Science Education International

31(4), 400-409
https://doi.org/10.33828/sei.v31.i4.9

REVIEW ARTICLE

The Use of Critical Reading in Understanding Scientific Texts on

Academic Performance and Problem-solving Skills
Özlem Koray1*, Sercan Çetinkılıç2
1
Department of Mathematics and Science Education, Ereğli Education Faculty, Zonguldak Bulent Ecevit University, Kdz. Ereğli, Zonguldak,
2
15 Temmuz Şehitleri İmam Hatip Secondary School, Kdz. Ereğli, Zonguldak
*Corresponding Author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
This study aimed to investigate the effect of critical reading (CR) practices in science courses on academic achievement, science
performance level, and problem-solving skills. The experimental method and factorial design were used. The study was conducted
with 102 seventh-grade students from a public school in Turkey during the 2014–2015 academic year. Experimental and control groups
were formed. CR practices were followed in the experimental group and teaching practices appropriate to the curriculum were used in
the control group. Data were collected with the “Multiple-Choice Academic Achievement Test” to determine the students’ academic
level in the “Human and Environment Unit: The Science Performance Level Test” to determine their science performance level and
the “Logical Thinking Group Test” to determine the level of their problem-solving skills. The variables of academic achievement and
science performance levels were labeled “Academic Performance.” Independent samples two-way ANOVA was applied to analyze
the data using SPSS 18.0 software. The results revealed that the students in the experimental group, who were taught science using
CR practices, were significantly more successful than the students in the control group, whose teaching was appropriate to the current
curriculum in terms of academic achievement, science performance level, and problem-solving skills. It is of critical importance to
use such innovative practices, which combine various disciplines, to allow students to excel at reading, which is a basic skill, at all
educational levels in order to raise contemporary and social individuals.

KEY WORDS: critical reading; critical thinking; science teaching; scientific text

INTRODUCTION interpretation in real life. This is because students’ thinking skills

are not expected to develop unless they are offered something on

C
ritical thinking, one of the most important concepts of
which they can think; in other words, unless they are occupied
the 21st century, involves analyzing concepts, generating
with meaningful and rich lessons (Brown, 1997). To provide
ideas and organizing them, defending perspectives,
an education in which students learn how to think and produce
making comparisons, making inferences, evaluating discussions,
effective solutions to problems, it is necessary to consider critical
and problem-solving skills (Browne and Keeley, 2007; Pithers
thinking as a skill and to adopt an interdisciplinary approach. In
and Soden, 2000). To engage in critical reading (CR), according
addition, one of the topics given significant emphasis in many
to a different definition, is to read bearing in mind that there may
areas of reform in education and areas requiring reform is high-
be alternative explanations, rather than making a conclusion
level thinking skills (Halpern, 1998). Critical thinking is one of
based on the information read (Akın et al., 2015). Paul (1992)
the high level skills. It is thought that research on how to develop
defined critical thinking as reaching a conclusion based on
critical thinking skills in individuals would contribute to reform
observation and information. Critical thinking is related to the
movements in education.
high-level thinking skills requiring analysis, synthesis, and
evaluation, rather than low-level thinking skills associated
with knowledge, comprehension, and application in Bloom’s CR
taxonomy (Cottrell, 2011; Dam and Volman, 2004; Ennis, 1985). Reading, a basic language skill, has a significant place in the
Although critical thinking is not the basic aim of education, it individual’s intellectual life because of perception, sense-
is closely related to what is taught and learned in a teaching making, acquisition of knowledge, and reusing acquired
environment. It has a field of interest covering the curriculum’s knowledge in communicative processes largely depend on
purposes, textbooks, assessment, and personal development. reading effectiveness. The most important goal of a reading
The most important condition for developing critical thinking process is the development of CR skills (Flynn, 1989).
in individuals from a young age is to provide learning The concept of CR, a critical thinking skill, has recently
environments where they can express and discuss their ideas, been suggested as a model of understanding, particularly
question information, and produce more than one alternative in education, to shed light on the complex process that is

