Advances in Language and Literary Studies

ISSN: 2203-4714
Vol. 6 No. 2; April 2015
Flourishing Creativity & Literacy
Australian International Academic Centre, Australia

A Review on Developing Critical Thinking Skills through

Literary Texts
Noraini Ahmad Shukri (Corresponding author)
Faculty of Educational Studies
Universiti Putra Malaysia 43400 UPM Serdang
Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
E-mail: [email protected]

Jayakaran Mukundan
Faculty of Educational Studies
Universiti Putra Malaysia 43400 UPM Serdang
Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
E-mail: [email protected]

Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.2p.4 Received: 25/10/2014

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.2p.4 Accepted: 07/01/2015

Abstract
Many ESL instructors are generally in agreement with the belief that it is essential that students should be assisted in
developing critical thinking skills while being engaged in their language learning process especially those learning the
target language at higher level (Stern, 1985; Dickinson, 1991; McKay, 2001; Terry, 2007; Van, 2009; Odenwald, 2010).
As it enables language learners to engage in a more purposeful and self-regulatory in judgment, helping them in their
evaluation of the arguments of others and of their own, coming to well-reasoned resolutions to any complex problems
and to be able to resolve conflicts encountered in their daily lives. Critical thinking requires them to be actively
involved in their own learning process as they attempt to individually understand and apply the information they are
exposed to during the classroom interaction (Landsberger, 1999; Tung & Chang, 2009). The many advantageous and
feasibility of teaching instruction that incorporates the study of literature in the ESL classroom which suggests that
literature texts, if correctly chosen and instructed, can prove to be beneficial to ESL students’ overall level of literacy
and critical thinking skills. Numerous empirical researches also asserted that literary texts that are authentic, enjoyable,
and motivating would naturally increase both their knowledge of the target language patterns and cultural awareness.
Keywords: Critical thinking, ESL classroom, literature, literary text
1. Critical Thinking Defined
The notions of critical thinking have been introduced by prominent Greek intellectuals such as Socrates, Aristotle and
Plato as early as 2500 years ago. These philosophers acknowledged the need for development of the quality of human
reasoning skills, thus developing the early criteria for critical thought, for what we now know as Critical Thinking. A
well known process of questioning referred to as the Socratic Method, developed by Socrates was designed to facilitate
people in the community to see the apparent inconsistencies and assumptions in their current beliefs and reasoning
systems. However, by the 1930’s John Dewey, an American educational psychologist contended that learning to think
should be the fundamental purpose in our system of education. He referred to this form of thought processing as
"reflective thinking" and an "active, persistent, and careful consideration of a belief or supposed form of knowledge in
the light of grounds which support it" (Dewey, 1934, p. 9).
By the 1960’s a more modern understanding of critical thinking is developed by Enniss (1962), who suggested the
importance of assisting students with the engagement of a thinking process that is a more reflective, reasonable, and
directed on what to believe or do. During the 1980’s, based upon Dewey’s idea of critical thinking, Edward Glaser
(1980) developed one of the most highly employed test of critical thinking termed as the Watson-Glaser Thinking
Appraisal. After some extensive readings on various studies conducted on the notions of critical thinking by past
researchers, the author thus discovered that there is no one agreement on the absolute definition on critical thinking.
Deciding that a common definition can be a difficult task, the table below attempts to give a few significance definitions
of critical thinking found:
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Table 1. Definitions of Critical thinking
No. Author Definition Year
1. Dewey "active, persistent, and careful consideration of a belief or supposed 1934
form of knowledge in the light of grounds which support it”
2. Glaser “(1) an attitude of being disposed to consider in a thoughtful way the 1941
problems and subjects that come within the range of one's experiences,
(2) knowledge of the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning, and (3)
some skill in applying those methods”
3. Paul “Critical thinking is the ability to reach sound conclusions based onobservation and 1988
information”
4. Facione “Critical thinking is to be purposeful, self- regulatory judgment which 1998
results in interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and inference, as well as an explanation of
the evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations
upon which that judgment is based on”
5. Ennis “Critical thinking is reflective and reasonable thinking that is focused ondeciding 2002
what to believe or do”
6. Cosgrove “Critical thinking is an attitude of being disposed to consider in athought 2009
ful way the problems and subjects that come within the range of one's experiences”
7. Mulnix “Critical thinking includes a commitment to using reason in theformulation of 2012
our beliefs”

However, Facione (1990) brought together a panel of 46 authority figures in the field of critical thinking and
reasoning skills to generate a consensus of the definition of critical thinking by means of the well-known
Delphi method. Consequently, arriving on the definition of critical thinking as:
“We understand critical thinking to be purposeful, self-regulatory judgment that results in interpretation,
analysis, evaluation and inference, as well as explanation of the evidential, conceptual, methodological,
criteriological, or contextual considerations upon which that judgment is based”
(Facione, 1990, p. 2)

