Exergy Analysis of Garri (1) Power Plant

‫ﺑﺴﻢ اﷲ اﻟﺮﲪﻦ اﻟﺮﺣﻴﻢ‬
University of Khartoum
The Graduate College
Exergy Analysis of Garri (1) Power Plant
A thesis
Submitted in partial Fulfillment of the Degree of Master of Science in Mechanical
Engineering (Energy)
Prepared by
Mudathir Mohamed Idress Shamaoon
Supervised by
Dr. Mohamed Musadag El-Awad
August 2008
I
‫ﻗﺎل اﷲ ﺗﻌﺎﻟﻰ‪:‬‬
‫َﻞ‬
‫ُ‬ ‫ِ ﻣﺜ‬‫َرض‬
‫ْﺄ‬‫ِ واﻟ‬ ‫ُﻮر اﻟﺴﻤﺎوات‬ ‫ﱠﻪ ﻧ‬ ‫)اﻟﻠ‬
‫ِﺼﺒﺎح‬‫ْﻤ‬
‫ِﺼﺒﺎح اﻟ‬ ‫ِﻴﻬﺎ ﻣ‬ ‫ٍ ﻓ‬‫َﺎة‬‫ْﻜ‬
‫ِﺸ‬‫َﻤ‬‫ِ آ‬ ‫ِﻩ‬‫ُﻮر‬‫ﻧ‬
‫َﺐ دري‬‫َﻮآ‬‫ﱠﻬﺎ آ‬‫َﻧ‬
‫َﺄ‬‫ُ آ‬‫ﱡﺟﺎﺟﺔ‬‫ٍ اﻟﺰ‬ ‫ُﺟﺎﺟﺔ‬ ‫ِﻲ ز‬ ‫ﻓ‬
‫ﱠﺎ‬
‫ٍ ﻟ‬‫ِﺔ‬
‫ُﻮﻧ‬‫َﻳﺘ‬‫ٍ ز‬‫َﺔ‬
‫ٍ ﻣﺒﺎرآ‬ ‫َﺠﺮة‬‫ِﻦ ﺷ‬ ‫َﺪ ﻣ‬ ‫ﻳﻮﻗ‬
‫ِﻲء‬
‫ُ‬ ‫ُﻬﺎ ﻳﻀ‬‫َﻳﺘ‬‫َﺎد ز‬‫ٍ ﻳﻜ‬‫ِﻴﺔ‬‫َﺮﺑ‬
‫َﺎ ﻏ‬ ‫ٍ وﻟ‬ ‫ِﻴﺔ‬ ‫َﺮﻗ‬‫ﺷ‬
‫ُﻮر‬
‫ٍ‬ ‫َﻰ ﻧ‬‫ﱡﻮر ﻋﻠ‬ ‫َﺎر ﻧ‬ ‫َﻤﺴﺴﻪ ﻧ‬ ‫َﻢ ﺗ‬ ‫َﻮ ﻟ‬ ‫وﻟ‬
‫ِب‬
‫َﺎء وﻳﻀﺮ‬ ‫ِ ﻣﻦ ﻳﺸ‬ ‫ِﻩ‬
‫ُﻮر‬‫ِﻨ‬
‫ﱠﻪ ﻟ‬ ‫ِي اﻟﻠ‬ ‫ﻳﻬﺪ‬
‫ُﻞ‬
‫ﱢ‬‫ِﻜ‬‫ﱠﻪ ﺑ‬‫ِ واﻟﻠ‬ ‫ﱠﺎس‬‫ِﻠﻨ‬
‫َ ﻟ‬ ‫َﺎل‬‫َﻣﺜ‬‫ْﺄ‬
‫ﱠﻪ اﻟ‬ ‫اﻟﻠ‬
‫ِﻴﻢ(‬ ‫ٍ ﻋﻠ‬ ‫َﻲء‬‫ﺷ‬
‫ﺳــــﻮرة اﻟﻨﻮر‬
‫اﻵﻳـــﺔ ‪35‬‬
‫‪II‬‬
Acknowledgements
I wish to thank my adviser, Dr.Mohammed Mosadag, for

intellectual support, encouragement, and enthusiasm which
made this thesis possible, and for his patience in connecting
both my stylistic and scientific errors.
I thank my parents, brothers and colleges, for all their
intellectual, emotional and spiritual support.
This research was supported by my colleges from the National
Electricity Corporation NEC in Garri 1 power station, project
and planning department and load dissipate center.
III
Abstract
The objective of this research is to presents an engineering design and

theoretical exergetic analysis of the GARRI 1 combined cycle power plant.
Exergy analysis has been performed based on the first and second laws of
thermodynamics for power generation system.
Expressions involving the variables for specific power-output, thermal
efficiency, exergy destruction in components of the combined cycle,
second-law efficiency of the gas-turbine cycle, and second law efficiency of
the steam power cycle have been derived, excel has been used for
calculation.
The results show the exergy analysis for a steam cycle system predicts
the plant efficiency more precisely. To evaluate the energy utilization, 100%
load for plant using two kinds of fuel light diesel oil and liquefied petroleum
gas and 66% load light diesel oil have been analyzed, so the plant second
law efficiency when using LPG is 64.35 % which is better than LDO with
64.04 %. The plant efficiency for partial load operation is 61.6% which is
lower than full load operation.
IV
‫ﻣﺴﺘﺨﻠﺺ اﻟﺒﺤﺚ‬
‫ﻴﻬﺩﻑ ﻫﺫﺍ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺙ ﻟﺘﻨﺎﻭل ﺍﻟﺘﺼﻤﻴﻡ ﺍﻟﻬﻨﺩﺴﻲ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴـل ﻟﻠﻁﺎﻗـﺔ ﺍﻟﺘـﻲ ﻴﻤﻜـﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺤﺼﻭل ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﻟﻤﺤﻁﺔ ﺍﻟﺩﻭﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺘﺭﻜﺔ ﻗـﺭﻯ )‪ .(1‬ﺘﺤﻠﻴـل ﺍﻟﻁﺎﻗـﺔ ﺍﻟﺘـﻲ ﻴﻤﻜـﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺤﺼﻭل ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﺒﻨﻲ ﻋﻠـﻰ ﺃﺴـﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﻘـﺎﻨﻭﻥ ﺍﻷﻭل ﻭ ﺍﻟﻘـﺎﻨﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺜـﺎﻨﻲ ﻟﻠـﺩﻴﻨﺎﻤﻴﻜﺎ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﻴﺔ ﻷﻨﻅﻤﻪ ﺘﻭﻟﻴﺩ ﺍﻟﻘﺩﺭﺓ‪.‬‬
‫ﺘﻀﻤﻥ ﻫﺫﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴل ﻜل ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﻴـﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻵﺘﻴـﺔ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻘـﺩﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠـﺔ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻜﻔـﺎﺀﺓ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻁﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻴﻤﻜـﻥ ﺍﻟﺤـﺼﻭل ﻋﻠﻴﻬـﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﺒـﺩﺩﺓ ﻓـﻲ ﻤﻜﻭﻨـﺎﺕ ﺍﻟـﺩﻭﺭﺓ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺘﺭﻜﺔ‪ ،‬ﻜﻔﺎﺀﺓ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻨﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻨﻲ ﻟـﺩﻭﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﻴـﺔ ﻭ ﺩﻭﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﺘـﻭﺭﺒﻴﻥ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯﻴـﺔ ﺘـﻡ‬
‫ﺤﺴﺎﺒﻬﺎ ﺒﻭﺍﺴﻁﺔ ﺒﺭﻨﺎﻤﺞ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﺴﻭﺏ ‪.Excel‬‬
‫ﻋﺭﻀﺕ ﻨﺘﺎﺌﺞ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴل ﻟﻠﻁﺎﻗـﺔ ﺍﻟﺘـﻲ ﻴﻤﻜـﻥ ﺍﻟﺤـﺼﻭل ﻋﻠﻴﻬـﺎ ﻓـﻲ ﺩﻭﺭﺓ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺒﺨﺎﺭ ﻟﺘﺤﺩﻴﺩ ﻜﻔﺎﺀﺓ ﺍﻟﺩﻭﺭﺓ ﺒﻭﻀـﻭﺡ‪ .‬ﻟﺘﻘﻴـﻴﻡ ﺍﻻﺴـﺘﻔﺎﺩﺓ ﻤـﻥ ﺍﻟﻁﺎﻗـﺔ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻁـﺔ‬
‫ﺒﺤﻤﻭﻟﺔ ‪ %100‬ﻭ ﺒﺎﺴﺘﺨﺩﺍﻡ ﻨﻭﻋﻴﻥ ﻤـﻥ ﺍﻟﻭﻗـﻭﺩ ﻫﻤـﺎ ﺍﻟـﺩﻴﺯل ﺍﻟﺨﻔﻴـﻑ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻐـﺎﺯ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺒﺘﺭﻭﻟﻲ ﺍﻟﻤـﺴﻴل ﺒﺎﻹﻀـﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﻟـﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻁـﺔ ﺒﺤﻤﻭﻟـﺔ ‪ %66‬ﺒﺎﺴـﺘﺨﺩﺍﻡ ﺍﻟـﺩﻴﺯل‬
‫ﺍﻟﺨﻔﻴﻑ ﺘﻡ ﺘﺤﻠﻴﻠﻬﺎ‪.‬ﻭﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﻓﺎﻥ ﻜﻔـﺎﺀﺓ ﺍﻟﻘـﺎﻨﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺜـﺎﻨﻲ ﻟﻠﻤﺤﻁـﺔ ﺒﺎﺴـﺘﺨﺩﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﻐـﺎﺯ‬
‫ـﻑ‬
‫ـﺩﻴﺯل ﺍﻟﺨﻔﻴـ‬
‫ـﺘﺨﺩﺍﻡ ﺍﻟـ‬
‫ـﻥ ﺍﺴـ‬
‫ـﻀل ﻤـ‬
‫ـﻲ ‪ %64,35‬ﺃﻓـ‬
‫ـﺴﻴل ﻫـ‬
‫ـﻲ ﺍﻟﻤـ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺒﺘﺭﻭﻟـ‬
‫‪ %61,6‬ﺍﻗـل ﻤـﻥ‬ ‫‪ .%64,04‬ﻜﻔﺎﺀﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻁﺔ ﺒﺎﻟﺤﻤـل ﺍﻟﺘـﺸﻐﻴل ﺍﻟﺠﺯﺌـﻲ ﻫـﻲ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺤﻤل ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻜﻼ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﺘﻴﻥ ﺃﻋﻼﻩ ‪.‬‬
‫‪V‬‬
List of contents
Subject Page
‫ اﻵﻳﺔ‬----------------------------------------------------------------------------- I
ACKNOLEDGENMENT -------------------------------------------------- II
ABSTRACT ------------------------------------------------------------------ III
‫ﻣﺴﺘﺨﻠﺺ اﻟﺒﺤﺚ‬------------------------------------------------------------------ IV
LIST OF CONTENTS ------------------------------------------------------ V
LIST OF FIGURE ----------------------------------------------------------- VIII
LIST OF TABLES ----------------------------------------------------------- IX
ABBREVIATIONS --------------------------------------------------------- X
Nomenclature ---------------------------------------------------------------- XI
CHAPTER ONE .......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
INTRODUCTION ....................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.1. ELECTRICITY SUPPLY IN SUDANError! Bookmark not defined.
1.2. ELECTRICAL SYSTEM IN SUDAN ........Error! Bookmark not
defined.
1.2.1. NEC Short (2005-2010) and Long (2005-2030) Term Plans.Error!
Bookmark not defined.
1.3. SECOND-LAW OF THERMODYNAMIC ASPECTS OF
DAILY LIFE ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.4. OBJECTIVES OF STUDY ............... Error! Bookmark not defined.
CHAPTER TWO ......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
LITERATURE REVIEW ............................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
CHAPTER THREE ..................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
FUNDAMENTALS OF EXERGY ANALYSIS .......Error! Bookmark not
defined.
3.1 EXERGY: A MEASURE OF WORK POTENTIALError! Bookmark
not defined.
3.2 EXERGY WORK POTENTIAL OF ENERGYError! Bookmark not
defined.
3.3 REVERSIBLE WORK AND IRREVERSIBILITYError! Bookmark
not defined.
3.4 SECOND-LAW EFFICIENCY, ηII ... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.5 EXERGY CHANGE OF A SYSTEM Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.5.1 Exergy of a Fixed Mass:............... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.5.1.2 Exergy of a Flow Stream: Flow (or Stream Exergy ....... Error!
VI
3.6 THE DECREASE OF EXERGY PRINCIPLE AND EXERGY
DESRUCTION......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.6.1 Exergy Destruction....................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.7 EXERGY BALANCE: CLOSED SYSTEMS..Error! Bookmark not
defined.
3.8 EXERGY BALANCE: CONTROL VOLUMESError! Bookmark not
defined.
3.8.1 Exergy Balance for Steady-Flow System...Error! Bookmark not
defined.
3.8.2 Reversible Work,.......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.8.3 Second-Law Efficiency of Steady-Flow Devices,Error! Bookmark
not defined.
CHAPTER FOUR........................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
GARRI 1 POWER PLANT ......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.1. SITE LOCATION ............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.2. WEATHER CONDITIONS .............. Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.3. DESIGN OPERATING CONDITIONSError! Bookmark not defined.
4.4. PLANT CONFIGURATIONS .......... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.5. OPERATING SCHEME OF THE CCPP ........Error! Bookmark not
defined.
4.6. GAS TURBINE WITH EXHAUST GAS SYSTEMError! Bookmark
not defined.
4.6.1 Gas Turbine.................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.6.2 Exhaust Gas System ..................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.7. WATER STEAM CYCLE ................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.8. HRSG AND ITS AUXILIARY SYSTEM ......Error! Bookmark not
defined.
4.9. THE MAIN STEAM AND BYPASS SYSTEMError! Bookmark not
defined.
4.10. DEAERATOR HEATING STEAM SYSTEMError! Bookmark not
defined.
4.11. BOILER FEED-WATER SYSTEM Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.12. CONDENSATE SYSTEM.............. Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.13. CIRCULATING COOLING WATER SYSTEMError! Bookmark
not defined.
4.14. AUXILARY SYSTEMS ................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.19. HEAT RECOVERY STEAM GENERATOR (HRSG) ....... Error!
4.19.1 General....................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.19.2 Type of Boiler ............................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
VII
4.19.3 Boiler Performance Features ...... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.19.4 Boiler Inlet Duct, Main Stack and Duct Accessories ...... Error!
4.20. STEAM TURBINE ......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
CHAPTER FIVE ......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
EXERGY ANALYSIS FOR GARRI 1 POWER PLANT USING EXCEL
..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.1. EXERGY ANALYSIS FOR STEAM CYCLE (TABLES (5-1,2,3))
.................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.1.1. HRSG:......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.1.2. Steam turbine (ST): ..................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.1.3. Condenser.................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.1.4. Feeding system (pumps).............. Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.2. EXERGY ANALYSIS OF MAIN EQUIPMENT FOR GARRI
POWER PLANT (TABLE (5-4))............. Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.2.1. Gas turbine one set ...................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.2.2. HRSG one set.............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.2.3. Steam turbine set (combined by 2 HRSGs)Error! Bookmark not
defined.
CHAPTER SIX............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.1. EXERGY ANALYSIS OF CCPP ..... Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.1.1. Brayton cycle theoretical efficiencyError! Bookmark not defined.
6.1.2. Rankine cycle theoretical efficiencyError! Bookmark not defined.
6.2. EFFECT OF PARTIAL LOAD ON CCPP EFFICIENCY..... Error!
6.3. THERMODYNAMICS ANALYSIS Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.4. EVALUATION OF TEMPERATURE AND HEAT ABSORPTION
FOR HRSG .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.5. EFFECT OF PINCH POINT ON PLANT PERFORMANCE Error!
CHAPTER SEVEN ..................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONError! Bookmark not defined.
7.1. CONCLUSION ................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.2. RECOMMENDATION..................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
References ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
VIII
IX
List of figures
Subject page
1-1 High load forecast planting programme ------------------------------------ 8
2-1 Schematic flow diagram for Plant A ---------------------------------------- 17
2-2 Schematic flow diagram for Plant B ---------------------------------------- 18
2-3 Schematic diagram of EGAT-Block 1 (Combined cycle) --------------- 23
2-4 Schematic diagram of the combined Brayton/Rankine power cycle
Reheat -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25
3-1 The isolated system considered in the development of the decrease of
Exergy principle ------------------------------------------------------------------ 46
3-2 Exergy is transferred into or out of a control volume by mass as w
heat and work transfer ---------------------------------------------------------- 52
3-3 A heat exchanger with two unmixed streams ------------------------------ 57
4-1 GARRI 1 Block configuration ----------------------------------------------- 62
6-1 T–S diagram of combined cycle plant -------------------------------------- 93
6-2 Thermodynamic analysis of Garri 1 ---------------------------------------- 98
6-3 Gas and steam temperature profile of HRSG for 100 % load LDO ---- 100
6-4 Gas and steam temperature profile of HRSG for 100% load LPG ----- 100
6-5 Gas and steam temperature profile of HRSG for 66% load LDO ------ 101
X
List of tables
Subject page
1-1 Existing thermal and hydro power capacity in the national grid
2005 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5
1-2 Isolated power plants ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 6
1-3 Generation in the five years plan (2005-2010) ---------------------------------------- 7
1-4 High load forecast planting programme --------------------------------------------- 9
2-1 Description of plant A and B ------------------------------------------------------------- 18
2-2 Gas turbine design information for plant A and B ------------------------------ 19
2-3 Conditions and parameters used in the calculation ---------------------------- 22
4-1 Boiler all heating surfaces thermodynamic special property
(design operating conditions) GT fuel LDO ---------------------------------------------- 72
(design operating conditions) GT fuel LPG------------------------------------------------- 73
(66% load operating conditions) GT fuel LDO -------------------------------------------- 74
4-4 The list of summary of data for CCPP (100% load condition)-------------------- 75
4-5 Main performance data (100% load condition)------------------------------------ 77
5-1 Exergy analysis for steam cycle (gas turbine fuel light desil oil
for 100% load) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 85
5-2 Exergy analysis for steam cycle (gas turbine fuel LPG
for 100% load) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 86
5-3 Exergy analysis for steam cycle (gas turbine fuel light desil oil
for 66% load) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 87
5-4 Exergy analysis of main equipment for garri power plant---------------------- 88
6-1 Exergy destruction for garri 1 components ---------------------------------------- 96
XI
Abbreviation
NEC National electricity corporation
NGS National grid system
CCPP Combined cycle power plant
HRSG Heat recovery steam generation
TIT Turbine inlet temperature
CC Combustion chamber
LHV Low heat value
ISO International standards organization
ASTM American society for testing material
NG Natural gas
GT Gas turbine
GTG Gas turbine generator
RGT Reheat gas turbine
ST Steam turbine
STG Steam turbine generator
AC Air compressor
C Condenser
CP Condensate pump
HP High pressure
HPFWP High pressure feed water pump
LP Low pressure
LPFWP Low pressure feed water pump
LPG Liquefied petroleum gas
LDO Light diesel oil
MSL Mean sea level
RH Relative humidity
SC Simple cycle
LMTD Logarithm means temperature different Subscript
Subscript :
i inlet
o outlet
XII
Nomenclature
P pressure absolute (MPa)
P0 atmospheric pressure (MPa)
T temperature (˚C)
T0 atmospheric temperature (˚C)
ψ exergy (kJ/kg)
ψf fuel exergy (kJ/s)
ψp process heat exergy (kJ/s)
εf fuel exergy factor
εs steam water heat exergy factor
Ef fuel energy (kJ/s)
H enthalpy (kJ/s)
h enthalpy of produced steam/water (kJ/kg)
hc enthalpy of feed water return to HRSG (kJ/kg)
ma mass flow rate of air (kg/s)
mf mass flow rate of fuel (kg/s)
me mass flow rate of exhaust flue gas (kg/s)
ms mass flow rate of steam/water (kg/s)
m sH mass flow rate of high pressure steam (kg/s)
m sL mass flow rate of low pressure steam (kg/s)
QP process heat = H o − H i (kJ/s)
R power-to-heat ratio
s entropy (kJ/kg.K)
WE electrical gross power output of plant (kW)
WGT gas turbines gross power output (kW)
WST steam turbine gross power output (kW)
η CC thermal efficiency for combined cycle plant
η GT thermal efficiency for gas turbine
η HRSG thermal efficiency for heat recovery steam generator
η ST thermal efficiency for steam cycle
η Rankine thermal efficiency for Rankine cycle
ηI first law efficiency
η II second law efficiency
XIII
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1
1.1. ELECTRICITY SUPPLY IN SUDAN
Electricity in Sudan is mainly supplied by the National Electricity
Corporation (NEC), except small private generators in main towns that
are not supplied by NEC. Many industrial and large commercial
operations have standby generators, among which some industries have
their own continuous generation. Most of NEC’s customers are supplied
by the National Grid System (NGS). NEC’s isolated grid systems
currently provide electric supply for fourteen main towns lying in states
far from main grid, these systems comprise diesel generators, and small
distribution networks predominantly supplying urban consumers. The
quality of supply in the grid system is much superior to that of the
isolated grids, which suffer from insufficient installed capacity, lack of
spare parts, inadequate maintenance, and fuel shortage. The National
Grid System was however, subjected to regular load- shedding at peak
times.
The National Grid was affected annually during summer and rainy
seasons in which the hydro generation drops causing lack of power
supply about 50% from the available power, at the same time causing
instability of the system due to disturbance in frequency which is
controlled from Rosseries hydro power station.
Although the new generation in Garri (1) & (2) which has added
330 MW to the system, load shedding was occurred in the summer of
2006. NEC forecast had been expected a shortage of 150 MW in the
summer of 2006 and that is why NEC was planning to add 150 MW in
2006, which was not happened. An additional load is connected to the
grid through the new transmission line of Elgaili Shendi/ Atbara which is
now 20 MW and is expected to increase very fast due to the restriction of
generation capacity before these towns are connected to the grid.
2
In the past within two years the demand has increased by 24%
(2004-2006), NEC setup five years plan to coup with this increase four
contracts are already signed to increase the system capacity:
Garri 2 upgrading 100 MW. (Implemented).