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 Science Education International
31(4), 400-409
https://doi.org/10.33828/sei.v31.i4.9
Koray and Çetinkılıç: Critical reading and scientific texts

characterized as “reading.” CR does not refer to careful and use the insights obtained by determining the purpose and
detailed reading (Yu, 2015). It is defined as thinking about perspective of the author. Critical readers, thus, develop an
the text being read, speculating about the truths and faults independent perspective. In conclusion, CR addressees beyond
of the text, and interpreting its content (Aşılıoğlu, 2008). In the text and reading with the same discipline and requires
other words, CR is arriving at a judgment using the reader’s control over the text.
mind (Özdemir, 2007). Literacy Gains (2009) defined CR as
an attitude, an emotional and intellectual behavior, a mental LITERATURE REVIEW
stance that the reader reveals while reading a text. CR is
A literature review revealed many findings on CR. McClune
the science and art of examining and evaluating a text and
and Jarman (2010) created a panel with 26 experts in the
adopting a perspective, according to Paul and Elder (2008).
field of reading critically scientific newspaper texts in terms
Characterizing CR as “ideal reading,” Arıcı (2008) indicated
of developing knowledge, skill, and attitude, who brought
that it is the ability to enter a communicative interaction with
attention to certain points and made recommendations. They
the text and to make interpretations and evaluations regarding
noted that the main goal of the media is not to educate but to
it. Altunsöz (2016) defined CR as reading by asking questions
seek economic gain and to entertain and persuade readers. For
regarding the conflicts, consistencies, and inconsistencies in
this reason, critical readers should be wary of newspaper texts.
the thoughts or expressions in the text and the reasons why
it was written. Four basic elements of CR are: Determining There are a number of studies in the current programs regarding
the author’s perspective, detecting primary claims and the the CR of scientific texts; but, they need to be considered with
main idea, determining supportive details used to strengthen an interdisciplinary approach. In addition, improving CR skills
thoughts, and evaluating supportive details (Maker and Lenier, is dependent on the successful integration of different areas
1996). Emiroğlu (2014) compiled the following CR skills from of the curriculum. In a study conducted with senior classes,
various studies: determining the aim to read the text, analyzing Krug (2010) found that there is a direct relationship between
the reliability of the text, comparing prior knowledge with teachers’ experiences and applications that students learn
what the text says, comparing the information given in the to question texts using critical literacy approaches, criticize
text with other sources, understanding what is said implicitly, social injustice, engage in social acts, and finally that every
understanding the purpose of the author, understanding the student can learn how to read critically. Çam (2006) found a
target audience of the author, determining the perspective of significant relationship between primary school fifth-grade
the author, distinguishing perspectives from realities, making students’ visual reading level and their reading comprehension,
predictions based on particular parts of the texts, determining CR, and academic achievement in Turkish classes. Students’
the type of the text, determining characteristics of the author’s academic achievement improves as their CR level improves.
language, determining the main idea, evaluating the text by Ünal (2006) found a high-level relationship between fifth-grade
asking questions, making inferences, and summarizing the students’ attitudes toward reading and their CR skills and a
text in one’s own words. mid-level relationship between their reading comprehension
and CR skills.
Being a critical reader requires making reliable observations,
making inferences, and establishing rational hypotheses. A study investigating the relationship between CR and
In addition, the ability to keep what is read in mind can be cognitive learning found that even university students’ learning
achieved through CR (Norris, 1985). Critical readers are is limited by behaviors at the level of remembering, and
curious about the author’s reasons for writing the text, the memorizing what is read indicates that they do not have CR
meaning, and prolificacy of the text, they know that everyone skills. Application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation, which
can make mistakes, including the writers of textbooks, and try are among the higher steps of the cognitive domain, cannot
various interpretations without ignoring their interpretations, be achieved with low-level reading (Aşılıoğlu, 2008). Two
and examine written materials as a whole (Paul et al., 1990). different studies conducted with preservice teachers revealed
According to McLaughlin and De Voogd (2004a), critical that they have mid-level CR self-efficacy perception (Karabay
literacy improves the logical thinking of teachers and students, et al., 2015) and CR skills (Maltepe, 2016). Kien and Huan
teaches them to approach situations from different points of (2017) sought to determine teachers’ beliefs regarding CR
view, and produces active thinkers. CR requires thinking strategies in teaching English in foreign language classrooms
beyond the text; that is to say, it requires one to understand and quoted teachers as stating that CR strategies play a crucial
role in students’ understanding of reading texts. CR education
why the author wrote about a particular subject and from
programs have been seen to improve preservice teachers’
a particular perspective, and why the author included and
metacognitive reading strategies and media literacy levels
excluded certain ideas (McLaughlin and De Voogd, 2004b).
(Karabay, 2015).
According to Molden (2007), a thorough examination of the
text is conducted using analytic skills; therefore, all pieces As has been seen, there are many studies in the literature on CR,
of the text are reviewed. Critical readers establish a balance its relationship with various variables, and its effectiveness (Akın
between themselves and the author, move beyond what is et al., 2015; Aşılıoğlu, 2008; Çam, 2006; Karabay, 2015; Kien and
written by approaching the text from all angles, and actively Huan, 2017; Krug, 2010; McClune and Jarman, 2010; Tsai et al.,

