fully formed parent cell, and half the genetic information it would need to function. To
tiny fetus that grew in avoid this, the parent cell first makes an exact copy of its DNA, and each
size for nine months until chromosome doubles. For a short time, the parent cell has twice the
it was large enough to be amount of DNA it usually has. When the cell eventually divides, each
born. Around 1685, Anton new cell gets one complete copy of the DNA.
van Leeuwenhoek In multicellular organisms, such as humans, petunias, and gophers,
improved the microscope,
the process that produces two new cells with the same number of
which provided evidence
chromosomes is called mitosis. Mitosis occurs in the body cells of
that no longer supported
multicellular organisms and is responsible for the growth and cellular
this hypothesis.
repair of a multicellular organism.
CELL DIVISION AND SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS

During sexual reproduction, the specialized sex cells (gametes) unite to
form a zygote, which then develops into a new organism. One parent (the
male) provides the male gamete and the other parent (the female) provides
the female gamete. If the sex cells contained the same amount of DNA as
every other cell, then the zygote would receive twice the amount of DNA
it needs. Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces cells with only
half the DNA of a normal cell. Because each gamete has only half the DNA
of a normal cell, when the male and female gametes unite, the zygote has
a complete set of DNA.
Meiosis involves two cell divisions, not just one. Recall that organisms
that undergo sexual reproduction contain pairs of chromosomes. Each
chromosome in the pair contains the same set of genes, but may contain
different alleles (forms) of those genes. A gamete must contain only one
copy of each different chromosome. To do this, cells must divide twice
(Figure 3.11).

Mitosis Meiosis
chromosomes
first cell
division
cell division second cell division
Figure 3.11 Comparison of mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis produces two offspring cells with the
same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Meiosis produces four sex cells that have half the
number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
re SEARCH
Neverending Cells
When Henrietta Lacks’ physician removed cells from her about 50 times in the laboratory before they die. So what
body in 1951 to test for cervical cancer, neither of them made Henrietta’s cells so special? Research the history of
could have imagined that these cells would still be the HeLa cell and prepare a report. Begin your search at
reproducing today. Since 1951, scientists all over the world www. pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction. Include information
have used HeLa cells in their explorations of cell structure about Henrietta and her family. Explore any issues that may
and genetics. Usually, human body cells can divide only have arisen from the use of her cells for research.

G I V E I T A TRY
WHO HAS WHAT NUMBER?

Organisms of the same species have the same number of chromosomes, but different species have
different numbers of chromosomes. Copy this table into your notebook and complete the table to
compare chromosome numbers in some common species.
Organism Number of Number of Number of Number of Number of pairs of

chromosomes in a cell chromosomes in a chromosomes in a chromosomes in a chromosomes
at the end of mitosis body cell gamete zygote
cabbage 18
black bear 38
human 23
peanut 40
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review
1. Describe a type of cell division that occurs during the asexual
reproduction of a unicellular organism.
2. What type of cell division is required for sexual reproduction? How
does it differ from cell division during asexual reproduction?
3. Describe the type of cell division that occurs in the body cells of
multicellular organisms.

4. Using diagrams, explain what happens to the DNA during cell
division to produce sex cells (gametes).
5. When a cell divides during asexual reproduction, it divides its cell
contents between the two resulting cells. Describe what happens to the
DNA of the cell during this type of cell division. Explain how this
process ensures that the same characteristics are passed from
generation to generation.
6. Why does sexual reproduction produce offspring with characteristics
that are different from their parents, whereas offspring produced
through asexual reproduction are identical to their parents?

7. If the amount of DNA in a gamete of an organism is n, is the amount of
1
DNA in the body cells of that organism equal to 2– n, n, or 2n? Explain.
8. Which form of cell division—binary fission or meiosis—poses the
lower risk for the transmission of genetic disorders? Support your
answer.

and
Careers Profiles
Dietician/Genetic Associate
Barb Marriage holds a unique and challenging position with

the University of Alberta’s Department of Medical Genetics.
Barb combines her background in nutrition with her
knowledge of human genetics to work with people who
have inherited metabolic disorders or inborn errors of
metabolism. Most of her 165 patients have conditions that
deal with enzyme deficiencies, including: PKU, maple sugar
urine disease, galactosemia, glycogen storage disease,
Gaucher disease, and lysosomal storage diseases. These
conditions require specialized diets that need to be
monitored by someone like Barb. Her Bachelor of Science
degree and Masters of Science degree in nutrition have led
to her working on completing a Ph.D. in Medical Sciences.
Diagnosing and treating the conditions are only part of

Barb’s role. Genetic counselling, working with lab
personnel, co-ordinating other health professionals and
resources, and acting as an advocate for funding and
government support are also part of her job.
Because 95% of Barb’s patients are children, she works

closely with their families to provide ongoing support. Her
relationships with these people often continue for many Figure 3.12 Being a dietician and a genetic associate has
years, and she gets a lot of satisfaction from her many challenges and rewards.
involvement with the families. Receiving cards and
photographs from patients’ families and being invited to
take part in special family events are examples of the
rewards that make her career gratifying. In cases where a
1. What special skills would a person need
child’s disease is especially serious, personal contact is very
to be a successful dietician? Genetic
important. It requires a special touch and sensitivity to the
associate?
family’s values and beliefs.
2. Does being a dietician or a genetic
Barb’s professional schedule is hectic. An average week
associate seem like an appealing career?
includes 60 hours of work. She is also on call for
Why or why not?
emergencies 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. However, that
still leaves some spare time for her to be a marathon
runner. She also has an interest in sports medicine. In
2001, she accompanied a men’s sports team to Japan,
providing medical and nutritional assistance.

info BIT
3.3 Patterns of Inheritance
The Science of Genetics
Long before research scientists discovered chromosomes and genes, plant
Genetics is the study of
how heritable and animal breeders were conducting experiments in controlled breeding.
characteristics are passed To prevent unwanted outcomes, only animals with the most desirable
on from generation to characteristics, or traits, were allowed to reproduce. Early experiments in
generation. Genetics controlled breeding were not always successful. Mating champion males
began with the careful with champion females did not always produce champion dogs, horses,
work of an Austrian cattle, or cats. But by keeping written records of failures as well as
monk, Gregor Mendel successes, the breeders began to detect certain basic patterns of
(1822-1884). Starting with inheritance. Scientists now explain the patterns they discovered in terms
carefully chosen parents of alleles. In this subsection, you will focus on the inheritance of coat
that had several colour in cats, and will consider only two coat colours: black and white.
observable characteristics,
Mendel traced the
patterns of inheritance in
PUREBRED VERSUS HYBRID
pea plants over several A breeder who wishes to produce white cats should choose purebred
generations, and parents: cats whose ancestors have produced only white offspring for
discovered some several generations. The term “true-breeding” is applied to such a lineage.
fundamental principles Preferably, the chosen parents will come from two different true-breeding
that led to modern
lineages of white cats. Similarly, a breeder who wishes to produce black
genetics.
cats should choose purebred parents from lineages that breed true for
black coat colour.
An individual produced by crossing two purebred parents that differ
in a trait such as coat colour is known as a hybrid. Now, suppose a
purebred black cat is crossbred with a white cat. What pattern of
inheritance will be observed in the hybrid offspring?
DOMINANT TRAITS
Figure 3.13 shows the result of crossbreeding a purebred white female cat
with a purebred black male cat. Notice that every kitten in the resulting
litter has a black coat. Crossing a purebred black female with a purebred
white male will produce the same result. No matter how many times the
experiment is repeated, all of the offspring will have black coats: never
white, never grey, only black. Black coat colour in cats is an example of a
dominant trait.
mother father
Figure 3.13 Cross

between purebred
white female cat and
purebred black male
cat. Black fur is the
dominant trait.
kitten kitten kitten kitten

By definition, the kittens are hybrids, but they look exactly like
purebred black kittens. There is no outward sign that their mother had a
white coat. Why is that? Recall that all offspring of sexual reproduction
inherit genes from both parents. Both genes in a pair carry DNA
instructions for the same thing; in this case the “thing” is coat colour.
However, the specific DNA instructions carried by the alleles may not be
identical.
We can see that the hybrid kittens have inherited an allele for black
coat colour from their father. We can infer that the hybrid kittens must
also have inherited an allele for white coat colour because no alternative
alleles are present in the mother’s lineage. However, the DNA code carried
by the white-coat allele has somehow been ignored, or suppressed. Only
the DNA instructions carried by the black-coat allele have actually been
carried out. So, mating unlike purebred cats has revealed that DNA
instructions carried by the black-coat allele are dominant over the DNA
instructions carried by the white-coat allele.
RECESSIVE TRAITS
Has the white-coat allele in the hybrid kittens been completely dominated
by the black-coat allele? To find out, a second experiment can be
conducted crossbreeding hybrid black offspring once they become adults.
Figure 3.14 shows the average results of this experiment: three out of
every four kittens will have black coats, while one will be white. If the
experiment is repeated until there are 100 offspring, you might expect
about 75 to be black and about 25 to be white.
mother father
kitten kitten kitten kitten
Figure 3.14 The kittens from Figure 3.13 are the parents in this cross.
In this new experiment, each hybrid parent possessed one black-coat

allele, and one white-coat allele, though neither showed any sign of white
fur. When the hybrid cats were crossed, each parent passed on one allele
for coat colour to each kitten. (Remember, parents can only pass on half of
their chromosomes, thus, half of their genes.)

A kitten from the experiment on page 51 might receive alleles in four
possible combinations:
1. One black-coat allele from its hybrid father and one black-coat allele
from its hybrid mother. The two sets of DNA instructions “agree” with
each other, so the kitten will have black fur.
2. One black-coat allele from its mother and one white-coat allele from
its father. The DNA instructions “contradict” each other, but we have
seen that black fur is a dominant trait. The kitten will have black fur.
3. One white-coat allele from its mother and one black-coat allele from
its father. Again, the DNA instructions “contradict” each other, but
black fur is a dominant trait. The kitten will have black fur.
4. One white-coat allele from its mother and one white-coat allele from
its father. This time, the DNA instructions “agree” with each other, so
the kitten will have white fur.
White fur is thus an example of a recessive trait, and the allele for
white fur is an example of a recessive allele. The allele for black fur is an
example of a dominant allele. A recessive trait appears in the offspring
only if two recessive alleles are inherited. In contrast, even one dominant
allele will cause the dominant trait to appear.
G I V E I T A TRY
EXPLORING GENETIC POSSIBILITIES

In sexual reproduction, chromosomes are inherited In fruit flies, there are two possible alleles for eye
in pairs: one from each parent. In an offspring, the colour: red-eye and purple-eye.
combination of alleles carried on the chromosomes • List three possible ways to pair these alleles.
determines what the offspring is like. • For each pair, what eye colour you would expect an
In fruit flies, there are two possible alleles for leg offspring to develop? Explain why you cannot be
length: long-leg and short-leg. sure for all three cases.
• Suppose a fruit fly inherits two long-leg alleles. In fruit flies, there are two possible alleles for wing
Will this fruit fly develop long legs or short legs? shape: long-wing and dumpy-wing.
Explain your reasoning. • List three possible ways that these alleles might be
• Suppose a second fruit fly inherits two copies of paired in an offspring.
the short-leg allele. Will this fruit fly develop long
• For each pair, what wing shape would you expect
legs or short legs? Explain your reasoning.
an offspring to develop? Explain why you cannot
• Suppose a third fruit fly inherits one short-leg
be sure for all three cases.
allele and one long-leg allele. Explain why you
An individual fruit fly might have long legs, purple
cannot be sure what leg length this offspring will
eyes, and long wings. What other combinations of
develop.
leg length, eye colour, and wing shape are possible?
Make sketches to illustrate your answer.

OTHER PATTERNS OF INHERITANCE
Incomplete Dominance
The dominant-recessive pattern of inheritance does not always prevail.
When a purebred snapdragon bearing red flowers is crossed with a
purebred snapdragon bearing white flowers, the offspring are neither red
nor white. Instead, the flowers are pink, a colour intermediate between red
and white (Figure 3.15). This pattern of inheritance is known as
incomplete dominance. Both the white-flower allele and the red-flower
allele have played a part in determining the flower colour of the offspring
plants. Neither the white trait nor the red trait is truly dominant, and
neither is truly recessive.
Figure 3.15 Four o’clock flowers also show incomplete dominance. The pink-flowered plants in the
middle had a parent with red flowers and a parent with white flowers.
Offspring Unlike Either Parent

You know that human babies inherit their DNA from their parents, and
the offspring are never exactly like either parent. Suppose a father has
black hair and brown eyes. The mother has brown hair and brown eyes.
Their baby has red hair and blue eyes. Why does this happen?
Scientists once hypothesized that eye colour was determined by just
one pair of alleles at a single gene location. So they thought that a baby’s
blue eyes were caused by two recessive alleles: one from each parent.
Modern geneticists know it is not that simple. Two blue-eyed parents can
produce a brown-eyed child. It is even possible for a person to have one
blue eye and one brown eye. Thus, the inheritance of eye colour in
humans is too complex to be explained solely by the dominant-recessive
pattern or even by incomplete dominance.
Similarly, incomplete dominance cannot explain the baby’s red hair.
Its coppery colour is not what would be expected by “mixing” brown
pigment and black pigment. For hair colour, eye colour, and skin colour,
many gene locations and several possible alleles may be involved.

re SEARCH Environmental Factors
In section 2.0, you learned that environmental factors, such as poor
More Patterns nutrition, can prevent children from growing as strong or as tall as their
Another pattern of genes would normally allow. While genes play a vital role in determining
inheritance is called development, the action of the genes is greatly influenced by the
“codominance.” environment in which an offspring develops. For example, the presence of
Compare it to alcohol in a pregnant woman’s bloodstream can interfere with the normal
incomplete dominance. development of brain structures and facial features, even though the
Write a paragraph to baby’s DNA is normal. This condition is known as fetal alcohol syndrome.
explain how similar or In the late 1950s, the drug thalidomide was taken by pregnant women to
how different the two
lessen the effects of morning sickness. One of its many effects on the fetus
patterns of inheritance
was the abnormal development of limbs. Many “thalidomide babies,” as
are.
they came to be known, were born with flipper-like arms or legs. As
adults, however, several of these individuals had perfectly normal
children, showing that their DNA was normal.
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review
1. Explain how dominant and recessive traits differ from each other.
2. How does a purebred individual differ from a hybrid individual?
3. List examples of dominance, recessiveness, and incomplete
dominance. Use a different example for each from those given in the
text.

4. How could two black cats produce a kitten that has white fur? Use a
diagram to explain your answer.
5. If you wanted to be certain that a trait would appear in the offspring of
the plants or animals that you were breeding, what would you have to
find out about the parents? Explain your answer.
6. Suppose a new flower in your garden displays an intermediate colour.
For example, you begin to see orange flowers although you originally
planted only red and yellow flowers. What pattern of inheritance
would you be observing in this situation? Explain your answer.

7. Can dominance or recessiveness explain why two cats from the same
litter may be different masses or have different leg lengths? Explain
your answer.

SECTION REVIEW
Key Concept Review
1. How does sexual reproduction contribute to genetic variation?
2. In your own words, define DNA, genes, and chromosomes. Explain how
they work together to pass on characteristics from parents to offspring.
3. Compare and contrast dominant and recessive traits using a Venn diagram.
4. What is incomplete dominance? Give an example.
5. What is the key difference between mitosis and meiosis?

6. How is the genetic material of a parent inherited by offspring in asexual
reproduction? In sexual reproduction?
7. Explain how the recessive trait for coat colour is hidden in cats when two
parents that are purebred for different fur colour are crossed.
8. Why does meiosis produce cells with only half the amount of DNA? How
does this aid in the formation of a healthy zygote?
9. Relate the four chemicals on the rungs of a DNA ladder to the letters of our
alphabet. Describe the code these “letters” can form. What does the code
do?

10. Predict what the calf produced in a union between each of these parents
might look like. Explain your answers.
a) a purebred white (recessive) cow and a purebred brown (dominant) bull
b) a purebred brown (dominant) cow and a purebred brown (dominant)
bull
c) a purebred white (recessive) cow and a purebred white (recessive) bull
d) a hybrid brown (dominant) cow and a purebred white (recessive) bull

On
Developments in science and technology do not just happen. Usually, a
scientific discovery, such as the explanation of the role of DNA, takes place
over a long period of time. Consider the following questions as they relate to
how our understanding of genetic material has developed over time.
1. What types of observation and experimentation led us to a better
understanding of how traits are expressed?
2. Why is it important to understand how genetic material functions?
3. Construct a timeline to illustrate the major theories of the past that have led
us to our current understanding of genetics. Include any information about
issues that may have surrounded the work of scientists in the past.

4.0 Human activity affects
biological diversity.
Key Concepts
about the following key concepts
• species
• natural and artificial selection
of genetic characteristics
Learning Outcomes
• distinguish between artificial
and natural selection
• describe the effects of
extinction and extirpation on
biological diversity
• evaluate the success and
limitations of local and global
strategies in minimizing loss of
species diversity
• describe new technologies for What would be the ideal vacation for you? You might tour the famous
recombining genetic material museums of the world to view masterpieces of art. You could visit the
• describe the use of main cities of the world, to visit their architectural treasures. Or you
biotechnology in various fields might seek out the beautiful examples of our biological heritage in the
nature preserves, national parks, and zoos of the world. More people
are choosing this last type of vacation. Our appreciation and curiosity
for the other types of life on Earth are increasing as we realize that
species can be lost forever.
Nature preserves and national parks are not just for our enjoyment.
They also play an important role in global strategies to maintain
biological diversity by preserving important habitats and the species
that depend on them. Today, zoos play an active role in preserving
biological diversity through breeding programs and other efforts. In
many cases, by trying to meet our needs, humans have unknowingly
caused so much change to the environment that many species have
been unable to adapt, and have disappeared. In recent years, however,
both experts and volunteers have turned their attention to preserving
the world’s biological diversity and, sometimes, have been able to
reverse some of the damage that has been caused.

info BIT
4.1 Reduction of Biological Diversity
A Lesson in Extinction
Species and ecosystems on Earth and the ecological processes of which One animal you will
they are part are being stressed by urbanization and the expansion of never see is the dodo, a
human industries such as agriculture and forestry. The resulting decline flightless bird that once
in genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity threatens the ecological, inhabited Mauritius, an
economic, and cultural benefits we currently derive from Earth’s living island in the Indian
resources. The extinction of some species, the decrease in population of Ocean. The dodo had no
other species, and the degradation of ecosystems reduces biological predators. Portuguese
diversity on Earth. explorers first landed on
the island in 1505,
bringing with them cats,
rats, dogs, and pigs.
These introduced
animals ate the dodos’
eggs, and the sailors
who stopped on the
island used the adult
dodo as a source of
food. The dodo became
extinct within 200 years
of first human contact,
probably around 1681.
Figure 4.1 Only 2100 Indian rhinoceroses remain in the wild.
G I V E I T A TRY
CHOICES IN OUR WORLD

Balancing human needs and the needs of other organisms is often very difficult. To grow
our food, for example, land must be cleared of sensitive native plants.
With a partner, choose one of the following scenarios. Discuss the effects of the changes
to the environment and to the organisms that live there. What choices will need to be
made? Why? Could any of the changes be avoided? How?
1. A new school is built in a neighbourhood. Construction takes place on land that has a
grove of aspen trees and native grasses. The trees are removed so the workers can
park their vehicles during construction. The native grasses are replaced by the school
building, tarmac basketball courts, and non-native grass for sports fields.
2. A river is dammed to provide irrigation water for neighbouring farms. During

construction, all the aquatic plants at the river’s edge are removed. A concrete
retaining wall is built that runs about 10 km in either direction from the dam. A path
is paved and fencing is installed, sod is laid, and picnic benches are installed to make
a riverfront park. The grass is maintained through regular mowing and pesticide
applications.
Human Activity Affects Biological Diversity 57

EXTINCTION AND EXTIRPATION
Extinction is the disappearance of every individual of a species from the
entire planet. Extinction is a natural part of Earth’s history. Scientists
estimate that 99% of all the species that have ever existed are now extinct.
Most mass extinctions, like the one that killed off the dinosaurs, were
likely caused by catastrophic events. These are events such as earthquakes
or volcanic eruptions that cause sudden changes in the environment. The
last major environmental change was about 1.8 million years ago during
the Pleistocene epoch, which is commonly known as the Ice Age.
However, most extinctions are not mass extinctions. They take place
over longer periods of time. Scientists speculate, though, that the rate at
which species are becoming extinct is increasing. More species will
disappear over the next decade than disappeared the decade before, so the
biological diversity of the planet is decreasing more and more rapidly.
Figure 4.2 Fossils provide

us with evidence of many
species that have
disappeared from our
planet in the past.
Extirpation is a local extinction, or the disappearance of a species

from a particular area. The grizzly bear was once commonly found from
the mountains of British Columbia to the Manitoba Prairies. They had a
rich supply of fish, small mammals, and plants on which to feed. Grizzlies
are now mainly found only in the mountains, and their current range is
threatened by increasing urbanization. Road building and other activities
related to the search for natural resources, such as oil and gas, have also
had an impact on the grizzlies’ range.
The woodland caribou is currently at risk of being extirpated from the
boreal forests of northern Alberta because of habitat degradation resulting
from logging, forest fires, and increased interspecies competition.
The swift fox was once common in Alberta, but by 1928 this species
was completely extirpated from Canada. The Alberta Department of
Environmental Protection, working with groups such as the World
Wildlife Fund, is trying to reintroduce the fox to Alberta. To do this, a
major breeding program is under way.

The table below shows some of the at-risk species in Alberta. Endangered
species are ones that are in immediate danger of extinction or extirpation.
Threatened species are likely to become endangered if their current
declines are not reversed. Species that are of special concern are ones that
are particularly vulnerable to natural events or human activities.
Status Mammals Birds Fish & Amphibians Plants

Extirpated black-footed ferret greater prairie-
grizzly bear (prairie chicken
population)
Endangered swift fox burrowing owl tiny cryptanthe
whooping crane
mountain plover
piping plover
sage grouse
sage thrasher
Eskimo curlew
Threatened wood bison peregrine falcon short-jawed cisco Western blue-flag
prairie loggerhead soapweed
shrike Western spiderwort
Sprague’s pipit slender mouse-ear-
cress
sand verbena
Special Concern woodland caribou ferruginous hawk great plains toad Bolander’s quillwort
wolverine long-billed curlew Northern leopard frog hare-footed locoweed
Ord’s kangaroo rat short-eared owl (prairie population) smooth goosefoot
yellow rail Western silvery tall wooley-heads
minnow
NATURAL CAUSES OF EXTINCTION AND EXTIRPATION

Earlier in this unit, you learned that sexual reproduction is responsible for
variation within species. These variations are important so that, through
natural selection, a species can survive changes in its environment.
However, if the population does have variation, why do species still
disappear?
Natural selection is usually a slow process. Even if there is a lot of
variation within a species, sometimes the environment changes too much
and too quickly for the species to survive. For example, dinosaurs were
once the most successful species on the planet, and yet all dinosaur
species disappeared about 65 million years ago. In the past, most
extinctions and extirpations were due to natural causes, such as:
• catastrophic events such as volcanic eruptions, floods, or fires
• lack of food due to overpopulation
• disease

Not all extinctions happened millions of years ago. In the 19th century,
the American chestnut was one of the most numerous trees in forests of
the eastern United States. In the summer, its creamy-white blossoms made
mountains in the Appalachians appear as if snow-covered. The nuts were
a source of food for wildlife, livestock, and humans. These were giant
trees, up to 30 m tall, and the wood had many uses.
In 1904, the chestnut blight, a disease caused by a fungus, appeared in
the American chestnuts in New York City. This fungus came from Asia
and quickly spread because the North American trees had little resistance.
By 1950, the species had essentially disappeared. Attempts are continuing
to create a blight-resistant strain in order to bring this species back from
the edge of extinction.
Catastrophic events are still occurring today. For example, some
species that once lived on the side of Mount Etna, Sicily, were extirpated
from that area because of the volcanic eruption in 2001 that resulted in
long-term changes to that environment.
Overspecialization
Sometimes organisms have adaptations that suit them to only a narrow set
of environmental conditions. This probably happens because the
environment that the organism inhabits remains unchanged for a very
long time. Biologists call this overspecialization. Overspecialization is
another natural cause of extinction. The best-known example of
overspecialization is the giant panda that eats only one thing, bamboo
shoots. Because the panda only eats bamboo, it cannot switch to other
sources of food. Bamboo forests sometimes die off or are cut down,
reducing the pandas’ food supply. So although habitat destruction affects
the survival of the species, the pandas’ overspecialization makes them
even more vulnerable to extinction.
Figure 4.3 Damage caused by chestnut Figure 4.4 The northern leopard frog has been
blight extirpated from central Alberta.

HUMAN CAUSES OF EXTINCTIONS AND EXTIRPATIONS
Today, most extinctions and extirpations are due to human activity. If you
have ever watched a new neighbourhood being built, you know that
humans can change the environment very quickly. Because human
populations continue to grow, and require land for houses and food
production, human activity is now the leading cause of worldwide species
loss.
Habitat Destruction
Humans cause rapid changes to habitat in a variety of ways. Construction
of buildings, agricultural development, logging, and the damming of rivers
all change environments. These activities are necessary to meet human
needs. For example, large tracts of land were cleared of all native
vegetation to make way for fields and pastures to grow crops and raise
livestock, which are our food supply. But unfortunately, these changes
also have brought about the loss of many species. In Canada, prairie
species have been affected the most, because the grasslands provided the
best farm sites. In fact, only 20% of the area once covered by native
prairie species is still in its natural condition.
Pollution is a particular kind of habitat destruction. Pollution often
affects not only the immediate area where humans are but also areas
farther away. For example, pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers used in
farming may be washed into the nearby water system, and may
unintentionally cause the death of native species. Some chemicals can
cause an increase in the number of birth defects in species. This often
occurs first in aquatic species such as fish, frogs, and toads. For example,
pollution of breeding sites is thought to be the main cause of the dramatic
reduction of the great plains toad in Alberta. This toad is now in the
Special Concern category.
Figure 4.5 Habitat

destruction is a global
problem. This rain forest in
Brazil is being cleared for
farmland.
The effects of habitat destruction in tropical areas can be severe.

Because tropical rain forests have the highest diversity of species of any
area on the planet, loss of these habitats can cause the extinction or
extirpation of a very large number of species.

Introduction of Non-Native Species
Throughout our history, migrating humans have carried with them many
species on which they relied. The corn that First Nations people grew at
the time of European settlement originally came from South America.
Horses and cattle were unknown in the Americas until the arrival of
Europeans.
When introduced species use the same resources as native species,
they compete with the native species and cause the number of native
species to decline, simply because there is less of everything. Cattle now
graze where bison once roamed, and attempts to reintroduce the bison are
limited due to the competition for grazing resources. Some introduced
species, such as the invasive purple loosestrife, may have arrived in North
America in a number of ways. Seeds may have been lodged in the ballast
of a ship, stuck in the coats of animals, or carried by settlers who wanted
to be reminded of home. Since its introduction, purple loosestrife has
spread rapidly, out-competing native species, partly because no native
species eat the purple loosestrife.
Figure 4.6 Wild bison once

numbered in the millions.
Over-Hunting
Over-hunting was the major cause of the decline and eventual extirpation
of the plains bison over most of its range, and of the extinction of the
passenger pigeon. In the 19th century, flocks of passenger pigeons were so
large that people reported being unable to hear the sound of a gunshot
when they flew overhead. Passenger pigeons were hunted mainly for
sport. The sport was so popular that the population declined dramatically.
The last passenger pigeon died in captivity on September 1, 1914.
Sometimes species were hunted to deliberately extirpate them. Black-
tailed prairie dogs were considered a great menace to farmers and
ranchers because they ate grain and dug holes causing cattle and horses to
break legs. In the 1930s, large-scale poisoning campaigns reduced prairie
dog numbers.

