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Association between Concentric and Eccentric Isokinetic Torque and

Unilateral Countermovement Jump Variables in Professional Soccer Players

Article in Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology · February 2022

DOI: 10.3390/jfmk7010025

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Article

Association between Concentric and Eccentric Isokinetic

Torque and Unilateral Countermovement Jump Variables in
Professional Soccer Players
Bruno Mazziotti Oliveira Alves 1,2, Robson Dias Scoz 1,*, Ricardo Lima Burigo 1, Isabella Christina Ferreira 1,
Ana Paula Silveira Ramos 3, Jose Joao Baltazar Mendes 4, Luciano Maia Alves Ferreira 4
and Cesar Ferreira Amorim 1,4,5,6,*

1 Masters and Doctoral Program in Physiotherapy, University City of Sao Paulo (Unicid),
Sao Paulo 03071-000, Brazil; [email protected] (B.M.O.A.); [email protected] (R.L.B.);
[email protected] (I.C.F.)
2 Department of Physical Therapy and Biomechanics, Arsenal Football Club, London N7-7AJ, UK

3 Physiotherapy Department, University of South of Santa Catarina (Unisul), Sao Jose 88137-270, Brazil;

[email protected]
4 Laboratory of Physical and Functional Assessment (LAFF), Interdisciplinary Center of Investigation Egas

Monis (CiiEM), Caparica, 2829-511 Setubal, Portugal; [email protected] (J.J.B.M.);

[email protected] (L.M.A.F.)
5 Lab Corinthians R9, Sport Club Corinthians Paulista, Sao Paulo 03828-000, Brazil

6 Laboratoire de Recherche BioNR, Université du Quebec, Saguenay, QC G7H-2B1, Canada

* Correspondence: [email protected] (R.D.S.); [email protected] (C.F.A.)

Citation: Alves, B.M.O.; Scoz, R.D.;
Burigo, R.L.; Ferreira, I.C.; Ramos, Abstract: Isokinetic tests have been highly valuable to athletic analysis, but their cost and technical
A.P.S.; Mendes, J.J.B.; Ferreira, operation turn them inaccessible. The purpose of this study was to verify the correlation between
L.M.A.; Amorim, C.F. Association unilateral countermovement jump variables and isokinetic data. Thirty-two male professional soc-
between Concentric and Eccentric cer players were subjected to the isokinetic testing of both knee extensors and flexors in concentric
Isokinetic Torque and Unilateral and eccentric muscle contractions. They also executed unilateral countermovement vertical jumps
Countermovement Jump Variables (UCMJ) to compare maximum height, ground reaction force, and impulse power with isokinetic
in Professional Soccer Players. J. peak torque. Data analysis was conducted through Pearson correlation and linear regression. A
Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2022, 7, 25.
high correlation was found between dominant unilateral extensor concentric peak torque and the
https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk7010025
UCMJ maximum height of the dominant leg. The non-dominant leg jump showed a moderate cor-
Academic Editors: Giuseppe relation. No other variable showed statistical significance. Linear regression allowed the generation
Musumeci, James Fisher, Patroklos of two formulae to estimate the peak torque from UCMJ for dominant and non-dominant legs. Alt-
Androulakis-Korakakis and Milo hough few studies were found to compare our results, leading to more studies being needed, a
Wolf better understanding of the unilateral countermovement jump may be used in the future as a sub-
Received: 4 January 2022 stitute to the expensive and technically demanding isokinetic testing when it is unavailable, allow-
Accepted: 23 February 2022 ing the assessment of lower limb physical asymmetries in athletic or rehabilitation environments.
Published: 25 February 2022
Keywords: biomechanics; performance analysis; vertical jump
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neu-
tral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institu-
tional affiliations.
1. Introduction
Soccer is considered a high-intensity, intermittent team sport that requires the devel-
opment of multiple athletic qualities including sprinting, jumping, and changing of direc-
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. Li-
censee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
tion [1,2]. These physical demands generate high levels of injury risk on lower limb mus-
This article is an open access article
cles [3].
distributed under the terms and con- Isokinetic tests have been highly valuable for muscle analysis and injury prevention,
ditions of the Creative Commons At- have been extensively used in professional soccer for over 20 years, and are considered
tribution (CC BY) license (http://crea- by coaches, trainers, physical therapists, and sports physicians as an important instru-
tivecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). ment for player performance measurement. There are thousands of scientific publications