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Koray and Çetinkılıç: Critical reading and scientific texts

2013; Ünal, 2006). However, the most important condition for Method
improving CR, and thus critical thinking, are educational programs The semi-experimental method was used in this study. This
that are specialized for different disciplines and subject areas or is a method in which an artificial condition is used to detect
have multidisciplinary applications. Examining the effectiveness a cause-and-effect relationship among variables to determine
of such programs, which are expected to have common points in factors affecting findings (Çepni, 2005). When investigating
terms of high-level thinking skills, is only possible with scientific the effect of independent variables on dependent variables,
studies. Further multidisciplinary experimental studies on CR groups should be balanced by controlling extraneous and
can improve the quality of such programs and contribute to the surprising variables in an experimental study (Sönmez and
dissemination of them. This study is intended to contribute to the Alacapınar, 2014). This study investigated the effects of CR
literature by extending experimental research on CRs skills and practices on the experimental group and gender. CR practices
critical thinking education in a general sense. were used in the experimental group and teaching practices
Purpose of the Study appropriate to the Ministry of National Education (MoNE)
This study aimed to investigate the use of CR practices in science curriculum (2013) were followed in the control group. This
courses on academic achievement, science performance level, form made the study appropriate for the factorial design.
and problem-solving skills. An interdisciplinary approach was The factorial design enables the investigation of the effect
adopted in the study and the aim was to provide a way to ease of two or more variables on the dependent variable as well
the understanding of scientific texts in science courses through as the common effect of multiple independent variables on
developing text reading skills, which constitute the focal point the dependent variable (Karasar, 2003). The study design is
of mother language teaching courses, in terms of CR. presented in Table 1.

Research Questions Study Groups

Considering the scope of this study and in line with its aims, The study was carried out with classes 7/A, 7/B, 7/C, and 7/D
the following research questions were considered: of the Black Sea Ereğli Religious Vocational High School in
the Black Sea Ereğli District of Zonguldak Province, Turkey,
RQ1: Do scores on the multiple-choice academic achievement during the 2014–2015 academic year. While determining the
test (MCAAT) achieved by the experimental group (in which study group of the research, easily accessible case sampling
CR practices were carried out) and the control group (in was preferred. There were six seventh classes (three female
which curriculum-appropriate teaching was carried out) differ and three male groups) in the school and four of these classes
according to the method implemented? were included in the study by randomly. The classes were
a. Do scores on the MCAAT achieved by the experimental assigned to groups randomly: 7/C (female) was the first
and control groups differ according to gender? experimental group and 7/D (female) was the first control,
b. Are scores on the MCAAT achieved by the experimental 7/B (male) was the second experimental group, and 7/A
and control groups affected by the common effect of the (male) was the second control. Permissions for the research
method implemented and gender? were obtained from institutions and parents. In addition,
RQ2: Do scores on the science performance level test (SPLT) the students were volunteer. The statistics of each group are
achieved by the experimental and control groups differ presented in Table 2.
according to the method implemented? The groups’ equivalence was confirmed by comparison of the
a. Do scores on the SPLT achieved by the experimental and
students’ general grade point average at the end of sixth grade
control groups differ according to gender?
and their grade point average on the science and technology
b. Are scores on the SPLT achieved by the experimental
course at the end of the first term of seventh grade, using the
and control groups affected by the common effect of the
Kruskal–Wallis H Test.
method implemented and gender?
Four activities covering the objectives of the MoNE curriculum
RQ3: Do scores on the logical thinking group test (LTGT)
and CR on the seventh-grade human and environment unit
achieved by the experimental and control groups differ
were developed by the researchers. Before the design of the
according to the method implemented?
activities, the literature on CR was reviewed and scientific
a. Do scores on the LTGT achieved by the experimental and
articles, periodicals, theses, and books were examined. An
control groups differ according to gender?
expert on CR was consulted in a face-to-face interview
b. Are scores on the LTGT achieved by the experimental
regarding the CR objectives and the implementation. Based
and control groups affected by the common effect of the
on the literature review and the expert’s opinion, the objectives
method implemented and gender?
were formed and CR practices appropriate to these objectives
were designed. Four reading texts used in the activities were
METHODOLOGY selected from the archive of The Scientific and Technological
In this section, the method and model of the study, study Researcher Council of Turkey and the journals Science Child
groups, experimental implementation, data collection tools, and Science and Technique to cover the objectives of the
and statistical techniques are discussed. Human and Environment unit. Five different sections lasting