ACTIVITY A-6
Decision BALANCING ACT

Making The Issue
Should human activities be restricted in our national parks?
In Canada, grizzlies are now extirpated from the Prairies, and are found only in forested
regions of Alberta, British Columbia, Yukon, Northwest Territories, and Nunavut. Here they
can find an adequate food supply. They can also find appropriate habitat in which to make
their dens and to provide refuge from human disturbance.
Figure 4.7 Grizzly bears need large areas of land undisturbed by human activity.
Although we may think of grizzlies as aggressive animals, they usually prefer to avoid
humans. National parks are meant to preserve natural areas and the animals that inhabit
them, but most of us also expect to be able to enjoy many outdoor activities in these
parks. In Alberta, Banff and Jasper National Parks have ski areas, hotel facilities,
swimming pools, and large camping facilities for recreation.

Research the kinds of human activities currently allowed in national parks. Begin your
search at www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction. Draw a concept map to show the social,
economic, and environmental consequences of these activities.
Analyze your research and describe how these activities affect grizzly bears or other
animals in the parks.
Write a proposal to Canadian Heritage Parks Canada recommending which human
activities should be allowed in national parks and to what extent. Support your proposal
with your research. Include a brochure for the public, to educate them about this issue.

ACTIVITY A-7 CHANGES IN BIOLOGICAL
Experiment on your own DIVERSITY
Before You Start

In any ecosystem, there may be many different species.
The types and numbers of species can vary depending on a
number of factors, including changes in climate or human
activity. In this experiment, you will take a survey of all
plants and animals in an existing area of your community.
This survey will be repeated at a later date and the two sets
of data will be compared.
The Question
How do the numbers of plant and animal species in an area
change over time?
Design and Conduct Your Experiment

1. Make a hypothesis to test how the types and numbers
of species will change. (Remember a hypothesis is a
possible answer to a question or a possible
explanation of a situation.) Ideally, the area will be a
local park or field, but could also be a small plot of
soil, or garden. If time permits, the interval of time
between surveys should be at least several months.
2. Decide what materials you’ll need to test your
hypothesis. For example:
a) What measuring instruments will you need? Tape?
Metric ruler?
b) What reference books will you need to help you Figure 4.8 Surveying a local environment
identify the plants and animals?
4. Write up your procedure. Be sure to show it to your
c) What materials will you need to record your data?
teacher before going further.
Drawing paper? Grid paper? Calculator?
5. Carry out your surveys.
3. Plan your procedure. Ask yourself questions such as:
6. Compare your results with your hypothesis. Did your
a) What steps will I follow to collect the data I need?
results support or refute it? If not, what possible
b) How will I estimate population numbers?
reasons might there be?
c) Is the test I have designed fair? How do I know?
7. Share and compare your experimental plan with your
d) How will I record my results? For example, do I classmates. Did anyone plan surveys exactly like
need a data chart? A graph? Both? Neither? yours? Similar to yours? How do your results
e) How long do I have to complete my surveys? compare with theirs?

EFFECTS OF EXTINCTIONS AND EXTIRPATIONS re SEARCH
Extinctions and extirpations reduce biological diversity. Extinctions
reduce the number of species on the planet. Extirpations reduce biological Extinct Canadian Animals
Examples of Canadian
diversity in areas from which the organism has disappeared. In section
animal species that have
1.0, you learned about some of the many ways species interact with one
become extinct due to
another. When an organism disappears locally or globally, many other
human activity include:
species are affected. For example, in regions where black-tailed prairie
Great Auk—extinct 1844
dogs were extirpated, burrowing owls and black-footed ferrets were also
Sea Mink—extinct 1894
affected. Prairie dogs were the major source of food for black-footed
Passenger Pigeon—
ferrets, and burrowing owls used abandoned burrows as nesting sites.
extinct 1914
Black-footed ferrets are now one of the most endangered animals in North Blue Walleye—
America. extinct 1965
Find out more about
these animals.
Begin your search at
www.pearsoned.ca/
scienceinaction. Prepare
a timeline or a short
report describing how
they became endangered
and then, extinct.
Figure 4.9 The black-footed ferret has been extirpated from Canada. In 1997, there were 12 males
and 18 females at the Metro Toronto Zoo. In the United States, small populations have been
reintroduced to the wild.
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review 6. Suppose an organism is extirpated from a
1. State two examples of situations in which local environment. In what way might other
biological diversity may be reduced. organisms be affected? Provide examples to
support your answer.
2. What kinds of natural causes lead to the
extinction of a species? 7. How does extinction reduce biological
diversity on Earth? Support your answer
3. In what ways can human activity lead to the
using examples and your knowledge of how
extinction or extirpation of a species? Use
genetic information is transferred from
examples to explain your answer.
parents to their offspring.
4. Explain the term “overspecialization.”
8. What role has land use by humans played
5. Use a Venn diagram to compare and in the ongoing changes in biological
contrast extinction and extirpation. diversity? State examples from your own
community.

info BIT
4.2 Selecting Desirable Traits
Beefier Cows
What did you have for breakfast this morning? Did you have cereal or
Scientists working at Alta
Genetics Inc. of Calgary toast? How about a glass of orange juice? The particular grains and fruits
were the first to use used in these and many other foods are probably a product of artificial
genetically engineered selection. Artificial selection is the process of selecting and breeding
cattle that would produce individuals with desirable traits to produce offspring that have these
more beef. desired traits. Recall that in natural selection the environment “selects”
traits. In artificial selection, humans select traits.
Consider the example of horse breeding. By combining the genes of
champion parents, breeders hope to create offspring that have the prized
traits of both parents. If those horses are bred with other champion horses
when they reach maturity, the chances of producing the desired traits in
succeeding generations increase (Figure 4.10). The same is true of breeders
of other animals such as livestock (cows, sheep, pigs) and domestic
animals (dogs, cats, birds, guinea pigs, hamsters).
In a breeder’s population, however, every individual is selected in the
same way. Only those with a trait the breeder wants, such as a particular
feather colour, in the case of domestic finches, will be allowed to breed. In
contrast, natural selection “selects” traits that are useful for the survival of
the individuals with those traits and allows them to breed.
Artificial selection can also be applied to both food and ornamental
plants. For example, by taking the seeds of the healthiest or best
producing plants and sowing them the following year, farmers can
generally “weed out” less desirable traits and promote more desirable
ones.
Humans have practised artificial selection since we first began to farm
about 10 000 years ago. After so many generations of artificial selection,
most of our plants no longer resemble the wild species from which they
Figure 4.10 These horses were bred. Corn, for example, was bred by native peoples from a species
have been bred for their size. of grass called teosinte. Teosinte produced much smaller cobs and far
fewer seeds than modern-day corn.
Figure 4.11 The drawing of a very early variety of corn (left) is

based on archeological samples. It doesn’t look very similar to
the corn we eat today (right).

BIOTECHNOLOGY
Native peoples practised an early form of biotechnology when they
gathered seeds from the biggest and healthiest corn plants. This
benefited them because they were able to develop more productive
strains of corn.
Agricultural producers benefit when they can be sure that the wheat
they plant or the calf that is born in their herd will have the traits that
are most valuable in the marketplace. Although artificial selection has
successfully produced most of our world’s crops and livestock, it takes
a very long time (many generations of the plants and animals) to get an
organism with the desired combination of traits. For instance, livestock
breeders have to breed cows over many generations to get a whole herd
that produces large quantities of milk. Scientists and breeders have,
therefore, developed technologies that can speed up this process. These
technologies can range from “low tech” to extremely “high tech.”
Figure 4.12 Identical
Creating Plant Clones organisms produced by
When a grower finds a plant that has very desirable traits, he or she technology are called clones,
such as this carrot plant grown
would like more plants like it, or many clones of it. The simplest way
from a few cells taken from
to create a clone is by taking a cutting from a plant and growing an another carrot plant.
identical plant from the cutting. Horticulturalists do this routinely. The
drawback is that this ideal plant has only so many leaves that can be
cut off to use as cuttings.
Scientists have developed a quicker way to create clones. Cells are
removed from an individual plant that has the particular traits that are
wanted. These cells are placed on a Petri dish or bottle containing
nutrients and hormones the cells need. Once these cells have
developed into seedlings, they can be transplanted into the soil.
Because the starting point is a cell rather than an entire part of the
plant, many more clones can be produced from a single plant (Figure
4.12).
Artificial Reproductive Technology

Artificial reproductive technology refers to any artificial method of
joining a male and female gamete. Most livestock in Canada are
produced by some method of artificial reproduction. In artificial
insemination, sperm are harvested from a bull with desired
characteristics and are inserted into many female cows. The advantage
of this technology is that the bull’s sperm can be in several places at
once and more cows can be inseminated.
Another reproductive technology is in vitro fertilization. In this
technology, sperm from a prize bull and eggs from a prize cow are Figure 4.13 The beef industry
harvested from the animals. In a laboratory, the eggs and sperm are relies on artificial reproduction
technology to produce cattle with
placed in a Petri dish, and the eggs are fertilized. This produces many
traits chosen to provide us with
more embryos than could be produced naturally. Each embryo is high quality meat.
implanted into a different cow. These cows will eventually give birth to
many calves, all of which will be brothers and sisters.

Scientists can also determine the sex of the embryos before they are
implanted into a cow to develop. By choosing only female embryos,
dairy farmers can therefore be guaranteed that all their calves will be
female, rather than having to use their resources to raise unneeded
males.
Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering refers to any technology that directly alters the
DNA of an organism. Genetic engineering is a rapidly developing
science, and every new advance increases our ability to control the
characteristics of organisms.
Many of the genetic engineering techniques involve inserting a
gene from one species into another species. Bacteria are genetically
engineered to produce life-saving medicines such as insulin. Insulin is
a substance that many diabetics use to control the level of sugar in
their blood. Just 20 years ago, insulin had to be extracted from the
pancreas of cattle, and it was expensive to produce. Today, the human
insulin-producing gene is inserted into the bacteria’s DNA. Because the
bacteria reproduce so rapidly, bacterial colonies can produce insulin
quickly and cheaply. Now most of the world’s supply of insulin comes
from genetically engineered bacteria.
A micro-organism called Bacillus thuringiensis produces a toxin
commonly called Bt, which is poisonous to many insects. Scientists
have isolated the gene that contains the instructions for making Bt
toxin and have inserted it into the DNA of plants. These genetically
engineered plants now produce Bt toxin! Since the 1990s, cotton, corn,
Figure 4.14 This plant was and potatoes have been engineered to produce Bt toxin. Because
grown from cells that had a insects that eat the engineered plants die, growers never need to apply
firefly gene inserted into pesticides to the engineered plants.
them. When the gene is
Some varieties of canola are naturally resistant to an insect called
activated, the plant glows.
the flea beetle, while others are not. When flea beetles attack a field of
canola, the crop is likely to be devastated, leaving the grower with
nothing to sell. Unfortunately, the most valuable varieties of canola do
not have a gene for flea beetle resistance, so most growers have to use
pesticides to protect their crop from the beetle. Scientists have been
able to transfer this gene from beetle-resistant varieties to other canola
varieties that have higher yields. The growers who use the genetically
engineered canola get canola with high yields and, because it’s beetle-
resistant, it doesn’t have to be sprayed with pesticides.
BIOTECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

Development of technology that allows us to select or introduce
desirable traits of the organisms around us has given humans some
important benefits. However, as with any technology, we need to use
these technologies responsibly and be aware of the possible risks as
well as the benefits.

Risks in Animals
In agriculture, most individuals in a crop or livestock population are
extremely similar as a result of generations of artificial selection. Artificial
reproductive technologies can reduce the genetic variation in breeding
lines of livestock. In artificial insemination, sperm from just a few animals
are used to impregnate many females. With in vitro fertilization, the
embryos created from the eggs and sperm of just two individuals are
implanted in other cows.
Now scientists and breeders are able to produce an identical copy of a
single animal. The most famous example of this is a sheep named Dolly
(Figure 4.15). Dolly was produced in Scotland in 1997, and is an exact
duplicate of her mother.
Animals like Dolly have been cloned for a variety of reasons. Some,
like the rhesus monkey ANDi (a backward abbreviation of inserted DNA),
have been genetically altered as part of research programs into human
diseases. Other animals, such as cattle, are being cloned as potential large-
scale producers of meat and milk. Herds of such genetically identical
individuals may be far more susceptible to disease than more genetically
variable herds.
Figure 4.15 Dolly’s cells appear the same age as her mother’s, even though Dolly is six years
younger.
Cloning and genetic engineering are still in their infancy and have
been fraught with difficulties. Cattle cloners have reported numerous
examples of unsuccessful pregnancies, birth defects, and deaths among
clones. The reasons are as yet unclear. Some researchers speculate that
something about the process of removing the nucleus from the donor egg
may be responsible. Dolly herself has developed arthritis, although it is
not known why.

ACTIVITY A-8
Decision S A L M O N FA R M I N G AND VA R I A B I L I T Y
Making The Issue
Will salmon farming help or hurt the recovery of wild salmon in Canada?
In the 1990s, the salmon populations on both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts were on the
verge of collapse, causing governments to call a halt to all commercial salmon fishing.
Many people who had made a living from salmon fishing were suddenly out of work.
There were various reasons why the salmon stocks had declined so suddenly, and people
had different proposals as to how to let the salmon population recover while still meeting
society’s desire for salmon.
Fish farms mainly in New Brunswick’s Bay of Fundy and off the B.C. coast produce
more that 72 000 tonnes of salmon a year. The federal government is a strong supporter
of fish farming and recently made available $75 million for research and development.
Government estimates suggest that by the year 2025, the world will need 55 million
tonnes more seafood than wild stocks can provide. To meet that demand, fish farming as
an industry will have to grow by 350%.
But is the advance of fish farming practices coming at the expense of stocks of wild
salmon? Why is the wild species still facing extinction? What impact does commercial
fish farming have on wild populations? Tests are under way to selectively breed for bigger
and faster growing salmon as well as to genetically modify the fish against common
parasitic diseases. Researchers in the federal department of fisheries have now developed
20 new transgenic breeds of salmon that grow seven times faster than wild salmon.

1 Research the positive and negative impacts that fish farming may have on wild
populations. Begin your search at www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction. Decide how
you will evaluate your information sources.
2 What other factors may be affecting the survival of the wild salmon population?
3 What are the costs and benefits of fish farming and commercial fishing to meet the
short- and long-term food needs of society?
4 Prepare an oral presentation in which you defend your position on fish farming.
Present your view by role playing from ONE of the following perspectives. You are a
fish farmer speaking to a group opposed to fish farming OR you are a fish-farming
opponent speaking to an association of fish farmers.
Figure 4.16 Salmon farming pens

Risks in Plants re SEARCH
Most of our plant crops were produced by artificial selection of wild
plants. Weeds are often the wild relatives of crop plants. Some crops have Golden Rice
been genetically engineered to resist herbicides. This allows farmers to Rice does not normally
spray the crop with herbicide, killing the weeds but not the crop. contain vitamin A. Swiss
However, there have been unforeseen problems. Many crop plants can scientists have recently
still cross with their wild weed relatives. There have been reported cases created a genetically
of genetically engineered canola interbreeding with weeds, and the weeds’ engineered strain of rice
offspring have become resistant to herbicide. that does contain vitamin
A. Research this so-called
golden rice and find out
the reasons for
CHECK AND REFLECT developing it and why
some groups have
Key Concept Review concerns about its use.
1. How does artificial selection differ from what you learned earlier in
www.pearsoned.ca/
this unit about natural selection? Use examples in your explanation. scienceinaction. Prepare
2. Describe two examples of technologies that humans use to select the a short report.
traits of organisms.
3. Who were the earliest “plant technologists” in North America? What
crop did they develop and how?

4. How have reproductive technologies benefited agricultural industries
in Alberta? Provide examples. What human needs do these
technologies reflect?
5 Simplify an explanation of artificial selection in a way that a student
in grade 4 could easily understand it.
6. What are some advantages of biotechnology such as cloning? What are
some disadvantages?
7. What are some intended and unintended consequences for the
environment as a result of developments in biotechnology?

8. Scientists have created crops that contain a toxin that kills any insect
that eats them. Some farmers have been growing corn plants that
contain this toxin. Corn without this toxin is a food supply for the
corn weevil, which destroys the corn crop, and the monarch butterfly,
which is a protected species. What advice would you give to farmers
growing this crop?
9. Predict what some potential impacts or issues might be related to an
increasing use of biotechnology such as cloning and genetic
engineering.

4.3 Reducing Our Impact on Biological Diversity
Figure 4.17 Leaders of indigenous peoples living in the rain forests of South America attended the
Earth Summit to voice their concerns about the clearing of rain forests.
Preserving global biological diversity was given international recognition

at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. World leaders at the
summit, including Canada’s Prime Minister Jean Chrétien, signed a treaty
called the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity. This
Convention outlined the importance of maintaining ecosystem, species,
and genetic diversity in preserving the living resources of Earth. This
agreement has three goals: conservation of biological diversity; sustainable
use of the components of biological diversity; and fair and equitable
sharing of the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources.
Each country that signed the treaty agreed to set national policies in
place that outlined how to achieve these goals. In Canada, the federal
government created the Canadian Biodiversity Strategy in 1995, which
describes how Canada will maintain biological diversity for the future.
STRATEGIES TO CONSERVE BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

The conservation of biological diversity requires the elimination or
reduction of the adverse impacts to biological diversity that result from
human activity. In order to promote biological diversity, the Canadian
Biodiversity Strategy focusses on in-situ and ex-situ conservation, along
with promoting the sustainable use of resources and an ecological
approach to the management of human activities.

Protected Areas info BIT
Canada’s first national park, Banff, was established in 1885. Currently,
244 540 km2 of the Canadian landscape is protected in a series of national Raising Endangered
parks. Each province in Canada also has its own protected-area strategies, Species
which include the future development of additional provincial parks, At the San Diego zoo,
recreation areas, and ecological preserves. The protected areas of Canada chicks of the endangered
allow organisms to live relatively undisturbed in their natural habitats. California condor are
In-situ conservation refers to the maintenance of populations of wild being reared by hand.
organisms in their functioning ecosystems. It allows the ecological Their human caregivers
processes of an area to continue undisturbed. wear gloves that look
Species with large ranges, such as caribou, wolves, and bears, are like adult condor heads
so that the birds don’t
being given added protection as organizations, such as those involved
associate humans with
with the Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative, work to create a
their parents. The
network of protected areas. No single protected area can offer enough land
caregivers pick up pieces
space or habitat diversity to support all native species or ecosystems. of meat while wearing
Linking protected areas together provides corridors for movement and the glove and hand it to
exchange of genetic material essential for the maintenance of biological the chick, so it looks like
diversity. The creation of these protected areas depends on the co- an adult condor is
operation of national, provincial, and municipal governments, along with giving the chick food.
the support of other organizations, and citizens. The Wagner Natural Area, That way, when they are
just west of Edmonton, is a rich peatland environment that exists today extremely young, chicks
because of the efforts of individuals, groups, and the Alberta government. don’t actually see
The area is protected under the Ecological Reserves and Natural Areas humans.
Act. Many governmental and non-governmental organizations buy land to
provide habitat for plant and animal species.
Restoration of Ecosystems and Species

Canada has also developed various programs to restore endangered
species, as well as damaged habitats, to a healthy state. These two goals
are linked because most species can never recover unless they have
habitat in which to live. This is especially true of species that were
extirpated from an area, such as the prairie population of grizzly bears,
because of changes made to their habitat.
Charities, not-for-profit organizations, volunteer groups, and private
landowners also contribute to restoring species and habitat. The Nature
Conservancy of Canada, for example, helps to acquire land or raise money
to ensure the ongoing protection of natural areas. The Nature Conservancy
works with local conservation groups, private citizens, and corporations
to increase the amount of habitat available for native plants and animals.
Many private landowners also contribute by returning a percentage of
their property to its natural state. At 1943 ha, the Ann and Sandy Cross
Conservation Area, just southwest of Calgary, is an example of one of the
largest private gifts of land made in North America. Ducks Unlimited
Canada, through its Prairie Conservation of Agriculture, Resources and the
Environment (CARE) program promotes the restoration or improvement of
available cover in large wetland areas. Landowners are encouraged to
restore nesting areas through the seeding of native grasses and shrubs in
order to improve waterfowl nesting success.

Figure 4.18 The Alberta
Cows and Fish Program
worked with local landowners
to restore Callum Creek in
southern Alberta. Callum
Creek before restoration (left)
and five years after cows
were moved to other grazing
areas (right).
Restoring a species that has been extirpated requires a lot of money

and time. For example, the swift fox was listed as extirpated from Canada
in 1928. Native to short- and mixed-grass prairie regions, the swift fox
started to decline in the late 1800s when agriculture began to change its
prairie habitat, and it began to face increased competition from species
such as coyotes. The swift fox was also vulnerable to poisoning programs
aimed at wolves and coyotes. As you learned in subsection 4.1, a captive
breeding program began in 1973 and the first swift fox was released into
the wild along the Alberta and Saskatchewan border in 1983. The efforts
of the Alberta government and organizations such as the World Wildlife
Fund resulted in successful reintroduction efforts. A winter census in
1997 estimated the population of swift foxes in the area to be 192. The
swift fox, however, is still listed as an endangered species in Alberta.
In 1992, the Friends of Fish Creek, a non-profit organization, formed to
assist in the protection, preservation, and enhancement of the natural and
human heritage of Fish Creek Park in Calgary. Every July, the society
organizes “Purge the Spurge.” Volunteers gather to hand pull leafy spurge,
a non-native noxious weed that threatens to take over the park and
destroy wildlife habitat. The weeds are hand pulled in areas where other
control methods can’t be used.
Resource Use Policies

Federal and provincial governments have laws to protect species that are
endangered (species with very few individuals left in the wild) or
threatened (species that are decreasing rapidly in the wild). Any species
that is classified as endangered or threatened is protected by law from
hunting and capture, or in the case of plants, from being picked or
transplanted. The National Accord for the Protection of Species at Risk
was created in 1994, and was signed by all the provinces and territories of
Canada. The accord paved the way for each province to develop
legislation to protect their vulnerable plants and animals.
The goal of the Accord for the Protection of Species at Risk is to
Figure 4.19 Planting native
“prevent species in Canada from becoming extinct as a consequence of
plant species is one strategy
for maintaining biological human activity.” The participants in the accord have agreed to recognize
diversity. species assessments made by the Committee on the Status of Endangered

Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC). They have also agreed to establish
legislation and programs to effectively protect species within their own
province or territory and to protect threatened or endangered species.
Nationally, the federal government is developing the Species at Risk Act.
In Alberta, the Endangered Species Conservation Committee (ESCC) was
created under the Wildlife Act of 1998 to study and determine species at
risk in Alberta. The ESCC produces a status document on Alberta’s plants,
mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and birds every five years.
Controlling the Spread of Exotic Species

Past experience has shown that bringing species into a new environment
can have disastrous consequences for the native ecosystem. Recall purple
loosestrife, the herbaceous wetland perennial introduced into Canada
from Europe in the 1800s. Purple loosestrife invades native wetland
communities forming a single species stand by germinating and growing
faster than any other wetland species (Figure 4.20). Purple loosestrife has
no natural enemies. No bird, mammal, or fish feeds on it or uses it for
shelter. Purple loosestrife reduces the size and diversity of natural plant
communities and has been designated as a noxious weed by Alberta
Agriculture. If purple loosestrife is found in an area, measures must be
taken to control it. Volunteers are vital in pulling purple loosestrife and
monitoring infested sites throughout the province. To control purple
loosestrife and other invasive species, federal, provincial, and municipal
governments continue to develop policies to prevent their spread.
Although these programs are developed and enforced by governments,
their success ultimately depends on the actions of individuals.
Figure 4.20 (Left) Purple

loosestrife takes over a
wetland. (Right) This species
of weevil feeds exclusively on
purple loosestrife and is used
by groups such as the
Manitoba Purple Loosestrife
Project to help control the
plant’s spread.
Conservation of Genetic Resources

Ex-situ conservation refers to the conservation of components of
biological diversity outside of a natural habitat. Like in-situ conservation,
ex-situ conservation plays a vital role in species preservation. In some
cases, ex-situ conservation offers the only chance of survival for some
endangered species and plays an important role in conserving
economically valuable genetic resources for forest, aquatic, and
agricultural purposes.

re SEARCH Conservation of genetic resources is any activity that helps to store as
many gene variations as possible of the world’s species. This is a huge
Cloning Endangered task since some scientists estimate that there are as many as 10 million
Species different species in the world. Conserving genetic resources began with
In 2001, a company seed banks, which store seeds from the many varieties of crop plants.
called Advanced Cell Most seed banks started as a voluntary exchange program between
Technologies attempted farmers. By keeping a seed bank, farmers had access to all the crop
to clone an endangered varieties available, so that if environmental or market conditions changed,
species called the gaur, they could plant a more suitable variety.
a wild ox from India. As we learned more about the importance of biological diversity, seed
Look up magazine and banks were expanded. Experts realized that it was important to keep seeds
newspaper articles of the wild ancestors of our crop species, because these species often had
about the gaur and find useful characteristics that our advancing technology might be able to use
out how Advanced Cell
in the future. Today, the world’s seed banks are administered by an
Technologies planned to
international group of scientists, known as the International Plant
clone the animal and
whether they were
Genetics Resources Institute (IPGRI). The scientists are responsible for
successful. Prepare a determining which country will maintain the seed bank of particular
short report on your species. Canada maintains the seed bank for barley and oats.
findings.
Figure 4.21 This seed bank

stores varieties of wheat.
Preserving the genes of animals is much more difficult. Plant seeds

can be stored for long periods. In contrast, the egg and sperm cells of
animals can be stored only for relatively short periods, so populations of
living animals must also be maintained. Most of us would like wild
animals to be “stored” in their wild habitats, but some species may
already have too little habitat for this to be possible. These animals may
escape extinction by captive breeding programs run mainly by zoos. These
programs assess the variation of the individuals in the collections of zoos
worldwide, and breed the animals that have the most variation. Sadly, this
may soon be the fate of the giant panda and the Bengal tiger. Sometimes
the animals are exchanged between zoos, but many times breeding takes
place by using artificial reproduction technologies such as those used in
cattle farming. Some species, such as the whooping crane, will breed in
captivity, while others will not.

ACTIVITY A-9
Decision S AV I N G THE WHOOPING CRANE

Making The Issue
Which strategies have been most effective in saving the whooping crane from extinction?
Wetlands include marshes, swamps, and bogs, and provide habitats for a large number of
species. One such species is the endangered whooping crane, which is the symbol of a
government program called RENEW (Recovery of Nationally Endangered Wildlife). As of
April, 2001, the number of whooping cranes in the wild in North America was only 263.
Amazingly, 177 of these live in conserved wetland habitats in Wood Buffalo National Park.
Most of these birds were not born in the park, but were released from captive breeding
programs.
Figure 4.22 Loss of wetland

habitat has pushed the
whooping crane near to
extinction.
The prairies were once dotted with small wetlands called “prairie potholes,” which
provided habitat for the whooping crane and other species. Most experts agree that the
whooping crane has become endangered due to habitat loss because so many of these
potholes were drained to make way for farms, industry, or housing, or to control
mosquito populations. Governments, environmental groups, fishing and hunting
associations, zoos, local community groups, and private land owners have started to work
together to bring back the whooping crane.

Use the Internet and the library to investigate the strategies being used for conservation
of the whooping crane. Begin your search at www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction. Try to
find the most recent information available from expert sources, such as conservation
groups, zoos, or universities.
Write a paragraph summarizing the conservation strategies for the whooping crane.
Your paragraph should describe the habitat needs of the whooping crane, any changes in
areas that could provide suitable habitat, and data on the change in the whooping crane
population over the last 10 years.
Based on your research, create a report card on our progress in saving the whooping
crane. Which strategy or strategies was most effective in increasing the population of the
whooping crane?

