CELL STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS

Each of these objects is called a cell organelle. A cell organelle is a small

organ-like structure present inside the cell. It has a particular structural
makeup and performs a specific function.
Organelles are structures that enable the cell to live, grow and reproduce.
 CELL STRUCTURES FOR PROTECTION

PLASMA MEMBRANE

The plasma membrane is also called cell membrane

-It is a thin barrier that forms a
boundary, separating an individual
cell from the external
environment. It is a living system
that controls a passage of needed
materials into and out of the cell.

-It acts as gatekeeper for regulating

the passage of important
molecules, ions, and gases
between outside and inside of a
cell. The cell membrane of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
consists of a double layer of phospholipids embedded with a variety of
molecules.

Components of the Plasma membrane

PHOSPHOLIPIDS
Each phospholipid molecule is composed of
three basic parts:
-Charged phosphate group
-Glycerol
-2 fatty acid chains

The glycerol and phosphate group are joined to

form the “head” of a phospholipid while the fatty
acids make up the “tail”.

CHOLESTEROL
Cholesterol
molecules
help
strengthen
the cell
membrane,
making it more flexible but less fluid, which makes the membrane less
permeable to water-soluble substances such as ions or simple sugars.
 PROTEINS
Proteins help move large
molecules or aid in cell
recognition
Peripheral proteins are
attached on the surface
(inner or outer)

Integral proteins are embedded

completely through the membrane.

CELL WALL
In plants, as well as algae, fungi, bacteria, the
cell membrane is surrounded by an
additional boundary, a strong cell wall, which
is a rigid layer that gives protection, rigid
support, and shape to the cell.

The cell wall’s composition varies and is related to the different needs of
each type of organism. In plants and algae, the cell wall is made up of the
polysaccharide cellulose. In fungi, cell walls are made up of chitin, and in
bacteria, they are composed of peptidoglycan.
 CYTOPLASM
The cytoplasm fills the space between nucleus and
the cell membrane. Cytosol is the fluid portion
consisting mainly of water and excluding the
organelles.

GENETIC CONTROL ORGANELLES

NUCLEUS
The nucleus is the storehouse of genetic information in the form of DNA
inside the cells.

The nucleus performs crucial tasks such as protecting the DNA at all
times from damage and its instructions must be available for use at
proper times.
DNA- a long chain of molecule, which can be
segmented into portions called genes that
contain instructions for making proteins.
-It is packaged by a special group of
proteins called histones, forming a complex
structure called chromatin.

The chromatin further condenses to form tightly

coiled structures referred to as chromosomes.

Nuclear envelope- special membrane of the

nucleus that encloses the DNA

Nuclear pores- holes in the nuclear envelope

that allow large molecules to pass between the
nucleus and the cytoplasm.

Nucleolus- a dense region where small organelles essential for making

proteins are assembled.

Ribosomes- small organelles essential for making proteins.

 ENERGY-PROCESSING ORGANELLES

MITOCHONDRIA
Popularly known as the “Powerhouse
of the cell,” (singular: mitochondrion),
mitochondria supply energy to the cell.
They are bean-shaped and have two
membranes.
They are bean-shaped and have two
membranes. The outer membrane
covers the organelle and contains it
like a skin.

The inner membrane folds over many times and creates layered
structures called cristae.

The fluid contained in the mitochondria is called the matrix.

The mitochondrial matrix is a viscous fluid that contains a mixture of

enzymes and proteins.
PLASTIDS
Plastids are double-membrane
organelles which are found in the cells
of plants and algae. Plastids are
responsible for manufacturing and
storing of food.

These often contain pigments that are

used in photosynthesis and different
types of pigments that can change the
color of the cell.

Chromoplasts
 Chromoplasts are plastids that produce and store pigments
 They are responsible for different colors found in leaves, fruits,
flowers and vegetables.
 Leucoplasts
 Leucoplasts are colorless plastids that store foods.
 They are found in storage organs such as fruits, tubers and seeds.

CHLOROPLAST
Chloroplasts – organelles that help a plant
to convert solar energy to chemical energy.
 Carry out photosynthesis, which series of
complex chemical reactions that transform
solar energy into energy-rich molecules the
cell can use.

Like mitochondria, chloroplasts are highly

compartmentalized. They have both an
outer membrane and inner membrane. Like mitochondria,
chloroplasts also have their own ribosomes and DNA.

Thylakoids – is a sheet-like membrane-bound structure that is the site of the

light-dependent photosynthesis reactions in chloroplasts and
cyanobacteria. A stack of thylakoids forms a group of coin-like
structures called a granum.

Chlorophyll – a light-absorbing molecule that gives plant their green color

and plays a role in photosynthesis.

