Macronutrients They include the following:

CARBOHYDRATES • Starch is the most significant polysaccharide

in human nutrition. Its major food sources
• Carbohydrates are organic compounds
include cereal grains, potatoes and other root
(saccharides-starches and sugars) composed
vegetables, and legumes. It is converted
of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; hydrogen
entirely into glucose upon digestion; is more
and oxygen usually occur in ratio of 2:1 as in
complex than sugars; and requires a longer
H₂O.
time to digest.
Classification of Carbohydrates
They include the following:
• Monosaccharides or simple sugars are the
• Dextrins are not found free in foods. They
simplest form of carbohydrates. They are
are formed as intermediate products in the
sweet and since they require no digestion,
breakdown of starch.
they can be absorbed directly into the
bloodstream from the small intestine. They include the following:

They include the following: • Cellulose forms the framework of plants

found in unrefined grains, vegetables, and
• Glucose (dextrose) or blood sugar is the
fruits. It is non digestible by humans: no
principal form in which carbohydrate is used
specific enzyme is present and provides
by the body. It is abundant in fruits, sweet
important bulk in the diet which helps move
corn, and corn syrup.
digestive food mass along and stimulates
• When a person does not reload used up peristalsis. Main sources are stems and leaves
glycogen stores, body proteins are dismantled of vegetables, seed and grain coverings, skins,
allowing glucose to fuel these special cells. and hulls. Fibers are the structural parts of
This process in which protein is converted to plants. They are non-digestible because
glucose is called gluconeogenesis. digestive enzymes are unable to break them
down. They lower the blood glucose levels of
They include the following: people with diabetes mellitus.
• Fructose (levulose) is the sweetest of simple They May Be Classified Into:
sugars. It is found in honey, most fruits, and
some vegetables. It is converted into glucose a. Soluble found in fruits and legumes,
in the body. barleys, and oats which delay gastrointestinal
transit and glucose absorption, and lower
• Galactose is not found free in foods. It is blood cholesterol.
produced, from lactose (milk sugar) by
digestion and is converted into glucose in the b. Insoluble found in wheat brans, corn brans
body. Some infants are born with an inability whole grain breads, cereals, and vegetables
to metabolize galactose, a condition called which accelerate gastrointestinal transit,
galactosemia. increase fecal weight, slow down starch
hydrolysis, and delay glucose absorption.
Classification of Carbohydrates
They include the following:
• Disaccharides or double-sugars are 2
monosaccharides. They are sweet made up of • Pectins are non digestible, colloidal
and, unlike monosaccharides, they must be polysaccharides having a gel quality Sources
changed to simple sugars by hydrolysis before include mostly fruits and are often used as
they can be absorbed. base for jellies. Pectins are also used to treat
diarrhea as they absorb toxins and bacteria in
the intestine. They bind cholesterol reducing 3. The presence of carbohydrates is necessary
the amount the blood can absorb. for normal fat metabolism. If there is
insufficient carbohydrate, larger amounts of
They include the following:
fats are used for energy than the body is
• Glycogens (animal starch) are formed from equipped to handle, and oxidation is
glucose and stored in liver and muscle tissues. incomplete.
Food sources include mainly meats and sea
4. Cellulose and closely related insoluble,
foods. They are converted entirely into
indigestible carbohydrates aid in normal
glucose upon digestion. The hormones
elimination. They stimulate the peristaltic
glucagons help the liver convert alycogen into
movements of the gastrointestinal tract and
glucose every time the body needs energy.
absorb water to give bulk to the intestinal
Digestion of Carbohydrates contents.

Mouth 5. They also supply significant quantities of

proteins, minerals, and B vitamins.
a. Enzyme-amylase (an enzyme of the saliva,
secreted by the parotid glands, acts on starch 6. Lactose remains in the intestine longer than
to begin its breakdown to dextrins and other disaccharides, and this encourages the
maltose) b. Action-usually, however, the food growth of the beneficial bacteria.
does not stay in the mouth long enough for
7. Glucose has specific influences; it is
much of this change to be completed, so that
indispensable for the maintenance of the
food is conveyed into the stomach mostly in
functional integrity of the nerve tissue and it
starch form.
is the sole source of energy for the brain.
Stomach
Sources of Carbohydrates
a. Enzyme-none for the carbohydrates
1. Whole grains rich in iron, thiamine, niacin,
b. Action - none; above action by ptyalin may and other nutrients are important sources of
continue to a minor degree carbohydrates