G I V E I T A TRY
DO YOU AFFECT BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY?

Preserving biological diversity requires everyone to think about the world in a different
way. How much do your personal activities affect other living things?
Make a record of your main activities for a week. For everything you note, ask yourself if
you affected other living things. For example, if you cut across a field on the way to school,
you might compact the soil and make a bare patch where plants can’t grow. If you print out
a Web page instead of reading it on your computer, you are indirectly reducing the amount
of forest.
At the end of the week, report to your class whether you think your actions contributed to
loss of biological diversity. Can you think of anything you might do differently?
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review
1. What is in-situ conservation? How does it preserve biological
diversity?
2. Why is it important to protect networks of ecosystems and habitats?
Provide an example of a species that would benefit from such
protection and state why.
3. How have governments been involved in the protection of vulnerable
species? Provide an example of a government policy.
4. What methods have been used to conserve genetic resources? List
some examples.

5. In a short paragraph, explain how a protected area, such as a national
park, is an example of in-situ conservation.
6. Why do exotic species have such an impact on local ecosystems? Why
are exotic species, such as purple loosestrife, a threat to biological
diversity?
7. What is the value of preserving the seed of wild plant ancestors and
other varieties of crop plants grown today?

8. You have just signed up to help with the annual “Purge the Spurge”
campaign in Fish Creek Provincial Park. Given what you may already
know about spurge, why might this be a worthwhile activity? What
impact, if any, do you predict your action will have on species
diversity? Explain your answer.

UN I T S U M M A RY: B I O L O G I C A L D I V E R S I T Y
Key Concepts Section Summaries
1.0 1.0 Biological diversity is reflected in the variety of life on Earth.

• Earth and its environments are home to millions of species.
• Biological diversity refers to the variety of species and ecosystems on Earth. It has three
• species and populations
main components: ecosystem diversity, community diversity, and genetic diversity.
• diversity within species
Biological diversity also refers to the variation among and within species.
• Species co-existing in a habitat are interdependent. The possible interdependencies are
• niches
predator-prey relationships, commensalism, mutualism, and parasitism.
• natural selection of genetic
• Different species share limited resources by having different niches.
characteristics
• Natural selection is the selection of desirable traits by the environment.
2.0 2.0 As species reproduce, characteristics are passed from parents to offspring.
• Heritable traits can vary between individuals either as discrete variations, such as eye colour,
• asexual and sexual or continuous variations, such as height. The environment can affect some heritable traits,
reproduction such as height.
• inheritance • Asexual reproduction involves only one parent. The parent and offspring of asexual
reproduction are identical. Sexual reproduction involves two parents. The offspring of sexual
reproduction are different from the parents.
• In sexual reproduction, a male gamete fuses with a female gamete to produce a zygote. A
zygote develops into an embryo, which eventually grows into a new individual.
• Sexual reproduction results in variation among individuals of a species. Asexual reproduction
allows a species to reproduce quickly producing identical offspring.
3.0 3.0 DNA is the inherited material responsible for variation.

• Chromosomes, genes, and DNA carry genetic information that is passed on from generation
• chromosomes, genes, and to generation. All cells in the body of an organism contain DNA.
DNA • DNA carries the instructions for making a particular individual organism. The instructions are
• cell division written in a genetic code. The code is the same for all organisms on Earth.
• inheritance • Genes are the instructions for the particular characteristics of an organism.
• Organisms with a lot of DNA have chromosomes arranged in pairs.
• The result of binary fission and mitosis is the formation of two new cells from one parent cell.
Each has the same amount of DNA as the parent cell.
• The result of meiosis is the formation of gamete cells. Each gamete has half the amount of
DNA as the original cell.
• A dominant trait is seen in offspring whenever the dominant allele is present. A recessive trait
is seen in offspring only if two recessive alleles are present.
• Dominant and recessive inheritance does not explain all patterns of inheritance.
4.0 4.0 Human activity affects biological diversity.

• Extinction is the loss of a species from the entire planet. Extirpation is the loss of a species
• biological diversity from an area of the planet. Both cause reduction of biological diversity.
• species • Extinctions and extirpations are caused by natural events and by human activity.
• habitat diversity • Artificial selection is human selection and breeding of plants and animals with desirable traits
• natural and artificial to produce offspring with those traits. Natural selection is selection of desirable traits by the
selection of genetic environment.
characteristics • Technologies that affect biological diversity include artificial selection, artificial reproductive
technologies, and genetic engineering.
• Strategies to maintain biological diversity include restoration of habitat and re-introduction of
species, and the use of seed banks and captive breeding programs.

S C I E N C E W O R L D
y
a
se d
S t u
Zoos and Biological Diversity

The Issue
Do we need zoos? Many people are troubled by the idea of
keeping wild animals in captivity. It can seem cruel to keep
species such as the polar bear or antelope, animals that
wander many kilometres every day in the wild, in small
enclosures. Animals are kept in a climate that can be very
different from their natural habitats. Most animals also
have a unique social structure that cannot be duplicated in
captivity.
It can seem that zoos keep animals in these false
environments only to serve human interest. However, many
zoos such as the Calgary Zoo, have taken on a leading role
in conserving species at risk of extinction or extirpation.
Zoo supporters argue that without these conservation
projects, many animals would have an even greater risk of
extinction.
Does the Calgary Zoo meet all the needs of its inhabitants?
Here are some of the arguments for and against keeping
animals in zoos.
Go Further
Now it’s your turn. Look into the following resources for
Zoos Have an Important Role in Zoos Meet Human Needs Far
information to help you form your own opinion.
Maintaining Biodiversity More than Animal Needs
• Look on the Web: Check out Web sites about zoos
Zoos provide refuge for Zoos design the enclosures around the world (including Calgary and Edmonton) and
animals with damaged or so that humans can observe their research programs.
eliminated habitat. the animals, which puts • Ask the Experts: Talk to an expert about the issue. When
many of the animals under you do your Internet search, you may find e-mail listings
stress. of specific people who can provide you with information.
• Check Newspapers and Magazines: Follow current
Zoos help to maintain The money spent on
stories about the issue in newspapers and magazines.
biodiversity by participating establishing and maintaining
• Check Out Scientific Studies: Look for scientific studies
in animal breeding programs zoos would be better spent
about zoos.
with other zoos. on habitat protection and
rehabilitation of animals’
Analyze and Address the Issue
natural habitats.
You are an expert on conservation of species and you have
Zoos conduct and support Many animals will not breed been asked to write a proposal about the role of zoos in
research that assists efforts in captivity, so their genes maintaining biological diversity in our world. In your
to improve existing habitat are lost forever. proposal, consider the different perspectives on this issue.
and to re-establish extirpated Support your proposal with research data and include the
species. risks and benefits of adopting your proposed strategy.
Science World 81
PROJECT
MAINTAINING LOCAL BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
Monte Verde Cloud Forest in

Costa Rica Getting Started
The Kew Seed Bank in England holds seeds for almost 4000 different species of
plant life—about 1.5% of known flora on Earth. By having a large supply of the
plants’ seeds, the bank hopes to protect some of the 34 000 plant species
currently at risk for extinction worldwide. The National Institute of Biodiversity in
Costa Rica is using a technique called “bioprospecting” to study the ways in
which animal and plant resources may be useful to humans. They locate,
describe, and collect species that are not endangered. Researchers then develop
extracts from the plants, insects, and micro-organisms, which are then analyzed
to determine their use in pharmacological, agro-industrial, and biotechnology
industries. Any university or company working with the National Institute of
Biodiversity has to commit to reinvesting 50% of profits from products developed
from these natural resources in conservation. Also in Costa Rica, 22 260 ha of
rainforest within the Monte Verde Cloud Forest have been purchased with the
donations from school children around the world. Called the Children’s Eternal
Rainforest, it is now the largest private reserve in Costa Rica and is administered
by the Monte Verde Conservation League. The area earned the name the
Children’s Eternal Rainforest because thousands of species of trees, and the

animals that depend on them, are now protected from 3. Be sure to include your own assessment of how
logging and deforestation. These are only three examples effective the strategy has been in terms of maintaining
of strategies that have been successful in helping to biological diversity, and any suggestions you have for
maintain biological diversity. What strategies are being improving the use of the strategy in the future.
used in your community? 4. Present your work to the class.
In this unit, you have learned about the diversity of life
on Earth both among species and within. You have also How Did It Go?
learned that natural selection and human activity may 5. In paragraph form, answer the following questions:
reduce biological diversity on Earth. • Describe your research process. How effective
This project will allow you to apply what you’ve was it?
learned to researching and making a presentation on a • How well did you and your partner work together?
local strategy for maintaining biological diversity. How effectively did you make decisions and come
to agreements?
Your Goal
• What part of this project did you find to be the most
Working with a partner, learn more about a local strategy challenging? the easiest?
for maintaining biological diversity. Put together a
• How did your presentation compare with your
presentation to share this information with others. Your
original ideas? What changes did you make and
presentation may be multimedia (e.g., PowerPoint
why?
presentation, video), in poster format, or an oral
• What would you do differently next time?
presentation. Strive to find a creative and interesting way
to convey your new learning. Include your opinion on how
successful the strategy has been and any
recommendations that you would have for the future.
What You Need to Know

To find a local conservation project you may wish to
contact environmental groups in your area or a
government agency for ideas. If you use the Internet as
part of your research, be sure to follow your school’s
acceptable user policy. Begin your search at
www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction.
Steps to Success
1. Work with a partner. Brainstorm possibilities for a
strategy that will be the focus on your research.
Writing to local environmental groups, reading
newspaper and magazine articles, using e-mail, and
checking Web sites are examples of ways to gather the
background information that you will need for your
presentation.
2. Select the type of presentation that you will use and
begin to develop a plan for sharing your research
findings.
Project 83
UNIT REVIEW: BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
Unit Vocabulary 9. Describe one major threat to biological

diversity.
1. Create a concept map that illustrates your
understanding of the following terms and 10. Illustrate the meaning of ecosystem diversity.
how they relate to biological diversity.
species
natural selection
2.0
interdependence
11. What is similar about sperm cells and egg
niches
cells? What is different?
asexual reproduction
sexual reproduction 12. What is a zygote? How is it formed?
artificial selection 13. Differentiate between heritable and non-
extinction heritable characteristics. Provide examples of
extirpation each type.
14. Distinguish between discrete and continuous
Key Concept Review variation and provide three examples of
each.
1.0 15. Outline the path of development in animals
from gametes to embryo.
2. How is a population related to a community?
16. Sketch the parts of a flower that are involved
Refer to a pond environment to illustrate
in reproduction. Describe how each part
your answer.
functions in cross-fertilization.
3. What is genetic diversity?
17. What form of asexual reproduction do yeast
4. Outline the three levels of biological cells use and how does it work?
diversity. Give an example of each.
18. Explain the difference between asexual and
5. Using an example, explain how species are sexual reproduction and the advantages and
dependent on many other species in their disadvantages of each in terms of biological
environments. diversity.
6. What is a niche? Describe the niche of a wolf 19. Use a table or Venn diagram to compare the
in the Canadian Rockies. different forms of asexual reproduction.
7. In parasitism, how does the parasite depend
on its host for survival?
8. Why is the niche a species occupies
important to its survival?

UNIT
88
In this unit, you will cover the following sections:
1.0 Matter can be described and organized by its physical and

chemical properties.
1.1 Safety in the Science Class
1.2 Organizing Matter
1.3 Observing Changes in Matter
2.0 An understanding of the nature of matter has developed

through observations over time.
2.1 Evolving Theories of Matter
2.2 Organizing the Elements
2.3 The Periodic Table Today
3.0 Compounds form according to a set of rules.

3.1 Naming Compounds
3.2 Ionic Compounds
3.3 Molecular Compounds
4.0 Substances undergo a chemical change when they interact

to produce different substances.
4.1 Chemical Reactions
4.2 Conservation of Mass in Chemical Reactions
4.3 Factors Affecting the Rate of a Chemical Reaction
89
Exploring
Aluminum foam
The next time you drink pop from a can, take a good look at the container.
You probably know that it’s made of the metal aluminum, which is light
and flexible, yet strong. These characteristics, or properties, make
aluminum useful for holding liquids. Aluminum has many other
applications as well. For example, screen doors, cars, and airplanes all
use aluminum. In these applications, the metal is usually used in sheets
or formed into parts. But did you know that aluminum can also be made
into a foam?
ALUMINUM FOAM
Aluminum foam is an example of combining a variety of materials to
create a new material with different properties from those of the original
materials. Mixing powdered aluminum with a foaming material makes
aluminum foam, a substance that can be 10 times stiffer and 50% lighter
than aluminum. It can also float because it has air pockets.
Engineers use this new material to create lighter, safer cars. It may
sound strange that a lighter car can be a safer car. However, compared to
other materials, aluminum foam is able to absorb more impact energy
when a car is in a collision.
90 Unit B: Matter and Chemical Change

Q U I C K LAB
FOAM IN A CUP
Purpose Materials & Equipment
To observe what happens in a simple chemical reaction • graduated cylinder
• 30 mL corn syrup
Procedure • two 250-mL beakers
1 Pour 30 mL of corn syrup into a 250-mL beaker. Stir in 3 drops of one food • two different colours of
colouring. Sprinkle 20 mL of baking soda on the corn syrup. food colouring
• stirring rod
2 Tip the beaker slightly and carefully pour in 30 mL of water down one side.
• 20 mL baking soda
Add 30 mL of vegetable oil to the beaker in the same way.
• 30 mL water
3 Into a separate beaker, pour 20 mL of vinegar and add 3 drops of the other • 30 mL vegetable oil
food colouring. • 20 mL vinegar
4 Fill the eyedropper with coloured vinegar. Squeeze 3 drops of coloured vinegar • eyedropper
into the beaker containing the other substances. Record your observations.
Repeat if necessary.
5 Push the eyedropper down to the bottom of that beaker, and release all the
vinegar by squeezing the bulb of the eyedropper. Record your observations.
Questions
6 Describe how your observations were different in steps 4 and 5.
7 Work with the rest of the class to explain what is going on in the activity.
Focus THE NATURE OF SCIENCE

On
In this unit, you will be asked to observe how matter changes and
interacts with other matter. You will collect evidence of changes by:
• investigating the properties of matter
• interpreting observations and data from experiments
• creating and interpreting models
Think about the following questions while you study how our
understanding of matter and its interactions has developed. The answers
to these and other questions about matter will help you understand the
interactions among substances.
1. How do we determine the properties of a variety of different
substances?
2. How do different substances interact?
3. What evidence can be used to indicate that an interaction between
substances has occurred?
Exploring 91
Matter can be described and
1.0 organized by its physical and
chemical properties.
Key Concepts
concepts:
• Workplace Hazardous Materials
Information System (WHMIS)
and safety
• substances and their properties
• elements, compounds, and
atomic theory
Learning Outcomes
• identify and evaluate dangers
of caustic materials and
potentially explosive reactions
• investigate and describe
properties of materials
• describe and apply different
ways of classifying materials
based on their composition
and properties
Imagine visiting a market where all the food is displayed in big bags,
like the ones shown in the photo. How could you tell what was in each
bag? One way would be to look at the colour and shape of each item.
You also might handle each one to see whether it is hard or soft, rough
or smooth, dense or light. If these clues still weren’t enough to help you
identify the unknown substances, then you might have to cut them
open to see their composition. In all of this, you would be doing just
what a chemist does: investigating matter.
Studying the properties of matter and how matter changes is part of
the science called chemistry. Matter is anything that has mass and
occupies space. In this section, you will first learn proper science lab
safety. Then you will learn about some properties of matter and how
those properties can be used to identify substances and to organize
matter in a useful way.

1.1 Safety in the Science Class
In any science activity, the safety of you, your classmates, and your
teacher are of the utmost importance. It is essential that everyone in your
science class act in a safe and responsible manner. Before you begin
investigating chemical reactions, you should review some safety rules and
basic lab skills.
S K I L L PRACTICE
SAFETY IN THE SCIENCE LAB

Look at Figure 1.1. Some of the students are not following proper safety procedures.
Work with a partner to identify and list the problem actions in a table. Then suggest a
better, safer way to perform each action. After you have finished, share your
Figure 1.1 Students at
observations with the class. work in the lab
Matter Can Be Described and Organized by Its Physical and Chemical Properties 93
info BIT SAFETY HAZARD SYMBOLS
Before you do any activity in this unit, read the directions and look for
Symbol Shapes “Caution” notes that will tell you if you need to take extra care. There are
These shapes and their two areas of special consideration for people working in the lab:
colours indicate how
understanding warning labels and following safety procedures.
dangerous a substance is.
Some of the materials you will use in science activities are hazardous.
Always pay attention to the warning labels, and follow your teacher’s
instructions for storing and disposing of these materials. If you are using
cleaning fluids, paint, or other hazardous materials at home, read the
labels for special storage and disposal advice.
caution All hazardous materials have a label showing a hazard symbol. You
may have seen these labels on chemical substances in your kitchen or
garage. For example, many kinds of window cleaner contain ammonia,
which is toxic and corrosive. Car batteries contain sulfuric acid which is
also toxic and corrosive, and lead which is toxic.
Each hazard symbol shows two separate pieces of information. The
warning shape of the symbol indicates how hazardous a substance is. A yellow
triangle means “caution,” an orange diamond means “warning,” and a red
octagon means “danger.” These shapes are shown in the infoBIT on this
page. The second piece of information in the symbol is the type of hazard,
which is indicated by the picture inside the shape. Figure 1.2 shows the
common hazard warnings.
danger
flammable toxic explosive
irritant corrosive biological electrical
Figure 1.2 These symbols warn you of specific hazards.
WHMIS SYMBOLS
The Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System—or WHMIS—is
another system of easy-to-see warning symbols on hazardous materials.
These symbols were designed to help protect people who use materials
that might be harmful at work. Figure 1.3 shows eight WHMIS symbols.

In several activities in this unit, you will encounter the symbols for re SEARCH
poisonous material, dangerously reactive material, and corrosive (or
caustic) material. For example, hydrogen peroxide is very reactive and can MSDS
burn your skin, and battery acid is corrosive. Treat both chemicals with Materials and Safety Data
extreme care whenever you use them. Sheets (MSDS) are
information sheets about
specific chemicals. Find
out what type of
information is on the
MSDS. Begin your search
compressed gas dangerously reactive oxidizing poisonous and infectious at www.pearsoned.ca/
material material causing immediate and scienceinaction.
serious toxic effects
flammable and biohazardous corrosive poisonous and

combustible infectious material material infectious causing
material other toxic effects Figure 1.3 WHMIS symbols
UNDERSTANDING THE RULES

When you perform science activities of any kind, it is very important to
follow the lab safety rules shown below. Not following one or more of
these rules could result in injury to you or your classmates. Your teacher
will also discuss any specific rules that apply to your classroom. For more
information on lab safety, see Toolbox 1.
Lab Safety Rules
1. Read all written instructions carefully before doing an 10. Clean up any spilled substances immediately as
activity. instructed by your teacher.
2. Listen to all instructions and follow them carefully. 11. Never look into test tubes or containers from the top.
3. Wash your hands thoroughly after each activity and Always look through the sides.
after handling chemicals. 12. Never use cracked or broken glassware. Make sure
4. Wear safety goggles, gloves, or an apron as required. you follow your teacher’s instructions when getting
5. Think before you touch. Equipment may be hot and rid of broken glass.
substances may be dangerous. 13. Label any container you put chemicals in.
6. Smell a substance by fanning the smell toward you 14. Report all accidents and spills immediately to your
with your hand. Do not put your nose close to the teacher.
substance. 15. If there are WHMIS (Workplace Hazardous Materials
7. Do not taste anything in the lab. Information System) safety symbols on any chemical
8. Tie back loose hair and roll up loose sleeves. you will be using, make sure that you understand all
the symbols. See Toolbox 1 at the back of this book.
9. Never pour liquids into containers held in your hand.
Place a test tube in a rack before pouring substances
in it.
KEEP SAFETY IN MIND
Remember that safety in the science class begins with you. Before you
start any activity:
• Follow the safety instructions outlined by your teacher and in this
textbook.
• Identify possible hazards and report them immediately.
• Show respect and concern for your own safety and the safety of your
classmates and teachers.
• Read Toolbox 1: Safety in the Laboratory.
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review
1. Why is it important for all students to follow the safety rules while in
a science class?
2. What does WHMIS stand for?
3. Why is there a need for a WHMIS program?
4. One area of special consideration for people working in a lab is
(a)
understanding warning labels. What is the other special consideration?
5. What does each hazard warning label mean on the chemicals shown
in Figure 1.4?

6. What type of WHMIS symbols would you expect to see on the
following containers?
(b) a) a can of gasoline
b) a tub of caustic cleaning chemical
c) a bottle of oxygen gas
d) a bottle of sulfuric acid
7. Explain the difference between WHMIS symbols and safety symbols
used on commercial products.
8. List the steps a student should take before starting a science activity
where safety is an issue.
9. Describe one problem that may occur with having different coloured
(c) safety symbols.

10. Divide the lab safety rules given on page 95 among members of your
class. Have each person or group make a poster illustrating the rule.
Display your safety posters in your classroom to remind everyone of
the importance of following these rules.
(d) 11. What additional lab safety rules would you add to the list on page 95?
Figure 1.4 Question 5. Warning labels on hazardous products.

1.2 Organizing Matter info BIT
Matter exists as a solid, liquid, or gas. These are called the states of matter. Plasma
The state of a substance—solid, liquid, or gas—depends on temperature. A fourth state of matter is
Specific terms are used to describe changes of state in substances. A the plasma state.
change from a solid to a liquid is melting. A change from a liquid to a gas Examples of plasmas are
is evaporation (also known as vaporization). A change from a gas to a found in lightning, neon
liquid is condensation and from a liquid to a solid is freezing. A solid can signs, and stars such as
also change directly into a gas; this process is called sublimation. A gas our Sun. Plasmas result
can change directly to a solid. This is called deposition. when a large amount of
energy is added to a gas.
sublimation
solid melting liquid evaporation gas
freezing condensation
deposition
Figure 1.5 Changes in states of matter
To understand how substances differ, you need to observe their

properties. Properties are characteristics that can be used to describe a
substance. All matter has two types of properties: physical and chemical.
Q U I C K LAB
ORGANIZING THE PROPERTIES OF MATTER

To describe and classify materials by their properties • paper
• pencil
Procedure • scissors
1 Cut a sheet of notepaper into eight equal pieces. These are your summary cards.
2 Your teacher will give you samples of the following materials: copper wire,
vinegar, salad oil, aluminum foil, granite, graphite, rock salt, lemonade, and baking
soda. At the top of each summary card, write the name of one of the materials
(one card per material).
3 Study each material sample in turn, and write a short description of the material.
Refer to as many different properties as you can to describe the material so you
can show how it differs from the other materials you study.
4 Divide the materials into groups having similar properties. You should have at
least four groups. Determine a name that best describes each of these groups, or
classifications.
Questions
5 Compare your classification system with that of your classmates. What similar
97
properties did everyone use? What different properties did everyone use?
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Some Physical Properties
A variety of physical properties can be used to identify matter. Two
of Matter
examples are colour and lustre (shininess). The temperature at which a
• colour
substance melts is also a physical property. It’s important to remember that
• lustre
when a substance undergoes a physical change, such as melting, its
• melting point
appearance or state may be altered, but its composition stays the same.
• boiling point
Melted chocolate ice cream has the same composition as frozen chocolate
• hardness
ice cream. The table on page 99 lists several of the key physical properties
• malleability
used to describe matter.
• ductility
• crystal shape
• solubility Figure 1.6 This ice cream has
• density undergone a physical change.
• conductivity Even though it has melted, its
composition hasn’t changed.
Q U I C K LAB
OBSERVING A PHYSICAL CHANGE

To investigate a physical change and the factors that influence the rate of change • soda pop
• 2 glasses (or large test
Procedure tubes)
1 Fill the two glasses about two-thirds full with soda pop. • chewy mint candy such as
Menthos
2 Into one glass, drop a piece of the mint candy. Watch what happens in both
• pencil and notebook
glasses and record your observations.
3 Identify one variable you could manipulate to increase the rate of change that
occurs.
4 Write a procedure to perform this test. Identify your control, the manipulated
variable, and the responding variable. Also decide how you will measure your
responding variable.
5 Ask your teacher to approve your procedure. Then, carry out the test.
6 Record your results.
Questions
7 Adding a candy to the pop causes a physical change to occur. The candy
reduces the surface tension in the liquid, allowing gas to be released faster.
Does the composition of the candy change after it is added to the pop?
8 Why were you required to fill two glasses with pop in step 1, but to add candy
to only one glass in step 2?
9 What factors influenced the rate at which the gas was released from the pop?
What data did you collect to support your answer?

Some Physical Properties of Matter
Melting point The melting point of a substance is the temperature at which it changes from a solid to a liquid.
The melting point of ice is 0°C. At this temperature, it changes into water. Other substances have
different melting points. For example, table salt melts at 801°C, and propane melts at 190°C.
Boiling point The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which its liquid phase changes to the gas
phase. At sea level, water’s boiling point is 100°C. Table salt boils at 1413°C, and propane boils
at 42°C.
Hardness Hardness is a substance’s ability to resist being scratched. Hardness is usually measured on the
Mohs’ hardness scale from 1 to 10. The mineral talc is the softest substance on the scale (1).
Diamond is the hardest (10). Figure 1.7 shows the scale.
Malleability A substance that can be pounded or rolled into sheets is said to be malleable. Metals such as
gold and tin are malleable. Aluminum foil is an example of a product made from a malleable
substance.
Ductility Any solid that can be stretched into a long wire is said to be ductile. The most common example
of a ductile material is copper.
Crystal shape The shape of a substance’s crystals can help identify it. Silicon crystals, for example, are diamond
shaped. Salt crystals form cubes.
Solubility Solubility is the ability of a substance to be dissolved in another. For example, sugar is soluble in
water, but cooking oil is not.
Density Density is the amount of mass in a given volume of a substance. The density of water is 1 g/mL.
The density of gold is 19 g/cm3.
Conductivity Conductivity is the ability of a substance to conduct electricity or heat. A substance that conducts
electricity or heat is called a conductor. A substance with little or no conductivity is an insulator.
1 2 3 4 5
Talc Gypsum Calcite Fluorite Apatite
6 7 8 9 10
Feldspar Quartz Topaz Corundum Diamond
Figure 1.7 Mohs’ hardness scale
ACTIVITY B-1
I D E N T I F Y I N G M Y S T E RY S U B S TA N C E S
Inquiry
The Question
How can the properties of a substance be used to identify it?
Procedure
Part 1—Examining Five Substances
1 Copy the table shown on the next page into your notebook.
• salt, baking soda, corn starch,
sodium nitrate, sodium 2 Collect five substances from your teacher.
thiosulfate 3 Perform the tests described below to identify the properties of the substances. You
• black paper do not have to do the tests in the order shown below, but you must do all of them.
• hand lens
4 Make sure the data table is completely filled in before you begin part 2 of the activity.
• water
• 5% acetic acid or 5% Test 1—Appearance
hydrochloric acid
5 Use one sheet of black paper for all your samples. Place a small amount of each
• iodine solution
powder in different places on the same sheet of black paper. Make sure that your
• wax paper or spot plate
powder samples are not touching each other.
• disposal containers
6 Describe the appearance of each powder. Record your observations in the data table.
Test 2—Crystal shape

7 Use a hand lens or microscope to examine the grains of each powder. Record your
observations in the data table.
8 Dispose of the powders and the black paper in the container provided.
Test 3—Behaviour in water

9 Use one large sheet of wax paper or a spot plate for all your samples. Place a small
amount of each powder on the wax paper or spot plate.
10 Add a drop of water to each powder. Record your observations in the data table.
11 Dispose of the powders and the wax paper in the container provided. Clean the spot
plate.
Test 4—Behaviour in acid

12 Place a small amount of each powder on a new sheet of wax paper or a clean spot
Figure 1.8 Step 7 plate.
13 Add a drop of 5% acetic acid solution or 5% hydrochloric acid solution to each
powder. Record your observations in the data table.
plate.
Test 5—Behaviour in iodine

15 Place a small amount of each powder on a new sheet of wax paper or a clean spot
plate.
16 Add a drop of iodine solution to each powder. Record your observations in the data
table.
plate thoroughly.