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2022, 7, 25. https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk7010025 www.mdpi.com/journal/jfmk

J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2022, 7, 25 2 of 10

on a variety of applications, such as injury risk reduction, training regime follow-up, and
lower limb strength symmetry assessment [4,5]. However, the cost and technical opera-
tion turn it inaccessible to most soccer teams, sports clinics, and associations.
Soccer requires jumps and locomotion with maximal acceleration over short dis-
tances, and many sports professionals have used the countermovement jump (CMJ) as a
method of monitoring performance change and neuromuscular readiness in soccer ath-
letes [6–8]. However, it is uncertain whether measuring jump variables can provide simi-
lar information regarding muscle function and athletic performance when compared to
isokinetic assessment.
Therefore, the aim of the present study was to verify the correlation between unilat-
eral countermovement jump variables with isokinetic data. Our hypothesis is that there is
a correlation between unilateral countermovement jump variables and the isokinetic peak
torque of knee extensors.
As isokinetic testing measures each leg separately, the unilateral jump could have
some degree of correlation with other testing methods and a mathematical process could
estimate isokinetic values from a unilateral jump. This hypothesis has emerged as an in-
creasing number of athletic characteristics have been correlated under different unilateral
testing [9–13].

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Design
This is a cross-sectional study from a series of transversal data collection during the
Brazilian pre-season soccer championship when all players are subjected to physical tests
prior to competition. This research followed the recommendations of the Strengthening
the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) statement [14] and its
design followed the recommendations of the Improving Healthcare Decisions Task Force
(ISPOR Database Recommendations) [15]. The study was carried out according to the Dec-
laration of Helsinki, following the Ethical Standards in Sports and Exercise Science Re-
search [16]. A protocol was fully approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee of
our university with number #3652668. There was no involvement from patients or mem-
bers of the public in the design, conduct, reporting, or dissemination plans of the research.

2.2. Participants
The participant sample size followed the example of 20–30 subjects used in a similar
study with isokinetic and unilateral countermovement jump comparisons [17]. To reduce
heterogenicity we limited our sample to players from the same soccer team with similar
training regimes and nutritional intake. It included 32 right-side dominant, elite profes-
sional soccer players (12 midfielders, 6 strikers/forwards, 6 defenders, 4 goalkeepers, 4
backsides) who had been playing for at least five years on first and second Brazilian divi-
sions, training regularly one to two sessions per day, six times per week.
In order to be included in this study, players had to be able to fully participate in
team training sessions and match play at the time of the analysis. Players who had third-
degree hamstring or quadricep muscular injury in the past 3 months, knee surgery in the
past 12 months, or were currently in treatment for other muscular injuries or illnesses
were excluded from our sample.
The purpose, experimental procedures, possible risks, and benefits of the study were
explained to the athletes, who provided a written informed consent form to confirm par-
ticipation in the study. Demographic and anthropometric information on the sample is
presented in Table 1.
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2022, 7, 25 3 of 10

Table 1. Demographic data of study sample.

n = 32 Age (Years) Mass (kg) Height (cm)

Mean 27.4 77.8 180
Median 27 78 180
Standard deviation 5.07 5.78 5.52
Minimum 20 64 171
Maximum 37 91 194

2.3. Instruments
For isokinetic data collection, we used an isokinetic dynamometer (Cybex-CSMI,
model HumacNorm 2009, Stoughton, MA, USA) with a signal acquisition rate of 500 Hz.
To improve players’ test understanding, we used a modified 10-points Borg scale (BORG)
[18] for perceived exertion—where zero was no strength effort and 10 the maximum
strength effort possible—and a visual analog pain scale, where zero was “no pain” and 10
was “worst pain imaginable” (VAS) [19].
For the countermovement analysis, we used a uniaxial force plate (Biomec 400 v1.1®,
EMG System Ltd.a®), consisting of four load cells with an internal circuit that changes in
electrical resistance upon the application of force (dimensions: 600 mm × 400 mm; sam-
pling frequency: 1000 Hz, A/D converter with 16 bits of resolution).
For data storage and processing was used a MacBook Pro Notebook (Cupertino, CA,
USA) equipped with Microsoft Office software package for Mac (version 2011, Redmond,
Washington, DC, USA) and Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) from IBM (Ar-
monk, NY, USA).