Khartoum North 200 MW. (Under Construction)
Kosti 500 MW. (Under Construction)
Garri -4 100 MW. (Under Construction)
Due to increase of demand by 24% in 2004 [1], NEC rang the bell
for importance of a fast track generation to fill the gab of generation
shortage expected in the summer and rainy season of 2006. In 2005, the
rate of demand increase was not changed.
This fast track is important, because the implementation of the
above mentioned committed projects will not start before 2007, except
Garri-II upgrading to combined cycle 100 MW, which is already
constructed, and it partially was participated in filling the gab by at least
100 MW in summer of 2007, in last May 2007.Thus 100 MW was added,
to the generation capacity of the system.
Beside the above mentioned projects , 400 MW in El Fula,300
MW in Kilo-X, 500 MW in El Bagair, 500 MW in Garri-III and 500 MW
in Port Sudan Power Stations are committed in addition to 1250 MW
from Marawe Project. The White Nile Grid 220 KV Rosairess, Rank,
Rabak and Khartoum with tap off from Rabak to El Obied which will
serve many isolated towns from the grid. This transmission lines are
under construction now.
3
1.2. ELECTRICAL SYSTEM IN SUDAN
Electrical System in Sudan comprises approximately 1400 km of
high voltage transmission that is supplied both by thermal and
hydropower stations attached table (1-1). In addition, fourteen isolated
centres are served by thermal generating plants and local distribution
networks see table (1-2).
TOTAL INSTALLED GENERATION IN THE NATIONAL GRID
TOTAL OF HYDRO 343.3 MW

TOTAL OF THERMAL 730.7 MW
TOTAL GENERATION 1074 MW
4
Table (1-1): Existing thermal and hydro power capacity in the
national grid 2005 [1].
Plant No Unit Total

units MW MW
Roseires 7 40 280
Sennar 2 7.5 15
Khashm El 2 5.5 11
Girba Kaplan
Tur.
PUMP Turbine 3 2.3 6.9
Jebel Aulia1 80 0.38 30.4
SUB-TOTAL 343.3
HYDRO
Khartoum 2 30 60
North Phase
One
Khartoum 2 60 120
North Phase
Two
Khartoum 2 20 40
North 1&2/GT
Khartoum 2 25 50
North 3&4/GT
Kuku 1&2/GT 2 10 20
Gerri I(1) 6 35 210
Gerri (2) 6 35 210
Kassala/Diesel 5 3.5+4 7.5
(4 + 1 sets)
Faw 2 6.6 13.2
SUB-TOTAL 730.7
THERMAL
TOTAL 1074
Generation
5
Table (1-2): Isolated power plants [1].
Plant No Unit Total

Units MW MW
Um Rwaba 3 1x0.6-2x1 2.6
Port sudan A/B/C/D 30+6.6+15+2 53.6
Wadi Halfa 3 3X0.6 1.8
Juba 5 1 5
Waw 2 0.92 1.84
Malkal 2 1 2
Elgenena 2 3 6
Nyala 6 5 30
Elfasher 8 1 8
Elobied 4 3.5 14
Kadugli 2 1 2
Eldien 2 1 2
Karima 4 2.5 10
Elnuhood 2 0.8 1.6
ELDUIM 2 1.98 3.86
TOTAL 144.3
1.2.1. NEC Short (2005-2010) and Long (2005-2030) Term Plans.

NEC planned to implement the following generation power
plant as described in the following table (1-3) in the five years plan
(2005-2010)
6
Table (1-3): Generation in the five years plan (2005-2010) [2].
Year Additional Generation Plan (2006- MW
2010)
2006 35 MW CCGT Garri (2) 35
2007 70 MW CCGT Garri (2) 70
2x35 MW Fast Track Kilo (x) 70
1×55 MW- 1st Unit Garri (4) 55
2×125 MW Morewe Hydro. 250
Main Nile
2×25 Kassala Diesel 50
2008 1x100 MW Steam Kh. N (Phase 100
3)
2x125 MW Steam Kosti 250
2×135 MW Steam Generation at 270
EL Fula
1×55 MW 2nd Unit Garri (4) 55
2009 2×135 MW Garri(3) 270
1x100 MW Steam Kh. N (Phase 100
3)
2x135 MW Steam ELBagair 270
2X 135 MW - Coal/generation 270
Port Sudan
3×125 MW Morewe Hydro 375
EL Fula
2X 135 MW - Coal/generation 270
Port Sudan
2010 2×135 MW Garri(3) 270
EL Fula
3×125 MW Morewe Hydro 375
2x135 MW Steam ELBagair 270
7
The load forecast for the long term plan is shown in figure (1-1)
and table (1-4), which represents that during the next three years
there is gab between the generation and demand.
Figure (1-1): High load forecast planting programme [3].
8
Table (1-4): High load forecast planting programme [3].
TOTAL DEMAND RESERVE RESEVE
YEAR CAPACITY (MW) MARGINE MARGINE
(MW) (MW) (%)
2006 871 1228 -357 -29
2007 1187 2007 -820 -41
2008 1627 2699 -1072 -40
2009 4333 3549 784 22
2010 5486 4354 1132 26

DAILY LIFE
Thermodynamics is a fundamental natural science that deals with
various aspects of energy, and even non-technical people have a basis
understanding of energy and the first law of thermodynamics since there
is hardly any aspect of life that does not involve the transfer or
transformation of energy in different forms. All the dieters for example,
base there lifestyle on the conservation of energy principle. Although the
first law aspects of thermodynamics are readily understood and easily
accepted by most people there is not a public awareness about the second
law of thermodynamics, and the second law aspects are not fully
appreciated even by people with technical backgrounds. These cause
some students to view the second law as something that is of theoretical
interest rather than an important and practical engineering tool. As a
result, students show little interest in a detailed study of the second law of
thermodynamic. This is unfortunate because the students end up with a
one-sided view of thermodynamic and miss the balanced, complete
picture.
9
Many ordinary events that go unnoticed can serve as excellent
vehicles to convey important concepts of thermodynamics. Below we
will attempt to demonstrate the relevance of the second low concepts
such as exergy, reversible work, irreversibility, and the second law
efficiency to various aspects of daily life using examples with which
even nontechnical people can identify. Hopefully, this will enhance our
understanding an appreciation of the second law of thermodynamics and
encourage us to use it more often in technical and non-technical areas.
The critical reader is reminded that the concepts presented below are soft
and difficult to quantize, and that they are offered to stimulate interest in
the study of the second law of thermodynamics and to enhance our
understanding and appreciation of it.
The second concepts are implicitly used in various aspects of daily
life. Many successful people seem to make extensive use of them without
even realizing it. There is growing awareness that quality plays as
important a role as quantity in even ordinary daily activities.
In thermodynamics, reversible work for a process is defined the
maximum useful work out put (or minimum work input) for that process.
It is the useful work that a system would deliver (or consume) during a
process between two specified states if that process is executed in a
reversible (perfect) manner. The difference between the reversible work
and the actual useful work is due to imperfections and is called
irreversibility (the wasted work potential). For the special case of the
final state being the dead state or the state of the surrounding, the
reversible work becomes a maximum and is called the exergy of the
system at the initial state. The irreversibility for a eversible or perfect
process is zero.
The exergy of a person in daily life can be viewed as the best job
that person can do under the most favourable conditions. The reversible
10
work in daily life, on the other hand can be viewed as the best job a
person can do under some specified conditions then the difference
between the reversible work and the actual work under those conditions
can be viewed as irreversibility or the exergy destroyed. In engineering
system, we try to identify the major sources of irreversibility's and
minimize them in order to maximize performance. In daily life, a person
should do just that to maximize his or her performance.
The exergy of a person at a given time and place can be viewed as
the maximum amount of work he or she can do at that time and place.
Exergy is certainly difficult to quantify because of the interdependence of
physical and intellectual capabilities of a person. The ability to perform
physical and intellectual tasks simultaneously complicates things even
further. Schooling and training obviously increase the exergy of a person.
Aging decreases the physical exergy. Unlike most mechanical things, the
exergy of human beings is a function of time, and the physical and/or
intellectual exergy of a person goes to waste if it is not utilize at the time.
A barrel of oil loses nothing from its exergy if left unattended for 40
years. However, a person will lose much of his or her entire exergy
during that time period if he or she just sits back.
The increased awareness that the world's energy resources are
limited has caused some governments to re-examine their energy policies
and take drastic measures in eliminating waste. It has also sparked
interest in the scientific community to a closer look at the energy
conversion devices and to develop new techniques to better utilized the
existing limited resources. The first law of thermodynamic deals with the
quantity of energy and asserts that energy can not be created or
destroyed. This law serves as a necessary tool for the book keeping of
energy during process and offers no challenges to the engineer. The
second law however deals with the quality of the energy. More
11
specifically, it is concerned with the degradation of energy during a
process, the entropy generation, and the lost opportunities to do work,
and it is offers plenty of room for improvement [4].
1.4. OBJECTIVES OF STUDY

The objective of this research is to:
1. Examine the performance of Garri power station in light of
the first law and second law of thermodynamics.
2. Take drastic measures in eliminating waste.
3. Pointing for new techniques to better utilize the existing
limited resources.
12
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
13
Studies of engineering designs and exergy analyses for power
generation systems are of scientific interest and also essential for the
efficient utilization of energy resources. For this reason, the exergy
analysis has drawn much attention by scientists and system designers in
recent years. Some devoted their studies [5,6] to component exergy
analyses [7] and efficiency improvement; others concentrate on systems
design and analyses[8-12].
A computerized thermodynamic analyses of a gas turbine based
combined cycle power plant (CCPP) fitted with a triple pressure HRSG
and hot reheat foresees the efficiency reaching a value of 62% [8]. Huang
[9] shows that the performance evaluation of a CCPP based only on the
first law of thermodynamics is not adequate, but the second law of
thermodynamics must be taken into consideration to get a better
evaluation. Verkhivker and Kosoy [10] pointed out the principal
processes which cause the destruction of exergy in a power generation
cycle are the combustion process, the subsequent heating of the working
fluid and the heat transfer in the heat exchangers. For a combined triple
(Brayton/Rankine/Rankine)/ (gas/steam/ ammonia) power cycle, Marrero
et al [11]. also confirms that the largest irreversibility is produced in the
combustion process. It decreases with the increase of the gas turbine inlet
temperature.
Parametric studies performed by Bilgen [12] show that the first law
and second law efficiencies are decreased with the increase of the power-
to-heat ratio. The first law efficiency is strongly related to the power-to-
heat ratio in a cogeneration plant. The efficiency is reduced around 40%
when the power-to-heat ratio increases from 1 to 20. On the other hand,
the second law efficiency is degraded only about 2% when the power-to-
heat ratio increases from 1 to 20. It complies with the second law of
thermodynamics—work is the valuable commodity of a power plant.
14
Work can be completely and continuously converted to heat. Heat is not
completely converted to work in a cycle.
Pak and Suzuki [13] studied exergy in the improvement of gas
turbine co generation based on T0 = 15˚C and P0 = 101 kPa as the dead
states using 3 methods:
1. Increase temperature of the hot gas entering the gas turbine (TIT) about
200 K.
2. Use a regenerator between gas-turbine outlet and compressor outlet gas
before entering the combustion chamber (CC).
3. Use superheated steam from waste heat boiler for the combustion
chamber (Assuming that natural gas is composed mainly of methane).
Before improvement, the maximum exergy losses are found at the
combustion chamber. Total exergy losses are around 58.7%. And total
exergetic efficiency is 41.3%.
Increasing gas temperature entering the gas turbine from 1273 to
1473 K (method 1) makes a decrease in total exergy loss about 4.1% and
an increase in total exergetic efficiency about 4.1%.
Installing the regenerator (method 2) makes an increase in the total
exergetic efficiency to be about 43.9 %. Because the exergy loss was
decreased at combustor and was occurred slightly at the regenerator.
In method 3: to maintain the outlet temperature, more fuel input is
needed. The exergetic efficiency of power generation was increased about
10.2%. But the exergetic efficiency of heat generation was decreased
about 14 %. Then the total exergetic efficiency was decreased about
3.8%. This method is suitable in the case of low steam generation in a
waste heat boiler.
Deng-Chern Sue- Chia-Chin Chuang [14] presented a paper
that presents the engineering design and theoretical exergetic analyses of
the plant for combustion gas turbine based power generation systems.
15
Exergy analysis is performed based on the first and second laws of
thermodynamics for power generation systems. The results show the
exergy analyses for a steam cycle system predict the plant efficiency
more precisely. The plant efficiency for partial load operation is lower
than full load operation. Increasing the pinch points will decrease the
combined cycle plant efficiency. The engineering design is based on inlet
air-cooling and natural gas preheating for increasing the net power output
and efficiency. To evaluate the energy utilization, one combined cycle
unit and one cogeneration system, consisting of gas turbine generators,
heat recovery steam generators, one steam turbine generator with steam
extracted for process have been analyzed. The analytical results are used
for engineering design and component selection.
To analyze the engineering system design and enhance gas turbine
performance, two different power plants were selected to perform the
experiments in this study. The first one is combined cycle Plant A; the
other one is cogeneration Plant B. Fig.(2-1) illustrates the schematic flow
diagram for Plant A; Fig. (2-2) shows the schematic flow diagram for
Plant B. Plant B is not equipped with NG preheating. The processes for
Plants A and B are similar when no steam is extracted for offsite steam
users from the Plant B steam turbine. These plants are briefly described in
Table 2-1.
Taiwan is located in a sub-tropical zone; the temperature difference
between summer and winter is moderate. However, the power output
decreases when operated in the warmer ambient air conditions due to the
lower air mass flow rate.
The gas turbines information of Plants A and B are presented in