Part 2—Identifying Unknown Substances
18 Collect an unknown sample from your teacher. Record the letter or number of the
sample in the data table next to the word “unknown.”
19 Determine the properties of the unknown sample by repeating the five tests above,
and record your observations in the data table.

20 For each substance, one or two tests clearly identified it as being unique from the
other substances. What were those tests for each of the white powders?
21 Were some tests more useful than others? Explain your answer.
22 Were the results of some of the tests confusing? Explain your answer.
23 What substance or substances were in your unknown sample?
Forming Conclusions
24 Describe how you inferred what substance or substances were in your unknown
sample. Use your data to support your conclusions.

Knowing the properties of a substance is essential to finding practical uses for it. For
example, corn starch can be used to make glue. If corn starch is cooked with an acid, a
sticky, adhesive substance is produced. A similar substance can be produced from the
solid materials that form after acid is added to milk. This substance is called casein.
Casein can be mixed with a basic solution to form a strong glue.
Substance State Appearance Crystal Behaviour Behaviour Behaviour

Shape in Water in Acid in Iodine
salt
baking soda
corn starch
sodium nitrate
sodium
thiosulfate
unknown
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
A chemical property describes how a substance interacts with other
Chemical Properties of
substances such as acids. Chemical properties are observable only when a
Matter—Examples
chemical change occurs. A chemical change always results in the
formation of a different substance or substances. For example, if you make
• reaction with acids
pancakes, you mix together flour, milk, baking powder, sugar, and other
• ability to burn
ingredients, each with its own set of physical properties. When you cook
• reaction with water
them, however, they form a completely new substance—a pancake. The
• behaviour in air
pancake has different properties from those of its ingredients.
• reaction to heat
Figure 1.9 Cooking the

pancake ingredients changes
them into a different
substance.
PURE SUBSTANCE OR MIXTURE?

All matter is either a pure substance or a mixture. Physical and chemical
properties show us whether a substance is “pure” or a mixture.
Types of Pure Substances

A pure substance is made of only one kind of matter and has a unique set
of properties that sets it apart from any other kind of matter. Mercury and
sugar are two examples. A pure substance may be either an element or a
compound.
• An element is a material that cannot be broken down into any simpler
substance. Elements are the basic building blocks for all compounds.
Later in this unit, you will learn how elements are organized into a
periodic table according to their properties. Each element has its own
symbol. For example, hydrogen is H, carbon is C, and oxygen is O.
• When two or more elements combine chemically—that is, in specific,
fixed proportions—they form a compound. When the elements
hydrogen and oxygen are combined in specific proportions, they form
the compound water. Carbon and oxygen chemically combined form
the compound carbon dioxide, the gas that is used to create the “fizz”
in carbonated drinks. Later in this unit, you will learn that compounds
have chemical names and formulas. For example, water is H2O and
carbon dioxide is CO2.
The structural composition of elements and compounds is discussed
further in Section 2.0.

Types of Mixtures
A mixture is a combination of pure substances. However, the substances
in a mixture do not combine chemically as happens when a compound is
formed. They remain in their original, pure form, even though they are
not always easy to see distinctly once the mixture is made. There are four
main types of mixtures:
• In a mechanical mixture, the different substances that make up the
mixture are visible. Soil is an example of a mechanical (or
heterogeneous) mixture. So is a package of mixed vegetables.
• In a solution, the different substances that make it up are not
separately visible. One substance is dissolved in another, creating
what looks like one homogeneous substance. Examples of solutions
are shown in the table below.
Type of Solution Example

Solid dissolved in liquid sugar in hot coffee
Liquid dissolved in liquid acetic acid in water (to create white vinegar)
Gas dissolved in liquid carbon dioxide gas in water (to create carbonated pop)
Gas dissolved in gas oxygen and smaller amounts of other gases in nitrogen
(in the atmosphere)
Solid dissolved in solid copper in silver (to create sterling silver)
Figure 1.10 You use many
different kinds of mixtures
Chemists call a substance dissolved in water an aqueous solution. and solutions each day.
Examples include fresh water, vinegar, and cleaning solvents.
• A suspension is a cloudy mixture in which tiny particles of one
substance are held within another. Tomato juice is an example of a
suspension. These particles can be separated out when the mixture is
poured through filter paper.
• A colloid is also a cloudy mixture, but the particles of the suspended
substance are so small that they cannot be easily separated out from
the other substance. Milk and ketchup are examples of colloids.
re SEARCH
Matter
Other Types of Mixtures
Gels are colloids used in
beauty products. Find
Pure substances Mixtures out how these types of
mixtures are created, and
how they are used in
various applications.
Elements Compounds Begin your search at
www.pearsoned.ca/
scienceinaction.
Mechanical Solutions Suspensions Colloids
mixtures
Figure 1.11 Classifying matter
CHECK AND REFLECT
Key Concept Review
1. What physical properties could be used to describe a substance?
2. Give two examples to illustrate the difference between a physical and a
chemical property.
3. How is an element different than a compound? Give an example of each.
4. What is the difference between a pure substance and a mixture?
5. How is a suspension different from a colloid?

6. The melting and boiling points of five chemical substances are shown in
the table below. What state of matter does each exist in at room
temperature (about 20°C)?
Substance Melting Point Boiling Point State at Room

(°C) (°C) Temperature
water 0 100
oxygen 218 183
ammonium nitrate 170 210
ethanol 117 79
mercury 39 357
7. What physical property is described by each of the following

statements?
a) Solid oxygen melts at 218°C.
b) A penny cannot scratch glass.
c) Silver is shiny.
d) Gold can be made into thin sheets.
e) Both aluminum and copper can be used for making wire.
8. Classify the following substances as an element, compound, or mixture:
a) Pop is composed of water, sugar, and carbon dioxide.
b) Graphite in a pencil is composed of carbon.
c) Carbon dioxide is composed of carbon and oxygen.
9. Someone sprinkles dilute acetic acid over your French fries. Are they
safe to eat? Explain your answer.

10. Create a concept map to illustrate the different categories of matter. Use
the following terms: matter, solution, element, homogeneous mixture,
heterogeneous mixture. Include an example of each in your map.
11. Find out how mixtures can be modified to meet human needs. For
example, a substance obtained from the sea weed carrageen is added to
many brands of ice cream as a thickener.

info BIT
1.3 Observing Changes in Matter
Detecting Changes in
Think about the changes in matter you have observed in nature and
Blood
elsewhere. For example, in the spring, you can see ice—solid water— Canadian scientist Imant
become liquid water. At home, you can heat water in a kettle and watch it Lauks invented a device
vaporize as steam. These changes are easy to see, but others are not. For called the I-Stat. In
example, the hemoglobin which carries oxygen in your blood changes 2 min, this device can
colour when carbon dioxide and oxygen are exchanged in your lungs. perform 12 different tests
As you learned in section 1.2, changes in matter are classified as to identify changes that
physical or chemical. A physical change is one in which a material have occurred in a
changes from one state to another. The material can also physically change person’s blood. This
back into its original state. When frozen apple juice is thawed, it melts process used to take
from a solid to a liquid. If you refreeze the juice, it will turn back into a hours or days.
solid. Its composition will remain the same in all states.
A chemical change occurs when two or more materials react and create
new materials. The new materials have completely different properties
from the original substances. How can you tell when a chemical change is
underway or has taken place? The main pieces of evidence to look for are
changes in colour, odour, state, or thermal energy during, or as a result of,
the reaction between the original substances. Examples are shown below:
Evidence of Chemical Change Example

Change in colour When bleach is added to the dye on a denim jacket,
a noticeable colour change occurs.
Change in odour When a match is struck, the substances in the match
head react and give off a distinctive odour.
Formation of a solid or gas When vinegar (a liquid) is added to baking soda
(a solid), carbon dioxide gas is formed.
Release or absorption of heat energy When gasoline burns in a car engine, heat is released.
Sometimes, it can be unclear whether a material’s change in state means

that a chemical or a physical change has occurred. In such situations,
chemical analysis in the lab is required to confirm the nature of the change.
S K I L L PRACTICE
IDENTIFYING PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES Figure 1.12(a–e)
For each example in Figure 1.12,

identify the change shown as either a
physical change or chemical change. If
you are not sure what type of change
is happening, note that. Review all the
examples again when you have
finished working through this section.
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
ACTIVITY B-2
I N V E S T I G AT I N G P H Y S I C A L AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

Inquiry
The Question
What are some characteristics of physical changes and chemical changes?
Procedure
1 You will investigate four different reactions described below.
• sodium carbonate
2 Copy the data table shown on the next page into your notebook. Fill it in as you
• 250-mL beaker complete each test.
• dilute hydrochloric acid
• aluminum foil Test 1—Sodium carbonate and hydrochloric acid
• sugar 3 Put a pea-sized pile of sodium carbonate into a small beaker or plastic cup. In your
• candle data table, describe the appearance of the sodium carbonate.
• Plasticine
4 Observe the dilute hydrochloric acid. If you are unable to see inside the container, use
• matches
• wooden clothespin or tongs
a clear eyedropper to remove a small sample of the acid. Record your observations.
• 3 test tubes 5 Predict what you think will happen when you add the dilute hydrochloric acid to the
• sodium carbonate solution sodium carbonate.
• copper(II) sulfate solution 6 Add 5 to 8 drops of dilute hydrochloric acid to the sodium carbonate. Record your
• 5-mL measuring spoon observations.
• test-tube holder
• copper(II) sulfate (solid)
Test 2—Sugar and heat
• water
• stirring rod 7 Use a piece of aluminum foil to make a small cup shape. Put a pea-sized pile of sugar
into the centre of the aluminum cup. In your data table, describe the appearance of
the sugar.
8 Predict what you think will happen when the sugar is heated.
Caution! 9 Stand a candle securely in some Plasticine, and light the candle.
Make sure long hair 10 Using tongs or a wooden clothespin, hold the aluminum cup containing the sugar
and loose clothing over the candle’s flame. Slowly move the cup back and forth over the flame to heat
are tied back. the sugar. Record your observations.
11 When you are finished, place the aluminum cup in a safe place to cool.
Test 3—Copper(II) sulfate and sodium carbonate

12 Place 5 mL of copper(II) sulfate solution in a test tube. Place 5 mL of sodium
carbonate solution in another test tube. In your data table, describe the appearance of
Caution! each solution.
Copper(II) sulfate is 13 Record your prediction of what will happen when the two solutions are combined.
poisonous and can 14 Combine the two solutions and record your observations.
stain your clothes 15 When you are finished, dispose of the solution as directed by your teacher.
and skin.

Test 4—Copper(II) sulfate and water
16 Place a pea-sized pile of copper(II) sulfate in a
clean test tube and place the test tube in a
holder. In your data table, record the
substance’s appearance.
17 Record your prediction of what will happen
when water is added to the copper(II) sulfate.
18 Add 15 mL of water and record your
observations. Use a stirring rod to mix the
water and copper(II) sulfate. Record your
observations.
Figure 1.13 Test 4

19 Which of the changes that you observed were physical?
20 What observations helped you identify a physical change?
21 Which of the changes that you observed were chemical?
22 What observations helped you identify a chemical change?
Forming Conclusions
23 Create a summary, chart, or picture to illustrate the observations you might make to
describe the characteristics of a chemical change and a physical change.
Change Observations Predictions Observations Observations Type of

before during after Change Change
Change Change (Physical or
Chemical)
Station 1: Sodium
carbonate and dilute
hydrochloric acid
Station 2: Sugar and heat
Station 3: Copper(II) sulfate
and sodium carbonate
Station 4: Copper(II) sulfate
and water
CONTROLLING CHANGES IN MATTER TO MEET HUMAN NEEDS
In our everyday life, there are many examples of how understanding and
controlling changes in matter help us meet our basic needs. One example
you might be interested to read about is the freeze-drying of foods. Freeze-
drying is a way to preserve foods so that they can be eaten months—and
sometimes even years—later. As well, freeze-drying makes foods easy to
prepare—all you have to do is add hot water.
In the freeze-drying process, the food is first frozen to convert the
water content in the food to ice. The frozen food is then put in a pressure
chamber and the pressure is reduced until the ice sublimes (changes from
a solid to a gas). The result is that about 98% of the water in the original
food item is removed. This leaves a food that is about 10% its original
mass and that, once packaged, doesn’t have to be refrigerated. When it’s
time to eat, all you do is stir in hot water!
Figure 1.14 If you’ve ever kayaked, you know the importance of keeping your supplies as light as
possible. Freeze-dried foods weigh little and take only minutes to prepare.
The technique of freeze-drying is also used by biologists to study

tissue samples and by restoration experts to rescue important documents
Figure 1.15 A highly
that are water damaged.
magnified photo of a “freeze- Another process, developed by the U.S. Army, makes freeze-dried food
fractured” cell. In this even more convenient. Instead of having to be heated over a fire or
process, plant or animal portable stove, the “Meal, Ready to Eat” (also referred to as an MRE) is
tissue is rapidly frozen. The heated in a special package called a “Flameless Ration Heater.” This
ice formed within each cell is
makes MREs especially useful for soldiers, astronauts, and mountain
then removed by various
evaporation techniques. The
climbers. To be warmed up, the freeze-dried MRE is placed in the
result is a clearly revealed Flameless Ration Heater pouch. The pouch contains magnesium, iron, and
cell structure: nucleus, pores, salt. When a little water is added to these chemicals, the resulting
and membrane. chemical change releases heat—enough to warm the freeze-dried contents.

FROM CORN TO NAIL POLISH REMOVER AND PLASTIC WRAP? re SEARCH
Scientists are also able to change common materials into other useful
products. For example, chemicals made from corn can be used to make What Makes a Match
soda pop bottles, remove paint or nail polish, and fuel some cars. Corn is Light?
put through a chemical change called fermentation. Once this chemical When a match burns,
the wood or paper
process is complete, the new substances are recovered, purified, and made
undergoes combustion,
into biodegradable plastics, solvents, and gasohol. Corn-based
but how does the
biodegradable plastics such as bottles and plastic wrap are better for the
match ignite? Find out
environment because they can be decomposed by bacteria. Corn-based about the chemical
solvents for removing paint and nail polish are not as harmful to the reactions that occur
environment as other types of solvents. Gasohol provides a renewable when a match is lit.
type of fuel for automobiles. Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/
scienceinaction.
CHECK AND REFLECT
Key Concept Review
1. What is the difference between a chemical change and a physical
change?
2. Copy the following table into your notebook and fill in the blanks:
Changes in Matter
Event
Observable Changes Type of Change
Baking bread
Burning wood
Freezing water
Mixing sugar and water

3. Describe three indicators of a chemical change. Include examples of
each.
4. An unknown white solid is heated for 1 min. It is observed that (a) the
solid disappears, leaving a colourless liquid; and (b) after the liquid
cools, a white solid appears. What kind of change is this? Explain the
reason for your choice.
5. Describe an example of how humans control changes in matter to
meet their basic needs.

6. Find one example of a physical change and one of a chemical change
not discussed in this section. Share your findings with the class.
7. Is popping popcorn a physical or chemical reaction? Explain your
answer.
SECTION REVIEW
Key Concept Review
1. Define matter.
2. What do the following symbol shapes represent?
3. Why does everyone working with hazardous materials use WHMIS?

4. Create a diagram illustrating the different states of matter. Name the
process that makes the change in state possible.
5. Name at least six properties of matter that can be used to describe a
substance.
6. Identify each of the following as either a physical or a chemical
change:
a) Acid is dropped on limestone and bubbling occurs.
b) Snow turns into rain just before it reaches the ground.
c) A strip of magnesium is ignited, and it burns brightly.
d) Solid carbon dioxide, or dry ice, sublimes into carbon dioxide gas.
7. Define the terms physical change and chemical change. Include the
words water, baking soda, sugar, and vinegar in your definitions.
8. Describe the four main types of mixtures that can be formed.
9. Explain the difference between deposition and freezing.
10. List three examples of physical changes you have observed today.

11. Describe two occupations in which knowledge of WHMIS is
important.
12. What safety symbol would appear on the following?
a) an aerosol can of hair spray
b) an agar plate of bacteria culture
c) a 4-L jug of bleach
d) a gasoline can
13. What WHMIS symbol would be used in each case listed in
question 12?
14. Compare and contrast physical properties with chemical properties.
15. What physical properties could be used to identify the following?
a) copper metal
b) water

SECTION REVIEW
16. Using the classification of matter chart as a guide (Figure 1.11), create
a classification system for the following substances: chocolate chip
cookies, coffee with milk in it, aluminum foil, potting soil, a gold
medal, pizza, sugar, and garbage. Be sure to list the properties you
used to guide your classification.
17. Explain the difference between a suspension and a colloid.

18. Why are there two different sets of safety symbols for labelling
chemicals?
19. Your class is going to be doing a chemistry experiment with a grade 1
class. You are partnered with two students from the younger class.
What would you tell them about safety before the activity begins?
20. You are given three unlabelled containers, each with a white powder.
Your teacher tells you that the powders could be baking soda, corn
starch, or sodium nitrate. Describe the chemical tests you need to
perform to identify each powder.

On
The goal of science is to develop knowledge about our natural world. This
includes knowledge about the nature of substances, how they interact to
form new substances, and how these interactions can be controlled and
used in a practical way. Working with a partner or the whole class,
consider the following questions:
1. Identify an example of a physical change. How do you know a
physical change has occurred? What evidence do you have?
2. Identify an example of two or more substances interacting to produce
a chemical change. How do you know a chemical change has
occurred? What evidence do you have?
3. Describe several chemical changes that you think are useful either to
you personally or to society in general. What characteristics or
properties of each of these reactions make them useful?
An understanding of the nature of
2.0 matter has developed through
observations over time.
Key Concepts
concepts:
• substances and their properties
atomic theory
• periodic table
Learning Outcomes
• distinguish between
observation and theory, and
provide examples of how
models and theoretical ideas
are used in explaining
observations
• demonstrate understanding of
the origins of the periodic
table, and relate patterns in the
physical and chemical
properties of elements to their
positions in the periodic table Humans have been warming themselves around campfires for thousands
• use the periodic table to: of years. You may have sat around a campfire and enjoyed the heat. You
– identify the number of may even have cooked over a fire. What do you think early humans might
protons and electrons in have wondered about this mysterious flame that gives off heat and light?
each atom, as well as other Some of them likely puzzled over why fire turns wood black or makes it
information about each atom smell different. Maybe they would have wondered what happened to the
– describe the relationship wood after the fire had burned out. By being curious about the world
between the structure of around them, these people were the first to try to learn more about
atoms in each group and the
substances and how they behave.
properties of elements in that
In this section, you will learn how our understanding of matter has
group
changed over time. As you read, you will begin to appreciate how asking
questions is a key first step we use in making sense of our world. Then,
from our observations and experiments, we develop theories and build
models to predict and explain what we see. We test these, adjust them, try
out new ideas, and eventually reach what seems to be the reasonable
answers to our questions. It all begins with curiosity.

2.1 Evolving Theories of Matter
As people observe the natural world around them, they try to make sense
of their observations by suggesting explanations. They develop theories to
explain what they see. Over time, the theories are modified as new
evidence is discovered. The understanding of the structure of matter grew
in this way.
STONE AGE CHEMISTS

The first chemists lived before 8000 B.C. in an area now called the Middle
East. This period is known as the Stone Age because humans used only
simple stone tools at the time. Metals had not been discovered.
Once these first chemists learned how to start and control fire, they
learned how to change a range of substances to their advantage. For
example, they could cook their food, fire-harden mud bricks to strengthen
them, and make tougher tools. Eventually this ability to control fire led to
the production of glass and ceramic material.
Figure 2.1 Humans in the

Stone Age could make
only simple stone and
bone tools like these.
Stone Age people
improved their lives when
they discovered how to
start and control fires.
They used fire mainly for
cooking and warmth.
G I V E I T A TRY
CREATING A TIME LINE STORY OF MATTER

In this subsection, you will be learning how our understanding of the structure of matter
has developed through history.
1 Make a time line that shows when the key ideas were proposed and who proposed
them. Start your time line at 8000 B.C. and add to it as you read through the
subsection. For each idea, be sure to include the observations the person made that
led to the new theory.
2 Beneath your time line, sketch the model that resulted from the key idea.
3 Mark the final point in your time line “Today.” Draw a diagram beneath this that
shows your own understanding of the structure of matter.
An Understanding of the Nature of Matter Has Developed Through Observations over Time 113
EARLY INTEREST IN METALS AND LIQUID MATTER
Between 6000 B.C. and 1000 B.C.,
early chemists investigated only
materials that had a high value to
humans. Many of these materials
were metals, such as gold and
copper. Gold became highly
valued because of its properties.
It had attractive colour and lustre,
and it didn’t tarnish. Its softness
made it easy to shape into
detailed designs, form into wire,
Figure 2.2 The earliest use of gold was in
and beat into sheets. Because it is jewellery, but it later became very important
so soft, however, gold could not in the making of coins.
be used for tools or weapons.
Copper became valuable because it could be used to make pots, coins,
tools, and jewellery. It was early chemists asking questions that led to an
understanding of copper’s properties and how the material could be
controlled. A piece of natural, untreated copper is brittle—that is, it breaks
easily. In that state, therefore, it isn’t a useful material for making things.
However, when copper is heated, it becomes very useful because it can be
rolled into sheets or stretched into long wires.
The original discovery of the effect of heat on copper was possibly
accidental. A chunk of copper may have fallen into a fire and whoever
picked it out may have asked: Has the copper changed because it was
heated? Testing it would have revealed how much softer it was and that it
was less likely to shatter when hammered. Later experimenting with
copper (about 4500 B.C.) led to the creation of a hard, strong material
known as bronze, which is produced when copper and tin are heated
together.
Figure 2.3 An ornate bronze

sword dating from about
600 B.C.
Figure 2.4 The discovery of copper’s usefulness (such as in these copper spearheads) is a good
example of how asking questions leads to scientific and technological development.

Around 1200 B.C., a group of people in the Middle East
called Hittites discovered how to extract iron from rocks and
turn it into a useful material. The Iron Age began. Eventually,
people learned to combine iron with carbon to produce an even
harder material—steel. Steel meant sharper blades could be
fashioned for hunting and stronger armour could be built to
protect soldiers in battle.
Metals were not the only form of matter that early people
wanted to learn more about. Many cultures investigated the
ways of extracting and using different types of liquids. Juices
and oils were especially important both in everyday life and in
rituals. (In fact, the word “chemistry” may be derived from the
Greek word khemeia, meaning juice of a plant.) In ancient Egypt,
human bodies were preserved after death by being wrapped in
cloths soaked in natural pigments and resins from the juniper
tree. Figure 2.6 shows a mummy preserved with this technique.
Figure 2.5 The knowledge and ability to

process iron and use it to make stronger tools
and weapons changed human society greatly.
re SEARCH
Discovering Different
Metals
Other metals besides
gold and copper have
also been long known.
Find out when tin, silver,
lead, and mercury were
discovered and how they
were first used. Begin
your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/
scienceinaction.
Figure 2.6 The

ancient Egyptians
developed techniques
for extracting and purifying
juices and oils to use in
mummifying bodies.
info BIT EMERGING IDEAS ABOUT THE COMPOSITION OF MATTER
The idea that all matter is made up of particles started with the Greek
Thinking About Matter philosophers about 2500 years ago. They observed that a rock could be
The first people who broken into smaller and smaller pieces until it became a powder. But, they
developed theories about
asked, how many times could you continue to break the particles of
the structure of matter
powder down until they couldn’t be broken down any more? In about 400
were philosophers.
B.C., the Greek philosopher Democritus used the word atomos to describe
Philosophers are people
who think about the world the smallest particles that could not be broken further. Atomos means
and humans’ place in it. “indivisible.”
Rather than performing Democritus stated that each type of material was made up of a
experiments on the nature different type of atomos. These different particles, he believed, gave each
of matter, early material its own unique set of properties. By mixing different atomos, you
philosophers just thought could make new materials with their own unique properties. However, in
about the structure of about 350 B.C. another Greek philosopher, Aristotle, supported a different
matter. Their explanations hypothesis. He stated that everything was made of earth, air, fire, and
and theories were based water. Because Aristotle was well known and well respected, his
on their ideas, not on description of matter was preferred over Democritus’s description for
experimental evidence.
2000 years.
FROM ALCHEMY TO CHEMISTRY

For the next 2000 years after Democritus’s time, experiments with matter
were mainly carried out by alchemists, people who were part magician,
part scientist. (The word “alchemy” comes from the Arabic word al-
kimiya, which translates as “the chemist.”) Today, the study of alchemy
would be called a pseudo-science (an activity that is not a real science
because it includes the use of magic). Alchemists believed that it should
be possible to change metals into gold. They were not interested in
understanding the nature of matter.
Figure 2.7 Until about

A.D. 1600, most people
believed Aristotle’s view
that matter was made up of
earth, air, fire, and water.
Each of these elements had
two main features. For
example, water was wet
and cold, and earth was
dry and cold.
Figure 2.8 Alchemists continued in their search for a way to make gold until about 1600.