Additionally, many scholars in the area generally agree with the belief that it is important that students should be
assisted in developing the aforementioned critical thinking skills while being engaged in their academic learning
process (Facione, 1998; Schafersman, 1991; Landsberger, 1996; Halpern, 2003). As it enables students to engage in a
more purposeful and self-regulatory in judgment, helping them in their evaluation of the arguments of others and of
their own, coming to well-reasoned resolutions to any complex problems and to be able to resolve conflicts encountered
in their daily lives. However, there are still quite a number of educational institutions that still emphasis on ‘what’ to
think rather than how to think" (Daud & Husin, 2004). Thus, changing such pedagogical approaches from what to think
to how to think would definitely require some major shifts in their belief about instructional paradigms. Such changes
would require educators to think more about how they could develop their students' critical thinking skills whilst
teaching the central disciplinary content.
2. Teaching Critical Thinking in the ESL Classroom
Most scholars in the field of instructional pedagogy do not view critical thinking as a separate body of knowledge to be
delivered as a disconnected subject in the language classroom, but like the notion of reading and writing, as having
significant applications in all areas of students’ learning (Facione, 1990a). Terry (2007) suggests critical thinking
requires them to be actively involved in their own learning process as they attempt to individually understand and apply
the information they are exposed to during the classroom interaction. An article by Schafersman (1991) generally
suggests two major methods for instruction of critical thinking; 1) instructors need to modify their classroom
teaching and testing methods in some parts to augment critical thinking among their learners. This can be
incorporated through their lectures, homework, assignments and exams, and 2) to make use of established critical
thinking pedagogies and/or programs, and materials developed by specialists in the field.
On the other hand, in specific to language learning, Landsberger (1996) argues that learners should be encouraged to
attempt examining the differences between theory, facts and opinion, and belief when they carry out any form of
classroom reading. In an identical notion of belief, Starkey (2004) differentiates further between the idea of facts and
opinions and suggests that critical learners ask themselves the following questions when they encounter a reading a
text:
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1) What is the topic of the reading text?
2) What are the issues being addressed?
3) What type of conclusions does the author reach regarding the issues?
4) What are the major reasons for the author’s statements or beliefs? Did
the author used facts, opinions, or faith? Did the author employed
unbiased phrases or emotional phrases?
Questions learners should ask themselves when studying a text in the language classroom.
(Starkey, 2004, p. 96)

Thus, instructors should emphasise more on training and encouraging ESL learners to go beyond the superficial
meaning of the words from the reading text. They should be trained to see that meaning is not just merely the facts
directly stated in the given passage. As Knott (2006) argues; critical readers reflect on the passage by making
observations such as: Is it offering any relevant examples? Arguments? Engaging for sympathy? Constructing a
contrast to explain a point? Critical readers should be able to infer what meaning the passage, as a whole, is trying to
convey based on the earlier analysis. Being able to look beyond the surface language and see if the reasons given are
clear/or not. Thus, critical readers would recognize not only what the passage says, but also how the subject matter is
portrayed. Recognizing how the various ways in which every text is uniquely created by its individual author.
Additionally, Halpern (2003) also discusses the concept of explicit instruction in how to think and introduced a Four-
Part Model for the explicit instruction of critical thinking as follows:

Part one- Dispositions for critical thinking:

It explains that it won't be constructive to teach advanced students the
skills of critical thinking, if they are not inclined to use them. A
disposition for critical thinking is to be present in the learners or is to be
cultivated
Part two-Instruction in the skills:
Critical thinking skills are to be instructed.

Part three- Structure training:

It is a mean of improving the probability that students will recognize when
a particular thinking skill is needed, even in a literature-based context.
Part four: Metacognitive monitoring:
Metacognition is usually defined as what we know about what we know.
So metacognitive monitoring is determining how we can use the
knowledge we already possess to direct and improve the thinking and
learning processes. While engaging in critical thinking, students need to
monitor their thinking process, check that progress is being made toward
an appropriate goal, ensures accuracy, and makes decisions about the use
of time and mental effort.
Halpern’s (2004) Four-Part Model for explicit classroom instruction in how to think;
as quoted in Khatib & Alizah (2012)

Finally, a more recent model for teaching critical thinking in an ESL context and worth noting is a model proposed by
Jun Xu (2011). The model is a five-step process that is as follows:

First step : A Pre-reading introduction about the background and/or

cultural knowledge of the selected text/passage
Second step: A comprehension activity by the explication of the main idea
of each paragraph.
Third step : Explore the logic of the text/passage
Fourth step: Evaluating the logic of the text/passage
Fifth Step : Writing/Composition