Table 2-2. Normally, the gas turbine manufacturers quote performance
based on ISO and LHV conditions. ISO conditions mean 15˚C ambient
16
air temperature, 101.325 kPa barometric pressure, and 60% relative
humidity. LHV means the lower heating value of the fuel being used.
ASTM D3588 is the method used to determine the lower heating value of
the NG fuel supplied to both Plants A and B. heating value of the NG
heating value of the NG fuel supplied to both Plants A and B. heating
value of the NG fuel supplied to both Plants A and B. heating value of the
NG fuel supplied to both heating value of the NG fuel supplied to both
Plants A and B.Plants A and B.
Fig. 2-1. Schematic flow diagram for Plant A.
17
Fig. 2-2. Schematic flow diagram for Plant B.
Table 2-1: description of plants A and B

Plant type Plant A Plant B
5 combined cycle units 1 cogeneration cycle uni
Combination 3GTGs+3HRSGs+1STG 3 aero derivative GTGs +
3HRSG+ 1STG
Total installation capacit 2200 150+45 ton/h steam
(MW)
Site elevation 4 138
(meter above MSL)
Annual average RH(%) 80 78.5
Highest/lowest daily T(˚ 35.4/7.4 38/6
Average annual T(˚C) 25.1 22.3
Design condition 32 and 90 32 and 90
(˚C and %RH)
Preheated fuel gas T(˚C) 120 N/A
Air inlet cooling T(˚C) N/A 5.5+0.5
Commercially operated dJanuary 1999 January 2000
18
Table 2-2 gas turbine design information for plants A and B
Type Plant A Plant B
Heavy duty Aero derivative
No. of compressor stages per G 17 19 (14 HP + 5LP)
No. of turbine stages per GTG 4 7 (2HP + 5LP)
No. of shaft per GTG 1 2
Shaft rotor Solid Hollow concentric
Shaft speed (rpm) 3600 HP = 10000, LP = 3600
No. of combustors 2 1 annular
No. of burners per combustor 6 30
Compression ratio of GT 10.2 29.4
They conclude that based on first law (energy) and second law
(exergy) analyses, the formulas for dual pressure HRSG have been
developed for thermodynamic performance and engineering betterment of
combustion gas turbine based power generation systems. The plant
performance can be improved by improving the system design such as
using dual pressure steam cycles, inlet air cooling for the gas turbine, and
fuel gas preheating, etc. the efficiency difference of CCPP between
second law and actual plant operation at design condition is 22.13%,
which is caused by a steam cycle efficiency of only 32.74% as shown.
The efficiency deviation between exergy analyses and performance test
results can be improved by engineering design.
The higher exergy destruction occurs because the lower pressure
steam has high entropy value at same temperature level. Therefore, the
CCPP operated at 50% load has an efficiency of 2.4% lower than the
100% load. The HRSG pinch point increased 10˚C only affects the
19
overall combined cycle efficiency by 0.3%. The pinch point design value
has to be carefully evaluated based on anticipated operating factors to
obtain an optimum design.
Experiments conducted on the 90 MW rated gas turbines of Plant
A, show that, with the installation of a fuel gas preheating system from
22.5 to 118 ˚C, less fuel consumption can be achieved under the same
power output. Operating records indicate fuel savings and a slight
improvement in efficiency (0.06%) for the whole plant.
The gas turbine Plant B produces 18% greater power output using
15˚C intake air than 30˚C air. In many power purchase agreements
(PPA), the capacity charge is based on the peak output that can be
demonstrated on a predetermined hot summer day. In such cases, the
power output reduction in summer is economically unacceptable to the
power producer. On the other hand, the plant operational data depict that
the efficiency will be 1% lower when compressor inlet air is cooled from
10 to 5 ˚C. The trend of energy efficiency is not proportional to the power
output. Therefore, the optimum operational inlet air temperature to the
compressor will depend on the gas turbine design under the consideration
of energy saving and contractual requirements.
From the engineering design point of view, if the offsite steam user
uses process steam exclusively for absorption chillers associated with air
conditioning, the power facility can install the chillers and directly
provide the chilled water instead of the process steam. It will eliminate
many problems such as steam traps, expansion joints, and return
condensate contamination, etc.
This study reported by Somkiat Boonnasa and Pichai
Namprakai[15] to assess the performance of the EGAT (Block 1),
combined cycle power plant using the exergy method. Located in
Samutprakran, Thailand the studied power plant consists of two unit of
20
gas turbine and a unit of steam turbine which has been operated for 9
years. It has total capacity of 322.45 MW. Pressure ratio of the air
compressor is 12. Natural gas is fuel input and the mass ratio of air to fuel
is 44:1. The dead states of the environment in Thailand, which are 25 ˚C
and 1.013 bar, are used in this analysis. It was found that exergy
efficiency of the steam turbine, the gas turbine, heat recovery steam
generator (HRSG) and the combined cycle power plant were 82.8, 20.7,
56.5 and 31 % respectively. The total exergy loss of the power plant is
718.7 MW (69% of exergy input). The benefit of this study is that the
effectiveness of the performance improvement of a thermal system can be
evaluated. In addition, the energy resources can be utilized efficiently.
Established in Southern part of Bangkok, the capital of Thailand,
the EGAT (Block 1) combined cycle power plant in this study has been
operated for 9 years since 1995. The system consists of 2 sets of gas
turbine (GT), 103.93 MW each, and 1 set of steam turbine (ST), 114.526
MW, as shown in Fig.2-3. The cooling water of the condensing system
will be pumped from the Chao-pra ya River. Combustion chamber of the
gas turbine is fueled with a natural gas. Air to fuel ratio is 44:1. In Fig.2-
3. two units of heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) which uses exhaust
gas from the gas turbines to generate a steam for the steam turbine is also
shown.
Due to the decline in various equipment performances and the
more in energy losses, exergy efficiency analysis thus is needed
especially in the combined cycle, steam turbine and HRSG. It was
assumed that the two gas turbines were similar. In this study, exergy
balance was then evaluated.
The benefit of this study is that the effectiveness of the
performance improvement of a thermal system can be evaluated. In
addition, the energy resources can be utilized efficiently
21
Table 2-3 conditions and parameters used in the calculation
Descriptions Values
Ambient condition 25 ˚C / 101.3 kPa
TIT 1057 ˚C
Compressor inlet temperature 25 ˚C
Compressor pressure ratio 12
Mass flow rate of air 876.2 kg/s
Air to fuel ratio (by mass) 44:1
NCV of fuel 50.14 MJ/kg
Chemical exergy of fuel 52.15 MJ/kg
Gas turbine output (2 units) 207.86MW
Steam turbine output (1 unit) 114.53 MW
22
Fig. 2-3 Schematic diagram of EGAT-Block 1 (Combined cycle).
Somkiat Boonnasa and Pichai Namprakai conclude that according

to an analysis, it was found that exergy efficiency of gas turbine was the
lowest. Maximum exergy loss was found at the combustor (50% of
input). The second important loss was at HRSG (10% of input). Exhaust
gas temperature is too high which may result from the fouling on surface
area of a heat exchanger thus a lower overall heat transfer coefficient in
HRSG. Cleaning the heat transfer surface can solve this problem then
exergy loss to environment can decrease substantially. If the exhaust
23
temperature is deceased by 30˚C then the steam turbine output would
increase 4.2 MW (3.64 %) and so does the combined cycle. It would save
73 MBaht/year. And the environment was also maintained.
To prevent the accumulation of sulfuric acid the final temperature
should not be lower than the dew point. For the combustor, to improve its
performance the STIG (steam-injection gas turbine) would be used. But it
would also increase the capital cost.
A. Khaliq and S.C.Kaushik[16] present paper which use the

second-law approach for the thermodynamic analysis of the reheat
combined Brayton/Rankine power cycle. Expressions involving the
variables for specific power-output, thermal efficiency, exergy
destruction in components of the combined cycle, second-law efficiency
of each process of the gas-turbine cycle, and second law efficiency of the
steam power cycle have been derived. The standard approximation for air
with constant properties is used for simplicity. The effects of pressure
ratio, cycle temperature ratio, number of reheats and cycle pressure-drop
on the combined cycle performance parameters have been investigated. It
is found that the exergy destruction in the combustion chamber represents
over 50% of the total exergy destruction in the overall cycle. The
combined cycle efficiency and its power output were maximized at an
intermediate pressure-ratio, and increased sharply up to two reheat-stages
and more slowly thereafter.
A schematic diagram of a combined Brayton/Rankine power cycle
with reheat is shown in Fig.3-4. The gas turbine is shown as a topping
plant, which forms the high-temperature loop, whereas the steam plant
forms the low-temperature loop. The connecting link between the two
cycles is the heat-recovery steam generator (HRSG) working on the
exhaust of the gas turbine. A gas-turbine cycle consists of an air
24
compressor (AC), a combustion chamber (CC) and a reheat gas-turbine
(RGT). The turbine's exhaust-gas goes to a heat-recovery steam-generator
to generate superheated steam. That steam is used in a standard steam
power-cycle, which consists of a turbine (ST), a condenser (C) and a
pump (P). Both the gas and steam turbines drive electric generators.
Fig.2-4 Schematic diagram of the combined Brayton/Rankine power

cycle with reheat.
They conclude that an improved second-law analysis of the

combined power-cycle with reheat has shown the importance of the
parameters examined. The analysis has included the exergy destruction in
the components of the cycle and an assessment of the effects of pressure
ratio, temperature ratio and number of reheat stages on the cycle
25
performance. The exergy balance or second-law approach presented
facilitates the design and optimization of complex cycles by pinpointing
and quantifying the losses. By placing reheat in the expansion process,
significant increases in specific power output and efficiency were
obtained. The gains are substantial for one and two reheats, but
progressively smaller for subsequent stages. It is interesting to note that
specific power output (per unit gas flow) increases by a factor of 2.5 for
the two reheats. This may well justify the additional capital cost of the
reheat system. Reheating by increasing the specific power-output reduces
the sensitivity of the cycle to component losses.
26
CHAPTER THREE
FUNDAMENTALS OF EXERGY ANALYSIS
27
3.1 EXERGY: A MEASURE OF WORK POTENTIAL
The second law of thermodynamics has proved to be a very
powerful tool in the optimization of complex thermodynamic systems. In
this chapter which is based on [4], examination of the performance of
devices in light of the second law of thermodynamics had been carried
out. Discussion has started with the introduction of exergy (also called
availability), which is the maximum useful work that could be obtained
from the system at given state in a specific environment, and continue
with the reversible work, which is the maximum useful work that can be
obtained as a system undergoes a process between two specified states.
Next discussed the irreversibility (also called the exergy destruction or
lost work), which is the wasted work potential during a process as a result
of irreversibilities, and defining a second-law efficiency. Then developed
the exergy balance relation and apply it to closed system and control
volumes.
3.2 EXERGY WORK POTENTIAL OF ENERGY

When a new energy source, such as geothermal well, is discovered
the first thing the explorers do is estimate the amount of energy contained
in the source, this information alone, however is of little value in deciding
whether to build a power plant on that site. What we really need to know
is the work potential of the source that is, the amount of energy we can
extract as useful work. The rest of the energy will eventually be discarded
as waste energy and is not worthy of our consideration. Thus it would be
very desirable to have a property to enable us to determine the useful
work potential of a given amount of energy at some specified state. This
property is exergy, which is also called the availability or available
energy.
28
The work potential of the energy contained in a system at specified
state is simply the maximum useful work that can be obtained from the
system. You will recall that the work done during a process depends on
the initial state, the final state and the process path. That is,
Work = f (initial state, process path, final state)
In an exergy analysis, the initial state is specified, and thus it is not
a variable. The work output is maximized when the process between two
specified states is executed in a reversible manner; therefore all the
irreversibilities are disregarded in determining the work potential. Finally,
the system must be in dead state at the end of the process to maximize the
work output.
A system is said to be in dead state when it is in thermodynamic
equilibrium with the environment. At the dead state, a system is at the
temperature and pressure of it is environment (in thermal and mechanical
equilibrium) it has no kinetic or potential energy relative to the
environment (zero velocity and zero elevation above a reference level)
and it does not react with the environment (chemically inert). Also, there
are no unbalances magnetic, electrical and surface tension effects
between the system and it is surroundings, if these are relevant to the
situation at hand. The properties of a system at the dead state are denoted
by subscript zero, for example, P0 , T0 , h0 , u 0 and s0 . Unless specified
otherwise, the dead state temperature and pressure are assumed to be
T0 = 40˚C and P0 = 0.966 bar. A system has zero availability at the dead
state.
Distinction should be made between the surrounding, immediate
surrounding and the environment. By definition, surrounding are every
thing out side the system boundaries. The immediate surrounding refer to
the portion of the surrounding that is affected by the process, and the
29
environment refer to the region beyond the immediate surrounding whose
properties are not affected by the process at any point. Therefore, any
irreversibility during a process occurs within the system and its
immediate surrounding, and the environment is free of any
irreversibilities.
The notion that a system must go to the dead state at the end of the
process to maximize the work output can be explain as follows; if the
system temperature at the final state is greater than (or less than) the
temperature of the environment it is in, we can always produce additional
work by running a heat engine between these two temperature levels. If
the final pressure is greater than (or less than) the pressure of the
environment we can still obtain work by letting the system expand to the
pressure of the environment. If the final velocity of the system is not zero,
we can catch that extra kinetic energy by a turbine and converted it to
rotating shaft work, and so on. No work can be produced from a system
that is initially at the dead state. The atmosphere around us contains a
tremendous amount of energy. However, the atmosphere is in the dead
state, and the energy it contains has no work potential.
Therefore, we conclude that a system will deliver the maximum
possible work as it undergoes a reversible process from the specified
initial state to the state of its environment, that is, the dead state. This
represents the useful work potential of the system at the specified state
and is called exergy. It is important to realize that exergy does not
represent the amount of work that a work producing devise will actually
deliver upon installation. Rather, it represents the upper limit on the
amount of work a devise can deliver without violating any
thermodynamic laws. There will always be a difference, large or small,
between exergy and the actual work delivered by a device. This
difference represents the room engineers have for improvement.
30
Note that the exergy of a system at a specified state depends on the
conditions of the environment (the dead state) as well as the properties of
the system. Therefore, exergy is a property of the system environment
combination and not on the system alone. Altering the environment is
another way of increasing exergy, but it is definitely not an easy
alternative.
3.3 REVERSIBLE WORK AND IRREVERSIBILITY