2.4. Procedures
Participants were requested to eat according to their team’s nutritionist-prescribed
diet in the 48 h preceding the assessment and then refrain from eating and drinking sub-
stances other than water for one hour before the session. All tests were carried out in Jan-
uary, a few weeks before Brazil’s Regional Championship season starts. Players were also
instructed to refrain from strenuous activities 48 h before testing.
Upon arrival, participants were provided with appropriate explanations and demon-
strations of all procedures. Anthropometric data were recorded before the session began,
following the International Society for the Advancement of Kineanthropometry (ISAK)
Level 01 certified anthropometrist protocol.
After an interview and physical assessment, all subjects were submitted to a testing
protocol following the guidelines of the APTA (American Physical Therapy Association)
and soccer-specific studies using isokinetic machines [20,21]. The same physiotherapist,
with 10 years of experience, performed all isokinetic tests. All isokinetic tests were per-
formed on both legs separately to compare their results with unilateral jump variables.
The testing order was the same for all subjects. Initially, the vertical unilateral counter-
movement jump (UCMJ) test was performed, and after 5 min of rest, the isokinetic test
was administered.
To execute the concentric isokinetic test, participants were positioned on the seat of
the isokinetic dynamometer and executed 10 repetitions of concentric knee flexion and
extension, both with a velocity of 90 degrees per second and a range of motion of 100
degrees, for warming-up purposes (Borg up to 5, VAS up to 1, or test interrupted), fol-
lowed by a rest period of 120 s. The warm-up on the isokinetic machine was chosen to
improve specificity and familiarization with the following test. The athlete then per-
formed five concentric repetitions of knee flexion and extension at 60 degrees per second
for familiarization with the exercise velocity, followed by another rest period of 120 s.
Then, they performed three concentric repetitions of knee flexion and extension (velocity:
60 degrees per second and range of motion: 100 degrees) with maximum effort (Borg 10),
while continuously receiving the standardized verbal encouragement: “Faster”. The
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2022, 7, 25 4 of 10

presence of pain equal or superior to 05 on VAS interrupted the test, canceling it and ex-
cluding the subject from the sample. The repetition with a higher peak torque value of all
three repetitions was used for statistical analysis.
To execute the eccentric isokinetic test, participants performed at 60 degrees per sec-
ond and a range of knee motion of 100 degrees. The subject executed 5 repetitions of
warm-up and familiarization, followed by 3 repetitions at maximum effort (Borg 10),
while constantly receiving the standardized verbal encouragement: “Hold it.” The pres-
ence of pain equal or superior to 05 on VAS interrupted the test, canceling it and excluding
the subject from the sample. Between each set of exercises, subjects had 120 s to rest. Be-
tween each limb’s test, participants had 120 s to rest. The peak torque was extracted from
the isokinetic machine by its manufacturer’s dedicated software (HumacNorm 2009,
CSMi Inc., Boston, MA, USA) and normalized by each subject’s body weight.
The unilateral countermovement jumps (UCMJ) were executed after 5 min of warm-
up exercise, consisting of jogging with self-paced moderate velocity and 3 submaximal
UCMJs. The subjects performed three UCMJs on the force platform, with a recovery inter-
val of 60 s after each trial. The BIOMEC400 platform’s EMGLab2 software (Biomec 400
v1.1®, EMG System do Brasil Ltd.a®) was used to obtain the vertical force of the ground
reaction. All force signals recorded by the platform were filtered with a 35 Hz second-
order low bandpass filter (Butterworth filter) to eliminate electronic noise.
To execute each UCMJ, players stood on the test leg in the center of the force platform
with their hands on their hips and the knee of the non-jumping leg slightly flexed, so that
the hovering foot was positioned at approximately the mid-shin height of the jumping
leg. Players performed a countermovement to a self-selected depth, before jumping as
high as possible and landing on the same test leg. No swinging of the non-jumping leg or
arms was allowed. The jump height of the highest attempt was recorded in centimeters
(cm). Sixty seconds of rest was provided between all trials. The players were instructed to
maintain balance with the testing leg after landing for at least 3 s. If players touched the
ground with the hovering leg or their hands came off their hips, the jump was deemed
void and retaken after 60 s of rest.