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Koray and Çetinkılıç: Critical reading and scientific texts

Table 1: Study design

Group (Factor 1) Gender (Factor 2) Measurement I Implementation Measurement II
E1 1st female MCAAT1 X1 MCAAT2
SPLT1 SPLT2
LGGT1 LGGT2
E2 2nd male MCAAT1 X1 MCAAT2
SPLT1 SPLT2
LGGT1 LGGT2
C1 1st female MCAAT1 X2 MCAAT2
SPLT1 SPLT2
LGGT1 LGGT2
C2 2nd male MCAAT1 X2 MCAAT2
SPLT1 SPLT2
LGGT1 LGGT2
E1: Female experimental group taught critical reading practices, E2: Male experimental group taught critical reading practices, C1: Female control group
taught according to the MoNE curriculum, C2: Male control group taught according to the MoNE curriculum, X1: Critical reading practices, X2: Teaching
practices appropriate to the MoNE curriculum, MCAAT: Multiple-choice academic achievement test administered in the human and environment unit, SPLT:
Science performance level test administered in the human and environment unit, LTGT: Logical thinking group test

questioning words, sentences, and examples; underlining

Table 2: Number of students in each group
the important information in the text; making notes in the
Group N Female N Male N Total margins; establishing connections between visuals and the
E1 25 0 25 text; outlining the text; making logical inferences from the
E2 0 24 24 text; and questioning and evaluating the text. After reading
C1 28 0 28 the text, students are asked to express their thoughts about it
C2 0 25 25 and to share the notes they made.
Total 53 49 102
Section 4: Words related to the objectives of the human and
approximately six-lesson hours were developed for each environment unit in the text are given, questions are posed, and
reading text activity. examples are given to achieve the unit objectives. In addition,
all of the relevant course objectives are taught in this section by
Section 1: The title of the text is given and students make asking relevant questions in addition to the expressions in the
predictions about the text. They are encouraged to express their text. These questions take a form which encourages students
thoughts. If there is an unknown word in the title, suggestions to question the reliability of the information provided in the
are made for students to work out its meaning. text and the author’s conclusions, to distinguish expressions
Section 2: Various visuals are given related to the text and indicating a phenomenon and a perspective, to notice old-
students are encouraged to make connections between these fashioned information, and to come to a conclusion regarding
visuals and the text. Students are asked to imagine a visual the author.
related to the text and asked how they relate their visual and Section 5: Students are asked to evaluate the text as a whole,
the text. Their thoughts are discussed in the classroom. to identify problems in it, and to suggest how to correct these
Section 3: Questions based on the students’ prior knowledge deficient points. Their conclusion regarding the text type
and related to daily life are posed to them to enable the design and author is determined by their reasoning. The journal in
of the text in students’ minds and to question the purpose of which the text is published and the publication date is given
reading the text. For example, students are given the script to students and they are asked to make a comparison with
of a recent popular commercial and asked to express their their predictions.
thoughts on it in the activity regarding the reading text titled The study was conducted by the second researcher. This
“How Valuable Biodiversity Is.” Students are also asked to researcher was a teacher of these classes normally. While
make predictions about the author of the text and to express the experimental group was taught according to the CR
their thoughts regarding the author. Before reading the text, practices course plan, the control group was taught according
students are given information about how to read it critically. to the annual plan of the MoNE Board of Education and
Students are asked to read the text considering the following Discipline. Methods of questions-and-answer, direct
points: Making sense of words or expressions by grouping instruction, discussion, and demonstration were employed,
them and benefiting from the previous or next expression; using slides, videos, and interactive whiteboard applications.
finding exaggeration, humor, and conflicts in the text; The implementation lasted 8 weeks, including pre-test and
determining characteristics of the text; asking themselves post-test. Pre-test and post-test were applied in a 2-week
questions about what they are reading, engaging in the text, period. MCAAT, SPLT, and LTGT applications were carried