The property exergy serves as a valuable tool in determining the
quality of energy and comparing the work potentials of different energy
sources or systems. The evaluation of exergy a lone, however is not
sufficient for studying engineering devices operating between two fixed
states. This is because when evaluating exergy, the final state is always
assumed to be the dead state, which is hardly ever the case for actual
engineering systems; the isentropic efficiencies are also of limited use
because the exit state of the model (isentropic) process is not the same as
the actual exit state.
In this section we describe two quantities that are related to the
actual initial and final state of process and serve as valuable tools in the
thermodynamic analysis of components or systems. These two quantities
are the reversible work and irreversibility (or exergy destruction). But
first we examine the surrounding work, which is the work done by or
against the surroundings during a process.
The work done by work producing devices is not always entirely in
a useable form. For example, when a gas in a piston- cylinder device
expands, part of the work done by the gas is used to push the atmospheric
air out of the way of the piston, this work which cannot be recovered and
utilized for any useful purpose, is equal to the atmospheric pressure
P0 times the volume change of the system,
31
Wsurr = P0 (V2 − V1 ) (3-1)
The difference between the actual work W and the surrounding work
Wsurr is called the useful work Wu :
Wu = W − WSurr = W − P0 (V2 − V1 ) (3-2)
When a system is expanding and doing work, part of the work done
is used to overcome the atmospheric pressure and thus Wsurr represents a
loss. When a system is compressed, however the atmospheric pressure
helps the compression process, and thus Wsurr represents again.
Note that the work done by or against the atmospheric pressure has
significance only for systems whose volume changes during the process
(systems that involve moving boundary work). It has no significance for
cyclic devices and systems whose boundaries remain fixed during a
process such as rigid tanks and steady flow devices (turbines,
compressors, nozzles, heat exchangers, nozzles, heat exchangers, etc.)
Reversible work Wrev is defined as the maximum amount of useful
work that can be produced (or the minimum work that needs to be
supplied) as a system undergoes a process between the specified initial
and final states. This is the useful work output (or input) obtained (or
expended) when the process between the initial and final states is
executed in a totally reversible manner. When the final state is the dead
state, the reversible work equal exergy. For process that required work,
reversible work represents the minimum amount of work necessary to
carry out that process. For convenience in presentation, the term work is
used to denote both work and power throughout this research.
32
Any different between the reversible work Wrev and the useful work
Wu is due to the irreversibilities present during the process, and this
difference is called irreversibility I. it is expressed as:
I = Wrev ,out − Wu ,out or I = Wu ,in − Wrev ,in (3-3)
The irreversibility is equivalent to the exergy destroyed, discuss

later for a totally reversible process, the actual and reversible work terms
are identical, and thus irreversibility is zero. This is expected since totally
reversible processes generate no entropy. Irreversibility is a positive
quantity for all actual (irreversible) processes since Wrev ≥ Wu for work
producing devices and Wrev ≤ Wu for work consuming devices.
Irreversibility can be viewed as the wasted work potential or the
lost opportunity to do work. It represents the energy that could have been
converted to work but was not.
The smaller the irreversibility associated with a process, the greater
the work that will be produced (or the smaller the work that will be
consumed). The performance of a system can be improved by minimizing
the irreversibility associated with it.
3.4 SECOND-LAW EFFICIENCY, ηII

The thermal efficiency and the coefficient of performance for
devices had been defined as a measure of performance. They were
defined on the basis of the first law only, and they are sometimes referred
to as the first-law efficiencies. The first law efficiency, however, make no
reference to the best possible performance, and thus it may be misleading.
Consider two heat engines, both having a thermal efficiency of 30
percent, one of the engines (engine A) is supplied with the heat from a
33
source at 600 K, and the other one (engine B) from a source at 1000K.
Both engines reject heat to a medium at 300K. At first glance, both
engines seem to convert to work the same fraction of heat that they
receive; thus they are performing equally well. When we take a second
look at these engines in light of the second law of thermodynamics,
however we see totally different picture. These engines, at best, can
perform as reversible engine, in which case their efficiencies would be
TL 300 K
η rev , A = (1 − )A = 1− = 50%
TH 600 K
TL 300 K
η rev , B = (1 − )B = 1− = 70%
TH 1000 K
Now it is becoming apparent that engine B has a greater work potential

available to it (70 percent of the heat supplied as compared to 50 percent
fore engine A), and thus should do a lot better than engine A. therefore,
we can say that engine B is performing poorly relative to engine A even
though both have the same thermal efficiency.
It is obvious from this example that the first law efficiency alone is
not a realistic measure of performance of engineering devices. To
overcome this efficiency, we define a second law efficiency η II as the
ratio of the actual thermal efficiency to the maximum possible
(reversible) thermal efficiency under the same conditions:
η II = η th η (heat engines) (3-4)

th , rev
Based on this definition, the second law efficiencies of the two heat
engines discussed above are
34
η II = 0.30 0.50 = 0.60 and η II = 0.30 0.70 = 0.43
That is engine A is converting 60 percent of the available work potential

to useful work. This ratio is only 43 percent for engine B.
The second law efficiency can also be expressed as the ratio of the useful
work output and the maximum possible (reversible) work output:
η II = Wu Wrev (work producing devices) (3-5)

This definition is more general since it can be applied to processes
(in turbines, piston-cylinder devices, etc.) as well as to cycles. Note that
the second law efficiency cannot exceed 100 percent.
We can also define a second law efficiency for work consuming
noncyclic (such as compressors) and cyclic (such as refrigerators) devices
as the ratio of the minimum (reversible) work input to the useful work
input:
η II = Wrev Wu (work consuming devices) (3-6)
For cyclic devices such as refrigerators and heat pumps, it can also be
expressed in terms of the coefficients of performance as
η II = COP COPrev (refrigerators and heat pumps) (3-7)
Again, because of the way we defined the second law efficiency, its value
can not exceed 100 percent. In the above relations, the reversible work
Wrev should be determined by using the same initial and final states as in
the actual process.
35
The definitions above for the second law efficiency do not apply to
devices that are not intended to produce or consume work. Therefore, we
need more general definition. However, there is no agreement on a
general definition of the second law efficiency, and thus a person may
encounter different definitions for the same device. The second law
efficiency is intended to serve as the measure of approximation to
reversible operation, and thus its value should range from zero in the
worst case (complete destruction of exergy) to one in the best case (no
destruction of exergy). With this in mined, we defined the second law
efficiency of a system during a process as
η II = exergy recovered/ exergy supplied
=1-exergydestroyed/exergysupplied (3-8)
Therefore, when determining the second law efficiency, the first thing we
need to do is determining how much exergy or work potential is
consumed during a process. In reversible operation, we should be able to
recover entirely the exergy supplied during the process, and the
irreversibility in this case should be zero. The second law efficiency will
be zero when we recover none of the exergy supplied to the system. Note
that exergy can be supplied or recovered at various amount in various
forms such as heat, work, kinetic energy, potential energy, internal energy
and enthalpy. Some times there are differing (though valid) opinions on
what constitutes supplied exergy, and this causing differing definitions
for second law efficiency. At all times, however, the exergy recovered
and the exergy destroyed (the irreversibility) must add up to the exergy
supplied. Also we need to define the system precisely in order to identify
correctly any inter action between the system and its surroundings.
For a heat engine, the exergy supplied is the decrease in the exergy
of the heat transfer to the engine, which is the difference between the
36
exergy of the heat supplied and the exergy of the heat rejected. (The
exergy of the heat rejected at the temperature of the surrounding is zero).
The net work output is the recovered exergy.
For refrigerator or heat pump, the exergy supplied is the work input
W since the work supplied to a cyclic device is entirely available. The
recovered exergy is the exergy of the heat transferred to the high
temperature medium (which is the reversible work) for a heat pump, and
the exergy of the heat transferred from the law temperature medium for a
refrigerator.
For a heat exchanger with two unmixed fluid streams, normally the
exergy supplied is the decrease in the exergy of the high temperature fluid
stream, and the exergy recovered is the increase in the exergy of the
lower temperature fluid stream.
3.5 EXERGY CHANGE OF A SYSTEM

The property exergy is the work potential of a system in a specified
environment and represent the maximum amount of useful work that can
be obtained as the system is brought to equilibrium with the environment.
Unlike energy, the value of exergy depends on the state of the
environment as well as the state of the system. Therefore, exergy is
combination property. The exergy of a system that is in equilibrium with
its environment is zero. The state of the environment is refer to as the
(dead state) since the system is practically “dead” (can not do any work)
from a thermodynamic point of view when it reaches that state.
In this section we will limit the discussion to thermo-mechanical
exergy, and thus disregard any mixing and chemical reaction. Therefore,
a system at this “restricted dead state” will be at the temperature and
pressure of the environment and it will have on kinetic or potential
energies relative to the environment.
37
Below we develop relations for the exergies and exergy changes for
a fixed mass and a flow stream.
3.5.1 Exergy of a Fixed Mass:
3.5.1.1 Non flow (or closed system) exergy

In general, internal energy consists of sensible, latent, chemical and
nuclear energies. However, in the absence of any chemical or nuclear
reaction, the chemical and nuclear energies can be disregarded and the
internal energy can be considered to consist of only sensible and latent
energies that can be transferred to or from a system as heat whenever
there is a temperature difference a cross the system boundary. The second
law of thermodynamics states that heat cannot be converted to work
entirely, and thus the work potential of internal energy must be less than
the internal energy itself. But how much less?
To answer that question, we need to consider a stationary closed
system at a specified state that undergoes a reversible process to the state
of the environment (that is, the final temperature and pressure of the
system should be T0 and P0 , respectively). The useful work driven during
this process is exergy of the system at its initial state.
Consider a piston-cylinder device that contains a fluid of mass m at
temperature T and pressure P. the system (the mass inside the cylinder)
has a volume V, internal energy U, and entropy S. the system is now
allowed to undergo a differential change of state during which the volume
change by a differential amount dV and heat is transferred in the
differential amount of dQ. Taking the direction of heat and work transfers
to be from the system (heat and work output), the energy balance for the
system during this differential process can be expressed as
38
∂Ein − ∂E out = ∂E system (3-9)
Net energy transfer changes in internal. Kinetic

by heat work and mass potential ,etc. energies
Since the only form of energy the system contains is the internal
energy, and the only forms of energy transfer a fixed mass can involve
are heat and work. Also, the only form of work a simple compressible
system can involve during a reversible process is the boundary work,
which is given to be ∂W = P dV.
When the direction of work is taken to be from the system (otherwise it
would be - PdV). The pressure P in the PdV expression is the absolute
pressure, which is measured from the absolute zero. Any useful work
delivered by a piston-cylinder device is due to the pressure above the
atmospheric level. Therefore,
∂W = PdV = ( P − P0 )∂V + P0 ∂V = ∂Wb ,useful + P0 ∂V (3-10)
A reversible process cannot involve any heat transfer through a

finite temperature difference, and thus any heat transfer between the
system at temperature T and its surrounding at T0 must be occur through
a reversible heat engine. Noting that ∂S=∂Q/T for a reversible process,
and the thermal efficiency of a reversible heat engine operating between
the temperatures of T and T0 is η th = 1 − T0 T , the differential work
produced by the engine as a result of this heat transfer is
∂WHE = (1 − T0 T )∂Q = ∂Q − (T0 T )∂Q
= ∂Q − (−T0 ∂S ) ⎯
⎯→ ∂Q = ∂WHE − T0 ∂S (3-11)
39
Substituting the ∂W and ∂Q expression in Eqs. 3-10 and 3-11 into the
energy balance relation Eqs. 3-11 gives after rearranging,
∂Wtotal ,useful = ∂WHE + ∂Wb ,useful = − dU − P0 dV + T0 dS
Integrating from the given state (no subscript) to the dead state
(0 subscript) we obtain
Wtotaluseful = (U − U 0 ) + P0 (V − V0 ) − T0 ( S − S 0 ) (3-12)
Where Wtotal useful is the total useful work delivered as the system
undergoes a reversible process from the given state to the dead state.
Which is exergy by definition.
A closed system, in general, may possess kinetic and potential
energies, and the total energy of a closed system is equal to the sum of its
internal, kinetic, and potential energies. Noting that kinetic and potential
energies themselves are form of exergy, the exergy of a closed system of
mass m is
X = (U − U 0 ) + P0 (V − V0 ) − T0 ( S − S 0 ) + m C 2 2 + mgz (3-13)
On a unit mass basis, the closed system (or nonflow) exergy Φ is

expressed as
Φ = (u − u0 ) + P0 (v − v0 ) − T0 ( s − s0 ) + C 2 2 + gz (3-14)
= (e − e0 ) + P(v − v0 ) − T0 ( s − s0 )
40
Where u 0 , v0 and s 0 are the properties of the system evaluated at the dead
state. Note that the exergy of a system is zero at the dead state since
e = e0 , v = v 0 , and s = s 0 at that state.
The exergy change of a closed system during a process is simply

the difference between the final and initial exergies of the system,
∆X = X 2 − X 1 = m(Φ 2 − Φ 1 ) = ( E 2 − E1 ) + P0 (V2 − V1 ) − T0 ( S 2 − S1 ) (3-15)

= (U 2 − U 1 ) + P0 (V2 − V1 ) − T0 ( S 2 − S1 ) + m (C 22 − C12 ) 2 + mg ( Z 2 − Z 1 )
Or, on a unit mass basis,
∆Φ = Φ 2 − Φ 1 (3-16)
= (u 2 − u1 ) + P0 (v 2 − v1 ) − T0 ( s 2 − s1 ) + (C 22 − C12 ) 2 + g ( z 2 − z1 )
= (e2 − e1 ) + P0 (v 2 − v1 ) − T0 ( s 2 − s1 )
For stationary closed systems, the kinetic and potential energy terms drop
out. When the properties of a system are not uniform, the exergy of the
system can be determined by integration from
X system = ∫ Φ∂m = ∫ vΦρdV (3-17)
Where V is the volume of the system and ρ is density.

Note that exergy is a property, and the value of a property does not
change unless the state changes. Therefore, the exergy change of a system
is zero if the state of the system or the environment does not change
during the process. For example the exergy change of steady flow devices
such as nozzles, compressors, turbines, pumps and heat exchangers in a
given environment is zero during steady operation.
41
The exergy of a closed system is either positive or zero. It is never
negative. Even a medium at low temperature ( T < T0 ) and/or low pressure
( P < P0 ) contains exergy since a cold medium can serve as the heat sink to
a heat engine that absorbs heat from the environment at T0 , and an
evaluated space makes it possible for the atmospheric pressure to move a
piston and do useful work.
3.5.1.2 Exergy of a Flow Stream: Flow (or Stream Exergy)

We know that a flowing fluid has an additional form of energy,
called the flow energy, which is the energy needed to maintain flow in a
pipe or duct, and is expressed as w flow = Pv where v is the specific volume
of the fluid, which is equivalent to the volume change of a unit mass of

the fluid as it is displaced during flow. The flow work is essentially the
boundary work done by a fluid on the fluid downstream, and thus the
exergy of flow work is equivalent to the exergy of the boundary work,
which is the boundary work in excess of the work done against the
atmospheric air at P0 to displace it by a volume v . noting that the flow
work is Pv and the work done against the atmospheric is P0 v , the exergy
of flow energy can be expressed as
x flow = Pv − P0 v = ( P − P0 )v (3-18)
Therefore, the exergy associated with flow energy is obtained by

replacing the pressure P in the flow work relation by the pressure in
excess of the atmospheric pressure, P − P0 . Then the exergy of a flow
stream is determined simply adding the flow exergy relation above to the
exergy relation in equation (3-16) for a nonflow fluid
42
x flowingfluid = x nonflowingfluid + x flow (3-19)
= (u − u 0 ) + P0 (v − v0 ) − T0 ( s − s0 ) + C 2 2 + gz + ( P − P0 )v
= (u + Pv) − (u 0 + Pv0 ) − T0 ( s − s 0 ) + C 2 2 + gz
= (h − h0 ) − T0 ( s − s0 ) + C 2 2 + gz
The final expression is called flow (or stream) exergy and is denoted by
ψ
Flowexergy: ψ = (h − h0 ) − T0 ( s − s0 ) + C 2 2 + gz (3-20)
Then the exergy change of a fluid stream as it undergoes a process from

state 1 to state 2 becomes
∆ψ = ψ 2 − ψ 1 = (h2 − h1 ) − T0 ( s 2 − s1 ) + (C 22 − C12 ) 2 + g ( z 2 − z1 ) (3-21)
For fluid stream with negligible kinetic and potential energies, the kinetic
and potential energy terms drop out.
Note that the exergy change of a closed system or a fluid stream
represents the maximum amount of useful work that can be done (or the
minimum amount of useful work that needs to be supplied if it is
negative) as the system changes from state 1 to state 2 in a specified
environment, and represent the reversible work Wrev . It is independent of
the type of process executed, the kind of system used and the nature of
energy interaction with the surrounding. Also note that the exergy of a
closed system cannot be negative, but the exergy of a flow stream can at
pressures below the environment pressure P0 .
43
DESRUCTION
The conservation of energy principle indicates that energy cannot
be created or destroyed. Also the increase of entropy principle, which can
be regarded as one of the statements of the second law, indicate that
entropy can be created but cannot be destroyed. That is entropy
generation S gen must be positive (actual processes) or zero (reversible
processes), but it cannot be negative. Now we are about to establish an

alternative statement of the second law of thermodynamics, called the
decrease of exergy principle, which is the counterpart of the increase of
entropy principle.
Consider an isolated system shown in figure (3-1). By definition,
no heat, work, or mass can cross the boundaries of an isolated system,
and thus there is no energy and entropy transfer. Then the energy and
entropy balances for an isolated system can be expressed as
0 0
Energy balance: Ein − E out = ∆E system 0 = E 2 − E1
0 0
Entropy balance: S in − S out + S gen = ∆S system S gen = S 2 − S1
Multiplying the second relation by T0 and subtracting it from the first one
gives
− T0 S gen = E 2 − E1 − T0 ( S 2 − S1 ) (3-22)
From equation 3-15 we have