Small Intestine 2. Sweet potatoes and white potatoes are

important contributors to carbohydrate intake
a. Enzyme - pancreatin enzyme, amylopsin, from the vegetable and fruit groups because
converts starch into dextrins and maltose they are daily items in many diets.
b. Intestinal juice contains three disaccharides 3. Milk is unique in that it is the only dietary
sucrose, lactose, and maltose (which act on source of lactose. Each cup contains 12gm.
their respective disaccharides sucrose, lactose Cheese contains only traces of lactose.
and maltose to produce monosaccharides
glucose, galactose, and fructose) 4. Sugars and sweets are important sources of
carbohydrates next to breads and cereals, and
Functions of Carbohydrates cane and beet sugars, honey, maple syrup,
1. The principal function of carbohydrates is to jellies, jams, and candies.
serve as a major source of energy for the Health Effects of Starch and Fibers
body.
1. Weight control - Fibers rich in complex
2. Carbohydrates exert a protein-sparing carbohydrates tend to below in fat and added
action. If insufficient carbohydrates are sugars and can promote weight loss.
available in the diet, the body will convert
protein into glucose in order to supply energy.
2. Heart disease - High-carbohydrate diets, sheath. Egg yolk and liver are good sources of
rich in whole grains. can protect an individual these phospholipids.
against heart disease and stroke.
2. Glycolipids are compounds of fatty acids
3. Cancer - High-carbohydrate diets can help combined with carbohydrates an is bases.
prevent many types of cancer.
a. Cerebrosides are component of nerve
4. Diabetes High-carbohydrate, low-fat diets tissue and certain cell membranes where they
help control weight. play a vital role in fat transport Their
carbohydrate component is galactose.
5. Gastrointestinal health - Dietary fibers
enhance the health of the large intestine. b. Gangliosides are made up of certain
glucose, galactose, and a complex compound
FATS OR LIPIDS
containing an amino sugar.
FATS
3. Lipoproteins are lipids combined with
Are organic compounds composed of corbon, proteins. They are formed primarily in the
hydrogen, and oxygen Triglycerides or fats and liver and are found in cell and organelle
oils are fatty acid esters of glyceral. They membranes, mitochondria, and lysosomes.
belong to class of fats and fat-related They are insoluble in water and are combined
compounds called lipids, Fats constitute 34% in protein complex for their transport and
of the energy in the human body. activity in aqueous medium

Classification of Fats C. Derived lipids are simple derivatives for far

digestion or other more complex products.
A. Simple lipids are called neutral fats. The They are fat substances produced from fats
chemical name for these basic fats is and fat compounds dur digestive breakdown.
triglycerides. This name indicates their
chemical structure, a glycerol base with three 1. Fatty acids are the key refined fuel forms of
fatty acids attached. Glyceral is derived from a fat that the cell burns for energy.
water-soluble form of carbohydrate.
Sources of Fatty Acids:
B. Compound lipids are various combinations
a. Saturated fats are those into which no
of fats with other components. Three types of
hydrogen can be added. Palmitic and stearic
compound lipids are important in human
acids are two examples of such fatty acids.
nutrition-phospholipids, glycolipids, and
They are abundant in animal fats including
lipoproteins.
beef.
Three types of compound lipids
b. Monounsaturated fatty acids are those in
1. Phospholipids are compounds of fatty acids, which two of the carbon atoms are joined by
phosphoric acids, and nitrogenous bases. a double bond. This means that an atom can
be added to each of the carbon. atoms at a
a. Lecithins are the most widely distributed of double bond. Oleic acid is the most abundant
the phospholipids. They are added to food monounsaturated fatty acid. Olive and peanut
products such as cheese, margarine, and oils are especially high in oleic acid, but most
confections to aid emulsification. fats contain generous amounts of this fatty
b. Cephalins are needed to form acid.
thromboplastin for the blood-clotting process. c. Polyunsaturated fatty acids are those in
c. Sphingomyelins are found in the brain and which two or more double bonds are present.
other nerve tissues as components of myelin It is abundant in most vegetable oils.
2. Glycerol is a water-soluble component of
triglycerides and is inconvertible with
A. Visible fats include lard, butter, margarine,
carbohydrate. It comes out 10% of the fat.
shortenings, salad oils, and visible fats of
After it becomes broken off in digestion, it
meat.
becomes available for the formation of
glucose in the diet. B. Invisible fats are those available in milk,
cheese, eggs, nuts, and meat.
3. Steroids are a class of fat-related
substances that contain sterols. A main High in Saturated Fatty Acids:
member of this group is cholesterol. It is a
complex fat-like compound found practically • Whole milk, cream, ice cream, cheese made
in all body tissues, especially in the brain and from whole milk, egg yolk
nerve tissues, bile, blood, and the liver where • Medium fat or fatty meats; beef, lamb pork,
most cholesterol is synthesized. Foods rich in ham
cholesterol are egg yolk, organ meats,
shellfish, and dairy fats. • Bacon, butter, coconut oil, lamb fat, lard,
regular margarine, salt pork, hydrogenated
The Omega-6/Omega-3 Ratio shortenings.
• Humans should consume more omega-3 • Chocolates, chocolate candies, cakes,
fatty acids from vegetable and marine sources cookies, pies, rich pudding.
like cod liver oil, mackerel, salmon, and
sardines as well as crabs, shrimps, and High in Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids:
oysters. • Vegetable oils, safflower, corn, cotton seed,
Functions of Fats soybean, sesame, sunflower