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31(4), 400-409
https://doi.org/10.33828/sei.v31.i4.9
Koray and Çetinkılıç: Critical reading and scientific texts

out in a way that allows the students to answer sincerely and were consulted about the appropriateness of the translation
accurately. from English into Turkish. Based on the opinions received,
the questions were determined to be faithful to the original
Data Collection Tools versions. The exam duration was determined to be 30 min.
The “Multiple-Choice Academic Achievement Test” was used
The questions were marked according to the scoring guide
to determine the students’ academic achievement in the human
published by PISA and TIMMS, which indicates that full
and environment unit, the “Science Performance Level Test”
answers receive 2 points, partial answers 1 point, and missing
was used to determine their science performance level, and
answers and answers which do not address the question 0
the “Logical Thinking Group Test” was used to determine
points. According to this grading, the maximum and minimum
their problem-solving levels. The variables of academic
scores one can obtain on SPLT are 14 and 0 points, respectively.
achievement and science performance level together were
termed “academic performance.” All data collection tools LTGT
were applied to the experimental and control groups as pre- The original version of this 21-item test was developed by
test and post-test. Roadrangka et al. (1982) by selecting highly reliable and valid
items from tests (Ankney and Joyce, 1974; Burney, 1974;
MCAAT Lawson’s Classroom Test of Formal Operation, 1978; Longeol,
The MCAAT has 39 four-choice multiple-choice questions, 1968 as cited in Korkmaz, 2002) measuring students’ various
the majority of which have been asked in central exams reasoning skills. Reliability and validity analyses indicate that
conducted by MoNE were first developed to determine the the test was applicable to measuring abstract reasoning skills of
students’ academic achievement level in the human and students from sixth grade in secondary school to graduate level.
environment unit. Three science teachers with 4, 7, and Korkmaz (2002) applied the test to seventh-grade students to
15 years’ professional experience in a state school and an measure their problem-solving skills and showed that it could
educational faculty professor who is an expert on the field be used to measure logical thinking and problem-solving skills
were consulted regarding the appropriateness of the questions of students from the secondary level in Turkey (Korkmaz,
for the objectives and the students’ level. Nine questions were 2002). The LTGT consisted of 18 multiple-choice questions
considered to be inappropriate and thus excluded, leaving 30 that required an answer with justification and three open-ended
questions. The pilot study of the test was carried out with questions. A correct answer and appropriate justification for
8th-grade students. The reliability of the 30-question test was each multiple-choice question were given 1 point; otherwise,
analyzed using the Iteman program and the alpha reliability 0 points were awarded. A correct answer to the open-ended
coefficient was found to be .83. The test was applied to the questions was given 1 point, and an incorrect answer was given
experimental and control groups at pre-test and post-test and 0 points. The alpha reliability coefficient was found to be 0.78.
lasted approximately 40 min. Each correct answer was awarded The test was applied to the experimental and control groups
1 point and each incorrect answer received 0 points. According at pre-test and post-test. The exam duration was determined
to this grading, the maximum and minimum scores one can to be 40 min.
obtain on MCAAT are 30 and 0 points, respectively.
Data Analysis
SPLT SPSS 18.0 software was used to analyze the data. The groups’
The SPLT has a total of seven questions. These were developed grade point averages on the Science and Technology course at
to determine the students’ science performance level. Six are the end of sixth grade and the first term of seventh grade were
open-ended and one required drawing a figure, and they were analyzed using the Kruskal–Wallis H Test to determine their
grouped under three main questions that were appropriate to equivalence, and two-way ANOVA for independent samples
the objectives of the Human and Environment Unit. Questions was used to analyze the data obtained on MCAAT, SPLT, and
under the themes of “Greenhouse and Acid Rain” were LTGT. The experimental and control groups were compared
taken directly from the Programme for International Student according to their scores. Relevant statistical techniques in
Assessment (PISA) and the questions under the themes of the SPSS 18.0 software indicated that the MCAAT, SPLT, and
“Environmentalist Solutions” and “The Food Chain” were LTGT scores display a normal distribution and their variances
taken directly from the Trends in International Mathematics are homogeneous.
and Science Study (TIMMS). PISA is an assessment to
determine 15-year-olds’ science and mathematics literacy RESULTS
and reading skills in today’s information society. TIMMS,
In this section, the results and their interpretation according
on the other hand, is a multifaceted assessment that measures
to the research questions are presented.
the mathematics and science achievement levels of fourth-
and eighth-grade students using different types of questions, Results and Interpretations of the First Research Question
including open-ended questions. The same experts as above According to Table 3, the mean scores of the experimental and
were consulted regarding the appropriateness of the PISA and control groups on MCAAT were 6.12 and 3.87, respectively. As
TIMMS questions to the objectives and the levels of seventh- Table 4 shows, the experimental group achieved significantly
grade students. In addition, the opinions of an English teacher better scores on MCAAT (F(1.98)=9.245, ρ < 0.05, η2 = 0.086).