0
X 2 − X 1 = ( E 2 − E1 ) + P0 (V2 − V1 ) − T0 ( S 2 − S1 ) (3-23)
44
= ( E 2 − E1 ) − T0 ( S 2 − S1 )
Since V2 = V1 for an isolated system (it cannot involve any moving

boundary and thus any boundary work). Combining Eqs. 3-22 and 3-23
gives
T0 S gen = X 2 − X 1 (3-24)
Since T0 is the absolute temperature of the environment and thus a

positive quantity, S gen ≥ 0 , and thus T0 S gen ≥ 0 . Then we conclude that
∆X isolated = ( X 2 − X 1 ) isolated ≤ 0 (3-25)
This equation can be expressed as the exergy of an isolated system during

a process always decreases or, in the limiting case of a reversible process,
remains constant. In other words, it never increases and exergy is
destroyed during an actual process. This is known as the decrease of
exergy principle. For an isolated system, the decrease in exergy equal
the exergy destroyed.
45
No heat, work or mass transfer
Isolated system
∆Xisolated ≤ 0
(or Xdestroyed ≥ 0 )
Figure (3-1): The isolated system considered in the development of the

decrease of exergy principle.
3.6.1 Exergy Destruction

Irreversibilities such as friction, mixing, chemical reaction, heat
transfer through a finite temperature difference, unrestrained expansion,
non-quasi-equilibrium compression or expansion always generate
entropy, and any thing that generates entropy always destroys exergy. The
exergy destroyed is proportional to the entropy generated, as can be seen
from Eq. 3-24, and expressed as
X destroyed = T0 S gen ≥ 0 (3-26)
46
Note that exergy destroyed is a positive quantity for any actual process
and becomes zero for a reversible process. Exergy destroyed represents
the lost work potential and is also called the irreversibility or lost work.
Equation 2-35 and 2-26 for the decrease of exergy and the exergy
destruction are applicable to any kind of system undergoing any kind of
process since any system and its surrounding can be enclosed by a
sufficiently large arbitrary boundary cross which there is no heat, work,
and mass transfer and thus any system and its surroundings constitute an
isolated system.
No actual process is truly reversible, and thus some exergy is
destroyed during a process. Therefore, the exergy of the universe, which
can be considered to be an isolated system, is continuously decreasing.
The more irreversible a process is the larger the exergy destruction during
that process. No exergy is destroyed during a reversible process
( X destroyed , rev = 0 ).
The decrease of exergy principle does not imply that the exergy of
a system cannot increase. The exergy change of a system can be positive
or negative during a process, but exergy destroyed cannot be negative.
The decrease of exergy principle can be summarized as follows:
⎧> 0 Irreversible process

⎪
⎪
X destroyed = ⎨= 0 Re versible process (3-27)
⎪
⎪< 0 Im possible process
⎩
This relation serves as an alternative criterion to determine whether a

process is reversible, irreversible or impossible.
47
3.7 EXERGY BALANCE: CLOSED SYSTEMS
The nature of exergy is opposite to that of entropy in that exergy
can be destroyed, but it cannot be created. Therefore, the exergy change
of a system during a process is less than the exergy transfer by an amount
equal to the exergy destroyed during the process within the system
boundaries. Then the decrease of exergy principle can be expressed as
⎛ Total ⎞ ⎛ Total ⎞ ⎛⎜ Total ⎞⎟ ⎛ Change in the ⎞

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ exergy ⎟ − ⎜ exergy ⎟ − ⎜ exergy ⎟ = ⎜ total exergy ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ destroyed ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎝ entring ⎠ ⎝ leaving ⎠ ⎜ ⎟ of the system
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Or
X in − X out − X destroyed = ∆X system (3-28)
This relation is referred to as the exergy balance and can be stated as the
exergy change of a system during a process is equal to the difference
between the net exergy transfer through the system boundary and the
exergy destroyed within the system boundaries as a result of
irreversibilities.
We mentioned earlier that exergy can be transferred to or from a
system by heat, work, and mass transfer. Then the exergy balance for any
system undergoing any process can be expressed more explicitly as
General:
( X in − X out ) − X destroyed = ∆X system (kJ) (3-29)
Net exergy transfer exergy change
by heat, work, and mass destruction in exergy
48
Or in the rate form, as
General, rate form:
( X& in − X& out ) − X& destroyed = ∆X& system (kW) (3-30)
Rate of net exergy transfer rate of exergy rate of change
by heat, work, and mass destruction of exergy
Where the rates of exergy transfer by heat, work, and mass are expressed
as
X& heat = (1 − T0 T )Q& , X& work = W& useful and X& mass = m& ψ , respectively, and
∆X system = dX system dt . The exergy balance can also be expressed per unit
mass as
General, unit-mass basis:
( xin − xout ) − x destroyed = ∆x system (kJ/kg) (3-31)
Where all the quantities are expressed per unit mass of the system. Note
that for a reversible process, the exergy destruction term X destroyed drops out
from all of the relations above. Also, it is usually more convenient to find
the entropy generation S gen first, and then to evaluate the exergy
destroyed directly from Eq. 3-26. That is,
X destroyed = T0 S gen or X& destroyed = T0 S& gen (3-32)
When the environment conditions P0 and T0 and the end states of the
system are specified, the exergy change of the system ∆X system = X 2 − X 1
can be determined directly from Eq. 3-15 regardless of how the process is
executed. However, the determination of the exergy transfers by heat,
work, and mass requires knowledge of these interactions.
A closed system does not involve any mass flow and thus any
exergy transfer by it. Taking the positive direction of heat transfer to be to
49
the system and the positive direction of work transfer to be from the
system, the exergy balance for a closed system can be expressed more
explicitly as
Closed system: X heat − X work − X destroyed = ∆X system (3-33)
Or
T0
Closed system: ∑ (1 − T )QK − [W − P0 (V2 − V1 )] − T0 S gen = X 2 − X 1 (3-34)
K
Where QK is the heat transfer through the boundary at temperature TK at

location k. divide the equation above by the time interval ∆t and taking
the limit as ∆t 0 gives the rate form of the exergy balance for a closed
system,
Rate form:
∑ (1 − T
T0 &
[ ]
)Q K − W& − P0 dVsystem dt − T0 S& gen = dX system dt (3-35)
K
Note that the relations above for a closed system are developed by taking
the heat transfer to a system and work done by the system to be positive
quantities. Therefore, heat transfer from the system and work done on the
system will be taken to be negative quantities when using those relations.
The exergy balance relations presented above can be used to
determine the reversible work Wrev by setting the exergy destruction term
equal to zero. The work W in that case becomes the reversible work. That
is, W = Wrev when X destroyed = T0 S gen = 0 .
Note that X destroyed represents the exergy destroyed within the
system boundary only, and not the exergy destruction that may occur
outside the system boundary during the process as a result of external
irreversibilities. Therefore, a process for which X destroyed = 0 is internally
50
reversible but not necessarily totally reversible. The total exergy
destroyed during a process can be determined by applying the exergy
balance to an extended system that includes the system itself and its
immediate surrounding where external irreversibilities might be
occurring. Also, the exergy change in this case is equal to the sum of
exergy changes of the system and the exergy change of the immediate
surroundings. Note that under steady conditions, the state and thus the
exergy of the immediate surroundings (the “buffer zone”) at any point
will not change during the process, and thus the exergy change of the
immediate surroundings will be zero. When evaluating the exergy
transfer between an extended system and the environment, the boundary
temperature of the extended system is simply taken to be the environment
temperature T0
For a reversible process, the entropy generation and thus the
exergy destruction are zero, and the exergy balance relation in this case
becomes analogous to the energy balance relation. That is, the exergy
change of the system becomes equal to the exergy transfer.
Note that the energy change of a system equal the energy transfer
for any process, but the exergy change of a system equals the exergy
transfer only for a reversible process. The quantity of energy is always
preserved during an actual process (the first law), but the quality is bound
to decrease (the second law). This decrease in quality is always
accompanied by an increase in entropy and a decrease in exergy. When
10 kJ of heat is transferred from a hot medium to a cold one, for example,
we will still have 10 kJ of energy at the end of the process, but at a lower
temperature, and thus at a lower quality and at a lower potential to do
work.
51
3.8 EXERGY BALANCE: CONTROL VOLUMES
The exergy balance relation for control volumes differ from those
for closed systems in that they involve one more mechanism of exergy
transfer: mass flow a cross the boundaries. As mentioned earlier, mass
possesses exergy as well as energy and entropy, and the amounts of these
three extensive properties are proportional to the amount of mass (figure
3-2). Again taking the positive direction of heat transfer to be to the
system and the positive direction of work transfer to be from the system,
the general exergy balance relations (Eqs,3-29 and 3-30) can be
expressed for a control volume more explicitly as
X heat − X work + X mass ,in − X mass ,out − X destroyed = ( X 2 − X 1 ) CV (3-36)
Or
T0
∑ (1 − T )QK − [W − P0 (V2 − V1 )] + ∑ miψ i − ∑ meψ e − X destroyed (3-37)
K
= ( X 2 − X 1 ) CV
Where the subscripts are i = inlet, e = exit, 1 = initial state, and 2 = final
state of the control volume. It can also be expressed in the rate form as
∑ (1 − T
T0 &
[ ]
)QK − W& − P0 dVcv dt ) + ∑ m& iψ i − ∑ m& eψ e − X& destroyed = dX cv dt (3-38)
K
Surrounding
W me
X work control ψe
Volume
X cv T Q
mi X heat
ψi
52
Figure (3-2): Exergy is transferred into or out of a control volume by
mass as well as heat and work transfer.
The exergy balance relation above can be stated as the rate of

exergy change within the control volume during a process is equal to the
rate of the net exergy transfer through the control volume boundary by
heat, work, and mass flow minus the rate of exergy destruction within the
boundaries of the control volume.
When the initial and final states of the control volume are
specified, the exergy change of the control volume is
X 2 − X 1 = m2 Φ 2 − m1Φ 1 .
3.8.1 Exergy Balance for Steady-Flow System

Most control volumes encountered in practice such turbines,
compressors, nozzles, diffusers, heat exchangers, pipes, and ducts operate
steadily, and thus they experience no changes in their mass, energy,
entropy, and exergy contents as well as their volumes. Therefore,
dVCV dt = 0 and dX CV dt = 0 for such systems, and the amount of exergy
entering a steady-flow system in all forms (heat, work, mass transfer)

must be equal to the amount of exergy leaving plus the exergy destroyed.
Then the rate form of the general exergy balance (Eq.3-38) reduces for a
steady-flow process to
Steady-flow:
T0 &
∑ (1 − T )QK − W& + ∑ m& iψ i − ∑ m& eψ e − X& destroyed = 0 (3-39)
K
For a single-stream (one-inlet, one-exit) steady-flow device, the relation

above further reduce to
53
Single-stream:
T0 &
∑ (1 − T )QK − W& + m& (ψ 1 − ψ 2 ) − X& destroyed = 0 (3-40)
K
Where m& is the mass flow rate and the change in the flow exergy is given
by Eq.3-21 as
ψ 1 − ψ 2 = (h1 − h2 ) − T0 ( s1 − s 2 ) + (C12 − C 22 ) 2 + g ( z1 − z 2 )
Dividing Eq. 3-40 by m& gives the exergy balance on a unit-mass basis as
Per-unit mass:
T0
∑ (1 − T )q k − w + (ψ 1 − ψ 2 ) − x destroyed = 0 (kJ/kg) (3-41)
K
Where q = Q& m& and w = W& m& are the heat transfer and work done per unit
mass of the working fluid, respectively.
For the case of an adiabatic single-stream device with no work
interactions, the exergy balance reaction further simplifies to
X& desttroyed = m& (ψ 1 − ψ 2 ) , which indicate that the specific exergy of the fluid
must decrease as it flows through a work-free adiabatic device or remain

the same (ψ 1 = ψ 2 ) in the limiting case of a reversible process regardless
of the changes in other properties of the fluid.
3.8.2 Reversible Work, Wrev

The exergy balance relation presented above can be used to
determine the reversible work Wrev by setting the exergy destroyed equal
to zero. The work W in that case becomes the reversible work. That is,
54
General: W = Wrev when X destroyed = 0 (3-42)
For example, the reversible power for a single-stream steady-flow device

is, from Eq. 3-40
T0 &
Single-stream: Wrev = m& (ψ 1 − ψ 2 ) + ∑ (1 − )QK (kW) (3-43)
TK
Which reduces for an adiabatic device to
Adiabatic, single stream: W& rev = m& (ψ 1 − ψ 2 ) (3-44)
Note that the exergy destroyed is zero only for a reversible process, and
reversible work represents the maximum work output for work producing
devices such as turbines and the minimum work input for work
consuming devices such as compressors.
3.8.3 Second-Law Efficiency of Steady-Flow Devices, η II

The second-law efficiency of various steady-flow devices can be
determined from its general definition, η II = (Exergy recovered) /
(Exergy supplied). When the changes in kinetic and potential energies are
negligible, the second-law efficiency of an adiabatic turbine can be
determined from
h1 − h2 TO S gen
η11,turb = w wrev = or η II ,turb = 1 − (3-45)
ψ 1 −ψ 2 ψ 1 −ψ 2
Where S gen = S 2 − S1 . For an adiabatic compressor with negligible kinetic
and potential energies, the second-law efficiency becomes
55
wrev ,in ψ 2 −ψ 1 T0 S gen
η II ,comp = win
= or η II ,comp = 1 − (3-46)
h2 − h1 h2 − h1
Where again S gen = S 2 − S1 .

For an adiabatic heat exchanger with two unmixed fluid streams
(figure 3-3), the exergy supplied is the decrease in the exergy of the hot
stream, and the exergy recovered is the increase in the exergy of the cold
stream, provided that the cold stream is not at a lower temperature than
the surroundings. Then the second-law efficiency of the heat exchanger
becomes
m& cold (ψ 4 − ψ 3 ) T0 S& gen

η II , HX = or η II , HX = 1 − (3-47)
m& hot (ψ 1 − ψ 2 ) m& hot (ψ 1 − ψ 2 )
where S& gen = m& hot ( s 2 − s1 ) m& cold ( s 4 − s3 ) .perhaps you are wondering what
happens if the heat exchanger is not adiabatic; that is, it is losing some
heat to its surroundings at T0 If the temperature of the boundary (the outer
surface of the heat exchanger) Tb is equal T0 , the definition above still
holds (except the entropy generation term needs to be modified if the
second definition is used). However, if Tb > T0 , then the exergy of the lost
heat at the boundary should be included in the recovered exergy.
Although no attempt is made in practice to utilize this exergy and it is
allowed to be destroyed, the heat exchanger should not be held
responsible for this destruction, which occurs outside its boundaries. If
we are interested in the exergy destroyed during the process, not just
within the boundaries of the device, then it makes sense to consider an
extended system that includes the immediate surroundings of the device
such that the boundaries of the new enlarged system are at T0 . The second-
56
law efficiency of the extended system will reflect the effects of the
irreversibilities that occur within and just outside the device.
An interesting situation arises when the temperature of the cold
stream remains below the temperature of the surroundings at all times. In
that case the exergy of the cold stream actually decrease instead of
increasing. In such cases it is better to define the second-law efficiency as
the ratio of the sum of the exergies of the outgoing streams to the sum of
the exergies of the incoming streams.
For an adiabatic mixing chamber where a hot stream 1 is mixed
with a cold stream 2, forming a mixture 3, the exergy supplied is the sum
of the exergies of the hot and cold streams, and the exergy recovered is
the exergy of the mixture. Then the second law efficiency of the mixing
chamber becomes
m& 3ψ 3 T0 S& gen
η II .mix = or η II ,mix = 1 − (3-48)
m& 1ψ 1 + m& 2ψ 2 m& 1ψ 1 + m& 2ψ 2
Where m& 3 = m& 1 + m& 2 and S& gen = m& 3 s3 − m& 2 s 2 − m& 1 s1 .
T0
1 2
Hot
Stream
4 3
Cold
stream
Figure (3-3): A heat exchanger with two unmixed streams.
57
CHAPTER FOUR
GARRI 1 POWER PLANT
58
4.1. SITE LOCATION
The power plant had been built in the north of the Khartoum
refinery. The Khartoum refinery is a bout 70 km north from Khartoum
and the distance between the refinery and the Nile River is a bout 12.5
km. about 5.5 km west of the refinery, the power plant site altitude is
about 400 m, there is a highway passing from Khartoum city to northern
Sudan, with which the access road of the refinery had been connected.
The national highway and access road both are asphalt pavement. There
is a railway lining about 3 km west of the Khartoum refinery.
4.2. WEATHER CONDITIONS

Many-year average atmosphere pressure 964.1mbar
Many-year average atmosphere temperature 30.8˚C
Extreme highest atmosphere temperature 47.2˚C
Extreme lowest atmosphere temperature 6.0˚C
Many-year average highest atmosphere temperatures 37.1˚C
Many-year average lowest atmosphere temperature 22.7˚C
Average relative humidity 29%
Many-year average rainfall 162.4mm
Mean wind velocity 3.9m/s
Max. wind velocity 32m/s
All-year wind prevalent direction north wind
Seismic intensity class VI
4.3. DESIGN OPERATING CONDITIONS

Ambient temperature 40˚C
Atmospheric pressure 0.966bar
Relative humidity 38%
59
4.4. PLANT CONFIGURATIONS
The combined cycle power plant consists of two 206B combined
cycle, two gas turbine. Two HRSGs and one steam turbine are used per
block, as shown in figure (4-1).
Each gas turbine type is PG 6001B; its output is approximately
40MW for ISO condition, the gas turbine is normally operated with
double fuel, LPG and light diesel oil. The gas turbine generator, which is
driven at 3000 rpm, is with air-cooler.
Each gas turbine exhausts gas lead to its associated HRSG. There
is a diverter damper between the gas turbine exhaust and the HRSG. It
allows the gas turbine to operate either in open cycle mode or in
combined cycle mode.
The exhaust gas flow and temperature characteristics at the gas
turbine exhaust will be changed with their load. The HRSGs are of the
single-pressure type. The main steam lines of each HRSG are led to the
steam turbine. Steam turbine is condensing type with extraction steam.
4.5. OPERATING SCHEME OF THE CCPP