2.5. Data Analysis

Demographic data extracted were age, height, weight, and handedness. Table 1
shows all demographic and anthropometric data of the sample. The descriptive analysis
of the isokinetic and UCMJ data is shown in Table 2 and was composed by means, stand-
ard variation, standard error of measurement, minimum, and maximum values.
The normality of all data was confirmed using visual inspection and the Kolmogo-
rov-Smirnov test. The homogeneity of variance was assessed via Levene’s Test. The Pear-
son’s correlation was used to identify positive associations between all variables from the
isokinetic test and unilateral countermovement jump. Linear correlation was conducted
to better analyze variable inter-relationships and the isokinetic torque’s predictability
from force platform data. Confidence Intervals (95%) are provided for all measurements.
The degree of correlation was classified as Very High (higher than 0.9), High (between 0.7
and 0.9), Moderate (between 0.5 and 0.7), Low (between 0.3 and 0.5), or Very Low (be-
tween 0 and 0.3).
All data were processed using SPSS v.20 (IBM, Chicago, IL, USA) with a level of sta-
tistical significance set at alpha level p < 0.05.
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2022, 7, 25 5 of 10

Table 2. Descriptive data of study sample, showing average values of all isokinetic and unilateral
countermovement jump variables normalized by body weight.

Standard Error Stand

Mean Median Min Max
Mean Dev
PT.Ext.R (Con) 2.84 0.08 2.90 0.46 2.04 3.83
PT.Ext.L (Con) 2.77 0.06 2.78 0.36 2.19 3.45
PT.Ext.R (Ecc) 3.53 0.14 3.49 0.79 2.20 5.13
PT.Ext.L (Ecc) 3.40 0.12 3.29 0.66 2.19 4.58
R.Jump Height (Kinetic) 14.90 0.29 14.80 1.66 12.20 19.40
L.Jump Height (Kinetic) 15.50 0.33 15.20 1.85 12.10 18.70
R.Force 1.87 0.02 1.85 0.14 1.60 2.13
L.Force 1.98 0.03 1.99 0.16 1.65 2.25
R.Power 2.87 0.07 2.98 0.39 2.21 3.52
L.Power 3.16 0.06 3.23 0.35 2.63 3.68
Note: Peak Torque of Extensor (PT.Ext); Dominant Side (R); Non-dominant Side (L); Concentric
Contraction (Con); Eccentric Contraction (Ecc); Peak Torque in Nm/kg; Jump Height in cm; Force in
N/kg; Power in Watts/kg.

3. Results
The descriptive analysis results are presented in Table 2 while the inferential analysis
results are presented in Tables 3 and 4. The Pearson correlation results, between isokinetic
and force platform data, demonstrate a strong correlation (r = 0.72, p < 0.001) between
unilateral countermovement jump height and concentric peak torque of knee extensors of
the dominant leg. The same analysis found a moderate correlation (r = 0.59, p < 0.001)
when testing concentric knee extensors of the non-dominant leg and a moderate correla-
tion (r = 0.55, p < 0.001) for eccentric knee extensors of the dominant leg. This analysis also
found a low correlation (r = 0.46, p = 0.01) between eccentric knee flexors and unilateral
countermovement jump height.
The main outcomes under analysis were: Concentric Peak Torque of Dominant and
Non-dominant Knee Extensors (PT.Ext.R.Con and PT.Ext.L.Con), Eccentric Peak Torque
of Dominant and Non-dominant Knee Extensors (PT.Ext.R.Ecc and PT.Ext.L.Ecc), Con-
centric Peak Torque of Dominant and Non-dominant Knee Flexors (PT.Flx.R.Con and
PT.Flx.L.Con), Eccentric Peak Torque of Dominant and Non-dominant Knee Flexors
(PT.Flx.R.Ecc and PT.Flx.L.Ecc), Jump Maximum Height of the Dominant and Non-dom-
inant Legs measured from ground reaction force (R.Jump.Height.Kinetic and
L.Jump.Height.Kinetic), Ground Reaction Force of Dominant and Non-dominant Legs
(R.Force and L.Force), and Ground Reaction Power of the Dominant and Non-dominant
Legs (R.Power and L.Power).