Even though they weren’t real scientists, alchemists performed some
of the first chemistry experiments. In doing so, they invented many useful
tools that we still use in labs today, such as beakers and filters. They also
made practical discoveries. For example, the Arab alchemist al-Razi
discovered what we now call plaster of Paris—a material that today’s
doctors still use to hold broken bones in place until they heal. In 1597,
the German alchemist Andreas Libau published Alchemia, a book
describing the achievements of alchemists. In it, however, Libau also
explained how to prepare chemicals such as hydrochloric acid. This type
of information made his book the first chemistry text ever printed. Figure 2.9 Plaster of Paris is
a white, powdery
NEW INTEREST IN ATOMS combination of chemical
substances that, when mixed
From the late 1500s on, people investigating the world around them with water, becomes a quick-
became more like scientists today. They had a greater interest in hardening paste.
understanding the nature of matter and change than the alchemists had.
And, unlike the philosophers, they based their theories on observations
and experimentation.
In the 1660s, Robert Boyle experimented with the behaviour of gases.
He was interested in what happened when gases were placed under
pressure. He was also interested in determining the composition of gases
and other substances. Through his experiments and observations, Boyle
became convinced that matter was made up of tiny particles, just as
Democritus had suggested in about 400 B.C.
Boyle believed that the tiny particles, existing in various shapes and
sizes, would group together in different ways to form individual
substances. Boyle felt that the purpose of chemistry was to determine the
types of particles making up each substance.
Figure 2.10 Robert Boyle
CHEMISTRY DEVELOPS AS A NEW SCIENCE was an Irish aristocrat living
in London. He devoted his
In the 1770s, the French scientist Antoine Laurent Lavoisier studied life to scientific inquiry.
chemical interactions. By the late 1780s, he had developed a system for
naming chemicals. This was significant, for now all scientists could use
the same words to describe their observations. That made it easier to
compare the results of their experiments. Using his naming system,
Lavoisier defined some of the substances discovered to that time,
including hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon.
Because of his experimental and theoretical work, Lavoisier is called
the “father of modern chemistry.” Unfortunately, he supported the losing
side during the French Revolution and was executed by guillotine in
1794. After his death, Lavoisier’s wife, Marie, continued his work. She
had worked with him as his lab assistant.
Figure 2.11 Antoine Laurent and Marie Lavoisier worked together

conducting scientific investigations into chemical interactions.
AN ATOMIC THEORY TAKES SHAPE
In 1808, English scientist John Dalton used the observations from his
experiments to develop his own theory of the composition of matter.
Dalton suggested that matter was made up of elements. He was the first to
define an element as a pure substance that contained no other substances.
Gold, oxygen, and chlorine are examples.
Dalton also put forward the first modern theory of atomic structure. He
stated that each element is composed of a particle called an atom. All
atoms in a particular element, he said, are identical in mass, and no two
elements have atoms of the same mass. For instance, all oxygen atoms
have the same mass, which is different from the mass of chlorine atoms.
Dalton’s model is sometimes called the “billiard ball model” because he
thought of the tiny atoms as solid spheres. While some of Dalton’s ideas
were later modified based on new evidence, his basic description of the
structure of an element was correct.
Figure 2.12 In John Dalton’s

theory, atoms are like solid
billiard balls. The atoms of
each element have a different
mass than atoms in other
elements.
ADDING ELECTRONS TO THE ATOMIC MODEL

Dalton’s work on the structure of the atom was continued by British
physicist J.J. Thomson. He is credited with being the first person to
discover a subatomic particle (a particle smaller than an atom). Thomson,
experimenting with cathode rays, concluded that the rays were made up
of streams of negatively charged particles. He showed that these particles
were much smaller in mass than even a hydrogen atom. He named them
electrons. Although Thomson inferred that these invisible electrons were
part of atoms, many people did not agree with him at first. They believed
that atoms were the smallest particle of matter and could not be broken
down further.
Figure 2.13 Cathode rays are

produced when a piece of metal
is heated at one end of a tube metal plate end of
containing a gas. The heated tube glows
metal sends out a stream of
electrons toward the opposite
end of the tube, causing the end beams of
of the tube to glow. Early electrons
scientists used a simple tube like
the one shown here. Cathode ray
tubes are now used in electrical
devices such as televisions. electrical source

In 1897, Thomson proposed what is called the “raisin bun model” of
the atom. He described the atom as a positively charged sphere in which
negatively charged electrons were embedded like raisins in a bun. Figure
2.14 shows one way of representing this model. The negative electrons
balance the positive sphere, so the whole atom has no electrical charge.
In 1904, the Japanese physicist Hantaro Nagaoka refined the model of
the atom further. In his model, the atom resembled a miniature solar
system (Figure 2.15). At the centre of the atom was a large positive charge.
The negatively charged electrons orbited around this charge like planets
orbiting around the Sun. Most scientists of the day did not agree with this
model because existing theories could not explain it.
Figure 2.14 J.J.Thomson’s

Figure 2.15 Hantaro
model was the first one that
Nagaoka’s model showed
described particles smaller
the atom as a positive
than atoms. This model
sphere around which
represented the atom as a
electrons orbited in a ring,
positive sphere with electrons
like Earth orbiting the Sun.
scattered throughout it—like
raisins mixed in a baked bun.
A CANADIAN CONTRIBUTION TO ATOMIC THEORY

Support for the Nagaoka model and the idea of a central nucleus came
from the British scientist Ernest Rutherford. Rutherford won a Nobel Prize
in 1908 for his work in radioactivity, which he carried out at McGill
University in Montreal from 1898 to 1907. This work contributed to the
development of his model of the atom.
Using Thomson’s model, Rutherford conducted experiments in which
he shot positively charged particles through thin gold foil. He predicted
that all the high-speed particles would pass straight through the foil
without being affected by the gold atoms (Figure 2.16a). Instead, the
results showed that while most particles did behave as predicted, some
were greatly deflected (Figure 2.16b). To explain why this might happen,
Rutherford proposed a new model. He suggested that atoms were mainly Figure 2.16 From
empty space through which the positive particles could pass, but at the experiments with high-
core was a tiny positively charged centre. This he called the nucleus speed particles, Ernest
Rutherford was able to
(Figure 2.16c). He also calculated that the nucleus was only about
infer the existence of an
1/10 000th the size of the atom—like a green pea in a football field. atom’s nucleus.
high-speed particles high-speed particles
nucleus
atom
gold foil gold foil
a) Prediction b) Evidence c) New Model
BOHR’S MODEL
It was Danish researcher Niels Bohr who, working with Rutherford,
suggested that electrons do not orbit randomly in an atom. Bohr said that
they move in specific circular orbits, or electron shells, as shown in
Figure 2.18. He believed that electrons jump between these shells by
gaining or losing energy. For his work in studying the atom, Bohr won the
Nobel Prize in physics in 1922.
electron electron
Figure 2.17 Niels Bohr was
only 28 when he published
his theory of the atom in
1913. In 1922, he won the
Nobel Prize in physics. nucleus nucleus
Hydrogen atom Nitrogen atom
Figure 2.18 Bohr’s model of the atom. Electrons orbit the nucleus in a regular pattern.
re SEARCH Bohr’s model was readily accepted, though with further refinements,
by James Chadwick, another British physicist. Chadwick discovered that
The Quantum Atom the nucleus contained positively charged particles called protons, and
Find out more about the neutral particles called neutrons. The neutron has about the same mass as
quantum nature of the the proton but carries no electrical charge. An electron has only 1/1837th
atom. Use print and the mass of either a proton or a neutron.
electronic resources to Today, most people still use the Bohr model to describe the particles
learn about orbitals and that make up the atom. However, further research in the area of quantum
electron clouds. Begin mechanics has found that the structure of the atom is different again from
your research at that model. The quantum mechanics model of the atom describes
www.pearsoned.ca/ electrons as existing in a charged cloud around the nucleus, shown in
scienceinaction. Figure 2.19.
cloud of electrons
Figure 2.19 Today’s
quantum mechanics model
describes the atom as a
cloud of electrons
surrounding a nucleus.

CHECK AND REFLECT
Key Concept Review
1. Gold and copper were the first forms of matter investigated by
humans. Explain why.
2. Where did the word “chemistry” come from?
3. How did Democritus define the atom?
4. Why is Antoine Laurent Lavoisier considered to be the “father of
chemistry”?
5. Name four examples of matter other than gold and copper that have
been studied because of their value.

6. Describe one practical example of alchemists’ work.
7. Explain the difference between J.J. Thomson’s model of the atom and
Ernest Rutherford’s model.
8. Draw a diagram of Niels Bohr’s atom, labelling the position of the
three subatomic particles.
9. What was the significance of the work done by Andreas Libau?
10. What made Robert Boyle’s study of matter different from the previous
work done by philosophers?
11. What changes were made to Thomson’s “raisin bun model”? What
ideas of his remained the same?

12. Do you agree or disagree with the statement “In prehistoric times,
people understood very little about matter”? Explain your answer.
13. Imagine you had interviewed one of the philosophers, alchemists, or
scientists responsible for developing our understanding of the
structure of matter. Write a one-page interview with that person.
14. Compare Boyle’s model of the atom with Rutherford’s model. Use a
diagram and a brief description to support your comparison.
15. Scientists, like most people, have lives outside their work. Select one
of the scientists discussed in this subsection and write a short
biography about his or her life outside of science. Be prepared to read
your biography to the class.
16. Innuit peoples are believed to have been using copper long before
Europeans arrived in North America. Find out more about the Copper
Inuit and present your findings to the class.
Figure 2.20 Ernest Rutherford proposed his nuclear theory of the atom in 1911.
info BIT
2.2 Organizing the Elements
Choose Your Carbon
Looking for patterns and classifying scientific information helps us bring
Some elements exist in
different forms as a solid. order to unorganized ideas. It can also help us interpret what the
Carbon can be a soft information means. As you reviewed in section 1.2, matter can be
black substance called organized in several different ways. It can be classified as solids, liquids,
graphite. Or it can be a or gases; and, in any of those states, it can be classified as pure substances
hard, clear substance (elements or compounds) or mixtures (mechanical mixtures, solutions,
called diamond. suspensions, or colloids).
Q U I C K LAB
MEET THE ELEMENTS

Purpose
To create a table of properties for a range of elements
Procedure
1 Draw a table in your notebook with the following
properties listed across the top: colour, state,
appearance, hardness, magnetism, and electrical
conductivity. List the samples down the left side.
2 Your teacher will put out samples of different
elements in the classroom, as well as the Magnetism
equipment you will need to make some of your Use a magnet to determine whether the element
assessments. Examine each element and fill in the is magnetic.
table with the information you gather about the Electrical Conductivity
properties of each one. The guidelines below will Test electrical conductivity with a simple electrical
help you in your investigation: circuit and a light bulb. If the light bulb goes on
Colour when you touch the two wires to the element, the
Record the colour of each element. If the element element is a conductor. If the light bulb does not
has no colour, call it colourless. go on, the element is an insulator.
State Questions
Record what state the element is in at room 3 Sort the elements into groups that have the same
temperature. or similar properties.
Appearance 4 For each of the groups that share similar
Describe the appearance of each element. Use properties, suggest a collective name to describe
words such as “lustre” (shine) and “texture.” the elements.
Hardness 5 List these elements under their collective group
Determine the hardness of each solid element. headings.

Organizing the elements in a meaningful way was a goal of many early
chemists. In this subsection, you will learn about that effort and the
origins of the periodic table. As well, you’ll learn how important advances
in this classification approach not only revealed trends in the properties
of known elements, but also allowed scientists to predict the existence of
elements not then known. To date, scientists have identified 112
elements. Several of the common ones have been mentioned in this unit
already, including gold, copper, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon.
The characteristics of some of the common elements are listed in Toolbox
12 at the end of this textbook.
LOOKING FOR PATTERNS

Early chemists used symbols of the Sun and planets to represent the seven
metallic elements known at the time. The definition of element that we
use today was developed in the late 1700s. By the early 1800s, more than
30 elements had been identified, including oxygen, lead, and mercury. As
the science of chemistry developed, more and more elements were
identified. To help in the study of elements and compounds, chemists
tried to group elements according to their properties. But this became
confusing because different scientists organized elements in different
ways. A new organization was needed so that everyone would be using
the same system.
Metal gold silver iron mercury tin copper lead Figure 2.21 The symbols for
the Sun and planets closest
Symbol to Earth have long been used
Celestial Body Sun Moon Mars Mercury Jupiter Venus Saturn to represent the seven metals
known from ancient times.
One of the first attempts by a scientist to create a better system for

organizing the elements was made by John Dalton, an English chemist. In
the early 1800s, he developed a new set of symbols for elements, as
shown in Figure 2.22.
Figure 2.22 The element

symbols devised by John
Symbol G S Dalton, who lived from 1766
to 1844, were designed to
Element hydrogen oxygen carbon gold silver mercury
improve communication
between chemists.
Dalton’s symbols were later modified by Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob

Berzelius. In 1814, Berzelius suggested using letters rather than pictures to
represent each element. The first letter (capitalized) of an element would
become the symbol. For elements with the same first letter, such as
hydrogen and helium, a small second letter would be added. Thus, “H”
came to stand for hydrogen and “He” for helium. The new system—which
remains the one used today—enabled scientists to communicate with each
other in a precise and understandable manner. The next challenge was to
find a way of putting the elements into an order that made sense.
re SEARCH An Order for the Elements
It was soon realized that the elements could be listed in order of
New Elements increasing atomic mass. Atomic mass is the mass of one atom of an
Use electronic and print element. Scientists were able to determine the average mass of an atom of
resources to find out other elements by comparing it with the mass of a carbon atom (which is
about new elements 12.0). Atomic mass is measured by atomic mass unit (amu).
that have been In 1864, the English chemist John Newlands recognized a pattern
discovered or named in when elements were listed by increasing atomic mass. He noticed that
the past few years. properties of elements seemed to repeat through this list at regular
Share this information intervals. He called this pattern the “law of octaves,” as the pattern was
with your class, using
similar to the octave scale on a piano or other musical instrument. Many
your choice of media.
other scientists thought this law was silly and refused to accept the idea.
Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/
Not until 1869 did a clearer understanding of how to arrange the
scienceinaction. elements emerge. Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev was able to organize
the elements in a way that reflected the patterns in the properties of the
elements.
FINDING A PATTERN
Mendeleev collected the 63 elements known to exist in his time (the mid-
1800s). These included lithium, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine,
sodium, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, and chlorine. He then wrote down
the properties of each element on a card, such as melting point, density,
and colour. Using these cards, he tried to sort the elements into a pattern
based on their properties. He also wanted to find a pattern that would
allow him to predict the properties of elements not yet discovered. He felt
that the ability to predict properties of new elements would prove that his
pattern accurately reflected nature.
Mendeleev liked to play a form of the card game solitaire. In that
game, a person looks for patterns in the layout of the cards. Mendeleev
used his element cards like playing cards, laying them out and searching
for patterns. Eventually, he found a pattern that seemed to work. It
showed that the properties of elements vary periodically with increasing
atomic mass. Figure 2.23 shows the chart that Mendeleev developed.
Ti = 50 Zr = 90 ? = 180.
V = 51 Nb = 94 Ta = 182.
= 96 186.
Figure 2.23 Dmitri Mendeleev’s Mn = 55 = 4 = 197,4
original data for the periodic table Fe = 56 Ru = 104,4 Ir = 198.
Ni = 199.
H=1 = 63,4 = = 200.
= 9, 4 Mg 24 Zn = 65,2 Cd = 112
4 = Au = 197?
12 Si ? = 70 = 118
= 14 P 31 As = 75 Sb = 122 Bi = 210
16 = 4
19 Cl 5 Br = 80 I = 127
Li = 7 Na = 23 K 39 Rb = 85,4 Cs = 133 Tl = 204
= 5 = 137 = 207
?Er Ce = 92
?Yt 60 La = 94
?In 5 = 95
Th = 118?

PREDICTING NEW ELEMENTS
Mendeleev noticed some gaps in his chart of the elements, yet was
convinced that his organization of the elements was correct. He predicted
that new elements would be discovered that would have the properties
and atomic mass needed to fit into the gaps. Many scientists didn’t agree
with Mendeleev’s ideas and criticized his work. Within 16 years, however,
the gaps were filled through the discovery of new elements that had the
properties Mendeleev had predicted.
Figure 2.24 Dmitri Mendeleev, a Russian scientist, discovered a useful way of organizing the elements.
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review
1. What is the basic building block of all compounds?
2. a) Define the term atomic mass.
b) Why is an understanding of atomic mass important to a person
trying to organize elements?
3. List five properties used in describing an element.
4. Using Toolbox 12 as a guide, identify the elements in the following
common substances:
a) Aspirin
b) battery acid
c) MSG food additive
d) vitamin C

5. What two properties make oxygen different from copper?
6. What properties did Dmitri Mendeleev use to identify patterns in the
elements? Were any properties of greater value than others in helping
him find patterns?
7. Why was it important for Mendeleev to predict the properties of
elements not yet discovered?

8. How were the patterns in the elements that Mendeleev recognized
different from the patterns that John Newlands recognized?
info BIT
2.3 The Periodic Table Today
A New Element
Dmitri Mendeleev’s periodic table included the 63 known elements of his
One of the newest
elements to be discovered time. Since then, many more elements have been discovered. Today, about
is ununbium. Scientists 112 elements are known (Figure 2.25).
worked steadily for 24 One of the first important finds using Mendeleev’s table was the
days to find just two element gallium. Discovered in 1875, gallium fit into one of the positions
atoms of ununbium. in the periodic table where Mendeleev had placed a question mark. It
matched almost exactly his prediction of the properties of an element that
would fit in that position.
Another question mark in the table wasn’t filled until 1939 when the
element francium was discovered by the French chemist Marguerite Perey.
This element also matched Mendeleev’s prediction almost exactly. This
proved once again that the periodic table was a useful tool for organizing
the elements.
1
Figure 2.25 The 1 1
Solid S Metal
periodic table. The
1
H
element oxygen is Hydrogen
shown as an example
1.0 Liquid Br Metalloid
of the information that 2
the periodic table 3 1 4 2 Gas He Non-metal
provides for each
2
Li Be
element. Lithium Beryllium
6.9 9.0
11 1 12 2
3
Na Mg
Sodium Magnesium
23.0 24.3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
19 1 20 2 21 3 22 3 23 2 24 2 25 2 26 3 27 2
4 5 3 7 2 3
4
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr 6 Mn Fe Co
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt
39.1 40.1 45.0 47.9 50.9 52.0 54.9 55.8 58.6
37 1 38 2 39 3 40 4 41 5 42 6 43 7 44 3 45 3
3 2 3
5
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium
85.5 87.6 88.9 91.2 92.9 95.9 (98) 101.1 102.9
55 1 56 2 57 3 72 4 73 5 74 6 75 7 76 2 77 2
2 3 3 3
6
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os 4 Ir 4
Cesium Barium Lanthanum Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium

132.9 137.3 138.9 178.5 180.9 183.8 186.2 190.2 192.2
87 1 88 2 89 3 104 105 106 107 108 109
7
Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt
Francium Radium Actinium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium
(223) (226) (227) (261) (262) (263) (262) (265) (266)
58 3 59 3 60 3 61 3 62 2 63 2 64 3 65 3
4 4 3 3 4
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb
Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium
140.1 140.9 144.2 (145) 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9
90 4 91 4 92 3 93 3 94 3 95 3 96 3 97 3
5 4 4 4 4 4
Th Pa U 5
6
Np 5
6
Pu 5
6
Am 5
6
Cm Bk
Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium
232.0 231.0 238.0 (237) (244) (243) (247) (247)

Today, more new elements are being discovered, but many of these are info BIT
not stable. They have been created in laboratories with special equipment
and have never been found in nature. Still, no matter how the elements A Different Version of
are identified, they all have their place in the periodic table. the Periodic Table
Scientists continue to
UNDERSTANDING THE PERIODIC TABLE organize the elements in
different ways. One
Notice that the periodic table is a series of boxes in rows and columns.
recent example is the
Each horizontal row is called a period (numbered from 1 to 7). Each
three-dimensional
vertical column forms a group, or family, of elements (numbered from 1
periodic table shown
to 18). These groups have similar chemical properties. Every box in the here.
table contains several useful pieces of information.
n=1 H He
N O
n=2 C Li Be F
B Ne
Mn Fe
Cr P S Co
atomic number 8 2 ion charge n=3 U Si
Ti
Na
Al
Mg
Sc
Ar
Cl
Zn
Cu
Ni
O
Gd Tb
symbol Eu Tc Ru Dy
Sm Mo As Se Rh Ho
n=4 Pm Nb Ge K Ca Br Pd Er
Nd Zr Ga Kr Aq Tm
Oxygen name 18 Cm Bk
Pr Y Cd Yb
Ce Lu
2
atomic mass 16.0 He n=5
Pu
Am Re Os Cf
W S b Te
N p Ta S n R b S r
Ir
I
Es
Pt Fm
U Hf In Xe Au Md
Helium
13 14 15 16 17 4.0 Ns Mt
Pa La Hg No
Th Lr
5 3 6 4 7 3 8 2 9 1 10 Sq Bi Po 110
2 5
B C N O F Ne n=6 Ha Pb Cs Ba At 111
Rf Ti Rn 112
Ac 113
Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
116 117
10.8 12.0 14.0 16.0 19.0 20.2 n=7 115 Fr Ra 118
13 3 14 4 15 3 16 2 17 1 18 114 119
2 4
Al Si P S 6 Cl Ar n=8
–m
120 121
Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon

10 11 12 27.0 28.1 31.0 32.1 35.5 39.9 –s +s
28 2 29 1 30 2 31 3 32 4 33 3 34 2 35 1 36 n
+m
3 2 2 5 4
Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se 6 Br Kr
Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton s p d f
58.7 63.5 65.4 69.7 72.6 74.9 79.0 79.9 83.8

46 2 47 1 48 3 49 3 50 2 51 3 52 2 53 1 54
3 1 4 5 4
Pd 4 Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te 6 I Xe
Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
78 2 79 1 80 1 81 1 82 2 83 3 84 2 85 1 86
4 3 2 3 4 5 4
Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 209 210 222
110 111 112
Uun Uuu Uub
Ununnilium unununium Ununbium
269 272 277
66 3 67 3 68 3 69 2 70 2 71 3
3 3
Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.0 175.0
98 99 100 101 102 103
Cf Es Fm Md No Lw
Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
251 252 257 258 259 262
USEFUL INFORMATION ON EACH ELEMENT
Element Symbol and Name
The large letter or letters in each box show the symbol for the element. In
Figure 2.25, you can see that oxygen’s symbol is O. For most elements, the
symbol is an abbreviation derived from the element’s modern chemical
name. For example, the symbol for silicon is Si, and the symbol for
manganese is Mn. However, there are exceptions. For example, the symbol
for gold is Au, which is from aurum, the Latin word for gold. The symbol
for iron is Fe, which is from ferrum, the Latin word for iron. The table
below shows the word origin for several common elements.
Modern Name Symbol Latin Name

Figure 2.26 Not all scientists antimony Sb stibium
who contribute to the
understanding of elements copper Cu cuprum
are recognized. Canadian gold Au aurum
Harriet Brooks is a case in
point. One of her subjects of
iron Fe ferrum
study was the radioactive lead Pb plumbum
element thorium. Brooks was
mercury Hg hydrargyrum
able to measure the mass of
what was thought to be a gas potassium K kalium
being given off by thorium. silver Ag argentum
She showed that this “gas”
was in fact a new element, sodium Na natrium
and it was given the name tin Sn stannum
radon.
tungsten W wolfram
Photo Miss Harriet Brooks, Nuclear
Physicist, Montreal QC, 1898/Notman
Photographic Archives/McCord Museum of
Canadian History, Montreal/II-123880
Other Names for Elements
Not all elements are named for Latin words. Some elements are named
after the location in which they were first discovered. For example,
californium was discovered in 1950 at the University of California. Other
elements are named after scientists who made important contributions to
their field of study. For example, einsteinium, fermium, and curium are
named after Albert Einstein, Enrico Fermi, and Marie Curie.
Atomic Number
The number above the element’s symbol on the left is the atomic number.
It shows how many protons are in the nucleus of one atom of the element.
An oxygen atom, for example, always has eight protons. If you found six
protons in an atom, the periodic table would show you that you were
looking at carbon. Because atoms are neutral, the number of protons
equals the number of electrons. Therefore, the atomic number also tells
you how many electrons are in an atom of a particular element.
Notice that the atomic number increases by one for each element as
you read across the periodic table from left to right.

Atomic Mass
The number below the element’s name is the atomic mass. The atomic
mass tells you the total mass of all the protons and neutrons in an atom.
(Electrons are so tiny that they have very little effect on the total mass of
the atom.) Recall that this is the average mass of the element’s atoms. Not
all atoms in an element have exactly the same mass: some have slightly
higher values than others, and some have slightly lower values. This
difference occurs because of the different number of neutrons from atom
to atom. Atomic mass is measured by atomic mass unit (amu). One amu is
defined as 1/12th the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
Associated with atomic mass is mass number. It represents the sum of
the number of protons and neutrons in an atom. For example, the most
common form of carbon atom has six protons and six neutrons. Its mass
number is therefore equal to 12.
Not all carbon atoms are carbon-12, however. About 1% of carbon
atoms have seven neutrons. The mass number of each of those atoms is
13. There is also one more naturally occurring form of carbon atom, and
its mass number is 14. How would you find out how many neutrons it
has? Subtracting the atomic number (6) from the mass number (14) shows
you there are 8 neutrons in the nucleus of this type of carbon atom:
mass number (14) atomic number (6) number of neutrons (8)
Carbon-14 is present in nature in very Element Atomic Mass Number of Mass Number of
Mass Most Common Type of Second Most Common Type
low concentrations. That’s good, because
(amu) Atom of the Element of Atom of the Element
carbon-14 is radioactive, which means the
atom is unstable and falls apart easily in a hydrogen 1.0 1 2
mini-nuclear reaction, releasing energy. carbon 12.0 12 13
Carbon-14 is present in small amounts in bromine 79.9 79 81
all living things. Scientists use it to find iron 55.8 56 54
the age of biological materials, such as titanium 47.9 48 46
animal fossils. This technique is called lead 207.2 208 206
carbon dating. uranium 238.0 238 235
S K I L L PRACTICE
USING THE PERIODIC TABLE

Use the periodic table to find out how many protons, electrons, and neutrons are
in each of the following elements. The mass number is shown beside each element
in parentheses. Make a table in your notebook to record your results.
a) vanadium (51) e) beryllium (9) i) silicon (28)

b) nickel (58) f) argon (40) j) chromium (52)
c) phosphorous (31) g) magnesium (24) k) titanium (48)
d) bromine (79) h) uranium (238)
ACTIVITY B-3
BUILDING A P E R I O D I C TA B L E
Inquiry
The Question
How can you use a model to represent the patterns in the periodic table?
Procedure
Part 1—Classifying Nuts and Bolts
1 Your teacher will give you a bag that contains 24 nuts and bolts. Take the nuts and
• 24 assorted nuts and bolts
in a bag bolts out of the bag and examine them.
• 1 extra nut or bolt 2 Your bag originally contained 25 nuts and bolts, but your teacher removed one of
• 2 large sheets of paper them. Determine whether a nut or a bolt was removed, and provide as much detail as
• balance you can about the missing piece.
• element cards 3 Share your ideas with your class. How were your ideas similar to your classmates?
• graph paper
How were they different?
4 Collect the missing nut or bolt from your teacher. How close was your description to
the missing object?
5 In step 2, each group probably used a slightly different method of classifying their
nuts and bolts to help them identify the missing one. For step 6, everyone will use
the same classification.
6 On a large sheet of paper, make a grid with five equal-size columns and five equal-
size rows. Make sure the boxes are large enough to hold your largest nut or bolt.
Number the boxes 1 to 25 starting on the top left at number 1 and working across
the row from left to right. The first box in the second row should be number 6.
Figure 2.27 Step 7
7 Place the smallest bolt at number 1 and the largest nut at number 25. Now organize
the rest of your nuts and bolts on the grid.
8 Measure the mass of each nut and bolt and record that information on your grid.

Part 2—Classifying Elements
9 Your teacher will give you a card that describes an element. Find classmates who
have element cards that describe elements with properties similar to yours.
10 Tell the class about the properties that the members of your group all share. If the
class agrees with your grouping, your teacher will assign your group a number.
11 After everyone in the class has been assigned to groups, arrange all the students in
the class in order of atomic mass.
12 Make another five-by-five grid, as you did in step 6. Fill it in using the order of the
elements in the class. In your grid, include the atomic mass for each element.

13 Using the data you collected in part 1, make a graph of nut or bolt mass (responding
or dependent variable) versus nut or bolt number (manipulated or independent
variable). (The number of each nut or bolt is the number of the box in the grid where
the nut or bolt was placed.)
14 What patterns do you notice in this graph? Record your observations.
15 Using the data on the elements from part 2, make a graph of atomic mass versus
atomic number. What patterns do you notice in this graph? Record your
observations.
16 Compare the two graphs you made. What similarities do you see?
17 What similar patterns do you see between the two grids you made in parts 1 and 2?
Forming Conclusions
18 Using the periodic table in Toolbox 12, compare your arrangement of elements with
the arrangement of elements in the periodic table. Describe their similarities and their
differences.