Ambient air is filtered and led to the compressor of the gas turbine,
where it is compressed and fed to the combustors. In the combustors the
compressed air is heated up to the turbine inlet temperature. Fuel
combusted in the combustion chamber before expanding in the turbine.
After expansion the flue is led to the HRSG. Steam is generated in
the HRSG by heat transfer from the flue to the feed water. The HRSG is a
single pressure boiler.
From the two parallel HRSGs the superheated HP steam is fed to
the steam turbine.
60
The expanded steam is condensed in a water cooled condenser. In
order to obtain optimum utilization of the steam, the pressure at the
exhaust is optimized to the condenser cooling system.
Air and non condensable gases entering the water/steam cycle are
collected at the coldest part of the condenser and evacuated. During
normal operation the vacuum is maintained with Liquid-Ring vacuum
pump.
Two 100% Liquid-Ring vacuum pump are used for start-up evacuation.
61
Figure (4-1): GARRI 1 Block configuration.
The condensate and make up water accumulating in the condenser

hotwell is delivered by one of the two 100% condensate pumps to the
dearator water tank each condensate pump is provided with separate
suction lines from the hotwell ensuring a short and direct connection. One
pump is in operation, the second serve as standby and is switched on
automatically in case of failure of the running pump. The level in hotwell
is kept constant by control of the make up feed. A condensate minimum
62
flow check valve is provided to insure minimum flow through the
condensate pumps.
The feed water is fed back to the HRSGs by three 50% constant
speed HP feed-water pumps and by two 100% constant speed LP feed-
water pumps. One pump is at standby and is switched on automatically in
case of failure of a running pump. A feed-water pump minimum flow
check valve is provided to ensure minimum flow through the feed water
pump.
To increase the operation flexibility during start up, shut down and
abnormal operating conditions separated bypass stations for HP steam
source is provided. The HP bypass stations are designed to accommodate
100% of the maximum steam production into the condenser. Each bypass
station consists of an isolation valve, a steam pressure reducing valve, a
desuperheating station with the associated measurement, control and
production device. Main condensate is used for desuperheating the steam
down to the saturation point before entering in the condenser.
The LPG heating steam is from auxiliary boiler when unit start-up
and in simple cycle. In normal operation LPG heating steam is from
steam turbine extraction. The extraction pressure and temperature are
designed to meet the LPG heating required.
4.6. GAS TURBINE WITH EXHAUST GAS SYSTEM
4.6.1 Gas Turbine (Frame 6 Gas Turbine)

The turbine and accessories are mounted on a common base sized
within normal shipping limits and shipped as an integral assembly that
has been successfully completed a fired no load factory test. Advantages
of package concept are obvious, such as fast operation, minimum site
investment.
63
(1) Low installed cost owing to standardization and to factory
assembly and test. This makes the installation of the station easy and
keeps the cost per installed kilowatt low because the package power
station is quickly ready to be put into operation.
(2) Minimum site investment: the required space and site preparations
are minimum. The overall dimensions of the slab type foundation are
only 38 x 6 m².
(3) Low standby cost: fast start up and shut down reduce conventional
standby cost. The power requirements to keep the plant in standby
condition are significantly lower than those for other types of prime
movers.
(4) Maximum application flexibility: the package power plant may be
operated either in parallel with existing plants or as a completely isolated
station, these units have been used widely for base, peaking and even
emergency service.
(5) Quick start is one of the significant features of this power unit.
Only about one quarter of an hour is need from standstill to hooking up
with the power grid.
(6) Control reliability: the “SPEEDTRONIC” control provides
accurate sequential control and instant protection. The station can be
equipped for remote control, starting, synchronizing, and loading.
(7) Maintenance cost is comparatively low.
64
4.6.2 Exhaust Gas System
Under the G.T. single cycle condition or HRSG load regulation
condition or the condition of HRSG out of service, exhaust gas system
will bypass G.T. exhaust gas into the air directly.
Included in this system are G.T. outlet transition duct, the three
way diverter damper, bypass stack support, silencer, bypass stack and
relevant expansion joints and transition duct.
The three-way diverter damper is of motor driven type with single
valve plate. Dual-layer flexible metallic hard sealing with high pressure
sealing air is assumed for three way diverter damper sealing construction
so as to ensure a high sealing efficiency.
Single valve plate for three-way diverter damper can ensure that
the gas turbine exhaust gas opening will not be blocked in the case of
disoperation. Moreover, the amount of flue gas can be adjusted with ease
and high efficiency by ways of locating the valve plate in different
positions which plays and important role in boiler start-up and load
regulation.
4.7. WATER STEAM CYCLE

Thermodynamic system of Gas-Steam Combined Cycling power
station including gas turbine (GT) system, heat recovery steam generator
(HRSG) and steam turbine (ST) steam and water system.
Two blocks of Gas-Steam Cycling units are designed for this plant;
each block consists of two Gas Turbine, two HRSGs and one (1) steam
turbine.
The water/steam system mainly including HRSG steam and water
system, steam turbine, generator and steam turbine by-pass system,
condenser and condensate pump, feed water pump, gland steam cooler,
valves and pipes.
65
4.8. HRSG AND ITS AUXILIARY SYSTEM
The HRSG is natural circulating, no additional firing, and
horizontal type. All the auxiliary system including deaerator and its
storage tank for two HRSG, low pressure circulating system, sampling
system, HRSG inlet and outlet flue gas duct, flue by-pass stack and
diverter, feed water system.
4.9. THE MAIN STEAM AND BYPASS SYSTEM

The main steam system connects the two HRSGs supply steam to
one steam turbine. The superheated steam piping of each HRSG supplies
the steam headers located on this steam turbine side. Steam is directed
from this header to the steam turbine stop valves.
The steam turbine bypass system allow each HRSG to be started
independently. The bypass steam is expanded and desuperheated prior to
entering the condenser. The bypass system is so dimensioned as to
condition 100% of the flow of each HRSG at the normal operating
pressure and allow:
-Conditioning of the steam piping from cold state.
-HRSG pressure change rate can be controlled during start up.
-steam dump in case of steam turbine load rejection, so that the gas
turbine can be kept operating.
4.10. DEAERATOR HEATING STEAM SYSTEM

Feed water is heated and deaerated in a spray type feed-water tank.
This horizontal cylindrical tank reduces the water dissolved oxygen
content to an acceptable value by the HRSGs. The feed-water heating
before start-up is provided by auxiliary boiler steam fuel oil is light diesel
oil. But if fuel is LPG, feed-water heating steam before start up is
provided also by auxiliary boiler. In normal operation, the heating steam
66
is provided by the HRSG low temperature evaporators or by the HP
drum, at low load, and diffused into the water mass by vertical perforated
tubes.
4.11. BOILER FEED-WATER SYSTEM

The boiler feed-water system consists of three pumps: two pumps
for two HRSG, the third pump at standby. Feed-water tank level should
keep sufficient pressure at feed water pumps suction under any
conditions. The feed water pumps are installed under the feed water tank
to feed the HRSG economizers.
The pumps are the horizontal centrifugal type. The multistage
pumps are splash lubricated and directly driven at constant speed by
electric motors. Sealing is performed by stuffing-box gland packing. Each
pump is installed on a foundation together with its motor. Each pump is
equipped with a recirculation line through a check valve for minimum
flow operation of each motor driven feed water pump. The feed-water
flow to each HRSG is controlled by the drum level control valves.
4.12. CONDENSATE SYSTEM

Two condensate pumps, one in operation and one standby, are
provided for one steam turbine to transits condensate through turbine
gland stem cooler to the deaerator. Each pump is equipped with a
recirculation line for minimum flow operation of each motor-driven
condensate pump. Some spray water from outlet of condensate pumps are
provided for turbine bypass attemperature.
67
4.13. CIRCULATING COOLING WATER SYSTEM
The cooling water system provides cooling water to the steam
turbine condenser. The warm water is returned to a multi-cell induced
mechanic draft cooling tower where it is cooled and then collected in the
tower basin. The condenser is equipped with a tube cleaning device of the
sponge ball type.
4.14. AUXILARY SYSTEMS
Cooling water to auxiliary equipment of gas turbine is from
circulating water pump room and return to circulating cooling tower.
Steam turbine and gas turbine cooler cooling water, ST generator air
cooler cooling water are from main cooling water system and return to
the return pipe of cooling water. Service water comes from circulating
water pump room and be used to cool pump bearing and return to
circulating water pump room. Back water will be discharged to waste
water pit, if service water is polluted.
One storage water tank is provided to two units. Make-up water is
from one storage water tank to two condenser hotwell. Two deaerator
filling water pumps are provided to two units.
Two 100% liquid-ring vacuum pumps are provided to one steam
turbine, one in work during normal operation and two may in work
during start up.
Each HRSG is provided with two low pressure circulating pumps,
one is in operation, one standby.
At the auxiliary boiler outlet there are two lines; one is connected
to the LPG heaters for LPG heating during unit start-up and at single
cycle operation, another is connected to the deaerator for feed water
heating during the unit start-up. There is one auxiliary boiler only for this
plant. The fuel of auxiliary boiler is light diesel. In normal operation
68
(combined cycle), the LPG heating steam is coming from steam turbine
extraction.
4.19. HEAT RECOVERY STEAM GENERATOR (HRSG)
4.19.1 General
Included in the whole heat recovery steam generator system are
boiler inlet duct, HRSG boiler proper, main stack, relevant duct
accessories and its control system. HRSG is mainly used to recover waste
heat from GT exhaust gas, produce HP steam to be led to steam turbine,
driving generator. In addition HRSG boiler can produce LP steam to be
provided for deaerator.
4.19.2 Type of Boiler

The boiler is natural circulation water tube boiler with horizontal
flue and vertical helical finned pipe. Located in the horizontal flue are
helical finned pipes of heat-transmitting components.
4.19.3 Boiler Performance Features

- A safe and Reliable Operation
With gas-turbine exhaust heat recovery natural circulation boiler
widely used both at home and abroad to serve as its prototype, the type of
boiler is advanced and proven.
- Incorporation of the specific feature of both natural and forced
circulation boilers
With the adoption of a natural circulation mode on the boiler water
and steam side, and a forced circulation mode on the gas side, the
proposed boiler incorporates the characteristic features of both the natural
and forced circulation boilers.
69
- Light weight and small size
The boiler weight and physical dimensions of this type of boiler excel
those of analogous types of foreign and home-made natural circulation
boilers, and it is also comparable to those of conventional forced
circulation boilers.
- High maneuverability
A small water capacity, a rapid start-up and a high maneuverability
constitute the main features of this type of boiler. Its start-up performance
excels those of analogous types of foreign and home-made boilers. These
features are especially important for gas turbine generating stations often
subjected to a high frequency of start-ups and shutdowns.
- Saving in operation expenses
No forced-circulation pumps are needed for the present boiler, which
leads to not only the elimination of an unreliable equipment item but also
significant saving in auxiliary power consumption and a low operation
cost.
4.19.4 Boiler Inlet Duct, Main Stack and Duct Accessories

Boiler inlet duct is used for leading GT exhaust gas into HRSG
which can insure good flow distribution, low flue gas resistance, high
sealing quality and high capability to withstand heat shock. Duct
accessories include expansion joints at every location and all kinds of
interfaces which can insure duct free expansion under the high
temperature condition and can meet the requirements of interfaces for
boiler supervision and control. The height of 30 m is determined for main
stack in consideration of requirements of flue gas discharge.
70
4.20. STEAM TURBINE
The rotor of the turbine is composed of one speed stage and 18
pressure stages. Twisted blades are fixed in the last three stages. For the
other stages, straight blades are used. Live steam after passing through
the main stop valve is divided into two paths entering the turbine. Screen
is installed inside the main stop valve in order to prevent water drops or
other foreign matter from entering the turbine. After doing work in
process of expansion, the steam flows into the condenser and is
condensed into condenser which is then pumped by a condenser pump
into the shaft sealing steam cooler, etc. then it will be boosted by the
feed-water pump flows into the HRSG after oxygen being removed.
A part condenser through the condenser pump is to be sent back to
the upper half of condenser to keep the normal operation of condenser
and condenser pump during turbine starting with the sliding pressure and
temperature. To eliminate any uneven thermal expansion, large steam
pipes such as main steam pipes and the extraction steam pipes should be
arranged symmetrically. It is necessary to use compensation bends for
absorption expansion. [8]
71
Table 4-1: BOILER ALL HEATING SURFACES
THERMODYNAMIC SPECIAL PROPERTY (DESIGN
OPERATING CONDITIONS).
GT Model: PG6581B GT Fuel: Light Diesel Oil
HP HP HP LP
No Item Unit superheat- evaporating Economiz boiler
. er Tube Bank er
1 Ambient ˚C 40
temperature
2 Inlet flue gas ˚C 564 488.1 295 190.2
temperature
3 Outlet flue ˚C 488.1 295 190.2 158.1
gas
temperature
4 Inlet medium ˚C 286.4 286.4 104 144.1
temperature
5 Outlet ˚C 468 286.4 279.5 144.1
medium
temperature
6 Average ˚C 130.6 61.2 41.3 27
temperature
difference
7 Average flue ˚C 512.3 347.7 233 171
gas
temperature
8 Average flue m/s 17.1 14.7 11.9 10.3
gas speed
72
THERMODYNAMIC SPECIAL PROPERTY (DESIGN
OPERATING CONDITIONS).
GT. Model: PG6581B G.T Fuel: LPG
HP HP HP LP
No Item Unit superheat- evaporating Economiz boiler
. er Tube Bank er
1 Ambient ˚C 40
temperature
2 Inlet flue gas ˚C 564 488.2 297.3 190.9
temperature
3 Outlet flue ˚C 488.2 297.3 190.9 158.5
gas
temperature
4 Inlet medium ˚C 288.6 288.6 104 144.3
temperature
5 Outlet ˚C 468 288.6 281.6 144.3
medium
temperature
6 Average ˚C 129.8 60.8 41.6 27.2
temperature
difference
7 Average flue ˚C 512.7 349.4 234.4 171.5
gas
temperature
8 Average flue m/s 17.2 14.8 12 10.4
gas speed
73
THERMODYNAMIC SPECIAL PROPERTY (66% LOAD
OPERATING CONDITIONS)
G.T. Fuel: light diesel oil
HP HP
HP LP
Item Unit Superheat Evaporating
Economizer boiler
er pipe bank
Inlet flue gas
˚C 564 488.1 295.0 190.2
temperature
Outlet flue
gas ˚C 488.1 295.0 190.2 158.1
temperature
Inlet medium
˚C 267.22 267.22 104 113.32
temperature
Outlet
medium ˚C 265 267.22 263 113.32
temperature
74
Table 4-4: THE LIST OF SUMMARY OF DATA FOR CCPP (100% LOAD
CONDITION)
NO. Item Unit Unit 1& Unit2 Remarks
1 Gas Turbine
1.1 Type
1.2 Model PG6001B
1.3 Fuel LDO LPG
1.4 Output at standard design condition kW 39174 40053
condition)
1.5 Output at rated design kW 31602 23366 Am.temp.
Condition ˚C
1.6 Quantities set 4
1.7 Initial temperature ˚C 40 40
1.8 Exhaust temperature ˚C 564 564 Am.temp.
˚C
1.9 Exhaust flow rate t/h 452 450 Am.temp.
˚C
2 Heat recovery steam
Generator
2.1 Type Single pressure, horizonta
firing
2.2 Model Q354/564.64-6.9/4
2.3 Quantity set 4
2.4 100% load continuous rate t/h 62.56 63.78
2.5 Main steam temperature ˚C 468 468 Am.temp.
˚C
2.6 Main steam pressure MPa 7.0 7.0 Am.temp.
˚C
2.7 Feed water temperature ˚C 104 104 To HRSG
2.8 Exhaust flow gas ˚C 153.9 153.9 Am.temp.
Temperature ˚C
75
3 Steam Turbine
3.1 Type Directly condensing with
extraction for heating LPG
3.2 Model 1.35-6.7-1
3.3 Quantity Set 2
3.4 Main steam flow-rate at in ˚C 2x62.56 2x63.78 Am.temp.
main steam stop valve ˚C
3.5 Pressure at inlet of main MPa 6.7 6.7 Am.temp.
stop valve ˚C
3.6 Temperature at inlet of ˚C 465 465 Am.temp.
main stop valve ˚C
3.7 Extraction pressure MPa 0.922 Am.temp.
˚C
3.8 Extraction temperature ˚C 242.9 Am.temp.
˚C
3.9 Extraction flow t/h 6 Am.temp.
˚C
4 Back pressure kPa 10.2 10.2 Am.temp.
˚C
4.1 Temperature of cooling ˚C 32 32 Am.temp.
˚C
4.2 Speed r/min 3000 3000 Am.temp.
˚C
4.3 Output kW 32720 32450 Am.temp.
˚C
76
Table 4-5: MAIN PERFORMANCE DATA (100% LOAD
CONDITION)
NO. Item Unit Unit 1 & Unit 2
1 Configuration mode 2+2+1
2 Fuel Diesel oil LPG
3 Unit generating power kW 95924 97182
3.1 Gas turbine output kW 31602 32366
3.2 Steam turbine output kW 32720 32450
3.3 Boiler 100% load t/h 62.56 63.78
continuous rate
3.4 Gas heat consumption kJ/h 390 × 10 6 396 × 10 6
3.5 Fuel low heat value kJ/kg 42697.2 45125