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Koray and Çetinkılıç: Critical reading and scientific texts

It can thus be said that teaching CR practices were more on MCAAT were 2.40 and 3.18, respectively. However, this
effective in improving students’ academic achievement than difference was not significant, as shown in Table 6 (F(1.98) =
teaching according to the curriculum. 1.869, ρ > 0.05, η2 =0.019).
Regarding item “a” of the first research question, Table 3 shows Regarding item “b” of the second research question, the
that the mean scores of the female and male participants’ on two-way ANOVA results in Table 6 show that the common
MCAAT were 5.72 and 4.12, respectively. Table 4 shows effect of the method implemented and gender on the
that the female students achieved significantly betters scores students’ SPLT scores was not significant (F(1.98) = 0.688,
(F(1.98) = 4.396, ρ < 0.05, η2 = 0.043). ρ > 0.05, η2 = 0.007). According to this, it can be said that the
common effect of the method implemented and gender was
Regarding item “b” of the first research question, the two-way
not effective in improving students’ science performance level.
ANOVA results in Table 4 show that the common effect of the
method implemented and gender on the students’ scores on Results and Interpretations of the Third Research Question
MCAAT was not significant (F(1.98) = 1.555, ρ > 0.05, η2 = Regarding the third research question, Table 7 shows that
0.016). According to this, it can be said that the common effect the mean scores of the experimental and control groups on
of the method implemented and gender was not effective in SPLT were 2.37 and 0.91, respectively. The experimental
improving students’ academic achievement. group’s students were significantly more successful, as shown
in Table 8 (F(1.98) = 7.888, ρ < 0.05, η2 = 0.074). It can be
Results and Interpretations of the Second Research
concluded that teaching CR practices are more effective in
Question improving students’ science performance levels than teaching
Regarding the second research question, Table 5 shows that
according to the curriculum.
the mean scores of the experimental and control groups on
SPLT were 4.00 and 1.64, respectively. Table 6 shows that Regarding the item of “a” the third research question, as seen
the experimental group’s students were significantly more in Table 7, the mean scores of the female and male participants
successful (F(1.98) = 17.947, ρ < 0.05, η2 = 0.155). It can be on LTGT were 1.42 and 1.82, respectively. However, this
concluded that teaching CR practices were more effective in difference was not significant, as Table 8 indicates (F(1.98) =
improving students’ science performance levels than teaching 0.552, ρ > 0.05, η2 = 0.006).
according to the curriculum. Regarding item of “b” the third research question, the two-way
Regarding item “a” of the second research question, Table 5 ANOVA results presented in Table 8 show that the common
shows that the mean scores of the female and male participants
Table 6: Two-way ANOVA results for SPLT scores
Table 3: Descriptive statistics of MCAAT scores Source of Sum of SD Mean of F (ρ) η2
Components Female Male Total variance squares squares
− − − Group 141.857 1 141.857 17.947 0.000 0.155
N X S N X S N X S
Gender 14.777 1 14.777 1.869 0.175 0.019
Critical Reading 25 6.44 4.33 24 5.79 3.71 49 6.12 4.01 Group x Gender 5.437 1 5.437 0.688 0.409 0.007
Curriculum 28 5.07 3.31 25 2.52 4.02 53 3.87 3.85 Error 774.625 98 7.904
Total 53 5.72 3.85 49 4.12 4.17 102 4.95 4.07 Total 1721.000 102