1. Fats are important sources of calories. It is • Salad dressings made from the above oils:
quite normal for the body to have deposits of mayonnaise, French dressings
fat (adipose tissue) that serve as continuing • Special margarine: liquid oil listed first on
supply of energy each and every hour. label Fatty fish: salmon, tuna, herring
2. Fat is said to be protein-sparing because its The essential fatty acids are not manufactured
availability reduces the need to burn protein in the body and must be supplied in the diet.
for energy.
Linoleic acid
3. Fat is essential to maintain the constant
body temperature by providing effective Is the primary member of the omega-6 family.
insulation underneath the skin. It is found in vegetable oils like corn, safflower,
soybean, and cottonseed, and poultry fats
4. Fat cushions vital organs such as the kidney
against injury.

5. Fat facilitates the absorption of the fat-

soluble vitamins A. D. E. and K.

6. Fat provides satiety and delays the onset of

hunger.

7. Fat contributes flavor and palatability to the

diet.

Food Sources
Is the primary member of the omega-3 family. • Trans fats, or trans-fatty acids are basically
It is found in oils like flaxseed, canola, walnut, artificial fats. A small amount of trans fats
wheat germ, and soy bean; nuts and seeds occurs naturally in meat and dairy products.
like butternuts, walnuts, and soybean kernels;
Hydrogenation
and vegetables like soybeans. Linolenic acid
can be made into eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) • Trans, fats are made by a chemical process
and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) which are called partial hydrogenation. Liquid vegetable
essential for growth and development, oil (an otherwise healthy monounsaturated
prevention or treatment of heart disease, fat) is packed with hydrogen atoms and
hypertension, arthritis, and cancer. It is also converted into a solid fat.
found in human milk, shellfish and fish
Shelf Life and Texture
Health Effects of Lipids
• Partially hydrogenated fats, or trans fats,
1. Heart disease - Elevated blood cholesterol lengthen the shelf life of food. They also add a
is a major risk factor for cardiovascular certain pleasing mouth-feel to all manner of
diseases. processed foods, buttery crackers and
popcorn, crispy French fries, crunchy fish
2. Risks from saturated fats - Lauric, myristic,
sticks, creamy frostings, and melt-in-your
and palmitic acids raise blood cholesterol
mouth pies and pastries. All these foods owe
levels. Stearic acid does not.
those qualities to trans fats.
3. Benefits from monounsaturated fats - Olive
Worse Than Butter
oil lowers risks of heart disease.
• Saturated fats raise the total and bad (LDL)
4. Benefits from omega-3 polyunsaturated
cholesterol levels. Trans fats do the same, but
fats. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fats lower
they also strip levels of good (HDL)
blood cholesterol and prevent heart disease.
cholesterol, the kind that helps unblock
EPA sources like fish, eaten once a week, can
arteries. Trans fats also increase triglyceride
lower blood cholesterol and the risk of heart
levels in the blood, adding to the danger of
attack and stroke.
cardiovascular disease
5. Cancer - Fat does not instigate cancer
Common Trans Fat Sources
development but can promote it once it has
arisen. • Crackers
6. Obesity-High-fat diets tend to store body fat • Doughnuts French fries
ably.
• Cookies (also rich in saturated fat)
CHOLESTEROL CONTENT OF FOODS
• Vegetable shortening
Not consume more than 200 milligrams of
cholesterol a day • Hard margarine

• Cholesterol is only found in animal products. • Pastries (also rich in saturated fat)
Fruits, vegetables, grains, and all other plant Food which is High in Saturated Fat.
foods do not have any cholesterol at all.
• Lard
TRANS FAT: The Fat Family
• Butter
Trans Fat
• Whole milk
• Pastries (also rich in trans fat) • Bottled salad dressing