3.6 Gas turbine consumption kJ/Kw.h 12340.99 12235.06
heat rate
3.7 Gas turbine fuel g/Kw.h 289 271
consumption rate
3.8 Gas turbine efficiency % 29.17 29.42
3.9 Gas turbine fuel t/h 9.134 8.776
Consumption
3.10 Plant heat consumption rate kJ/Kw.h 8131.44 8149.66
3.11 Plant fuel consumption rate g/kW.h 190.4 180.6
3.12 Plant efficiency % 44.27 44.17
77
CHAPTER FIVE
EXERGY ANALYSIS FOR GARRI 1 POWER
PLANT USING EXCEL
78
5.1. EXERGY ANALYSIS FOR STEAM CYCLE
5.1.1. HRSG:
The values of mass flow rate, temperature and pressure of
steam/water at any point of are listed in tables (4-1) to (4-5). From steam
table at a certain pressure and temperature the values of enthalpy and
entropy are figured out, enthalpy H (kJ/s) is expressed as
H = M ×h
Process heat is expressed as
QP = H O − H i
Exergy of the steam/water per unit mass is defined from equation (3-22)
as
0 0 0 0
ψ = (h − h0 ) − T0 ( s − s o ) + (V 2 2) + gz
Simplified to
ψ = h − T0 s
Exergy of the steam/water is defined as
Ψ=mψ
79
The exergy of steam/water produced from equation (3-23) is expressed as
∆Ψ = Ψ2 − Ψ1 = m[(h2 − h1 ) − T0 ( s 2 − s1 )]
Or
∆Ψ = Ψi − Ψo = m[(hi − ho ) − T0 ( s i − s o )]
The exergy of steam/water produce per equipment is calculated as
∑ ∆Ψ = ∆Ψ 1 + ∆Ψ2 + ∆Ψ3 + .......... + ∆Ψn
5.1.2. Steam turbine (ST):

From appendix (A) properties of steam/water mass flow rate,
temperature, pressure and enthalpy for steam turbine are figured out in
tables (5-1), (5-2) and (5-3), entropy enthalpy H, process heat QP ,
exergy of steam per unit mass, exergy of steam and exergy produced for
steam turbine are calculated as in HRSG above.
5.1.3. Condenser:
From appendix (A) properties of steam/water mass flow rate,
temperature, pressure and enthalpy for steam turbine are figured out in
tables (5-1), (5-2) and (5-3), values of enthalpy for saturated steam at
condenser inlet are calculated as
h = h f + xh fg
80
From the appendix (A) all the values of the dry ness fraction at
inlet to condenser is limited to 0.88 so that in partial load calculations the
average value is taken as approximation as
x = ( x1 + x 2 + x3 + ..........x n ) n
Entropy, enthalpy H, process heat QP , exergy of steam per unit mass,

exergy of steam and exergy produced for steam turbine are calculated as
in HRSG above.
5.1.4. Feeding system (pumps):

The values of temperature and pressure of water at inlet and outlet
of each pump is figured out from the actual data of pumps, mass flow
rate, entropy, enthalpy H, process heat QP , exergy of steam per unit
mass, exergy of steam and exergy produced for steam turbine are
calculated as in HRSG above.

POWER PLANT
5.2.1. Gas turbine one set:

From table (4-4) list of summary of data for CCPP 100 % load
condition we figure out mass flow rate of fuel and exhaust. The mass
flow rate of air can be calculated as
m a = me − m f
81
Also air/fuel ratio can be calculated to determined the amount of air for
partial load as
A F = ma m f
Values of fuel enthalpy (L.H.V) are listed in table (4-5), enthalpy of air is
calculated as below
h = ha + whg
ha = CpT
hg = 2501.3 + 1.82T
w = 0.0622 Pv ( P − Pv)
Pv = ΦPg at T
NOTE: values of Pg corresponding to T are listed in steam table.
Fuel energy is expressed as
E f = m f × h f (L.H.V)
The power out put of gas turbine listed in table (4-5).Gas turbine
efficiency expressed as
η GT = (WGT E f ) × 100
The enthalpy of exhaust gases at inlet are given by the equation below
h = Cp g × Tin
82
The energy of the exhaust gases is expressed as
Energy = me × H
First low efficiency can be calculated from the formula
(QP + WGT ) × 100

ηI =
Ef
5.2.2. HRSG one set:

The enthalpy of the exhaust gases at outlet is
ho = Cp g × Tout
Process heat of exhaust gases QP expressed as
QP = H i − H O
values of steam/water enthalpy for HP&LP are listed in table (5-1), (5-2)
and (5-3) so that at inlet to LP is that at inlet to evaporator and so at out
let, for HP at inlet is that entering economizer and at outlet is that leaving
superheater, mS is considered as the mass flow rate leaving superheater,
there is loss of steam at HP drum due to continuous blow down 1% of
total mass flow rate.
The efficiency of the HRSG is expressed as
(QP HP + QP LP ) × 100
η HRSG =
QP
83
5.2.3. Steam turbine set (combined by 2 HRSGs):
Enthalpy of HP steam Hi expressed as
H i HP = 2 × m s HP × ho
Also LP steam
H i LP = 2 × m s LP × ho
∑H i = H i HP + H i LP
The values of steam power out put are listed in table (4-5) Ranking actual
efficiency is calculated from the formula
WST × 100
ηI =
∑ Hi
84
Table 5-1: EXERGY ANALYSIS FOR STEAM CYCLE (GAS
TURBINE FUEL LIGHT DESIL OIL FOR 100% LOAD).
85
TURBINE FUEL LPG FOR 100% LOAD).
86
TURBINE FUEL LIGHT DESIL OIL FOR 66% LOAD).
87
Table 5-4: EXERGY ANALYSIS OF MAIN EQUIPMENT FOR GARRI
POWER PLANT.
88
CHAPTER SIX
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
89
6.1. EXERGY ANALYSIS OF CCPP
A CCPP as shown in Fig. (4-1) includes both the Brayton cycle and
Rankine cycle. It joins operation of the gas turbine at the ‘‘hot end’’ and
the steam turbine at the ‘‘cold end.’’ The scale diagram of temperature vs.
entropy for CCPP is plotted in Fig. (6-1). Referring to Figs.(4-1) and
(6-1), gas turbine operates on the Brayton Cycle, i.e., intake air is
compressed nearly isentropically from point 1 to 2, combusted at constant
pressure from point 2 to 3, and then expanded nearly isentropically in the
gas turbine from point 3 to 4, exhausting gas from point 4 to 5. The
Brayton cycle as applied to a gas turbine is an open cycle, temperature at
point 5 is higher than 100˚C and does not form a closed loop with the
inlet air of point 1. For the Rankine cycle, points 9 to 6 shown in
Fig. (6-1) are a heating process at constant pressure (pressure drop is
shown in Table (5-1)). The actual turbine expansion from point 6 to 7 is
an irreversible (non-isentropic) process. No pressure losses are
encountered in the condenser process from point 7 to 8 because it is a
two-phase condensation process. The processes of pumps and heaters
from point 8 to 9 are nearly isentropic. The working fluid of the Rankine
cycle is a vapor–liquid and the Brayton cycle is a gas. The two different
working fluids are shown in Fig. (6-1), which is temperature and entropy
(T–S) diagram showing the operating data at each process.
The useful products of a CCPP are electrical energy, WE , and
thermal energy, QP , in the form of superheated steam. The
thermodynamic performance is based on the first law efficiency, and is
defined as
(WE + QP ) × 100
ηI = (6-1)
Ef
90
For simple cycle, WE is equal to WGT and for combined cycle, WE is equal
to WGT + WST . Actually, the efficiency of a CCPP is reduced by the
various inherent losses. One unavoidable loss is heat lost by radiation
and/or convection, while a second is the internal loss caused by
irreversible processes as discussed in the second law of thermodynamics.
QP is defined as the energy of steam generated in the HRSG or
equipment and is calculated from high-pressure steam ms H (h − hC ) H plus

low-pressure steam ms L (h − hC ) L . The HRSG of GARRI 1 is a pure energy
converter transferring heat from the GT exhaust gas without supplemental
fuel combustion, therefore, no combustion takes place in the HRSG.
Exergy analyses of GARRI 1 operated steam cycle for 100% load with
LPG, 100% load with LDO and 66% load with LDO are shown on Tables
(5-1) , (5-2) and (5-3) respectively. GARRI 1(one block) consists of two
GTs and one ST forming a combined cycle unit. When GARRI 1 operates
at 66% load, the two GTs and associated HRSGs operate at 66% load and
the STG operates in the sliding pressure mode at 66% ST load. GT
control is achieved by variable inlet guide vanes, adjusted to keep the
exhaust gas temperature constant at variable GT loads. The exergy
evaluation in the system has to consider the mass flow rate of the steam/
water. Theoretically in a steam/water cycle, the exergy of the steam/water
produced in the HRSG plus power consumption of the pumps should be
equal to the steam turbine gross power output plus the steam extracted by
the heaters and exhausted to the condenser. However, from the second
law of thermodynamics, the ∑ j∆Sj ≥ 0 and compared with Eq. (3-20)
then ∑ j∆Ψj ≤ 0 . Tables (5-1), (5-2) and (5-3) show the amount of ∑ ∆ψ
lost in the whole steam/water cycle amounts to 1.55% ,1.73% and 1.83,
respectively, which supports the second law of thermodynamics.
The power to heat ratio for simple cycle (GT only),
91
WGT
R= (6-2)
QP
and for combined cycle,

WE
R= (6-3)
QP′
Where in QP′ = QP − WST . From Table (5-4), only 26.47%, 25.31% and
25.06%, of steam energy can be converted to electrical power, which is
the efficiency of Rankine cycle portion of GARRI 1 at 100% load LDO,
100% load LPG and 66% load LDO, respectively and at design
conditions. If the electrical power and steam thermal energy are treated as
equivalent energy levels, it is called the law of the energy conservation,
part of the first law of thermodynamics. However, electrical power is
much more valuable than steam/water thermal energy in a power
generating plant. The energy can proceed in a certain direction but not in
the reverse direction. Exergy, the essential concept in second law
analysis, is always consumed or destroyed in any process. If less exergy
is consumed, a cycle can produce more efficiently. Therefore, by using
exergy to evaluate the power plant cycles, a more accurate performance
of the system can be obtained
(WE + ∆ψ ) × 100
η II = (6-4)
ψf
92
Fig. (6-1). T–S diagram of combined cycle plant.
The exergy factor of generated steam/water ( ε S ) and the exergy factor of

fuel input (ψ f ) can be expressed as follows:
∆ψ
εS = (6-5)
QP
ψf
εf = =1 (6-6)
Ef
Substituting in equation (6-4)
93
WE + ε S QP + QP − QP WE + QP + (ε S − 1)QP
η II = =
ε f Ef ε f Ef
ηI ⎡ ε f (ε S − 1)QP ⎤ η I ⎡WE + ∆ψ ⎤
= ⎢1 + × ⎥= ⎢ ⎥
εf ⎢⎣ η I ε f E f ⎥⎦ ε f ⎢⎣ η I E f ⎥⎦
ηI ⎡ R + ε S ⎤
= (6-7)
ε f ⎢⎣ R + 1 ⎥⎦
6.1.1. Brayton cycle theoretical efficiency

The ideal Brayton cycle is composed of two adiabatic–reversible
(isentropic) and two constant pressure processes (as shown in Fig. (6-1)).
The theoretical GARRI 1 GT efficiency (η GT ) at ISO conditions with a
flue gas inlet temperature of 1000˚C and exhaust temperature of 564˚C is
34.24%. This theoretical efficiency is 5.07 %, 4.82% and 9.21% higher
than the actual gas turbine operating efficiency of 29.17%, 29.42% and
25.03% respectively, due to the mechanical losses and non-isentropic
processes existing in the operation.
6.1.2. Rankine cycle theoretical efficiency

The conditions of the steam generated from the HRSG will affect
the steam cycle efficiency. The Rankine cycle of the steam turbine for
GARRI 1 utilizes steam as a working fluid and the condenser as a heat
rejection reservoir, operating at constant pressure. Assume the turbine
expansion and the feed water pumping processes are isentropic. The
Rankine cycle efficiency is defined as the turbine work (enthalpy
difference between the steam at the turbine inlet and at the turbine
exhaust outlet) divided by the inlet steam enthalpy. The ideal Rankine
cycle efficiencies for GARRI 1 with superheated pressure steam
94
conditions is 32.36, 32.95 and 34.22% at a condensers pressure of 0.0115,
0.0099 and 0.0025MPa respectively.
6.2. EFFECT OF PARTIAL LOAD ON CCPP EFFICIENCY

Using the first law to evaluate the efficiency of GARRI 1 at 100%
load (see Table (5-1)), the total steam energy at the two HRSG’s HP and
LP superheater outlets is 123587.196 kJ/s; the net energy output from
steam turbine is 36804.42 kJ/s. The calculated first law efficiency (η) of
steam cycle is 29.78 %. Using the second law, the total outlet exergy of
HP and LP steam from the HRSG is 44363.73 kJ/s, the inlet exergy to
steam turbine is 42046.48 kJ/s. The destroyed exergy from HRSG and
pumps to steam turbine and condenser is 2317.25 kJ/s (5.46%) due to the
piping insulation thermal loss. The destroyed exergy at the condenser is
4428.03kJ/s (8.64%). The total destroyed exergy in the GARRI 1
combined cycle is shown in table (6- 1). The exergy analyses of GARRI 1
operating at 66% load LDO is shown in Table (5-2) and the component
exergy analyses is shown in Table (5-4).
From Table (5-4), The GARRI 1 actual efficiency (η cc ) is 44.27%
[95924 kW/(216662.6 kJ/s)] for 100% load with LDO power output from
the operation record. For the 66% LDO power output of the CCPP, the
GARRI 1 actual operation efficiency is 40.73%. The actual operation
efficiency 100% load LPG is 44.17 %.
The exergy loss at 66% load is 1.2 times that of 100% load due to
the lower steam pressure in the HRSG. It can be verified from the steam
T–S diagram, as the LP steam has higher entropy value than HP steam at
the same temperature. Therefore, the GARRI 1 operating efficiency (η II )
at 100% load is 2.44% higher than at 66% load.
95
TABLE (6-1): EXERGY DESTRUCTION FOR GARRI 1
COMPONENTS.
Equipment unit EXERGY DESTRUCTION
100% LDO 100% LPG 66%LDO
HRSG kJ/s 22601.42 20736 16656.22
S.T kJ/s 10042.14 13554.96 1942.92
CONDENSERkJ/s 4428.03 8428.39 94.147
C.P kJ/s 329.384 343.806 269.247
H.P.F.W.P kJ/s 70.582 73.198 56.235
L.P.F.W.P kJ/s 0.89167 0.92498 0.83458
GT kJ/s 67578.86 29779.9 54187.76
6.3. THERMODYNAMICS ANALYSIS

The first law efficiency of simple cycle η I = 78.26% is calculated
by Eq. (6-1), where the WGT , QP and E f are shown in Table (5-4), item 1.
The second law efficiency of simple cycle η II = 48.93%, where in the

heat to power ratio (R) is equal to 0.5942 which is calculated by Eq. (6-2)
and ε S = 0.4026 which is calculated by Eq.(6-3). ∆ψ is listed in
Table (5-1).
The first law efficiency of combined cycle is same as simple cycle;
however, the steam turbine power output needs to be deducted from Qp
to obtain QP′ , which is equal to 73640.88 kJ/s. The second law efficiency
of combined cycle η II = 64.04%, wherein R is equal to WE QP′ = 1.3026
and ε S = ∆ψ QP′ = 0.5815.
The exhaust gas leaves the gas turbine through a horizontal outlet.
Then the gas enters a 90˚ upward bend at the base of the vertical tower
section, which contains the HRSG heating surfaces. The HRSG heating
96
surfaces arranged in the direction of gas flow are HP superheater, HP
evaporator, HP economizer and LP evaporator forming a dual pressure
boiler. The three main parts producing HP steam are firstly, the HP
economizer, secondly, the HP evaporator, and the lastly, HP superheater,
all working at a HP steam pressure. The condensate at 51 ˚C enters to the
feed water tank. It is heated to saturation and deaerated in the feed water
tank. Then, the low-pressure feed pump takes some deaerated water from
the feed tank and discharges this deaerated feed to the LP evaporator at
104 ˚C and the feed water is evaporated. The vapor after being separated
from the unevaporated water in the LP steam drum passes again to the
deaerator. The HP feed water pump takes the balance of the deaerated
water from the feed tank and discharges it into the HP economizer. The
feed water temperature at HP economizer inlet is (104 ˚C), a sub-cooled
liquid state. The sub-cooled liquid is heated in the economizer and exits
at (279.5 ˚C) to the HP evaporator, where it is changed to the saturated
vapor state. The vapor is separated from the liquid in the HP drum and
the saturated vapor enters the HP superheater exiting at a superheated
temperature of 468 ˚C.
The combustion gas, in counter flow, enters the HP superheater
at the gas turbine exit condition of (564 ˚C), goes through the HP
superheater and then the HP evaporator where it exits at a temperature of
(295 ˚C). The flue gas enters the LP evaporator and exit at Te (158.1˚C).
The gas and steam temperatures profile of the HRSG are shown in
Fig. 6-3.
In a dual pressure system, there is a substantial increase in the
amount of heat recovered in the HRSG. Usually, the HP steam can be
optimized at a higher pressure than the single pressure cycle; more of the
energy is transferred into exergy. In addition, LP steam is produced,
recovering the heat at the low temperature end of the HRSG and lowering
97
the stack gas temperature by the addition of LP evaporator. The
efficiency analysis is listed in Fig. (6-2).
Fig. (6-2) is based on the temperature of the flue gas, which at pinch
point of HP portion is 295˚C. The pinch point is fixed at 8.6˚C of HP
portion for Plant . The actual second law efficiency of the simple cycle is
lower than the combined cycle because the power-to-heat ratio (R) is only
0.5942 instead of 1.3026. The higher exergy ratio of generated
steam/water and the power-to-heat ratio both increase the thermal
efficiency. Fig. (6-2) depicts the efficiency evaluation based on first law
without considering the exergy of generated steam/water.
Figure (6-2).Thermodynamic analysis of Garri 1
6.4. EVALUATION OF TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