Table 4: Two-way ANOVA results for MCAAT scores Table 7: Descriptive statistics of LTGT scores
Source of Sum of SD Mean of F (ρ) η2 Components Female Male Total
variance squares squares − − −
N X S N X S N X S
Group 136.813 1 136.813 9.245 0.003 0.086
Critical reading 25 2.00 2.38 24 2.75 3.48 49 2.37 2.96
Gender 65.055 1 65.055 4.396 0.039 0.043
Curriculum 28 0.89 1.87 25 0.92 2.68 53 0.91 2.26
Group x Gender 23.013 1 23.013 1.555 0.215 0.016
Total 53 1.42 2.18 49 1.82 3.20 102 1.61 2.71
Error 1450.215 98 14.798
Total 4171 102

Table 8: Two-way ANOVA results for LTGT scores

Table 5: Descriptive statistics of SPLT scores Source of Sum of SD Mean of F (ρ) η2
variance squares squares
Components Female Male Total
Group 54.815 1 54.815 7.888 0.006 0.074
− − −
N X S N X S N X S Gender 3.838 1 3.838 0.552 0.459 0.006
Critical Reading 25 3.40 3.11 24 4.63 3.15 49 4.00 3.16 Group x Gender 3.32 1 3.32 0.478 0.491 0.005
Curriculum 28 1.50 2.94 25 1.80 1.85 53 1.64 2.47 Error 681.019 98 6.949
Total 53 2.40 3.14 49 3.18 2.91 102 2.77 3.04 Total 1006 102