Jun Xu’s (2011) Five-Step Model for teaching Critical Thinking in the ESL classroom.
 ALLS 6(2):4-9, 2015 7
The instructional aspects and models alone are not enough in ensuring a conducive classroom practice for critical
thinking skills especially in an ESL context. One of the most important ingredients in which instructors should put into
consideration is the selection of text type being employed in their teaching. According to Tung and Chang (2009) one
such text is the literary-based text type, they further asserted that, the reading and analyzing of literary texts are highly
congenial to the crucial merits of critical thinking as the reading of literature-based texts is usually a complex process
that requires learners to recall, retrieve and reflect on their prior knowledge or experiences in order to create meaning
from the given text.
3. Teaching Critical Thinking through Literary Text
The many advantageous and feasibility of teaching instruction that incorporate the study of literature in the ESL
classroom have methodically been studied for a number of decades by a number of scholars including Susan Louise
Stern (1985), Myra A. Dickinson (1991) and Hyung-Hwa Chu (2008). Their studies include the teaching and
application of poems, short stories, and other types of conventional literary texts to students starting from the beginning
to advanced level of abilities. They came to a similar conclusion which suggests that literary texts, if correctly chosen
and instructed, can prove to be beneficial to ESL students’ overall level of literacy and critical thinking skills. These
researchers also asserted that texts that are authentic, enjoyable, and motivating would naturally increase both their
knowledge of the target language patterns and cultural awareness. Critical thinking can also be fostered when students
are exposed to various or even conflicting views and ways of life being portrayed in the literary passage.
While studying its meaning, students are required to demonstrate their capacities in differentiating facts from opinions,
understanding both literal and implied meaning of tone, construction of moral reasoning and well-grounded judgements,
as well as to be able to relate and apply what has been learnt to the real world (Alwine, 2014). Thus, the learners are, in
a sense, exercising and applying what experts in Critical Thinking termed as “explanation,” “analysis,” “synthesis,”
“argumentation,” “interpretation,” “evaluation,” “problem-solving,” “inference” “logical reasoning,” and “application”
(Facione, 2007; Halpern, 1998; Lazere, 1987). All the aforementioned skills are the major components of critical
thinking skills and the reason why Lazere suggested that “literature…is the single academic discipline that can come
closest to encompassing the full range of mental traits currently considered to comprise critical thinking” (1987, p. 3).
One of the earlier and considerably significant study in the teaching of literature in the ESL classroom is by Stern
(1985) that suggested literature texts can provide a basis for expanding learners’ vocabulary and enhancing their
knowledge of grammar as the texts can offer the best exemplars of writing in the target language and employs
vocabulary and sentence structure learners might not encounter in common every day speech. Stern further asserted that
a literature text of merit would usually contain a carefully selected vocabulary and sentence structure, and exhibits the
full use of connotative power of words. As well as, providing various writing styles that can present readers with unique
aesthetics and stimulating intellectual experience. This literary experience can foster both learners’ cognitive and
aesthetic maturation and develops their abilities in making critical and mature grounded judgements.
Van (2009) enumerates a number of benefits of the application of literature in the language classroom, this includes; i)
providing a meaningful contexts, ii) providing a rich resource for vocabulary range, prose and dialogues, iii) appealing
to learners’ imagination and develops creativity, iv) enhancing learners’ cultural awareness, and most importantly v)
encouraging learners’ critical thinking. This is also echoed by a study by Dickson (1991) which examined learners'
attitudes toward the study of literature which gave an emphasis on critical thinking. The findings of the study
suggested that instructional emphasis on critical thinking; (1) encourages learners to be more interactive with the
passage they are studying, (2) encourages learners to expand their focus relative to the study of the given passage, (3)
the completion of critical thinking activities can foster learners to realize and adjust their approach to the reading and
studying of literature, and (4) language instructors need to recognize the instruction of critical thinking skills as a
precedence in order to streamline their teaching of literature to emphasize more on learners’ critical thinking. The
learning experience is specific to critical thinking strategies and being able to practice them through the study of
English literature not only would enhance learners’ confidence whist engaging in literature, but should also provide
learners with crucial strategies to be used in other real-life contexts as well.
However, studies by Hopkins (1993) and Bridges (1993) asserted that teaching literature alone is not enough in
ensuring the advancement of learners’ critical thinking; their studies emphasised on the importance of student
engagement level in the classroom practice. The data suggested that learners who were the most participative and
engaged in the learning process showed the most progress in their critical thinking skills. Bridges added that most form
of selected instructional strategies would not prove to be of great significance to the learners if they are unmotivated and
disengaged in the classroom. These findings indicate a strong correlation to Dickinson’s (1991) study where she found