Table 3. Person’s correlation matrix between all isokinetic and force platform variables measured
from the countermovement jump of the dominant limb.
R.Jump Height

R.Jump Height
PT.Ext.R (Con)

PT.Flx.R (Con)
PT.Ext.R (Ecc)

PT.Flx.R (Ecc)

(Kinetic)

R.Power
R.Force
(Time)
PT.Ext.R.Con

Pearson’s r —
p-value —
95% CI Upper —
95% CI Lower —
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2022, 7, 25 6 of 10

PT.Ext.R.Ecc
Pearson’s r 0.80 —
p-value <0.001 * —
95% CI Upper 0.90 —
95% CI Lower 0.63 —

PT.Flx.R.Co
Pearson’s r 0.53 0.45 —
p-value 0.00 * 0.01 * —

n
95% CI Upper 0.74 0.69 —
95% CI Lower 0.22 0.13 —
PT.Flx.R.Ecc

Pearson’s r 0.73 0.79 0.68 —

p-value <0.001 * <0.001 * <0.001* —
95% CI Upper 0.86 0.90 0.83 —
95% CI Lower 0.52 0.62 0.44 —
ght (Kinetic)
R.Jump.Hei

Pearson’s r 0.72 0.55 0.32 0.49 —

p-value <0.001 * <0.001 * 0.08 * 0.00 * —
95% CI Upper 0.86 0.76 0.60 0.72 —
95% CI Lower 0.51 0.26 −0.04 0.17 —
Pearson’s r 0.00 0.03 −0.15 0.02 0.12 −0.21 —
R.Force

p-value 1.00 0.87 0.42 0.92 0.52 0.25 —

95% CI Upper 0.35 0.38 0.21 0.36 0.45 0.15 —
95% CI Lower −0.35 −0.32 −0.47 −0.33 −0.24 −0.52 —
Pearson’s r 0.22 0.19 −0.04 0.23 0.30 −0.02 0.75 —
R.Power

p-value 0.24 0.31 0.84 0.21 0.10 0.90 <0.001 * —

95% CI Upper 0.52 0.50 0.32 0.53 0.59 0.33 0.87 —
95% CI Lower −0.15 −0.17 −0.38 -0.13 -0.06 −0.37 0.55 —
Note. * (p < 0.05); Peak Torque in Nm/kg; Jump Height in cm; Force in N/kg; Power in Watts/kg.

Table 4. Person’s correlation matrix between all isokinetic and force platform variables measured
from the countermovement jump of the non-dominant side.
L.Jump Height

L.Jump Height
PT.Ext.L (Con)

PT.Flx.L (Con)
PT.Ext.L (Ecc)

PT.Flx.L (Ecc)

(Kinetic)

L.Power
L.Force
(Time)

Pearson’s r —
PT.Ext.L
(Con)

p-value —
95% CI Upper —
95% CI Lower —
Pearson’s r 0.70 —
PT.Ext.L

p-value <0.001 * —
(Ecc)

95% CI Upper 0.84 —

95% CI Lower 0.47 —
Pearson’s r 0.45 0.52 —
PT.Flx.L
(Con)

p-value 0.01 * 0.00 * —

95% CI Upper 0.69 0.73 —
95% CI Lower 0.12 0.20 —
PT.Flx.L

Pearson’s r 0.48 0.68 0.72 —

(Ecc)

p-value 0.01 * <0.001 * <0.001 * —

95% CI Upper 0.71 0.83 0.86 —
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2022, 7, 25 7 of 10

95% CI Lower 0.16 0.43 0.50 —

L.Jump.Heig
Pearson’s r 0.59 0.42 0.43 0.46 —

ht Height
(Kinetic)
p-value <0.001 * 0.02 * 0.01 * 0.01 * —
95% CI Upper 0.78 0.67 0.68 0.69 —
95% CI Lower 0.31 0.09 0.10 0.13 —
Pearson’s r −0.33 −0.48 0.08 −0.04 0.03 0.58 —