As the infoBIT on page 127 says, different versions of the periodic table have been
developed in the past and are still being developed today. Find examples of these other
periodic tables and present your findings to the class.
Cm
Am Bk
Pu
Gd Tb
Np Eu Cf
Dy
U Sm
Fr Ho
Pa Es
Pm
Rn Ro Th Er
Nd Fm
Cs Tm
Xe Ac Pr Md
Ba Yb
Rb Ce No
Kr La Lu Lr
At K Sr
Db
Ar Jl
I Hf Rf
Br Ne Na Ca Y Ta
Cl Zr W
F HeLi
Be
Mg
Sc
Nb
Mo
Figure 2.28 This is another
H Ti
Se
S
O B V
Cr Bh
version of the periodic table,
N C AI Re
Te
Po p Ga Zn Mn
Tc created by Dr. Theodor Benfey,
Si Cu
As
Ge
Ni
Co
Fe an American chemist.
In Cd Ru
Sb Ag
Pd Os
Sn TI Hg Rh
Bi Hn
Au
Pt
Pb Ir
112
111
110
Mt
PATTERNS OF INFORMATION IN THE PERIODIC TABLE
The periodic table contains a wealth of information related to the
elements, in addition to their atomic number and atomic mass. By
noticing where elements appear in the periodic table, you can tell
something about their general nature.
Notice that a large part of the periodic table on pages 126–127 is green.
All the elements in this area are metals. Metals are shiny, malleable, and
ductile. They also conduct electricity. The elements in the orange area on
the right are non-metals. Non-metals can be a solid or a gas. Solid non-
metals are dull, brittle elements. Non-metals, except carbon, do not
conduct electricity. Because they don’t conduct electricity, they are called
insulators. The diagonal purple row of elements between the metals and
Figure 2.29 Nickel is widely
the non-metals contains elements called metalloids. Metalloids have both
used in solution with other
metallic and non-metallic properties.
metals to create alloys. Some
coins are made of copper-
nickel alloys. Stainless steel Groups
is made of iron, nickel, and Recall that Mendeleev arranged the periodic table to show a variety of
other elements. patterns. The 18 columns in the table contain groups or families of
elements with similar chemical properties.
These groups are numbered from 1 to 18 and are usually referred to by
the first element in the column. For example, group 10 is the nickel group
of elements because nickel is the first element at the top of that column.
The other elements in that group are palladium and platinum. They have
properties that are similar to those of nickel. There are a few exceptions to
this pattern. Group 1 is divided into two parts—hydrogen and the alkali
metals (see page 133). Hydrogen is considered to be a unique element, and
in some periodic tables it is placed in a separate spot away from the other
Figure 2.30 Palladium is elements.
used in dental crowns,
surgical instruments, and Periods
watch parts. The rows in the periodic table, called periods, are numbered 1 to 7. The
number of elements may vary from period to period. The first period has
two elements. Periods 2 and 3 have eight elements, and periods 4 and 5
have 18 elements. You may have also noticed periods 6 and 7 have an
additional 14 elements. These elements are placed separately at the
bottom of the periodic table. This makes it easier to print a periodic table
on a standard-sized page.
As you move from left to right across a period, you will notice that the
properties of the elements change. Within the periods, there is a pattern.
From left to right, the elements gradually change from metals to non-
Figure 2.31 Platinum, highly metals. So the first element in a period, on the far left, is a metal. The last
valued as a precious metal, is element in a period, on the far right, is a non-metal. For example, if you
more expensive than gold. It look at period 4, you’ll see that potassium (K) is a metal and krypton (Kr)
is also used in industry as a is a non-metal. The most reactive metals start on the left. As you move
powder that enables chemical
right, the metals generally become less reactive.
reactions to work better.

Other Interesting Patterns re SEARCH
Group 1 elements, not including hydrogen, are called the alkali metals.
These are the most reactive of the metals. They react when exposed to air Investigate an Element
or water. As you move down the group, starting with lithium, the Select an element from
reactivity increases. Group 2 elements are called the alkaline-earth the periodic table and
metals. They react when exposed to air and water as well, but their find as much information
reactivity is not as strong as that of the alkali metals. as you can about its
Group 17 elements are called the halogens. They are the most reactive properties and uses.
non-metals. For example, fluorine can etch glass, chlorine is commonly Create a poster or Web
used to sterilize the water in swimming pools, and bromine gas is so page to illustrate your
information. Begin your
corrosive it can burn skin. These elements are reactive and can combine
research at
with other elements to form new substances with useful properties.
www.pearsoned.ca/
Sodium, for instance, can be highly reactive with fluorine, producing
scienceinaction.
sodium fluoride—a chemical found in toothpaste.
Group 18 elements are the noble gases, the most stable and unreactive
elements. In fact, it was long believed that noble gases could never
combine with other elements. It wasn’t until 1962 when that idea was
proved incorrect. Canadian chemist Neil Bartlett and his colleagues at the
University of British Columbia synthesized the first noble gas compound,
combining xenon, platinum, and fluorine to create a new substance.
S K I L L PRACTICE
EXPLORING PATTERNS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE

Use the periodic table in Toolbox 12 to answer the following questions.
1 a) How many elements are gases at room temperature (20°C)? Write their chemical
names and symbols.
b) How many elements are liquids at room temperature (20°C)? Write their chemical
names and symbols.
2 What element is found in group 2, period 3?
3 a) What is the symbol of the element with the atomic number 82?
b) What is the atomic number of arsenic?
4 a) What is the symbol of the element with the atomic mass of 238?
b) What is the atomic mass of silver?
5 Use the atomic number, atomic mass, and symbol of the elements to indicate the
number of subatomic particles in an atom of the following elements:
a) electrons in oxygen
b) electrons in Li
c) protons in Na
d) protons in helium
6 Two of the most recent elements to be discovered are ununbium and ununquadrium.
Ununbium has an atomic number of 112 and an atomic mass of 277. Ununquadrium
has an atomic number of 114 and an atomic mass of 289. What do you think the
atomic mass of the element with atomic number 113 will be?
CHECK AND REFLECT
Key Concept Review
1. What is the difference between the atomic number and the atomic
mass of an element?
2. If tin’s mass number is 119 and its atomic number is 50, how many
neutrons are in the nucleus of an atom of tin?
3. Correct the following statements about the periodic table.
a) Neon has 11 protons.
b) The symbol for sodium is So.
c) Beryllium has 4 neutrons.
d) Boron and aluminum are metals.
e) Chlorine has 16 electrons.
4. Match the elements in the list below with one of the following two
descriptions:
i) shiny, ductile conductor of electricity OR
ii) dull, brittle insulator
a) P b) W c) Cu d) F e) Hg f) K
5. Match the term on the left with the description on the right.
Figure 2.32 High-energy
subatomic particles leave a) alkali metal i) a combination of two or more elements
telltale tracks in an b) halogen ii) an unreactive non-metal
experimental cloud chamber. c) element iii) very reactive metal
d) compound iv) a pure substance of the same atoms
e) noble gas v) very reactive non-metal

6. Use the periodic table in Toolbox 12 to answer the following questions:
a) What two elements are liquids at room temperature?
b) What element has the symbol K?
c) What element has 50 protons?
d) What element has a mass of 183.8 amu?
7. Hydrogen is considered to be a unique element. Describe three atomic
properties that make it different from the other elements.
8. Why isn’t atomic mass used to classify an element?

9. Three containers each hold a different “mystery” element. Four of
their properties are shown below. Identify which element is (a) a non-
metal, (b) an alkali metal, and (c) a noble gas.
Colour State at Room Reactivity Conductivity

Temperature
Element X green-yellow gas high no
Element Y colourless gas none no
Element Z silver-white solid high yes

and
Careers Profiles
Quality Control Analyst

A quality control analyst tests products to make sure that conduct a physical
they meet manufacturing specifications before they are examination to confirm
released to consumers. Quality control analysts use a variety the colour and
Sona Arslan is a quality
of equipment during testing. For example, a quality control consistency of the
control analyst at a large
analyst testing medicines would use chromatographs, product. Next, I do a pharmaceutical company.
microscopes, lasers, pH meters, and other devices to test chromatography analysis
the properties of the substances. They also use many to confirm that the ointment is homogeneous. This also
different computer applications to analyze the data. Sona confirms the identity and amount of the main active
Arslan is a quality control analyst for a major pharmaceutical ingredient present in the product. Finally, I do a
company. Pharmaceutical companies make the wide range microscopic examination to make sure there is no foreign
of medicines we use, from headache pills to chemotherapy matter in the product. The test results are reviewed by a
treatments. senior analyst and then signed off by a manager. The
completed test results are sent to the Quality Assurance
Q: Why did you choose the career of quality control analyst?
department. Staff there review the quality control test
A: In high school, I liked and did well in chemistry, so I
results before releasing the product for sale. If the sample
wanted to pursue a career in this field. Quality control
fails the quality control test, an investigation is conducted
analysts work in all types of industries. While at
to determine whether the failing result is related to
university, I became interested in working in the
analyst or instrument error, or to the product. If it is
pharmaceutical industry. In 1998, after I graduated from
product related, the batch is rejected. According to
university with an Honours B.Sc. in chemistry and
Canadian law, no products can be released to market
physics, I obtained a one-year internship at Glaxo
without first passing quality testing.
Wellcome Inc., one of the largest pharmaceutical
Q: What advice do you have for someone thinking about a
manufacturing companies in the world. When I
career like yours?
completed the internship, I was offered a position with
A: You need a B.Sc., preferably in chemistry. It’s also very
the company to continue working as a quality control
helpful to obtain related work experience during the
analyst.
summer or through a co-op program.
Q: What types of skills are required in your work?
A: Some of the skills required are accuracy, attention to
detail, organizational skills, and good computer, 1. Why do you think it’s important for a quality
troubleshooting (problem-solving), and team-work skills. control analyst to have a strong knowledge of the
Q: What do you enjoy most about your work? properties of matter?
A: I enjoy most the “hands on” aspect of my job, as well as 2. What do you think quality control analysts would
the variety of work and challenges that are present. What test for in the following industries?
I do on any given day depends on what test or tests I am • candy making
working on. There is usually a lot of preparation work • soft drink production
that is done before starting a test: glassware and • synthetic fibre manufacturing (e.g., for clothing
reagents must be gathered, test solutions must be made, and furniture)
and instruments calibrated before testing can begin. 3. If you were a quality control analyst, what part of
Q: Can you give an example of how a product is tested? the job would you find most interesting?
A: Here’s what happens when we test an ointment. First, I
SECTION REVIEW
Key Concept Review
1. What is considered to be one of the first series of events in the study
of chemistry? Explain why this was an important event.
2. How did an early understanding of gases lead to a better
understanding of the atom?
3. What properties could you use to distinguish metals from non-metals?
4. Explain how knowing the boiling point and melting point of a
substance can help you identify it.
5. For each statement below, explain why you think it describes an
element or a compound.
a) An odourless, colourless gas produces water and carbon dioxide
when it burns.
b) A shiny, ductile solid cannot be broken into smaller components.
c) An odourless, colourless liquid can be broken into two different
gases when electricity is passed through it.
d) A toxic, green gas is very reactive with other metals and some non-
metals.
6. What is the difference between a group and a period in the periodic
table?

7. Human history is divided into ages. How did an understanding of
matter help humans move from the Stone Age to the Iron Age?
7 3 8. Describe the atomic model developed by each of the following people:
5
N a)
b)
Democritus
Nagaoka
Nitrogen c) Bohr
d) Chadwick
14.0
9. The diagram in Figure 2.33 is a box from the periodic table. Label each
item of information in the box. What does each item tell you about the
Figure 2.33 Question 9
element?
10. Copy the picture of the atom shown in Figure 2.34 into your notebook.
Use the models of the atom developed by Ernest Rutherford and James
Chadwick to label its parts.
11. While making a dessert in your kitchen, you realize that the salt,
baking soda, and cornstarch are in unlabelled containers. What
properties could you use to identify each substance? No tasting
allowed!

SECTION REVIEW
12. Mendeleev believed that one of the gaps in his first
periodic table would eventually be filled by an element
14 4
he called eka-silicon (Figure 2.35a). Such an element atomic mass Si 2
28.1
had not yet been discovered. In 1871, he predicted what 31 3 32 4 33 3
Ga “Eka-silicon”
2
As 5
the properties of this undiscovered element would be. 69.7 ? 74.9

50 2
In 1886, he was proven correct. a)

Sn 4
118.7
b)
Some Properties of Selected Elements
Element Colour Atomic Mass
Silicon steel grey 28.1
Gallium grey-black 69.7
Eka-silicon
Arsenic silver to grey-black 74.9
Tin grey-white 118.7
Use the information in Figure 2.35b to answer the following

questions:
a) Which of the four elements in Figure 2.35b would you use to
predict the properties of Mendeleev’s new element? Explain
your reasoning.
b) What atomic mass would you predict for eka-silicon?
c) What colour would you predict eka-silicon to be?
d) What do we now call eka-silicon?
e) Why do you think Mendeleev did not use the atomic number
in his work?

On
An idea, such as the description of the structure of an atom, develops
through the contributions of many people over a long period of time.
This is a common process for developing ideas in science. By sharing
and collaborating with people all over the world, scientists make and
investigate discoveries. Consider the following questions and, if
possible, use examples from this section to support your answers.
1. What conditions or factors were necessary for ideas on the structure
of the atom to be shared?
2. What is the value of sharing your discoveries with others?
3. Why would some people consider not sharing their discoveries with
others?
3.0 Compounds form according to
a set of rules.
Key Concepts
concepts:
• periodic table
atomic theory
• chemical nomenclature
Learning Outcomes
• distinguish between ionic and
molecular compounds, and
describe the properties of
some common examples of
each
• read and interpret chemical
formulas for compounds of
two elements, and give the
IUPAC name and common
name of these compounds
All the signs above tell you that this is where you can get gas for your
• identify/describe chemicals
commonly found in the home,
car. If you were travelling in France, you would look for a sign that said
and write the chemical “Gaz.” If you were travelling in Britain, you would have to watch for a
symbols sign that said “Petrol.” Even though Britain and Canada are both
• identify examples of combining English-speaking countries, sometimes we use different words for the
ratios/number of atoms per same things. For example, in England, potato chips are called “crisps”
molecule found in some and the trunk of your car is called the “boot.” If you travel to a non-
common materials, and use English-speaking country, words can be even more confusing if you
information on ion charges to don’t speak the local language.
predict combining ratios in Scientists studying the nature of matter encountered similar
ionic compounds of two problems. At first, there was no common way of naming compounds.
elements
How could scientists understand each other’s work if they weren’t sure
• assemble or draw simple
from the terminology what materials were being used? To help reduce
models of molecular and ionic
the confusion, scientists have agreed on a common set of rules for
compounds
naming compounds. Using these rules, a person can identify and
describe any compound in the world—and be clearly understood by
others. In this section, you will investigate how compounds are formed
and how they are named.

info BIT
3.1 Naming Compounds
How Big Are Atoms?
Earlier in this unit, you learned how our understanding of the structure of Five-hundred-million
the atom has gradually developed. At first, people thought the atom was gold atoms lined up
the smallest particle possible (atom, you’ll recall, comes from the Greek side-by-side would
word atomos, meaning indivisible). Today we know that the atom is made form a line as long as a
of several much smaller particles. $10 bill.
COMBINING ELEMENTS TO MAKE COMPOUNDS

Look around your home and you’ll be amazed at the variety of chemicals
in your cupboards and on your shelves. In the bathroom, you’ll find
water, soap, shampoo, and toothpaste—all chemicals. In the basement or
garage, you may find cleaning products, such as ammonia and bleach, and
perhaps painting and gardening products. In your kitchen, you’ll likely
find table salt, baking soda, and baking powder. Each of these compounds
has a chemical name and a chemical formula. The formula identifies
which elements, and how much of each, are in the compound. So, for
example, table salt’s chemical
name is sodium chloride and its
formula is NaCl. Baking soda’s
chemical name is sodium
bicarbonate and its chemical
formula is NaHCO3.
Figure 3.1 Most homes contain a range of

chemical compounds, such as the ones
shown here.
S K I L L PRACTICE
MAKE A MODEL OF AN ATOM

Your teacher will give you some of the following materials: paper, bingo chips,
coins, Plasticine, and rubber magnetic strips. Your task is to choose an element
from the first 18 in the periodic table and construct a model of what you think
that element’s atom would look like. Remember to consider the information you
learned in subsection 2.1 about the atom and evolving ideas about its structure.
Your model should clearly show the structure of the atom and should include
the correct number of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
When you have completed your model, show it to your class. Compare your
model with other models.
Compounds Form According to a Set of Rules 139

NAMING CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS
Until the 18th century, no standardized system existed for naming
chemicals. This created confusion because the names for chemical
compounds varied from country to country and scientist to scientist. For
example, hydrochloric acid and muriatic acid refer to the same thing. If
you didn’t know that, you might think they were two different chemicals.
Today, some compounds are better known by their common name. Bleach,
for instance, is almost always used instead of the chemical name aqueous
sodium hypochlorite.
In 1787, a French chemist named Guyton de Morveau created a
naming system, or nomenclature, for compounds. He decided to use the
chemical name for each element in the compound, always putting the
Figure 3.2 The IUPAC book
metal element first. For example, zinc and oxygen combine to form zinc
contains the rules for naming oxide. Since 1920, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
chemical compounds. (IUPAC) has been the body responsible for agreeing on the appropriate
name for every chemical compound discovered.
Q U I C K LAB
COMMON CHEMICALS IN YOUR HOME

Purpose 4 Note that each item has a value. Compounds
To learn about the chemical formulas of compounds made of two or more elements are more valuable
by “buying” common household substances with than items made of one element.
“element money” 5 When you have bought all your items, your group
may trade any remaining cards with other groups.
Procedure
6 Calculate the total value of the items you
1 Your teacher will give your group a selection of purchased.
element cards and an information sheet. The
cards are your element money. The information Questions
sheet tells you how to interpret the chemical 7 What was the cost for each item you bought?
formula for each item. 8 Were some materials easier to purchase than
2 At the front of the class are several common others? Explain your answer.
items with labels. Each item can be purchased 9 Describe any patterns you observed between the
from the storekeeper (your teacher) with the chemical formula and the “cost.” (Hint: Using the
correct amount of element money. Each group periodic table might help you with your answer.)
will have an opportunity to purchase an item.
3 You may purchase any of these items with the
cards you have. For example, one of the
components of toothpaste has the chemical
formula NaF. If you want to buy some toothpaste,
you need one sodium card (Na) and one fluorine
card (F).

INTERPRETING CHEMICAL NAMES AND FORMULAS FROM COMPOUNDS re SEARCH
If you know only the formula of a chemical compound, you can
determine its chemical name. If you know only its name, you can Chemical Formulas of
determine its formula. Table salt’s chemical name, sodium chloride, Household Products
Many household
indicates that the compound is made of one atom of sodium and one atom
chemicals have a
of chlorine (Figure 3.3). Its chemical formula, NaCl, indicates this too.
common name rather
than a chemical
formula. Find the
chemical formula for
some of these
household chemicals.
www.pearsoned.ca\/
Figure 3.3 One sodium atom scienceinaction.
combines with one chlorine atom
to form the compound sodium
chloride, which we call table salt.
Now look at the formula for the compound water: H2O. Notice that
next to the H is a small 2 as a subscript. (“Sub” means below.) The 2
indicates that there are two atoms of hydrogen to go with every atom of
oxygen in water. Figure 3.4 shows how the atoms in water are arranged.
Subscript numbers in a chemical formula indicate the number of atoms of
the elements that must combine to form the compound. No subscript
number indicates that only one atom of that element is needed.
Figure 3.4 In water, two hydrogen atoms join with each oxygen atom.
Compound Chemical Elements No. of Atoms Total No. of

Formula of Each Atoms
sodium chloride NaCl • sodium 1 2

• chlorine 1
water H20 • hydrogen 2 3
• oxygen 1

INDICATING THE PHYSICAL STATE OF A COMPOUND
Another common notation added to chemical compounds indicates the
state of the chemical at room temperature. After the chemical formula, a
subscript s for solid, l for liquid, or g for gas is shown in parentheses.
For example, sodium chloride is written as NaCl(s), water is written as
H2O(l), and natural gas (methane) is written as CH4(g). For aqueous
solutions (substances dissolved in water), a subscript aq in parentheses
is added to the formula. So, if sodium chloride was dissolved in water,
the resulting aqueous solution would be written as NaCl(aq).
Figure 3.5 In
methane, four
hydrogen atoms
combine with one
carbon atom.
CH4(g)
S K I L L PRACTICE
WORKING WITH COMPOUNDS

Referring to the compounds listed in the table below, complete the following.
• List the elements present in the compound.

• State the number of atoms of each element in the compound.
• In your notebook, draw what this compound would look like. Refer to Figures 3.3, 3.4,
and 3.5 for your drawings. If time permits, create a model of each compound. Use
materials of your own choosing.
Create a table like the one below to record your answers. Be sure to leave enough room to
draw the compound in the far right column.
Compound Elements No. of Atoms in Drawing

in Compound Each Element of Compound
CaO(s)
CaCl2(s)
Al2O3(s)
Na2O(s)
AlCl3(s)
KCl(s)
NaOH(s)

CHECK AND REFLECT
Key Concept Review
1. What information can you determine from a chemical formula?
2. Identify the elements in each of the following compounds.

a) HF(g)
b) Li2O(s)
c) K3P(s)
d) Ni2O3(s)
e) HgCl2(s)
3. How many atoms are indicated in the formula of each of the following
compounds?
a) Silver chloride—AgCl(s)
b) Calcium oxide—CaO(s)
c) Magnesium nitride—Mg3N2(s)
d) Aluminum oxide—Al2O3(s)
e) Scandium sulfide—Sc2S3(s)

4. Write the chemical formula for each of the following compounds:
a) sodium sulfide, which has two atoms of sodium and one atom of
sulfur
b) aluminum fluoride, which has one atom of aluminum and three
atoms of fluorine
c) oxygen gas, which has two atoms of oxygen
d) glucose, which has six carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, and six
oxygen atoms

5. Acetylsalicylic acid, commonly called Aspirin, has the chemical
formula C9H8O4(s). Urea, also called carbamide, has the formula
H2NCONH2(s). Compare and contrast the two formulas in terms of total
elements and atoms.

3.2 Ionic Compounds
Figure 3.6 Sodium, shown

in (a), is a metal. Sodium
combines with chlorine gas
in a violent reaction (b).
The product is table salt,
NaCl(s) (c).
(a) (b) (c)
Most people are familiar with common table salt and know that it is a
white substance composed of tiny crystals. You might be surprised to
learn that table salt is formed when a very reactive metal—sodium—is
placed in a container with a poisonous, green non-metal—chlorine gas.
When the two chemical elements are combined, the sodium metal
explodes in a bright yellow flame. As the sodium burns, a white, coarse-
grained powder is produced. That powder is table salt, or what you now
know is sodium chloride (NaCl(s)).
info BIT Sodium chloride is called an ionic compound. Ionic compounds are
pure substances formed as a result of the attraction between particles of
“Ion” Origin opposite charges, called ions. Table salt is formed from positively charged
The word “ion” comes sodium ions and negatively charged chloride ions. Other properties of
from a Greek word ionic compounds include their high melting point, good electrical
meaning “to go” or conductivity, and distinct crystal shape.
“wander.” All ionic compounds are solids at room temperature. In fact, table salt
will not melt until it is heated to 801˚C. When an ionic compound is
melted or dissolved in water, it will conduct electricity. This property of
ionic compounds led to the study of electrochemical cells (cells that either
convert chemical energy into electrical energy or electrical energy into
chemical energy). And that work in turn eventually led to the invention of
batteries.
This new technology allowed scientists to investigate the structure of
matter in greater depth.
How does an ionic compound actually form? When the ions are
combined, they form a crystal.
Figure 3.7 The

crystals in this table
salt are held together
by ionic bonds.

electrolyte
wires
electrodes
hydrogen
gas
battery
oxygen
gas
Figure 3.8 Two electrodes are placed in an electrolyte, water containing a little NaCl(s) forming NaCl(aq).
The salt helps the electrical charge flow through the solution. At the negative electrode, positively charged
hydrogen forms hydrogen gas. At the positive electrode, negatively charged oxygen forms oxygen gas.
Chlorine gas may also be formed. In school laboratories, Na2SO4(s) is used instead of NaCl(s).
Q U I C K LAB
USING BATTERIES TO INVESTIGATE A CHEMICAL REACTION

Purpose
To investigate the behaviour of ions
• clear Petri dish
(Note: Your teacher may demonstrate this activity on the overhead projector.) • water
• universal indicator
Procedure
• 2 pencils sharpened at
1 Fill a Petri dish about two-thirds full with water. Add two to four drops of universal
both ends
indicator. • 2 wires with alligator
2 Attach the end of one wire to the graphite at one end of a pencil. Attach the other clips
wire to the second pencil in the same way. Make sure both ends of the pencils are • 9-V battery
sharpened so that the graphite is exposed. Attach the other ends of the wire to the • sodium sulfate
battery. (Na2SO4(s) )
3 Place the other sharpened ends of the pencils into the Petri dish, keeping the ends
well apart. Record your observations.
4 Remove the pencils and place them in a safe spot.
5 Add several crystals of sodium sulfate to the Petri dish and stir until dissolved.
6 Repeat step 3. Do you observe any additional changes if you add a little more
sodium sulfate?
Questions
7 What changes did you observe after the sodium sulfate was added to the Petri dish?
8 What evidence was there of a chemical change?
9 What do you think would happen if you added a non-ionic compound such as sugar
to the Petri dish?

re SEARCH When the ionic compound is dissolved in water, the metal and non-
metal form an aqueous solution of ions. An ion is an atom or a group of
Ions and the Body atoms that has become electrically charged through the loss or gain of
Metal ions such as Na+, electrons. The table below shows some examples of ion charges for
K+, Mg2+, Sn2+, and Ca2+ various elements.
are important in
enabling our bodies to Element Ion Charge Ion Notation
function properly. Find Hydrogen 1 H
out the role of these
Lithium 1 Li
ions in the human body.
Nitrogen 3 N3
Oxygen 2 O2
www.pearsoned.ca/
scienceinaction. Fluorine 1 F
Sodium 1 Na
Magnesium 2 Mg2
Aluminum 3 Al3
Sulfur 2 S2
Iron 2 or 3 Fe2 or Fe3
Copper 1 or 2 Cu or Cu2
Lead 2 or 4 Pb2 or Pb4
ION CHARGES
To indicate ions in written notation, a plus sign () or a minus sign () is
placed to the upper right of the element symbol. This is a superscript
position (super- means “above”). For example, a sodium ion is written as
Na and a chlorine ion as Cl.
Some ions can also form when certain atoms of elements combine.
These ions are called polyatomic ions (poly- means “many”). Polyatomic
ions are a group of atoms acting as one. For example, one atom of carbon
and three atoms of oxygen form the polyatomic ion called carbonate or
CO32. When carbonate reacts with calcium ions, the product is calcium
carbonate, or limestone (CaCO3(s)). Other examples of compounds with
polyatomic ions include copper(II) sulfate (CuSO4(s)) and sulfuric acid
(H2SO4(aq)).
NAMING IONIC COMPOUNDS

When naming an ionic compound, there are two rules to remember. First,
the chemical name of the metal or positive ion goes first, followed by the
name of the non-metal or negative ion. Second, the name of the non-metal
negative ion changes its ending to ide. This is the reason that the chemical
name for NaCl(s) is not sodium chlorine, but sodium chloride.
There is one exception to these naming rules. Where negative ions are
polyatomic ions, the name remains unchanged. Limestone’s chemical
name therefore remains calcium carbonate.
You’ll notice in the table above that iron, copper, and lead have more
than one ion charge. Some elements have this property. To show clearly

which ion is being used in a chemical name, a Roman numeral is added.
For example, iron(II) oxide is a compound containing the Fe2+ ion.
Iron(III) oxide contains the Fe3+ ion.
USING ION CHARGES AND CHEMICAL NAMES TO WRITE FORMULAS

Once you know the ion charge and the chemical name of a substance, you
can determine its chemical formula. The following steps will help you
write the formulas for ionic compounds.
Step 1 Print the metal element’s symbol with its ion charge. Next to it, Ca2+ Cl1
print the non-metal element’s symbol with its ion charge.
Step 2 Balance the ion charges. The positive ion charge must balance the Ca2+ Cl1 Cl1
negative ion charges. In our example, this means that there must be two
chlorine atoms each with an ion charge of 1 to balance the 2+ ion charge
of one calcium atom. Now you know how many atoms of each element
you need to include in the formula.
Step 3 Write the formula by indicating how many atoms of each element CaCl2(s)
are in it, as shown. Do not include the ion charge in the formula. Place the
number of atoms of each element in a subscript after the element’s
symbol. If there is only one atom, no number is used.
1 ion charge
ION CHARGES AND THE PERIODIC 1 1
TABLE H 18
1 Hydrogen 2
1.0 He
Take a moment to look at the Helium
periodic table in section 2.3 and the 2 13 14 15 16 17 4.0

3 1 4 2 5 3 6 4 7 3 8 2 9 1 10
2 5
common ion charge. Do you see a 2
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
pattern? The first group of elements 6.9 9.0 10.8 12.0 14.0 16.0 19.0 20.2
11 1 12 2 13 3 14 4 15 3 16 2 17 1 18
on the left side of the table is the 2 4
3
Na Mg Al Si P S 6 Cl Ar
alkali group of metals—lithium and Sodium Magnesium Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
23.0 24.3 27.0 28.1 31.0 32.1 35.5 39.9
sodium. They each have an ion 19 1 20 2 31 3 32 4 33 3 34 2 35 1 36
2 5 4
charge of 1. The halogens, on the 4
K Ca Ga Ge As Se 6 Br Kr
Potassium Calcium Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
right of the table—fluorine and 39.1 40.1 69.7 72.6 74.9 79.0 79.9 83.8
37 1 38 2 49 3 50 2 51 3 52 2 53 1 54
chlorine—have an ion charge of 1. Rb Sr In
1
Sn
4
Sb
5
Te
4
6 I Xe
Generally, all the elements in a 5 Rubidium Strontium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
85.5 87.6 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
group form ions with the same 55 1 56 2 81 1
3
82 2 83
4
3 84 2 85
5
1 86
4
charge. This pattern is the most 6

Cs Ba Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Cesium Barium Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
consistent at either end of the 132.9 137.3 204.4 207.2 209.0 209 210 222
87 1 88 2
periodic table. Figure 3.9 illustrates Fr Ra
7 Francium Radium
the ion charges of the elements that 223 226
follow this pattern the best.
Figure 3.9 Ion charges of some of the groups in the periodic table

ACTIVITY B-4
MODELLING IONIC COMPOUNDS

Inquiry
The Question
How can you create a model to illustrate an ionic compound?