ABSORPTION FOR HRSG
The temperature vs. heat absorption diagrams (Fig. 6-3,4,5) shows
the transferred heat flow Q (horizontal axis), as the flue gas passes
through the HRSG in percent of heat absorbed and the vertical scale is
98
temperature. The key parameters Q (heat flow) and Cp (specific heat) are
nearly constant over the entire passage through the HRSG resulting in a
straight line representation of the flue gas temperature. The temperature
drop over each heating surface is therefore proportional to the heat
absorbed by the steam/water system. The highest quantity of heat being
transferred is in the HP evaporator and the smallest is in the LP
evaporator. The quantity of heat transferred in the LP evaporator appears
with a very short and narrow space.
In designing the HRSG, the incoming condensate entering the feed
water tank. The feed water tank is designed to operate as a deaerator. To
achieve proper deaeration in the feed water tank, a temperature difference
is required between the condensate entering the feed water tank and the
feed water tank temperature itself. Both the LP and HP feed water pumps
take suction from the feed water tank and supply feed water at essentially
feed water tank temperature to the LP drum/evaporator and to the HP
economizer and drum/evaporator, respectively.
The inlet temperature of the feed water entering the HP economizer
is nearly the same as the feed water entering the LP drum, as both are fed
from the common feed water tank via separate feed water pumps. Due to
the different pressure levels, the HP feed water will be heated slightly
more by the feed water pump than the LP feed water.
99
Figure 6-3: Gas and steam temperature profile of HRSG for 100 % load
LDO
Figure 6-4: Gas and steam temperature profile of HRSG for 100% load
LPG
100
Figure 6-5: Gas and steam temperature profile of HRSG for 66% load
LDO
6.5. EFFECT OF PINCH POINT ON PLANT PERFORMANCE

The pinch point is the minimum difference between the gas
temperature leaving the evaporator section of the HRSG and the
saturation temperature corresponding to the steam pressure in the
evaporator section. Generally, lowering the pinch point results in an
increase of total heat recovered in the evaporator section. However,
lowering the pinch point will decrease the logarithmic mean temperature
difference (LMTD) in the HRSG, requiring more heat transfer surface
area. This significantly increases the equipment cost.
101
The pinch point for the HP portion is ∆TH = 8.6˚C (295-286.4 ˚C)
.This pinch point is important parameter affecting the thermal
performance of the system.
If the pinch point of an HRSG is changed to 10, 20 or 30 ˚C and
the pressure of process steam/water is fixed, the total required heating
surface of HRSG will be reduced, leading to a reduction in steam
temperature. This change will affect the steam cycle thermal
performance.
102
CHAPTER SEVEN
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
103
7.1. CONCLUSION
Based on first law (energy) and second law (exergy) analysis, the
formulas for dual pressure HRSG have been developed for
thermodynamic performance and engineering betterment of combustion
gas turbine based power generation system. The plant performance can be
improved by improving the system design such as using dual pressure
steam cycles, inlet air cooling for the gas turbine, and fuel gas preheating,
etc. From fig. (6-2), the efficiency difference of CCPP between second
law and actual plant operation at design condition is 19.77, 20.18 and
20.87 %, for 100% load LDO, 100% load LPG and 66% load LDO
respectively, which is caused by a steam cycle efficiency of only 26.47%,
25.32% and 25.06% as shown in Table (5-4).
The higher exergy destruction occurs because the lower pressure
steam has high entropy value at same temperature level. Therefore, the
CCPP operated at 66% load has an efficiency of 3.54% lower than the
100% load. From figure (6-2) the second law efficiency difference
between 100% load LPG and 100% load LDO is only 0.31%. From table
(6-1), Maximum exergy loss was found at the gas turbine 67578.86 kJ/s
which is (31.2 % of input). The second important loss was at HRSG
22601.42 kJ/s which is (10.43 % of input). Exergy destruction at pumps
is too small compared to that at other components.
104
7.2. RECOMMENDATION:
1. Performance test for 100% load, gas turbine using light diesel oil
and liquefied petroleum gas can be considered in exergy analysis.
2. The cooling tower exergy destruction by mass as evaporated water
loss (exergy transfer by mass), exergy transfer by heat and so on
should be considered.
3. With well insulation of steam/water pipe exergy destruction within
pipes and valves is comparatively small so can neglected.
4. The efficiency deviation between exergy analyses and performance
test results can be improved by engineering design.
5. GARRI 1 power plant should be operated at full load using LPG as
gas turbine fuel or full load using LDO and never be operated at
partial load.
6. One of the important improvements on the combined cycle is the
compressor inlet air cooling, now a days evaporative media type is
carried out, so effect of this system on first and second low
efficiency can be calculate.
7. According to National Electricity Corporation long term plan there
are 6191MW driven from combined cycle power plants so when
designing these combined cycles we have to consider the exergy
and carried out through the elementary design meetings.
105
References
[1] NEC (2005): Generation data book.
[2] NEC (2005): Generation plan report.
[3] NEC (2005): Demand forecast report.
[4] Yunus A . Cengel, Michael A . Boles, Thermodynamic an engineering
approach.
[5] Badran OO. Gas-turbine performance improvements. Applied Energy
1999;64:263–73.
[6] Abdel-Rahim YM. Exergy analysis of radial inflow expansion
turbines for power recovery. Heat Recovery System & CHP
1995;15(8):775–85.
[7] Chuang CC, Ishida M. Exergy analysis of an absorption heat pump by
energy utilization diagrams. A future for Energy (FLOWERS ‘90). Tokyo
(Japan): Pergamon Press; 1990, p. 309–21.
[8] Carcasci C, Facchini B. Comparison between two gas turbine
solutions to increase combined power plant efficiency. Energy
Conversion and Management 2000;41:757–73.
[9] Huang FF. Performance evaluation of selected combustion gas turbine
cogeneration systems based on first and second-law analysis. Journal of
Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 1990;112:117–21.
[10] Verkhivker GP, Kosoy BV. On the exergy analysis ofpower plants.
Energy Conversion and Management 2001;42:2053–9.
[11] Marrero IO, Lefsaker AM, Razani A, Kim KJ. Second law analysis
and optimization of a combined triple power cycle. Energy Conversion
and Management 2002;43:557–73.
[12] Bilgen E. Exergetic and engineering analyses of gas turbine based
cogeneration systems. Energy 2000;25: 1215–1229.
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[13] Pak, P.S. and SUZUKI, Y. (1997). Exergetic evaluation of methods
for improving power generation efficiency of a gas turbine cogeneration
system, Energy research Journal, 21, pp. 737-747.
[14] Deng-Chern Sue- Chia-Chin Chuang, Engineering design and exergy
analysis for combustion gas turbine based power generation system.
[15] Somkiat Boonnasa, Pichai Namprakai, Exergy evaluation of the EGAT
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107
List of contents
Subject Page
‫ اﻵﻳﺔ‬----------------------------------------------------------------------------- I
ACKNOLEDGENMENT -------------------------------------------------- II
ABSTRACT ------------------------------------------------------------------ III
‫ﻣﺴﺘﺨﻠﺺ اﻟﺒﺤﺚ‬------------------------------------------------------------------ IV
LIST OF CONTENTS ------------------------------------------------------ V
LIST OF FIGURE ----------------------------------------------------------- VIII
LIST OF TABLES ----------------------------------------------------------- IX
ABBREVIATIONS --------------------------------------------------------- X
Nomenclature ---------------------------------------------------------------- XI
CHAPTER ONE ....................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 1
1.1. ELECTRICITY SUPPLY IN SUDAN........................................ 2
1.2. ELECTRICAL SYSTEM IN SUDAN ....................................... 4
1.2.1. NEC Short (2005-2010) and Long (2005-2030) Term Plans. .. 6
DAILY LIFE ......................................................................................... 9
1.4. OBJECTIVES OF STUDY .......................................................... 12
CHAPTER TWO .................................................................................... 13
LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................... 13
CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................ 27
FUNDAMENTALS OF EXERGY ANALYSIS .................................... 27
3.1 EXERGY: A MEASURE OF WORK POTENTIAL .................... 28
3.2 EXERGY WORK POTENTIAL OF ENERGY............................ 28
3.3 REVERSIBLE WORK AND IRREVERSIBILITY...................... 31
3.4 SECOND-LAW EFFICIENCY, ηII .............................................. 33
3.5 EXERGY CHANGE OF A SYSTEM........................................... 37
3.5.1 Exergy of a Fixed Mass:.......................................................... 38
3.5.1.2 Exergy of a Flow Stream: Flow (or Stream Exergy ............. 42
DESRUCTION.................................................................................... 44
3.6.1 Exergy Destruction.................................................................. 46
3.7 EXERGY BALANCE: CLOSED SYSTEMS............................... 48
3.8 EXERGY BALANCE: CONTROL VOLUMES .......................... 52
3.8.1 Exergy Balance for Steady-Flow System................................ 53
3.8.2 Reversible Work,..................................................................... 54
3.8.3 Second-Law Efficiency of Steady-Flow Devices,................... 55
CHAPTER FOUR................................................................................... 58
GARRI 1 POWER PLANT .................................................................... 58
4.1. SITE LOCATION ........................................................................ 59
4.2. WEATHER CONDITIONS ......................................................... 59
108
4.3. DESIGN OPERATING CONDITIONS....................................... 59
4.4. PLANT CONFIGURATIONS ..................................................... 60
4.5. OPERATING SCHEME OF THE CCPP ..................................... 60
4.6. GAS TURBINE WITH EXHAUST GAS SYSTEM ................... 63
4.6.1 Gas Turbine............................................................................. 63
4.6.2 Exhaust Gas System................................................................ 65
4.7. WATER STEAM CYCLE ........................................................... 65
4.8. HRSG AND ITS AUXILIARY SYSTEM ................................... 66
4.9. THE MAIN STEAM AND BYPASS SYSTEM .......................... 66
4.10. DEAERATOR HEATING STEAM SYSTEM .......................... 66
4.11. BOILER FEED-WATER SYSTEM........................................... 67
4.12. CONDENSATE SYSTEM......................................................... 67
4.13. CIRCULATING COOLING WATER SYSTEM....................... 68
4.14. AUXILARY SYSTEMS ............................................................ 68
4.19. HEAT RECOVERY STEAM GENERATOR (HRSG) ............. 69
4.19.1 General.................................................................................. 69
4.19.2 Type of Boiler ....................................................................... 69
4.19.3 Boiler Performance Features ................................................. 69
4.19.4 Boiler Inlet Duct, Main Stack and Duct Accessories ............ 70
4.20. STEAM TURBINE .................................................................... 71
CHAPTER FIVE .................................................................................... 78
EXERGY ANALYSIS FOR GARRI 1 POWER PLANT USING EXCEL
................................................................................................................ 78
5.1. EXERGY ANALYSIS FOR STEAM CYCLE (TABLES (5-1,2,3))
............................................................................................................. 79
5.1.1. HRSG:.................................................................................... 79
5.1.2. Steam turbine (ST): ................................................................ 80
5.1.3. Condenser............................................................................... 80
5.1.4. Feeding system (pumps)......................................................... 81
POWER PLANT (TABLE (5-4))........................................................ 81
5.2.1. Gas turbine one set ................................................................. 81
5.2.2. HRSG one set......................................................................... 83
5.2.3. Steam turbine set (combined by 2 HRSGs)............................ 84
CHAPTER SIX....................................................................................... 89
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................. 89
6.1. EXERGY ANALYSIS OF CCPP ................................................ 90
6.1.1. Brayton cycle theoretical efficiency....................................... 94
6.1.2. Rankine cycle theoretical efficiency ...................................... 94
6.2. EFFECT OF PARTIAL LOAD ON CCPP EFFICIENCY........... 95
6.3. THERMODYNAMICS ANALYSIS ........................................... 96
6.4. EVALUATION OF TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
ABSORPTION FOR HRSG................................................................ 98
109
6.5. EFFECT OF PINCH POINT ON PLANT PERFORMANCE ... 101
CHAPTER SEVEN .............................................................................. 103
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION .................................... 103
7.1. CONCLUSION .......................................................................... 104
7.2. RECOMMENDATION.............................................................. 105
References ......................................................................................... 106
110
111

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‫ﺑﺴﻢ اﷲ اﻟﺮﲪﻦ اﻟﺮﺣﻴﻢ‬

The Graduate College

Exergy Analysis of Garri (1) Power Plant

I wish to thank my adviser, Dr.Mohammed Mosadag, for

The objective of this research is to presents an engineering design and

Garri 2 upgrading 100 MW. (Implemented).

TOTAL INSTALLED GENERATION IN THE NATIONAL GRID

TOTAL OF HYDRO 343.3 MW

Plant No Unit Total

Plant No Unit Total

1.2.1. NEC Short (2005-2010) and Long (2005-2030) Term Plans.

Figure (1-1): High load forecast planting programme [3].

1.3. SECOND-LAW OF THERMODYNAMIC ASPECTS OF

1.4. OBJECTIVES OF STUDY

The gas turbines information of Plants A and B are presented in

Fig. 2-1. Schematic flow diagram for Plant A.

Table 2-1: description of plants A and B

Somkiat Boonnasa and Pichai Namprakai conclude that according

A. Khaliq and S.C.Kaushik[16] present paper which use the

Fig.2-4 Schematic diagram of the combined Brayton/Rankine power

They conclude that an improved second-law analysis of the

3.2 EXERGY WORK POTENTIAL OF ENERGY

3.3 REVERSIBLE WORK AND IRREVERSIBILITY

Wu = W − WSurr = W − P0 (V2 − V1 ) (3-2)

difference is called irreversibility I. it is expressed as:

I = Wrev ,out − Wu ,out or I = Wu ,in − Wrev ,in (3-3)

The irreversibility is equivalent to the exergy destroyed, discuss

3.4 SECOND-LAW EFFICIENCY, ηII

Now it is becoming apparent that engine B has a greater work potential

η II = η th η (heat engines) (3-4)

That is engine A is converting 60 percent of the available work potential

η II = Wu Wrev (work producing devices) (3-5)

η II = Wrev Wu (work consuming devices) (3-6)

η II = COP COPrev (refrigerators and heat pumps) (3-7)

the actual process.

3.5 EXERGY CHANGE OF A SYSTEM

3.5.1 Exergy of a Fixed Mass:

3.5.1.1 Non flow (or closed system) exergy

Net energy transfer changes in internal. Kinetic

∂W = PdV = ( P − P0 )∂V + P0 ∂V = ∂Wb ,useful + P0 ∂V (3-10)

A reversible process cannot involve any heat transfer through a

∂WHE = (1 − T0 T )∂Q = ∂Q − (T0 T )∂Q

∂Wtotal ,useful = ∂WHE + ∂Wb ,useful = − dU − P0 dV + T0 dS

On a unit mass basis, the closed system (or nonflow) exergy Φ is

The exergy change of a closed system during a process is simply

∆X = X 2 − X 1 = m(Φ 2 − Φ 1 ) = ( E 2 − E1 ) + P0 (V2 − V1 ) − T0 ( S 2 − S1 ) (3-15)

Or, on a unit mass basis,

X system = ∫ Φ∂m = ∫ vΦρdV (3-17)

Where V is the volume of the system and ρ is density.

3.5.1.2 Exergy of a Flow Stream: Flow (or Stream Exergy)

of the fluid, which is equivalent to the volume change of a unit mass of

Therefore, the exergy associated with flow energy is obtained by

Then the exergy change of a fluid stream as it undergoes a process from

processes), but it cannot be negative. Now we are about to establish an

From equation 3-15 we have

Since V2 = V1 for an isolated system (it cannot involve any moving

Since T0 is the absolute temperature of the environment and thus a

∆X isolated = ( X 2 − X 1 ) isolated ≤ 0 (3-25)

This equation can be expressed as the exergy of an isolated system during

Figure (3-1): The isolated system considered in the development of the