Stroma – liquid portion of the chloroplast.

CELL STRUCTURES FOR MANUFACTURING, STORAGE, DISTRIBUTION,

and BREAKDOWN ORGANELLES

RIBOSOMES
-Small beadlike
structure
 -Built from two subunit- a large subunit and a small subunit

-Ribosomes are involved in providing a frame for proteins

synthesis; hence they are site of protein
production.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
- An interconnected network of
thin and folded membranes
- Fills much of the cytoplasm
- Due to their size, the ER
membranes are arranged like a
maze of enclosed spaces with
many creases and folds.
Lumen- interior of the maze
- The lumen and its surface are
the sites for many processes
such as production of proteins
and lipids.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum – surface of the ER covered by ribosomes

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum – surfaces of the ER that are not studded

with ribosomes
- Responsible for the production of lipids and performance
of other specialized functions, such as breaking down of drugs and
alcohol.

GOLGI APPARATUS
– where proteins are processed, sorted, and
delivered.

-Responsible for transporting and modifying

products from the ER
ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
- A connected system of organelles
- Consists of organelles and structures
that help in manufacturing, storing,
and distributing proteins.
- Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
Apparatus, nuclear envelope,
vesicles, and cell membrane.
- Organelles in the endomembrane
system are interdependent of each
other.

VACUOLES
Fluid-filled sac for the storage of materials
needed by the cell that includes water,
food molecules, inorganic ions, and
enzymes.

Animal cells: contain many small vacuoles

Plant cells: have a large central vacuole

LYSOSOMES
- Are round-shaped, membrane-bound
structures containing chemicals that
can break down materials in the cell.
- Are key organelles in digestion and
removal of wastes inside the cell.
- They contain powerful enzymes known as lysozyme, which can defend
a cell from invading bacteria or viruses.
- Lysozymes also break down damaged or worn-out cell parts.

PEROXISOMES
- Also exist as small vesicles around the cell.
- They are surrounded by a single
membrane, containing digestive
enzymes for breaking down toxic
materials.
- Though they contain digestive enzyme,
just like lysosomes, peroxisomes carry
oxidative enzymes that require oxygen.
- Peroxisomes also help in breaking
down alcohol in the body.

ORGANELLES FOR STRUCTURAL SUPPORT, MOVEMENT, AND

COMMUNICATION BETWEEN CELLS

CENTROSOMES AND CENTRIOLES

CENTROSOME
It comprised of two centrioles or cylindrical
structures with a central cavity
surrounded by microtubules arranged
side by side.
-These structure take part in the assembly of
spindle fibers at cell division and
contribute to the successful outcome of
mitosis.
 CENTRIOLES
– are cylindrical shaped organelles made of nine triplets of short
microtubules arrange in a ring.

CILIA AND FLAGELLA

- Two locomotory projections
in eukaryotes
- They allow the cell to move
like an oar or a whip.
- Both have same structural
composition, containing nine
microtubule doublets
arranged in a circle around
two central microtubules
called 9+2 pattern.
- For single cells, the movement of cilia or flagella results in swimming.
- For cells anchored in tissue, ciliary motion sweeps liquid across the cell
surface.

Cilia – look like little hairs with much shorter length.

 They move in coordinated fashion like motion of oars in a rowing
team.
Flagella – look like a whip or a tail.

CYTOSKELETONS
- Flexible network of
framework
- Made up of a small
protein subunit, forming
long threads or fibers
that can crisscross the
entire cell to organize its
contents and to direct the
cell’s movement in
response to the cell’s
changing needs and
signals from its external
environment.
 MICROTUBULES
Microtubules – filaments characterized to be lengthy and the thickest among
the filaments.
- They are stiff, hollow tubes that give the cell shape and serve as
anchorage for the membrane-bound organelles and other cell parts.
- They act as “tracks” for the movement of vesicles and other cell
components.

INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
Intermediate Filaments – somewhat smaller than microtubules and
ropelike in appearance.
- They give the cell tensile strength and the ability to stretch without
breaking apart.
MICROFILAMENTS
Microfilaments – thinnest among the cytoskeletons and also known as actin
filaments
- Tiny flexible filaments that provide protective meshwork under the
plasma membrane.

CELL SURFACES AND JUNCTIONS

Plasmodesmata – plays an important
role in the sharing of water, nutrients
and chemical messages among plant
cells.
 Tight junctions join two cells
tightly together to form a leak
proof sheet.
 Adhesion junctions act like screws together with cytoskeletal
fibers to form strong sheets.
 Gap junctions play a similar role to that of plasmodesmata in
plants, as both allow small molecules to flow between neighboring
cells.