L.Force
p-value 0.06 0.01 0.67 0.81 0.86 <0.001 * —
95% CI Upper 0.02 −0.15 0.42 0.31 0.38 0.77 —
95% CI Lower −0.61 −0.71 −0.28 −0.39 −0.32 0.29 —
Pearson’s r −0.01 −0.15 0.27 0.37 0.19 0.58 0.64 —
L.Power

p-value 0.97 0.42 0.13 0.04 0.30 <0.001 * <0.001* —

95% CI Upper 0.34 0.21 0.57 0.64 0.50 0.77 0.81 —
95% CI Lower −0.35 −0.47 −0.09 0.02 −0.17 0.28 0.37 —
Note. * (p < 0.05); Peak Torque in Nm/kg; Jump Height in cm; Force in N/kg; Power in Watts/kg.

The linear regression results between concentric knee extensors and unilateral coun-
termovement jump height are presented in Tables 5 and 6. The results show a statistically
significant correlation for the dominant (p = 0.001) and non-dominant (p = 0.013) legs, con-
firmed by the variance overall model test F of dominant (p < 0.001) and non-dominant legs
(p = 0.006). The determination coefficient (R2) result for dominant (0.58) and non-dominant
(0.41) legs suggests that almost half of the isokinetic variable can be explained by jump
height. Using these regression results, the following formulae could be used to estimate
the concentric peak torque of dominant and non-dominant knee extensors, respectively:
y = 7.65 + 2.97x and y = 6.57 + 2.88x. In both cases, the variable “x” is the maximum coun-
termovement jump height measured from ground reaction force.

Table 5. Linear regression of right Side (based on PT.Ext.L.Con).

Predictor Estimate SE Lower–Upper 95% CI t p

Intercept 7.65 1.62 4.33 10.98 4.73 <0.001
R.Jump.Height.Kinetic 2.97 0.84 1.25 4.69 3.54 0.001 *
Model Fit Measures Overall Model Test
Model R R2 F df1 df2 p
1.00 0.726 0.527 40.70 1.00 30.00 <0.001
* statistically significant correlation.

Table 6. Linear regression of non-dominant side (based on PT.Ext.L.Con).

Predictor Estimate SE Lower–Upper 95% CI t p

Intercept 6.57 2.32 1.82 11.328 2.84 0.01
L.Jump.Height.Kinetic 2.88 1.08 0.66 5.089 2.66 0.013 *
Model Fit Measures Overall Model Test
Model R R2 F df1 df2 p
1 0.638 0.415 4.62 4 27 0.006
* statistically significant correlation.

4. Discussion
The purpose of this study is to verify the correlation between unilateral countermove-
ment jump variables and isokinetic data. Our hypothesis was the presence of a correlation
between unilateral countermovement jump variables and the isokinetic peak torque of
knee extensors. Our results confirm our hypothesis, showing a high degree of correlation
between the UCMJ maximum jump height of the dominant leg with the extensor concen-
tric peak torque of the same leg. Moreover, there was a moderate degree of correlation
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2022, 7, 25 8 of 10