• marshmallows, marbles,
Styrofoam balls, egg cartons,
or a molecular model kit
• glue
• large sheet of paper
• felt pens
Figure 3.10 Step 4
Procedure
1 Working with a partner, select one metal and one non-metal element from the
periodic table. Your task is to create a model illustrating the ionic compound that
forms from combining these two elements. This type of ionic compound is called a
binary compound because it consists of just two elements.
2 Determine how you will represent the atom of each element.
3 Decide which materials you will use to build your model.
4 Build your model to show one formula unit.
5 State the appropriate name for your compound, write out its chemical formula, and
describe its combining ratio.
6 Repeat steps 1 to 5 to create three additional ionic compounds. Ensure that at least
one of them is an example of a metal with multiple ion charges.
7 When you are finished, share your models with the class.

8 What did your models have in common with other models?
9 How were your models different from other models?
Forming Conclusions
10 Describe how you created models that illustrate ionic compounds.

CHECK AND REFLECT
Key Concept Review
1. What is an ionic compound?
2. List three properties of all ionic compounds.
3. How is an ion formed?

4. What is the difference between Fe2 and Fe3 ?
5. If an element has more than one ionic charge, how is that piece of
information represented in a chemical name?

6. Outline the steps for writing the chemical formula of an ionic
compound.
7. Write the formula for the following compounds:
a) sodium fluoride
b) magnesium sulfide
c) lithium oxide
d) iron(III) chloride
e) copper(II) phosphide
f) magnesium iodide
g) iron(II) phosphide
h) aluminum nitride
8. Write the chemical name for the following formulas:
a) LiCl(s)
b) Ca3P2(s)
c) AlBr3(s)
d) PbS2(s)
e) Fe2O3(s)
f) Na2O(s)
g) CaS(s)
h) CuSO4(s)

9. What ion charge patterns are there in the periodic
sodium chloride crystals
table?
Figure 3.11 Each substance has a different crystal shape. Knowing

the type of crystal a substance forms can help in identifying it.
Pictured here are sodium chloride crystals. Na ions and Cl ions
arranged in a crystal of
sodium chloride

info BIT
3.3 Molecular Compounds
Carbon Compounds
When non-metals combine, a pure substance called a molecule or a
Scientists have discovered
more than 10 million molecular compound is formed. Molecular compounds differ from ionic
compounds. At least 9 compounds in several ways. They can be solids, liquids, or gases at room
million are molecular temperature. They tend to be insulators, or poor conductors of electricity.
compounds containing They also have relatively low melting and boiling points because the
the element carbon. forces between the molecules are weak. Examples of molecular
compounds include sugar, acetylene, and water.
Figure 3.12 Sugar (C12H22O11(s))

is a common molecular
compound.
Q U I C K LAB
IONIC OR MOLECULAR COMPOUND?

Purpose • two 100-mL beakers
To determine through experimentation whether a substance is an ionic compound • dish or large bowl
or a molecular compound • tongs or forceps
• several small pieces of
Procedure solid air freshener
1 Set one of the 100-mL beakers in the dish or large bowl. • watch glass or Petri dish
2 Using tongs, place several pieces of solid air freshener into the beaker. • ice
• hot water
3 Put the watch glass or Petri dish on top of the beaker and cover with ice.
• thermometer
4 Pour hot water into the dish to a depth of 2 cm. The water does not have to be • pencil and notebook
boiling, but must be above 45°C (use the thermometer if necessary).
5 Record your observations every 5 min for 30 min.
6 In a second beaker containing water, place another piece of air freshener.
Record your observations. Caution!
7 Test the conductivity of the air freshener. Handle the air
freshener with tongs,
Questions not directly with your
8 From your observations, do you think the air freshener is an ionic compound fingers. Do not directly
or a molecular compound? inhale the vapour.
9 Did you collect any evidence that seemed to contradict the conclusion drawn in
question 8?

ACTIVITY B-5
MODELLING MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS

Inquiry
The Question
How can you create a model to illustrate a molecular compound?
Procedure
1 Working with a partner, select two non-metal elements from the periodic table. Your
task is to create a model illustrating a molecular compound that forms from
• marshmallows, Styrofoam
combining these two elements.
balls, egg cartons, or a
molecular model kit 2 Determine how you will represent the atom of each element.
• glue 3 Decide which materials you will use to build your model.
• large sheet of paper 4 Build your model.
• felt pens
5 State the appropriate name for your compound, write out its chemical formula, and
describe its combining ratio.
6 Repeat steps 1 to 5 to create three additional molecular compounds.
7 When you are finished, share your models with the class.

8 What did your models have in common with other models?
9 How were your models different from other models?
Forming Conclusions
10 Describe how you created models that illustrate molecular compounds.
Figure 3.13 Step 4

WRITING FORMULAS FOR MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS
Writing formulas for molecular compounds is similar to writing formulas
for ionic compounds, except that no ions are present and the ion charge is
H2(g) not used in the formulas. This makes it hard to predict how non-metals
combine. However, the formulas still clearly show what elements are
Figure 3.14 In a molecule present, and how many of each type of atom make up the molecule. For
of hydrogen gas, two
example, hydrogen gas is usually found as H2. Each molecule has two
hydrogen atoms combine
to form the molecule. The
atoms of hydrogen connected to each other.
formula is H2(g). For ammonia (NH3(g)), the situation is similar. Three hydrogen atoms
combine with the nitrogen atom.
NAMING OF MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS

Many molecular compounds are often known by their common names.
Two compounds you have encountered in this section are water and
NH3(g)
ammonia. The names of these compounds do not give any indication of
the elements they are made from. All molecular compounds, except those
Figure 3.15 In a molecule of containing hydrogen, can be named using the following rules. Common
ammonia, each hydrogen names are used for molecular compounds containing hydrogen.
atom is attached to the
nitrogen atom. The formula 1. The first element in the compound uses the element name—just like
is NH3(g). ionic compounds.
2. The second element in the compound has the suffix ‘ide’—just like
ionic compounds.
3. When there is more than one atom in the formula, a prefix is used
which specifies the number of atoms. Some prefixes are listed below.
4. An exception to rule 3 is when the first element has only one atom,
the prefix mono is not used.
Number of Atoms Prefix
1 mono
2 di
3 tri
4 tetra
5 penta
re SEARCH Using the above rules, molecular compounds are named using this format:
Prefix + First Element Prefix + Second Element (with ‘ide’ ending)
Bonding Forces
Use your library and the Here are some examples: (Note that the coloured numbers in the formula
Internet to find out correspond to the prefixes in the name.)
about other types of CO2 carbon dioxide
forces that create bonds N2O dinitrogen monoxide
between atoms. Begin
N2O3 dinitrogen trioxide
your research at
NF3 nitrogen trifluoride
www.pearsoned.ca/
scienceinaction.
CCl4 carbon tetrachloride
PF5 phosphorus pentafluoride

COMPARING IONIC AND MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS
The table below and the one on the next page list the
melting and boiling points for some common ionic and
molecular compounds. By comparing the information in
these tables, you will see several differences between the
two types of compounds. For example, baking soda, an ionic
compound, boils at 1550°C. Carbon dioxide, a molecular
compound, boils at 78.5°C.
Ionic Compound Formula Melting Point (°C) Boiling Point (°C)

Figure 3.16 Examples of ionic
lye NaOH(s) 318° 1390°
compounds
silver nitrate AgNO3(s) 212° 440° (decomposes)
baking soda NaHCO3(s) 455° 1550°
salt NaCl(s) 801° 1413°
Molecular Formula Melting Point (°C) Boiling Point (°C)

Compound
carbon dioxide CO2(g) (changes directly from solid to gas) 79°
water H2O(l) 0° 100°
sugar C12H22O11(s) 185° (decomposes)
rubbing alcohol C3H8O(l) 90° 82°
Figure 3.17 Examples of

molecular compounds
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review Connect Your Understanding
1. Define a molecular compound and give an 5. Which of the following compounds are
example of one. molecular?
2. List three properties of a molecular a) H2O(l) d) F2(g)
compound. b) NaCl(s) e) CuCl2(s)
3. Draw a simple model to show a molecule for c) NH3(g) f) CCl4(l)
each of the following: 6. Write the chemical formula for the
a) chlorine gas (Cl2(g)) following molecular compounds:
b) phosphorus trichloride (PCl3(g)) a) dinitrogen trioxide
c) nitrogen monoxide (NO(g)) b) sulfur trioxide
d) iodine bromide (IBr(g)) c) carbon tetrachloride
4. Describe one test that can be performed to d) phosphorus pentachloride
determine whether a substance is ionic. e) carbon disulfide

7. Create a Venn diagram that compares the
properties of a molecular compound with
those of an ionic compound.

SECTION REVIEW
Key Concept Review
1. Explain the two rules to follow when naming an ionic compound.
2. For each substance below, name the elements and indicate the number
of each kind of atom present in one formula unit.
a) HgF(s) d) B2O3(s)
b) O2(g) e) FeCl3(s)
c) Na2S(s)
3. When an ionic compound forms, what must be the sum of the ionic
charges?
4. What kind of elements form molecular compounds?
5. Identify how many atoms of each element are present in the following
compounds:
a) glucose: C6H12O6(s) d) rust remover: H3PO4(aq)
b) ethanol: C2H5OH(l) e) fatty acid: C17H35COOH(aq)
c) hydrogen peroxide: H2O2(l)
6. Which of the following compounds are ionic and which are
molecular?
a) PbO(s) d) H2O(l)
b) Al2S3(s) e) NH3(g)
c) F2(g)
7. What is the formula for the ionic compounds with the following
combinations of elements?
a) potassium and bromine
b) barium and oxygen
c) aluminum and selenium
d) calcium and nitrogen
e) copper and phosphorous
8. Write the formula for the following molecular compounds:
a) carbon monoxide
b) carbon dioxide
c) nitrogen dioxide
d) dinitrogen monoxide
e) disulfur dichloride
9. Describe a pattern of ion charges in the periodic table.
10. Write the formula for the following ionic compounds:
a) magnesium bromide e) lead(IV) nitride
b) sodium phosphide f) copper(I) sulfide
c) lithium fluoride g) silver oxide
d) nickel(II) chloride h) nickel(III) oxide

SECTION REVIEW
11. In terms of ion charges and chemical change, what is the difference
between CuF(s) and CuF2(s)?
12. Sketch simple models to show the following molecular compounds:
a) sulfur and oxygen (SO2) c) oxygen and bromine (OBr2)
b) nitrogen and chlorine (NCl3) d) carbon and fluorine (CF4)

13. Which of the following formulas is/are not correctly written?
a) Li3O d) HgCl2
b) CuO e) FeCl
c) Mg3O2
14. Using the periodic table, find the elements iron, mercury, and
bromine. Make a chart to answer the following questions as related to
each element.
a) Is it a metal or non-metal?
b) What is the common ion charge?
c) Will it conduct electricity?
d) What state will it be in at room temperature?
e) What state will it be in at room temperature if it combines with a
non-metal?
15. An unknown ionic compound is formed with the formula Z2S3(s).
a) What is the common ion charge of element Z?
b) What would be the new chemical formula of the unknown
compound if the S (sulfur) was replaced with fluorine?
c) What would be one property of these two compounds?

On
Scientific ideas can be difficult to represent in a way that is easily
understandable. To help explain their ideas, scientists often use models.
In this section, you investigated and developed models to explain how
atoms form compounds. Answer the following questions, using examples
from your work in this section to support your answers.
1. How can a model help explain your observations?
2. Can a model be used to predict future observations?
3. Why is it important to understand chemical symbols, and to ensure
that everyone uses these symbols correctly?

Substances undergo a chemical
4.0 change when they interact to produce
different substances.
Key Concepts
concepts:
• endothermic and exothermic
reactions
• reactants and products
• conservation of mass
• factors affecting reaction rates
Learning Outcomes
• identify conditions under which
properties of a material are
changed, and critically evaluate
if a new substance has been
produced
• observe and describe evidence
of chemical change in
reactions between familiar
materials
• distinguish between materials
that react readily and those
that do not
• observe and describe patterns
of chemical change
• describe familiar chemical
reactions, and represent these Fireworks burst into the night sky in brilliant patterns caused by chemical
reactions by using word reactions. The different colours that we see result from reactions between
equations and chemical different substances within the fireworks. For example, barium
formulas and by constructing compounds create green fireworks, strontium compounds create red ones,
models of reactants and copper creates blue ones and sodium yellow. Fireworks are also launched
products by the chemical reaction that results from the fuse being lighted. The heat
of the fuse ignites the chemicals that propel the fireworks into the sky.
In this section, you will investigate a variety of chemical reactions
and how different factors affect the rate of these reactions. Think about
safety as you do each activity.

info BIT
4.1 Chemical Reactions
Dr. John Polanyi
At first it may seem that the launch of a space shuttle and the activation In 1986, Canadian
of air bags in a vehicle have very little in common. In fact, both of these Dr. John Polanyi won
events require a chemical reaction to work. A chemical reaction takes the Nobel Prize in
place when two or more substances combine to form new substances. A chemistry for his work
chemical change in a substance results from a chemical reaction. investigating the
The chemical reaction occurring in launching a space shuttle involves properties of chemical
almost 1 500 000 L of liquid hydrogen and 545 000 L of liquid oxygen reactions.
combining to form water. During this reaction, enough energy is released
to put the shuttle into orbit around Earth. In a vehicle equipped with air
bags, the chemical reaction occurs on a smaller scale, but the results are
also dramatic. Air bags, packed inside the frame of a vehicle, contain the
explosive chemical sodium azide (NaN3(s)). When the vehicle is in a
collision, the sodium azide reacts and forms large volumes of nitrogen gas
and sodium. The sodium quickly reacts with another compound in the air
bag to make less dangerous compounds. Fifty grams of sodium azide can
produce 30 L of nitrogen gas in milliseconds—a reaction that releases a
burst of energy. The nitrogen gas inflates the air bags instantly, cushioning
the impact of the collision for the driver and front-seat passenger.
Q U I C K LAB
ROCKET SCIENCE
To use a chemical reaction to create a film canister rocket • plastic film canister with
inside snapping lid
Procedure
• water
1 Half fill the film canister with water. • Alka-Seltzer tablet, cut
2 Place a quarter tablet of Alka-Seltzer in the canister and quickly snap on the lid. into quarters
3 Place the canister upside down on the ground and stand at least 5 m back. • pencil and notebook
CAUTION: If the rocket does not launch after about 1 min, slowly approach it and
kick it over with your foot. If the lid doesn’t come off, carefully remove the lid,
keeping the canister pointed away from everyone.
4 Record your observations.
5 Try changing the variables to make the rocket go as high as possible. For example,
change the amount of water, the amount of Alka-Seltzer, or the position of the
canister on the ground. Record your observations each time.
Questions
6 How did you make a film canister rocket?
7 Did a chemical reaction occur inside the film canister? Provide evidence to support
your answer.
8 What combination of materials made the rocket go the highest?
Substances Undergo a Chemical Change When They Interact to Produce Different Substances 157
The materials at the start of a reaction are called the reactants. Think
of a campfire. The burning wood undergoes a combustion reaction. In this
case, the reactants, or substances being combined in the reaction, are
wood and oxygen. The new materials produced by the reaction are called
products. In a campfire, the products are carbon dioxide and water,
formed while energy is released.
This chemical reaction can be written as a chemical word equation, as
shown below. Note that in such equations, the reactants always appear to
the left of the arrow and the products to the right.
wood + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + energy released
Plus signs separate the reactants from each other and the products
from each other. The arrow indicates the direction in which the reaction is
most likely to occur. When you take more advanced science courses, you
Figure 4.1 The reactants
will learn about situations where the reaction can occur in either
potassium iodide and lead(II) direction.
nitrate are both clear. The Recall from section 1.3 that when a chemical reaction occurs, a new
chemical reaction that takes substance forms and evidence of the reaction may include one or more of
place when they are the following:
combined results in a colour
change in the product. • a colour change
• the formation of an odour
• the formation of a solid or a gas
• the release or absorption of heat
While colour change and formation of an odour are usually good
indicators that a chemical reaction has taken place, care must be taken in
interpreting some of the other types of evidence. For example, the
formation of bubbles in a solution doesn’t always mean that a new gas is
being produced in a chemical reaction. The bubbles may simply mean that
the solution has begun to boil. Evidence of heat being released or absorbed
may also indicate a physical change rather than a chemical change. Some
solids, for example, release heat when they are dissolved.
G I V E I T A TRY
IDENTIFY THE REACTION
Below are three different reactions. Identify the reactants and products for each reaction.
Write out the chemical word equation.
Reaction 1. When hydrogen peroxide is left out in the sun, it changes to water and
oxygen gas.
Reaction 2. A silver spoon is exposed to air. Over time, it turns a dark brown colour.
Reaction 3. Sodium and bromine react explosively to produce sodium bromide.

ACTIVITY B-6
O B S E RV I N G C H E M I C A L R E A C T I O N S
Inquiry
The Question
How will different materials react with each other?
Procedure
1 Before you start, your teacher will review the safety guidelines with you.
2 Draw a table in which to record your observations.
• 3 test tubes
• test-tube holder Reaction 1—Sulfuric acid and magnesium ribbon
• 5% or 1.0 mol/L sulfuric
3 Place a test tube in the test-tube holder. Pour the dilute sulfuric acid into the test tube
acid
to a depth of about 3 cm.
• magnesium ribbon
• matches 4 Add a 2-cm strip of magnesium ribbon to the dilute sulfuric acid in the test tube.
• splint 5 Light a splint and hold it so that the burning end is in the test tube. Make sure the
• 2% or 0.2 mol/L copper(II) test tube is pointing away from you and your classmates. Record your observations
sulfate in the table.
• steel wool
Reaction 2—Copper(II) sulfate and steel wool
• stirring rod
• 3% or 0.2 mol/L 6 Place a clean test tube in the test-tube holder. Pour the copper(II) sulfate solution
iron(III) chloride into the test tube to a depth of about 3 cm.
• 3% or 0.8 mol/L sodium 7 Add a small piece of steel wool to the copper(II) sulfate solution. You may need to
hydroxide use a stirring rod to push the steel wool down into the solution. Record your
• 5 g baking soda observations.
• vinegar
• 500-mL beaker Reaction 3—Iron(III) chloride and sodium hydroxide
• thermometer 8 Place a clean test tube in the test-tube holder. Pour the Caution!
iron(III) chloride solution into the test tube to a depth of Be sure to wear
about 3 cm. your safety goggles,
9 Add a similar amount of the dilute sodium hydroxide apron, and gloves.
solution to the test tube. Record your observations. Iron(III) chloride is a
strong irritant, and
Reaction 4—Baking soda and vinegar is corrosive and
10 Pour 40 mL of vinegar into a 500-mL beaker. Measure toxic. Sulfuric acid
and record the temperature of the vinegar. and sodium
11 Slowly add 5 g of baking soda to the vinegar. Measure hydroxide are
and record the temperature. corrosive.

12 For each combination of materials you investigated, identify whether a chemical or
physical change took place. Explain your answers.
13 For each chemical reaction, describe the evidence that you used to determine if new
Figure 4.2 Step 4

products were formed.
Forming Conclusions
14 Look back at the question at the beginning of this activity. Write a conclusion that
answers that question by describing what you did, why you did it, and what you
found.
re SEARCH ENDOTHERMIC AND EXOTHERMIC REACTIONS
A chemical reaction that releases heat energy is called an exothermic
Changing Chemical reaction. When you burn an object in the presence of oxygen, energy in
Bonds the form of heat is given off. Heat is also emitted when your body
Endothermic and
metabolizes food.
exothermic reactions
A chemical reaction that absorbs heat energy is an endothermic
involve the forming or
breaking of chemical reaction. If you observed the chemical reactions in Inquiry Activity B-6,
bonds. Find out how you noticed that the temperature in the baking soda and vinegar reaction
energy is used to form dropped during and just after the reaction. Chemical cold-packs found in
or break these bonds, first aid kits are another example of where an endothermic reaction
and give examples. occurs. The reactants in the cold-packs must be crushed together to start
Begin your research at the reaction. As the chemical change occurs and new products form,
www.pearsoned.ca/ energy is absorbed from the liquid in the bag, and the bag becomes very
scienceinaction. cold.
CHEMICAL CHANGES INVOLVING OXYGEN

Chemical changes occur because some substances react with each other
when they come into contact. Among the most common types of chemical
reactions are those involving oxygen. Three examples of reactions in
which oxygen reacts with other substances are combustion, corrosion, and
air cellular respiration.
Combustion is a chemical reaction that occurs when oxygen reacts
with a substance to form a new substance and give off energy. Fire is a
common example of a combustion reaction. In burning, wood reacts with
oxygen to give off heat and light and produce carbon dioxide and water.
Recall that earlier in this unit you read about the significance of early
fuel heat
humans discovering how to start fires. Combustion could be considered
Figure 4.3 This fire triangle
the first chemical reaction used by humans. Today, it is still one of the
shows the three factors that most important chemical reactions we use.
keep a fire going. If any one Corrosion is the slow chemical change that occurs when oxygen in the
of them is missing, the fire air reacts with a metal. A common example of corrosion is rusting.
will not continue burning. Rusting occurs when iron reacts with oxygen to form iron oxide.
Cellular respiration is a chemical reaction that takes place in the cells
in your body. Food (glucose) reacts with oxygen to produce energy, water,
and carbon dioxide. Figure 4.4 shows the word equation for cellular
respiration.
carbon
food oxygen dioxide water energy that can be
+ + +
(C 6 H12O6(s)) (O2 ) (CO2 ) (H2O) used by living things
Figure 4.4 The word equation for cellular respiration

ACTIVITY B-7 REACTIONS FOR UPSET
Experiment on your own STOMACHS
Before You Start The Question

Many different types of medications are available to soothe Which antacid medication works best? What is the most
an upset stomach. A common one is antacid. Antacids can effective way to take it?
be solid tablets or liquids.
Design and Conduct Your Experiment
For this activity, you will use an Erlenmeyer flask
containing 75 mL of dilute hydrochloric acid and 3 drops of 1 Write a hypothesis about the most effective method for
methyl orange indicator. This is a model of an upset taking antacid medication.
stomach. You will add antacids to the model stomach. 2 Decide what materials you will need to test your
When the orange colour disappears, the stomach is no hypothesis.
longer upset. In this reaction, carbon dioxide gas is 3 Plan your procedure. Ask yourself questions such as:
produced. To capture the gas, you can place a balloon over a) How will I determine which antacid is best?
the flask. b) How will I determine what is the best way to take
In this activity, you will determine which antacid works this antacid?
best and the most effective way to take it. You may wish to c) What type of chart will I need to record data?
use Toolbox 2 to help you plan your experiment.
d) Is the test I’ve designed fair? How do I know?
e) What are the variables in my experiment? Which is
the manipulated variable? Which is the responding
variable? Which variables will I control?
f) How long do I have to complete my experiment?
4 Write up your procedure. Show it to your teacher
before continuing.
5 Carry out your experiment.
6 Compare your results with your hypothesis. Did your
results support your hypothesis? If not, suggest
possible reasons for this.
7 Share and compare your experimental plan and
findings with your classmates. Did anyone plan an
experiment exactly like yours or similar to yours? How
do your results compare with theirs?
Figure 4.5 Adding antacid to an Erlenmeyer flask containing

hydrochloric acid
CHECK AND REFLECT
Key Concept Review
1. What is the difference between a chemical reaction and a physical
change?
2. How are reactants different from products in a chemical reaction?
3. Describe three observations you might make when a chemical change
occurs.
4. Chemical fire starter ignites as a result of from the following reaction:
2 CH3OH(l) 3 O2(g) → 2 CO2(g) 4 H2O(g)
a) What are the reactants?

b) What are the products?
c) What could be one observation you could make to conclude a
chemical reaction has occurred?
5. What is the difference between an exothermic reaction and an
endothermic reaction?
6. How are the reactions in the items shown in Figure 4.6 useful to
humans?

7. a) In what ways are combustion and corrosion similar?
b) In what ways are they different?
8. Write the chemical word equations for the following reactions:
a) Zinc and hydrochloric acid are added together. A bubbling reaction
creates hydrogen gas and zinc chloride.
b) When sugar and sulfuric acid are combined, carbon, water, and
sulfur dioxide are formed.
c) Rust is formed when iron reacts with oxygen.
9. Rewrite the following chemical reactions into chemical equations
using the appropriate chemical formulas.
a) Magnesium and sulfur combine to form magnesium sulfide.
b) When calcium is added to chlorine gas, calcium chloride is formed.
c) Water is formed when hydrogen and oxygen are combined.

10. Create a step-by-step procedure describing how to write a chemical
equation.
11. Compare and contrast combustion, corrosion, and cellular respiration.