• Cookies (also rich in trans fat) • Chips

• Learning to moderately eat fatty food is • Cookies

certainly easier than avoiding it. Moderate
• Corn oll
consumption of fat means eating a doughnut
or two and not a dozen, or a handful of chips • Cottonseed oil
rather than a family- sized serving.
• Deep-fot fried foods
What Happens When Trans Fat is Consumed?
• It is hardly surprising, therefore, that many • Imitation mayonnaise imitation sour cream
chronic health conditions have been linked to • Margarine and other hydrogenated fake
diets rich in trans fats. butter spreads Non-dairy creamers
• The ways in which trans fats lead to an • Pressurized whipped cream Processed, junk,
increased risk of coronary heart disease are and fake foods
well understood. But there are other diseases
such as cancer, diabetes, liver toxicity, and • Sandwich spreads
obesity that are believed to be associated • Shortenings
with eating trans fats, otherwise known as
hydrogenated food products. Step 2-Fighting Fat with Fats

Some physicians believe that trans fats also: As a general rule, opt for the real thing. Real
Food:
• Accelerate aging
• Dairy products such as eggs, butter, cream,
• Compromise the immune system milk, and cheese
• Damage the lungs Damage reproductive • Fish and shellfish
organs and their processes
• Fruits
• Contribute to mental decline and
chromosomal damage Increase problems with • Grains
mental functioning such as autism, ADD,
• Legumes (a simple dry fruit often referred to
ADHD, Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease,
as a pod including alfalfa, clover, peas, beans,
and depression
and peanuts)
• Increase the risk for arthritis and
Step 2 - Fighting Fat with Fats
autoimmune disease
• Meat
Making Positive Changes
• Nuts
Step 1- Eliminating Trans Fats
• Oil, especially essential fatty acids (seed,
•Read the labels on everything in your
nut, and fish oils)
cupboards, refrigerator, and freezer. Avoid
sources of hydrogenated and partially • Poultry
hydrogenated fats, and damaged
• Sea algae
polyunsaturated oils.
• Seeds
Foods to avoid (the following items more
often than not contain trans fats): • Vegetables
• When trans fats are eliminated from the 4. Phosphoproteins are compounds of
diet, and food that is actually food including phosphoric acid joined in ester linkage to
naturally- occurring fats, is consumed, health protein found in casein of milk.
is optimized, investing in the body's future
5. Chromoproteins are compounds of proteins
and, ultimately. making an individual feeling
and non protein pigments found in
better.
flavoproteins, hemoglobin, and cytochromes.
• There is one final step to take after these
6. Metalloproteins are compounds or metals
primary, vital measures toward replacing
(Cu. Mg, Zn, and Fe) attached to proteins
health-defying trans fats with life-giving
found in ferritin, hemosiderin, and transferin.
nourishment.
C. Derived proteins are products formed in
Step 3-Cleanse, Rejuvenate, and
the various stages of hydrolysis of a protein
Supplement molecule.

• Start with a Clean Slate 5. Chromoproteins are compounds of proteins

and non protein pigments found in
• Some doctors recommend regular colon
flavoproteins, hemoglobin, and cytochromes.
cleansings, periodic liver flushes, and
revitalizing multi-vitamins as part of an 6. Metalloproteins are compounds or metals
ongoing health regimen. (Cu, Mg, Zn, and Fe) attached to protein found
in ferritin, hemosiderin, and transferin.
Detoxifying the Liver
Chemical Stages of a Protein
• Detoxifying the liver can help remove
unwanted pollutants, and enable it to A. Amino acid has a chemical structure that
function properly. combines both acid and base (amino) factors.

PROTEINS B. Essential and non-essential amino acids

• The term protein is taken from the Greek 1. Essential amino acids
word protos meaning primary, ranking first, or
• cannot be synthesized by the body and are
occupying the first position. Similarly, protein
necessary in the diet.
is the first substance recognized as a vital part
of a living tissue. Examples of Essential amino acids
A. Simple proteins are those which yield only Threonine
amino acids upon hydrolysis. They include the
following: Leucine

1. Albumins are soluble in water and Isoleucine

coagulated by heat. Valine
2. Globulins are insoluble in water, soluble in Lysine
dilute salt solution, and coagulated by heat.
Methionine
3. Glutelins are insoluble in neutral solvents
but s Phenylalanine

3. Lipoproteins are compounds of a protein Tryptophan

and a triglyceride or other lipids such as 2. Non-essential amino acids
phospholipids or cholesterol found in cell and
organelle membranes.
• Non-essential amino acids can be b. Action - converts protein into proteoses and
manufactured by the body and, therefore, are peptones
not as necessary for consideration in the diet.
c. In infants, enzyme rennin converts casein
Examples of Non-essential amino acids into coagulated curd.