between the UCMJ maximum jump height of the non-dominant leg with the extensor con-
centric peak torque of the same leg. Additional analysis, through linear regression, al-
lowed the generation of two formulae to estimate the isokinetic peak torque from the
UCMJ maximum height, respectively: y = 7.65 + 2.97x (for the dominant leg) and y = 6.57
+ 2.88x (for the non-dominant leg). In both cases, the variable “x” is the maximum UCMJ
height in centimeters measured from the ground reaction force.
To our best knowledge, very few scientific studies have tried to estimate the isoki-
netic peak torque using unilateral jump data from ground reaction force parameters. The
most similar study tested soccer players with isokinetic and unilateral countermovement
jump parameters [22]. However, their variables under analysis were bilateral asymmetries
between both legs in percentages, limiting possible comparisons with our findings. Alt-
hough, they also found a correlation between concentric isokinetic torque and unilateral
maximum countermovement jump height. In another study [23], the unilateral counter-
movement jump maximum height was used as a substitute for an isokinetic machine
measurement during cruciate ligament reconstruction rehabilitation phase. So, function-
ing as a predictor of the effect of bilateral symmetry on physical performance and possible
discharge.
The second study found also shows a correlation between the isokinetic torque of
concentric knee extensors and maximum countermovement jump height [17]. However,
like most studies on this field, this study used bilateral jumps, limiting possible compari-
sons with our findings. Additionally, they did not use a force platform, which could
change the interpretation of our results, since maximum height calculations may be made
with different physical parameters for each piece of equipment.
Another study measuring knee extension torque and bilateral countermovement
jump data after a period of Nordic exercise training showed that both isokinetic parame-
ters and bilateral countermovement jump maximum height improved in a similar, but
proportional, degree [24]. Another similar study using Pearson’s correlation tests indi-
cated that there was a significant positive relationship between vertical jumping height
and knee extension movements [17]. A multiple regression analysis indicated that linear
combinations of isokinetic torques accounted for 38% and 42% of the countermovement
and squat jumping height variance, respectively. In our analysis, unilateral countermove-
ment jump maximum height accounted for 52% and 42% of isokinetic concentric knee
extensors of dominant and non-dominant legs, respectively. Whether this similar but re-
versed relationship is coincidental is still unknown and may be investigated in future
studies.
Performance inter-limb asymmetries are used as an indicator of injury risk and train-
ing markers by almost all coaches and health professionals involved in amateur or pro-
fessional soccer. These asymmetries are well known from isokinetic testing, a reliable
method of performance measurement [4]. However, its high cost and technical demands
bring difficulties to its use for most teams, even the professional ones. Countermovement
jumps have been extensively used by coaches and trainers in soccer, due to their simplicity
and high correlation with performance parameters [25]. However, unilateral counter-
movement jumps give the possibility to add another performance variable to trainers and
health professionals without costly equipment such as isokinetic machines. This has led
some researchers to expand the study of inter-limb asymmetries using unilateral counter-
movement jumps [9,10]. This could lead to a more accessible way to perform frequent
player physical screening on a large number of individuals, faster and cheaper.
Our study is not free of limitations. Our convenient sample size, though including as
many subjects as similar studies, is considered small for populational mathematical esti-
mations, and external validity is limited.
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2022, 7, 25 9 of 10

5. Conclusions
Our results have confirmed our hypothesis, showing a high degree of correlation be-
tween the UCMJ maximum jump height of the dominant leg with the extensor concentric
peak torque of the same leg. Moreover, there was a moderate degree of correlation be-
tween the UCMJ maximum jump height of the non-dominant leg with the extensor con-
centric peak torque of the same leg. Additional analysis, through linear regression, al-
lowed the generation of two formulae to estimate isokinetic peak torque from UCMJ max-
imum height, respectively: y = 7.65 + 2.97x (for the dominant leg) and y = 6.57 + 2.88x (for
the non-dominant leg). In both cases, the variable “x” is the maximum UCMJ height in
centimeters measured from ground reaction force.
Although few studies were found to compare our results, leading to more studies
being needed, a better understanding of the unilateral countermovement jump may be
used in the future as a substitute for the expensive and technically demanding isokinetic
testing when it is unavailable, allowing the assessment of lower limb physical asymme-
tries in athletic or rehabilitation environments.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, B.M.O.A. and R.D.S.; methodology, R.D.S.; software,

I.C.F.; validation, C.F.A.; formal analysis, R.D.S.; investigation, R.L.B., A.P.S.R., I.C.F., and B.M.O.A.;
resources, J.J.B.M. and C.F.A.; data curation, R.D.S. and B.M.O.A.; writing—original draft prepara-
tion, B.M.O.A.; writing—review and editing, R.D.S.; visualization, L.M.A.F.; supervision, C.F.A.;
project administration, J.J.B.M.; funding acquisition, J.J.B.M. All authors have read and agreed to
the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by Portugal’s FCT (Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia, I.P.)
grant number UIDB/04585/2020 and Brazil’s CAPES (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pesssoal
de Nível Superior) grant number 001.
Institutional Review Board Statement: The study was conducted in accordance with the Declara-
tion of Helsinki and approved by the Institutional Review Board (or Ethics Committee) of Univer-
sidade Cidade de São Paulo (#3652668 of 2019) for studies involving humans.
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the
study.
Data Availability Statement: Additional data supporting reported results can be accessed by con-
tacting the main author of the study.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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