4.2 Conservation of Mass in Chemical Reactions info BIT
In a chemical reaction, products are formed when the reactant (or Einstein, Matter, and
reactants) undergoes a change. These products usually look very different Energy
from the reactants. However, the total mass of these products is always the In a nuclear reaction,
same as the total mass of the reactants. This law is called the conservation some of the mass is
of mass. It states that matter is not created or destroyed in a chemical converted to energy, as
reaction. For example, combining 24.3 g of magnesium and 32.1 g of Albert Einstein expressed
sulfur creates a new substance called magnesium sulfide. The law of in his famous E=mc 2
relation.
conservation of mass predicts that the mass of the product will be the sum
of these two masses: 56.4 g. Careful experiments have been made on this
and many other reactions. These experiments have been done in closed
systems, where no additional material is allowed to enter or leave. The
result? No exceptions to this law have ever been found in any chemical
reaction.
Mg(s) + S(s) → MgS(s)
24.3 g 32.1 g 56.4 g
Fe(s) S(s) FeS(s)

+ → iron sulfide
iron sulfur
Figure 4.7 The total mass of the reactants and the total mass of the products are equal.
math Link
Some reactions may not seem to follow the principle of the conservation Two reactants undergo
of mass. For example, adding 10 g of Alka-Seltzer to 100 g of water in a a chemical reaction and
beaker causes carbon dioxide gas to be given off. When the reaction is produce one product.
complete, the mass of the products left in the beaker is only 106 g, not The mass of one of the
110 g. This doesn’t mean that mass was not conserved. The carbon reactants is 20 g and the
dioxide gas was also one of the products of the reaction, but it escaped mass of the product is
45 g. Write an algebraic
from the open beaker into the air. This is an example of an open system.
equation representing
If it had been trapped, it would have been found to have a mass of 4 g.
this reaction, and solve
the equation to find the
mass of the second
reactant.
ACTIVITY B-8
C O N S E RV I N G M A S S
Inquiry
The Question
Does the mass of reactants and products change during a reaction?
Procedure
1 Put the baking soda and calcium chloride in the self-sealing plastic bag.
2 Put the water and bromothymol blue in the film canister.
• balance
• 4 g baking soda 3 Place the canister in an upright position in the bag. Carefully seal the bag. Measure
• 4 g calcium chloride and record the mass of the bag.
• large self-sealing plastic bag 4 Predict what you think will happen when all the substances
• 5-mL measuring spoon mix together. Record your prediction.
• 5 mL water Caution!
5 Without opening the bag, tip the canister over and allow the If the bag seems
• 5 mL bromothymol blue
liquids and solids to mix. Record as many observations as ready to burst,
• film canister
you can while the reaction is occurring. Be sure to hold the open it up.
bag to observe the temperature changes.
6 When the reaction is complete, measure and record the mass
of the bag.
7 When you have finished the activity, clean up and return the materials as instructed
by your teacher.

8 What evidence do you have that a chemical reaction occurred?
9 How did the mass before the reaction compare with the mass after the reaction?
10 Was the reaction exothermic, endothermic, or both?
Forming Conclusions
11 Use your observations and the data collected during this investigation to answer the
question posed at the beginning of the activity.
Figure 4.8 Step 3

re SEARCH
Chemical Reaction Laws
In addition to the law of conservation of mass, two other laws apply to chemical reactions.
Find out what the law of definite composition and the law of multiple proportions are. Begin
your search at www.pearsoned.ca/scienceinaction.
CHECK AND REFLECT

Key Concept Review
1. Define the law of conservation of mass.
2. What is a closed system in terms of a chemical reaction? Give an
example.
3. What is an open system in terms of a chemical reaction? Give an
example.
4. If you were to compare (i) the mass of a car with a full tank of gas to
(ii) the mass of the same car with an empty tank of gas plus the mass
of the exhaust fumes produced while the car burned the gas, would
mass (i) and mass (ii) be different or would they be equal? Explain
your answer.

5. A solid mass of 25 g is mixed with 60 g of a solution. A chemical
reaction takes place and a gas is produced. The final mass of the
mixture is 75 g. What was the mass of gas released?
6. If 100 g of one substance reacts with 70 g of another substance, what
will be the mass of the products after the reaction?
7. A student adds 15 g of baking soda to 10 g of acetic acid in a beaker. A
chemical reaction occurs and a gas is given off. After the reaction, the
mass of the products remaining in the beaker is 23 g. Has mass been
conserved in this reaction? Explain your answer.

8. Select a chemical reaction you have read about or observed
in this section. Use the chemical formulas of the reactants
and products to prove the law of conservation of mass.
9. Does a glass of pop have a greater, smaller, or identical
mass after it has sat out on the table overnight? Explain
your answer.
10. Is Earth a closed system or an open system? Explain your
answer.
Figure 4.9 Albert Einstein was the first person to propose that
in a nuclear reaction, some mass is converted into energy.
4.3 Factors Affecting the Rate of a Chemical
Reaction
You may know someone who tried to change his or her hair colour, but
the process didn’t quite work out as planned. Colouring hair is the result
of a chemical reaction. If the reaction is not controlled properly,
unintended effects can occur, such as unexpected hair colours or burning
of the scalp. Another common example of a chemical reaction is making a
cake. It’s important to use the right amount of each ingredient. If you add
too much baking powder, for example, you can end up with a batter that
rises more than it should.
It is important to understand how a chemical reaction works and the
factors that affect the rate of the reaction. The four factors that can affect
the rate of a chemical reaction are:
• the presence of a catalyst
• the concentration of the reactants
• the temperature of the reactants
• the surface area of the reactants
Figure 4.10 Chemicals
can be used to change CATALYSTS
hair colour.
Catalysts are substances that help a reaction proceed faster. They are
present with the reactants of a reaction, but they are not consumed during
the reaction. Chemical reactions involving catalysts can be found in both
living and non-living things. The most common example in living things
is in your body. Many reactions, such as the breaking down of food,
require a catalyst called an enzyme. Without enzymes, many reactions
would require much higher temperatures—a situation that would be
deadly to the human body.
Enzymes can help get rid of poisons in the body quickly. For example,
one product of reactions in cells is hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Hydrogen
peroxide is poisonous. An enzyme called catalase, which is found in
many different types of animal and plant cells, speeds up the breakdown
of hydrogen peroxide into harmless oxygen and water. Figure 4.11 shows
a model of how an enzyme like catalase functions.
reactant products
Figure 4.11 The shape of the

enzyme molecule helps the
reactant molecule break
down.
enzyme

Q U I C K LAB
HYDROGEN PEROXIDE AND THE C ATA LY S T

MANGANESE(IV) OXIDE
(Teacher Demonstration)
• hydrogen peroxide
Like catalase, the catalyst manganese(IV) oxide (MnO2(s)) also speeds up the
• test tube
reaction that breaks down hydrogen peroxide and produces a gas. To test if the
• wooden splint
gas is present, a glowing splint is placed in the test tube holding the reaction.
• matches
Purpose • manganese(IV) oxide
To observe the effects of a catalyst on the rate of a chemical reaction

Procedure
1 Pour hydrogen peroxide into a test tube to a depth of 4 cm.
Wait 30 s.
2 Light a wooden splint. After 5 s, blow it out. Immediately hold the glowing
splint in the test tube. Record your observations.
3 Add 1 g of the catalyst manganese(IV) oxide (MnO2(s)) to the hydrogen
peroxide in the test tube.
4 Observe the test tube for 30 s.
5 Light another wooden splint and blow it out after 5 s. Immediately place the
glowing splint into the test tube. Record your observations.
Questions
6 Describe how the catalyst manganese(IV) oxide affects the rate of reaction in
this demonstration.
7 What gas was given off by the reaction? What evidence do you have to
support your answer?
8 If a piece of fresh liver is dropped into hydrogen peroxide, a similar reaction
occurs. What can you infer about the chemicals found in liver?
9 If you were to cool the hydrogen peroxide before you added the catalyst,
what do you think would happen to the rate of reaction? Explain your
answer.
info BIT
Fuel Cells
Fuel cells use a platinum catalyst to generate electricity from the
reaction of hydrogen and oxygen. These cells can now be found in
cars and other devices.
ACTIVITY B-9
R AT E S OF REACTION
Inquiry
The Question
What factors can be changed to increase the rate of a reaction?
Procedure
Part 1—Investigating the Reaction
• graduated cylinder 1 Using the graduated cylinder, measure 50 mL of water and place it in the beaker.
• water 2 Measure 15 mL of copper(II) chloride.
• 500-mL beaker 3 Add the copper(II) chloride to the water and stir until the solid has dissolved. Record
• 15-mL plastic measuring your observations of the solution.
spoon
4 Measure the temperature of the solution.
• copper(II) chloride
• stirring rod 5 Crumple a piece of aluminum foil so that it will fit into the beaker. Using the stirring
• thermometer rod, push the aluminum foil into the solution. Observe and record any changes.
• aluminum foil 6 Record the temperature (in °C) every 30 s until the temperature begins to drop.
Part 2—Changing the Rate of the Reaction

7 In this part of the activity, you will design a procedure using only the materials you
used in part 1. Your task is to create a reaction that will give you the highest
temperature as quickly as possible.
8 Working with your lab partner, design your procedure and write it down. Remember
that you will have to measure the temperature every 30 s as in step 6 in part 1.
9 Have your teacher approve your procedure.
10 Carry out your plan and record your results.

11 What evidence do you have that a chemical change occurred when aluminum was
added to the copper(II) chloride?
12 Graph the temperatures you measured in part 1 against the time that you measured
Figure 4.12 Step 6
them. On the same graph, graph the temperatures you measured in part 2. Use a
different colour for your second graph.
13 What products do you think were produced from the reaction?
14 What factors did you change to increase the rate of the reaction?
15 Was there a difference in the highest temperatures you measured in parts 1 and 2?
Why do you think this occurred?
16 If the challenge was to create the lowest temperature possible, what factors would
you change?
Forming Conclusions
17 Describe how you would create a reaction to get the highest temperature as quickly
as possible, given the materials you used in this activity.

OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF REACTION re SEARCH
A catalyst is one factor that can affect the rate of a reaction. Three other
factors are concentration, temperature, and surface area. Controlling Industrial
Reactions
Concentration Find examples of
industrial chemical
The greater the concentration of the reactants, the faster the reaction. The
reactions that require the
increased concentration of the reactants means that there are more atoms rate of the reaction to be
of each reactant available to react. For example, adding more aluminum to controlled. Begin your
a copper(II) chloride solution will cause the reaction between the two search at
substances to proceed faster. www.pearsoned.ca/
scienceinaction.
Temperature
The temperature of the reactants can also affect the rate of a reaction. The
more heat added to the reactants, the faster the reaction. The added heat
causes the atoms of each reactant to move faster, which increases the
chances of their colliding with each other. For example, if you were
investigating the copper(II) chloride–aluminum reaction, you could heat
the copper(II) chloride solution to make the reaction proceed more
quickly.
Surface area
Increasing the surface area of the reactants is another factor that can
increase the rate of a reaction. The greater surface area of the reactants
means that more area is available for reaction. In the copper(II) chloride
and aluminum example, cutting the aluminum foil into tiny pieces would
increase the surface area, causing the reaction to proceed faster.
Figure 4.13 This grain elevator blew up when the extremely fine grain dust in the air was ignited
accidentally. The fine dust means a large surface area of grain was available for the combustion
reaction.
CHECK AND REFLECT
Key Concept Review
1. What is an enzyme?
2. Explain how an enzyme is different from other catalysts.
3. What are four factors that can affect the rate of reaction?
4. Give one example, not discussed in the book, of a reaction where the
rate was increased because of changes in the four factors mentioned
above.

5. What is the purpose of storing food in a cooler with ice when you go
camping or on a picnic? Explain your answer in terms of rate of
chemical reaction.
6. Why does chewing your food make it easier to digest?
7. Why should batteries be stored in the fridge when they are not being
used?
8. For each of the following reactions, how could the rate of chemical
change be increased?
a) a block of wood burns slowly
b) an Alka-Seltzer tablet fizzes slightly
c) ice-cold hydrochloric acid reacts slowly with powdered zinc

9. The catalyst manganese(IV) oxide is able to increase the rate at which
hydrogen peroxide decomposes into oxygen and hydrogen. The
enzyme catalase is found in animal livers and can perform the same
function. If the hydrogen peroxide is heated to 60°C first, the catalase
doesn’t work. Why?
10. Plan and write a procedure to test how the concentration of yeast will
affect the rising of bread.
Figure 4.14 Dyeing a shirt to create the

varying colour tones shown here
requires controlling the reaction rate of
the various chemical dyes used.

SECTION REVIEW
Key Concept Review
1. Define a chemical reaction and give an example.
2. Create a chemical word equation using the following: reactants, products, →
3. Which of the following observations would not be evidence of a chemical
reaction?
a) precipitate (solid) formed c) substance melted
b) heat released d) colour changed
4. How does the fire triangle describe the chemical reaction called combustion?
5. Define the law of conservation of mass in your own words.
6. What is the difference between an open and a closed system?
7. Write the following reactions as chemical word equations.
a) Calcium and water combine to form calcium hydroxide and hydrogen.
b) Hydrogen gas and sulfur are products created when hydrogen sulfide
decomposes or breaks down.
c) Methane and oxygen react to produce carbon dioxide, water, and energy.
d) If there is not enough air for all the methane to react in c), carbon and
water are formed.
8. How can you determine if a reaction is exothermic?

9. A reaction occurs in a closed system. The mass of the products is 25 g.
What was the mass of the reactants? How do you know?

On
At the start of this unit, you were introduced to the idea that the goal of science
was to develop knowledge about our natural world. This knowledge includes
how substances interact to form new substances. Now that you are at the end of
this unit, work with your partner or your class to consider the following
questions.
1. Identify an example of two or more substances interacting to produce a
change. How do you know a change has occurred?
2. Describe several chemical changes or reactions that you consider useful.
What are some characteristics or properties of each of these reactions that
make them useful?
3. Describe two chemical changes or reactions where it is important to control
the rate of the reaction. Why is this important in each case?
4. Review your answers in Section 1.0, Focus on the Nature of Science. How
has your understanding of matter and its interactions changed over time?
U NIT S UMMARY: M ATTER AND C HEMICAL C HANGE
Key Concepts Section Summaries
1.0 1.0 Matter can be described and organized by its physical and chemical properties.
• Recognition of WHMIS symbols is important to lab safety.
• Workplace Hazardous • Matter can be organized in different ways. One way is as solids, liquids, and gases. Another way
Materials Information is as mixtures and solutions.
System (WHMIS) and safety • Physical properties of matter such as colour, hardness, boiling point, and density are used to
• substances and their identify substances. Chemical properties describe how a substance interacts with other
properties substances.
atomic theory
2.0 2.0 An understanding of the nature of matter has developed through observations
over time.
• substances and their
• Human understanding of matter grew as people suggested explanations for their observations of
properties
the natural world. Theories were confirmed or rejected as people learned more about matter.
• elements, compounds, and • The Greek philosopher Democritus stated that matter was made up of tiny indivisible particles
atomic theory called atomos. This theory was not widely accepted for 2000 years.
• periodic table • Investigations by scientists, such as Robert Boyle, in the 1600s confirmed that matter is made up
of tiny particles. Further investigation by researchers gradually developed the understanding we
have today that matter is made up of atoms. Each atom has a nucleus containing protons and
neutrons. Electrons orbit the nucleus.
• Elements are pure substances made up of only one type of atom. The periodic table organizes the
elements according to their atomic number and atomic mass. The atomic number is the number
of protons in the nucleus. The atomic mass is the average mass of an atom of an element.
• Patterns of information on the periodic table include groupings of metals, metalloids, and non-
metals.
3.0 3.0 Compounds form according to a set of rules.

• Every chemical compound has a chemical formula and chemical name. The chemical formula
• periodic table
identifies the elements in the compound and their proportions.
• elements, compounds, and • An ion is an atom or a group of atoms that has become electrically charged through the loss or
atomic theory gain of electrons from one atom to another.
• chemical nomenclature • Ionic compounds form between atoms of metals and non-metals.
• Molecular compounds form between atoms of non-metals.
4.0 4.0 Substances undergo a chemical change when they interact to produce different
substances.
• endothermic and exothermic
• A physical change may change the appearance or state of a substance but not its composition
reactions
(e.g., melting). A chemical change results in the formation of one or more different substances.
• reactants and products
• Reactions involving oxygen are some of the most common types of chemical reactions. These
• conservation of mass include combustion, corrosion, and cellular respiration.
• factors affecting reaction • A chemical reaction occurs when substances called reactants interact to produce different
rates substances called products.
• According to the principle of the conservation of mass, the mass of the products in a chemical
reaction equals the mass of the reactants.
• An exothermic reaction gives off energy. An endothermic reaction takes in energy.
• The rate of reaction can be affected by the addition of a catalyst, or an increase in the
concentration, temperature, or surface area of the reactants.

S C I E N C E W O R L D
y
a
se d
S t u
Metal Contamination of the Environment

How much of the contaminated soil needs to
be cleaned up?
Cleaning up a contaminated site is costly. Some people
suggest that only toxic sites where people may live or work
should be cleaned up. Others suggest that only areas
where people live should be cleaned. To save money, only
a partial cleanup of the workplace is necessary. Other
people feel that all toxic areas should be cleaned, as it is
hard to predict where people will live or work in the future.
Who should be responsible for the cleanup?

Cleaning a contaminated area may require removal of soil,
Equipment operators must wear special protective buildings, and trees, and the addition of clean soil. This is
gear when cleaning up contaminated soil. an expensive process. Since many of these waste sites
have been abandoned, it is difficult to determine who
The Issue should be responsible for cleaning them up. All levels of
government—municipal, provincial, and federal—have a
Humans have many uses for metals. Copper for wire,
role in determining how these sites should be rehabilitated.
aluminum for pop cans, and lead for batteries are just a
few examples. Some metals, such as lead, are poisonous
Go Further
to humans if exposure occurs over a long period of time.
This exposure may result from metals finding their way Now it’s your turn. Look into the following resources to
into the groundwater or from unsafe storage. In many help you form your opinion.
cases, the people or companies responsible for the • Look on the Web: Check the Internet for information on
contamination are no longer present to take responsibility examples of metal contamination in Alberta and what is
for the cleanup. The problem of metal contamination in the being done about them.
environment leads to several questions. • Ask the Experts: Try to find an expert on metal
contamination, such as a chemical engineer or an
What should be done with contaminated soil? environmental geologist. Experts can be found in various
places: city hall, universities, environmental consulting
When metals from factories, mines, and dumps
companies, and government agencies.
contaminate soil, the area is closed to human access. This
• Look It Up in Newspapers and Magazines: Look for
prevents immediate harm to people. However, the soil
articles about metal contamination.
must be made safe for the future. There are two common
options for cleaning up contaminated soil. The first option
Analyze and Address the Issue
involves removing the top layer of contaminated soil.
However, the contaminated soil must then be cleaned or Summarize your opinion of what should be done about
stored in another area. The second option is to cover the cleaning up contaminated soil and who should do it as one
contaminated soil with a thick layer of clean soil. In theory, of the following:
the new layer seals the contaminated soil from the • a newspaper article for your local or school newspaper
environment. • a speech to be presented at a public forum on the issue
Science World 173

PROJECT
WHAT’S IN THE BOTTLE?
If the spot plate is clear and colourless, you may need to
put a piece of white paper under the plate. This will help
you observe any reaction that occurs.
Steps to Success
Part 1—The Tests
1 Collect the necessary equipment for this activity:
• 1 spot plate
• bottles of solutions labelled A, B, C, D, E, F
• paper towel
2 Combine two solutions in all possible ways, using the
table below as your guide.
3 Record your observations in a table like this one.
A B C D E F Unknown
You can use the well in a spot plate for a micro-scale reaction.
A
Getting Started
B
There’s a problem in the science lab. A bottle containing
C
an unknown solution has been found. Because the
contents are unknown, it is difficult to determine how to D
dispose of it.
E
Your Goal F
In this activity, you will perform a variety of micro-scale
Unknown
reactions to gather information about how various
solutions react. You will then use this information to
Part 2—The Identification of the Unknown
identify an unknown sample.
4 Your teacher will give you an unknown solution.
What You Need to Know 5 Using a clean spot plate, combine each of the known
Micro-scale reactions occur when very small amounts of solutions with the unknown solution. Record your
reactants are used. Usually the reaction takes place in a results in each case.
small depression or well on a spot plate. By filling the well
How Did It Go?
half full with one solution or solid reactant and then adding
a second reactant, you can observe if a reaction has 6 Using your data from part 1, determine what you think
occurred. the unknown sample in the bottle is. Remember to
support your answer with your data.
The following observations can help you determine
that a reaction has occurred: 7 Write your conclusion in a short paragraph. Make sure
it answers the following questions:
• bubbles form or a gas is given off
• What did you do in this activity?
• the colour changes
• Why did you do this activity?
• a solid substance called a precipitate forms
• What did you find?
• What is one new thing you learned?

UNIT REVIEW: MATTER AND CHEMICAL CHANGE
Unit Vocabulary a) poisonous and infectious causing other

toxic effects
1. Define the following terms in full sentences
b) corrosive material
using your own words.
c) dangerously reactive material
WHMIS
d) flammable and combustible material
matter
e) oxidizing material
elements
f) biohazardous infectious material
periodic table
g) poisonous and infectious causing
atomic mass
immediate and serious toxic effects
atomic number
h) compressed gas
ion charge
ionic compound 3. If you had to describe an unknown green
molecular compound solid, what properties could you use?
exothermic 4. What is the difference between a physical
endothermic change and a chemical change?
law of conservation of mass 5. Create a chart or picture to illustrate the
differences among a pure substance, a
mechanical mixture, and a solution. Include
Key Concept Review examples in your chart or picture.
1.0
2.0
2. Match the WHMIS symbol to the following
descriptions. 6. Why must copper be heated before it can be
made into something?
7. What was Ernest Rutherford’s contribution
to the understanding of the atom?
8. How are metals and non-metals organized in
the periodic table?
(i) (ii) (iii)
9. What is the difference between a family and
a period in the periodic table?
3.0
(iv) (v) (vi) 10. a) Explain what “ion charge” means.

b) How can the ion charge be used to
determine the chemical formula of
compounds?
(vii) (viii)
Unit Review 175

11. Name the elements in the substances below. Connect Your Understanding
a) LiCl(s) d) ZnO(s)
18. What contribution to the field of chemistry
b) Al2S3(s) e) Br2(l) was made by:
c) AgF(s) a) alchemists
12. Which of the following compounds are ionic b) Robert Boyle
and which are molecular? c) John Dalton
a) beryllium oxide d) J.J. Thomson
b) lithium phosphide 19. Compare Democritus’s understanding of the
c) water atom with Niels Bohr’s understanding.
d) sodium fluoride 20. Why was Dmitri Mendeleev’s periodic table
e) carbon dioxide accepted as a useful way to organize the
f) copper(I) chloride elements?
13. Write the chemical formula for each 21. Explain how J.J. Thomson’s “raisin bun
compound in question 12. model” of the atom is different from Niels
Bohr’s model of the atom.
4.0 22. Describe two patterns found in the periodic
table.
14. Rewrite the chemical reactions below as
23. Below is a box from the periodic table that is
word equations.
missing information. Copy the box into your
a) A solid piece of sodium metal is placed notebook and fill in the missing information.
in water, and it reacts explosively to form
sodium hydroxide and hydrogen gas. 13
b) Hydrogen peroxide is placed in sunlight
and reacts slowly to form oxygen and Al
water.
c) Iron(II) chloride is formed when iron and
chlorine gas are combined.
d) When aluminum is exposed to oxygen,
aluminum oxide forms. 24. Copy the following table into your notebook.
15. For each reaction in question 14, suggest a Use the periodic table to fill in the blanks.
different method for increasing the rate of
reaction. Element Mass Protons Electrons Neutrons
Number
16. How is cellular respiration similar to
H 1
combustion? How is it different?
166 82
17. Is there a difference between a catalyst and
an enzyme? Explain your answer. Ca 41
Ag 109
U 238
4 2
21 10

25. Write the name for the following formulas, weighed the products of the reaction, she
including the correct Roman numerals found the total mass to be 140 g. Did this
where necessary: reaction conserve mass? Explain your
a) MgBr2(s) d) PbI4(s) answer.
b) Ba3N2(s) e) Cu2S(s)
c) FeP(s) Self Assessment
26. Why do we use kindling (small sticks of 33. Scientific investigations usually require
wood) to help start a fire? many people to work together as a team.
Why is collaboration an important part of
Extend Your Understanding scientific work?
27. How were the first “chemists” in the Stone 34. In this unit, you investigated many different
Age different from “chemists” in the Iron questions and issues related to chemistry.
Age? Describe one idea that you would like to
find out more about. Explain why you want
28. Give three examples of how an
to learn more about it.
understanding of the properties of a type of
matter has benefited humans.
29. How can the periodic table be used to
determine the ion charge of elements? Focus THE NATURE OF SCIENCE
30. What is the chemical symbol of the element On
that has 14 neutrons in its nucleus?
In this unit, you investigated the nature of
science related to matter and chemical change.
Practise Your Skills Consider the following questions.
31. Create a mnemonic or “safety slogan” that 35. Scientific knowledge results from the shared
can be used to remind people of the proper work of many people over time. Describe the
techniques for handling and disposing of development of an idea in this unit that
laboratory materials. resulted from the work of many people over
time.
32. In the following reactions, calculate the
mass of the unknown product. 36. Was an alchemist really a scientist? Explain
a) How much water is produced when a your answer.
spark creates an explosive reaction 37. It is often said that science cannot provide
between 4 g of hydrogen and 32 g of complete answers to all questions. Describe
oxygen? a situation in this unit where you felt this
b) In a 100-g beaker, a student added 25 g of statement was true.
lead(II) nitrate to 15 g of sodium iodide. 38. Reread the three questions on page 91 about
In her notebook, she recorded the mass of the nature of science related to matter and
reactants as 40 g. During the chemical chemical change. Use a creative way to
rection between the two materials in the demonstrate your understanding of these
beaker, the student noted a colour change questions.
but no gases being given off. When she
Unit Review 177

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Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education Canada Inc.,

Preserving Biological Diversity 4 2.1 A Closer Look at Variation 27

Skill Practice: Exploring Wolf Give It a Try: Observing Variation in

Variability and Survival 20

Section Review: Assess Your Learning 25

Focus On: Social and Environmental Context 25

Reproduction in Plants and Animals 46 Biotechnology 67

Purebred Versus Hybrid 50 4.3 Reducing Our Impact on Biological Diversity 72

Dominant Traits 50 Strategies to Conserve Biological Diversity 72

Science World Case Study: Zoos and

Project: Maintaining Local Biological Diversity 82

Focus On: The Nature of Science 91 Stone Age Chemists 113

Focus On: The Nature of Science 137

Combining Elements to Make 4.1 Chemical Reactions 157

Compounds 139 QuickLAB: Rocket Science 157

QuickLAB: Ionic or Molecular Focus On: The Nature of Science 171

Comparing Ionic and Molecular Project: What’s in the Bottle? 174

Section Review: Assess Your Learning 154

Focus On: The Nature of Science 155

Uptake of Substances by Plants 204

Check and Reflect 190 Biological Indicators 214

Sulfur Dioxide 225 Biomagnification 248

Activity C-8 Inquiry: Analyzing Carbon Government Regulations 253

Section Review: Assess Your Learning 260

Transport in Air 237 Unit Summary 262

Electrical Energy 272 2.0 Technologies can be used to transfer and

Focus On: Science and Technology 273

Electrical Current 279 2.2 Modelling and Measuring Electricity 304

Protecting Yourself from Activity D-4 Inquiry:

Electrical Safety Pointers 285 Types of Resistors 310

Plugs, Fuses, and Breakers 285 Check and Reflect 310

Dry Cells 288 Parallel and Series Circuits 312

QuickLAB: Fruit Cells 290 Activity D-5 Problem Solving:

Activity D-2 Inquiry: Applications of Series and

Batteries 292 Check and Reflect 316

Electrochemistry 292 Section Review: Assess Your Learning 317

Transformations Involving Chemical

Electric Motors 325 Activity D-12 Problem Solving:

The Steering Analogy 328 Check and Reflect 350

Give It a Try: Shopping for Appliances 339

Limits to Efficiency 340 Unit Review 363

Tracking Cosmological Events 372

The Birth of a Star 386

The Sun 392 The Space Suit 420

The Planets 393 A Home in Space 421

Skill Practice: Building a Activity E-4 Experiment on your own:

Satellites 427 4.0 Society and the environment are affected

Skill Practice: On Location with GPS 430

Check and Reflect 432 Space Junk 458

Give It a Try: What Does It Take

The Pros and Cons of Space Exploration 464

Give It a Try: Light Bulb Stars 446 Unit Review 474

An outline gives you an overview of

give you an opportunity to

on activity introduces the topic of the unit and

The Key Concepts are the main

The Learning Outcomes

The Focus On section has QUICKLAB is a hands-on

Check and Reflect questions