Glycine Alanine 3. Small intestine (Alkaline) a. Pancreas

Aspartic acid a.1 Trypsin (produced first as inactive

precursor trypsinogen and then activated by
Glutamic acid
enterokinase) converts proteins, proteoses,
Proline and peptones into polypeptides and peptides.

Hydroxyproline a.2 Chymotrypsin (produced first as inactive

precursor chymotrypsinogen and then
Cystine activated by active trypsin) converts proteoses
Tyrosine and peptones into polypeptides and
dipeptides; also coagulates milk.
Serine Arginine
a.3 Carboxypeptidase converts polypeptides
Histidine into simpler peptides, dipeptides, and amino
Chemical Stages of a Protein acids.

C. Complete and incomplete proteins 3. Small intestine (Alkaline) b. Intestine

1. Complete proteins are those that contain all b.1 Aminopeptidase converts polypeptides
the essential amino acids in sufficient quantity into peptides and amino acids.
and ratio to supply the body's needs. These b.2 Dipeptidase converts dipeptides into
proteins are of animal origin-meat, milk, amino acids
cheese, and eggs.
Functions of Proteins
Chemical Stages of a Protein
1. Proteins are used in repairing worn-out
C. Complete and incomplete proteins body tissue proteins (anabolism) caused by
2. Incomplete proteins are those deficient in the continued wear and tear (catabolism)
one or more of the essential amino acids. going on in the body.
They are of plant origin-grains, legumes, 2. Proteins are used to build new tissue by
seeds, and nuts. supplying the necessary amino acid building
Digestion of Protein blocks.

1. Mouth 3. Proteins are a source of heat and energy.

One gram of protein contains 4 calories.
a. Enzyme - none
4. Proteins contribute to numerous essential
b. Action-only mechanical mastication body secretions and fluids, enzymes, and
proteins. Some hormones have protein or
2. Stomach
amino acid components. Mucus and milk are
a. Enzyme - pepsin, produced first as inactive largely protein. Sperm cells are likewise
precursor to pepsinogen, then activated by largely protein as is the fluid in which the
the hydrochloric acid sperm cells are contained
5. Proteins are important in the maintenance C. Protein efficiency ratio (PER) - It measures
of normal osmotic relations among the the increase in weight of a growing animal
various body fluids. and compares it with the intake.

6. Proteins play a vital role in the resistance of Health Effects of Protein

the body to diseases. Antibodies to specific
1. Heart disease - Foods rich in animal protein
diseases are found as part of the plasma
tend to be rich in saturated fats.
globulin, especially in what is known as the
gamma globulin fraction of plasma. 2. Cancer-Studies suggest a relationship
between high intake of animal protein and
7. Dietary proteins furnish the amino acids for
some types of cancer like cancer of the
a variety of metabolic functions.
prostate gland, pancreas, kidneys, breast, and
Sources of Protein colon.

1. Complete protein foods - meat, fish, 3. Osteoporosis Calcium excretion rises as

poultry, egg, milk, cheese protein intake

2. Legumes, nuts 4. Weight control Protein rich foods are also

rich in fat which can lead to obesity with
3. Breads and cereals
associated health risks
Requirement for Human Nutrition
5. Kidney diseases Excretion of end products
A. Quality of protein fundamental to health of protein metabolism depends on a sufficient
and life fluid intake and healthy kidneys. A high
protein diet increases the work of the kidneys.
B. General daily recommendation of the Food
and Protein-Energy Malnutrition (PEM)

Nutrition Board • Protein energy malnutrition is a condition

resulting from sufficiency of protein or energy
1. Adult-0-9 g/kg BW or both in the diet.
2. Children - Growth needs vary according to • Acute PLM occurs in children who are thin
age and growth patterns. for their height.
3. Pregnancy - Rapid growth requires an • Chronic PEM occurs in children who are
increase of 30 g over that of a non-pregnant short for their age.
woman.
There are two forms of PEM
4. Lactation - It requires an increase of 20 g.
1. Marasmus-Severe deprivation of food over
Measures of Protein Quality a long period of time characterized by
A. Biologic value (BV) - It measures the insufficiency of protein and energy intake.
effectiveness of protein quality in supporting 2. Kwashiorkor This condition reflects an
the body's needs. abrupt and recent deprivation of food which
B. Net protein utilization (NPU) - It also develops rapidly as a consequence of protein
measures how capably a protein is used by deficiency or an illness like measles.
the body. The difference is that NPU measures
retention of food nitrogen consumed while BV
measures food nitrogen absorbed.