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effect of the method implemented and gender on the students’ Gündüver (2011) found that female primary school students
LTGT scores was not significant (F(1.98) = 0.478, ρ > 0.05, performed better than male students on the placement test
η2 = 0.005). According to this, it can be said that the common according to various variables. There are also studies which
effect of the method implemented and gender was not effective find no significant difference in gender (Ötken, 2012; Turhan
in improving students’ problem-solving skills. et al., 2008).
The experimental group was found to have a significantly
DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION, AND higher science performance level than the control. This
RECOMMENDATIONS indicates that CR practices were more effective in improving
students’ science performance level, which is in line with
This study aimed to investigate the effect of the using of CR
other studies’ findings. Keskin (2008), Süren (2008), and
practices in science courses on academic achievement, science
Selim (2013) found that reading or subscribing to a scientific
performance level, and problem-solving skills. In line with the
journal improved students’ scientific literacy levels. İlkörücü
research objectives, three research questions were formulated:
Göçmençelebi and Özkan (2011) showed that sixth-grade
RQ1: Do scores on the MCAAT achieved by the experimental
students who read scientific journals and newspapers
group and the control group differ according to the method
associated what they learned in science courses with daily
implemented? RQ1a: Do scores on the MCAAT achieved
life at a higher level. Karademir and Uluçınar (2017) found a
by the experimental and control groups differ according to
positive significant relationship between secondary students’
gender? RQ1b: Are scores on the MCAAT achieved by the
CR skills, science literacy levels, and attitudes toward science.
experimental and control groups affected by the common effect
of the method implemented and gender? RQ2: Do scores on the Furthermore, regarding the science performance level, this
SPLT achieved by the experimental and control groups differ study found that the students’ science performance level did
according to the method implemented? RQ2a: Do scores on the not differ significantly according to gender, and the common
SPLT achieved by the experimental and control groups differ effect of the method implemented and gender did not have
according to gender? RQ2b: Are scores on the SPLT achieved a significant effect on their science performance level. The
by the experimental and control groups affected by the common experimental group was also found to have significantly better
effect of the method implemented and gender? RQ3: Do scores problem-solving skills at the end of the implementation. This
on the LTGT achieved by the experimental and control groups too indicates that CR practices are more effective in improving
differ according to the method implemented? RQ3a: Do scores students’ problem-solving skills. No study was encountered
on the LTGT achieved by the experimental and control groups in the literature on the effect of CR practices on problem-
differ according to gender? RQ3b: Are scores on the LTGT solving skills. Studies in the relevant literature mostly focus
achieved by the experimental and control groups affected by on the effect of reading comprehension on mathematical
the common effect of the method implemented and gender? problem-solving. Özcan (2016) found a significant relationship
The results show that the experimental group, in which CR between secondary school students’ reading comprehension
practices were used, had higher academic achievement than level in mathematics classes and their problem-solving skills
the control group in which curriculum-appropriate teaching in fifth and sixth grade, but not in seventh and eighth grade.
was followed. This indicates that CR practices were effective Kelly and Mousley (2001) compared the verbal and graphical
in improving students’ academic achievement levels. This problem-solving skills of normal and hearing-impaired
finding is corroborated by the literature. Akın (2014) found students and investigated the relationship between hearing-
that teaching science courses based on CR practices was impaired students’ reading levels and their performance of
effective in increasing eighth-grade students’ academic verbal and graphic problem-solving. They asserted that reading
achievement. Karabay (2012) showed that education programs comprehension achievement is essential in problem-solving
incorporating CR and writing were more effective in raising processes. Jiban and Deno (2007) underlined the importance of
students’ academic achievement. Çam (2006) found significant reading skills in solving reading-based mathematical problems.
relationships between visual reading and CR and between Lamb (2010) compared reading level and mathematics
reading comprehension and academic achievement in Turkish achievement and identified reading comprehension as the most
classes. David (2009) found that groups in which CR practices crucial factor in the problem-solving process.
were used were more academically successful than those in
Another result of this study regarding problem-solving skills
which traditional reading practices were used.
is that these did not differ according to gender. Nor was the
The results also show that female students had better academic common effect of the method implemented and gender found
achievement than their male counterparts. However, the to have a significant effect on the students’ problem-solving
common effect of the method implemented and gender on skills. These results are in line with the results of similar
academic achievement level was not significant. This result studies (Basmacı, 1998; Çam, 1996; Gholami et al., 2019;
is also corroborated by the literature. Bayat et al. (2014) Görmez, 1998; Güven and Akyüz, 2001; Özdemir et al.,
found that female eighth-grade students performed better 2016; Özkütük et al., 2003; Saracaloğlu et al., 2009; Serin,
in reading comprehension and science achievement tests. 2001; Syaiful et al., 2019). However, there are some studies

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31(4), 400-409
https://doi.org/10.33828/sei.v31.i4.9
Koray and Çetinkılıç: Critical reading and scientific texts

that indicate that students’ problem-solving skill levels differ planned in which students apply CR skills to materials such
significantly according to gender (Aroral et al., 2020; Dinçer, as books, magazines, newspapers, and websites, which they
1995; Gunawan et al., 2020; Korkut, 2002). As can be seen, use to reach information. Further descriptive and experimental
the results of this study are largely corroborated by those of studies can be conducted with different grades, courses, and
the relevant literature. unit levels to investigate CR and other critical thinking skills.
Reading habits and reading comprehension are factors closely
associated with students’ academic achievement in all fields ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
and greatly affect learning performance. Reading is also an This study was part of the second author’s Master’s thesis.
essential factor guiding the skill of finding effective solutions
to complex problems, which is considered the most high-level
skill. CR requires an active communication process that enables
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