that learners’ prefer a learner-centred type of activities such as group discussions and experience-based classroom
activities.
This takes us to the importance of the role of the instructor in facilitating learners’ critical thinking; findings suggest
learners’ show a preference to having the instructor as a facilitator rather than someone who assumes too much
responsibility in explaining the literature content. Learners prefer to be involved in the learning of literature when they
are required to participate in more student-centred activities such as group discussions and role play. Unfortunately,
students are not always given the opportunity to engage in such classroom practices, as the data from a study done by
Puthikanon (2009) in Thailand’s ESL classrooms indicates that many instructors still practice the utilitarian approach to
their teaching pedagogy. The use of critical thinking was found to be minimal in the lessons and was focused on more
pressing agendas such as passing the national university entrance examination. Thus, making the lessons more focused
 ALLS 6(2):4-9, 2015 8
on other items such as vocabulary and grammatical rules, inevitably putting the teaching of critical thinking skills in the
back seat. Hence, language instructors should be more proactive in asserting their roles in the classroom to ensure the
instructional approach to critical thinking do take place by encouraging their students to be more participative in
student-centred literature activities by creating a comfortable and conducive learning environment for them.
As McGuire (2010) asserted in his study that learners’ ability to understand a literature text does not solely depend on
their proficiency but on their willingness to think critically about the literary text and their capacity to draw logical
conclusions and reasoning. The importance of instructor’s questioning technique was also highlighted in an earlier
study by Tsui (2002) which suggests the importance of how and what types of questioning practice is applied by the
instructors, good questioners would provide a conducive platform in motivating their students, encourage creativity and
stimulate their critical thinking skills. A study by Dhanapal (2008) also stresses the importance of instructors in playing
the role of facilitators in encouraging their students to understand the importance of learning about how to think and
composing their thoughts are more important than learning ‘what’ to think about the particular text being studied. She
further suggested that instructors should take consideration of the Cogaff taxonomy (adapted from Bloom’s Taxonomy)
which combines the cognitive and affective thinking skills when constructing any form of teaching framework to be
used in formulating constructive literary questioning and extended classroom activities to facilitate growth in their
students’ creative and critical thinking skills.
Tung and Chang (2009) echo this notion in their study by investigating the efficacy of developing critical thinking skills
through the reading of literature which suggested three important factors to consider for a conducive classroom practice
: i) the application of Socratic questioning to promote elaboration of thoughts; ii) a text selection which provides
believable contexts to develop students’ critical and problem solving skills; and iii) an experienced instructor that could
foster a safe and comfortable environment for critical inquiries. Studies by Steffen (2011), Choorapanthiyil (2007) and
Odenwald (2010) all concur on the importance of creating a learning environment which ignites classroom discussions,
promoting learners’ enthusiasm for learning and relating to the text being studied to their real-life context. Odenwald
(2010) further stresses the importance of giving each student the opportunity to comfortably voice out their opinions
and discussion of meaning as it promotes “deeper intellectual enrichment’’ (p.187).
4. Conclusion
The findings from empirical studies reviewed in this paper demonstrate that in order to foster critical thinking amongst
ESL students through the teaching of literature, instructors must first realize and put a degree of priority in developing
their learners’ critical thinking in designing their instructional approaches. As proposed by Starkey (2004), learners’
should be encouraged to ask themselves questions about texts that ignite their critical thinking, prompting them to think
more critically about the prescribed literary passage than just learning ‘what’ to think about it. They should also be
encouraged to understand and explore that there is no one single perspective in any given issue and also how
perspectives can also keep changing. Other notable approaches in teaching literature designed to create a strong
emphasis in critical thinking are Halpern’s (2004) Four-Part Model for explicit instruction and Jun Xu’s (2011) Five-
Step Model. However, as pointed out in studies by Hopkins (1993) and Bridges (1993), emphasising on the right
instructional approach alone is not enough in ensuring the development of learners’ critical thinking skills; as these
studies suggest, learner’s motivation and classroom engagement are also crucial aspects of the learning process. Hence,
suggesting language instructors to not only focus on employing favourable classroom pedagogy and approaches, but
also the need to be able to create a conducive classroom environment promoting active classroom discussions,
encourage learners’ enthusiasm for learning and the ability to relate the text to their real-life context (Tung & Chang,
2009). However, the author also observed through this empirical research that there is evidence of the lack of research
in this area that attempts to describe the exact features, guidelines or rubric language instructors could refer to in order
to choose the type of literary text that would prove to be suitable and beneficial to ESL learner to accordingly suit their
level of competency.

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