Chapter 1

Introduction to Power Electronics/ Power

Semiconductor Devices
 Learning Outcomes
• At the end of this topic, students should be able:
1) To outline functions and related issues of power
electronics applications.
2) To identify power semiconductor devices and their
application.
3) To describe characteristics of power semiconductor
devices and their drive requirements.

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Introduction to Power Electronics (PE) Circuit
Input source:
sensor
Power electronics Output:
-AC Load
circuit/ converter
-DC -AC
-Unregulated -DC
Control signal

Controller
Reference

Fig. 1 Block diagram of power conversion using PE circuits/ converters.

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Introduction to Power Electronics (PE) Circuit

Power
Convert electrical 1 form to another semiconductor
power form devices/ power
switches

Uncontrollable Using uncontrollable

Controllable Using controllable

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 Introduction to Power Electronics (PE) Circuit

Controllable PE
circuit

Open-loop Close-loop
control system control system

Reference Voltage/current Reference Voltage/current Voltage/current

values/signals sensors values/signals sensors controllers

To generate control signal that regulates the operation of controllable power switches;
to obtain desired outputs
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 PE Converters
Rectifier

AC input DC output

Chopper

DC input DC output

Inverter

DC input AC output

Fig. 2 Examples of power electronics converters.

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 Goal of PE
• To convert electrical power according to application
demand.

• Power is converted with

– high efficiency,
– high availability,
– high reliability,
– lowest cost,
– smaller size, and
– lightest weight.

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 Current Issues Related to PE
1. Energy scenario.
– Increase the use of renewable energy such as solar and
wind energy.
– Reduce the dependency to fossil fuel and nuclear power.
– Improve PQ and energy saving.

2. Environment issues.
– Nuclear safety → radioactive.
– Air pollution due to fossil fuel combustion.

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 Growth Factors of PE Application
1. Advances in power semiconductor devices: capability in
handling high voltage or high current.

2. Advances in controllers: efficiency and accuracy.

3. Advances in control algorithms: simple and accurate.

4. High demand for new PE applications.

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 General Application of PE
1. Static application.
– Involving non-rotating mechanical components.
– To convert electrical power for supplying load demand
or Power Quality (PQ) improvement.

2. Drive application.
– Involving rotating mechanical components.
– To manipulate certain parameter for controlling the
speed of motors.

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 Introduction to Power Semiconductor Devices

• These devices are used as switches (turn-on and

turn-off) to conduct electrical current in 1 direction
only.

• Hence, they also can be called as power switches.

• Their operation can be either uncontrollable or

controllable.
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 I-V, Switching and Gate Signal Characteristics
Table 1. Characteristics of ideal and practical power switches

Ideal switch Practical switch

During off-state Block arbitrarily large Block finite forward voltage and
forward voltage and reverse reverse voltage with small leakage
voltage with zero leakage current flow.
current flow.
During on-state Conduct arbitrarily large Conduct finite forward current
forward current with zero flow and considerable voltage
voltage drop. drop.
Switching activity Turn-on and turn-off happen Require time to turn-on and turn-
instantaneously. Reach off. Require finite/ delay time to
maximum current or voltage reach maximum current or
immediately. voltage.

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 I-V, Switching and Gate Signals Characteristics
Ideal switch Practical switch
Gate signal (if any) Very small power (voltage or Depending on the type of power
current) is required from a switches, voltage driven devices
control source to trigger the (such as IGBTs & MOSFETs) require
switch operation. substantial voltage., and current
driven devices (such as BJTs &
GTOs) require substantial current
to trigger the switch operation.

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 Types of Power Semiconductor Devices
Table 2

Power switch I-V Characteristic

Diode Passes current in one direction and blocks in the other direction. UNCONTROLLABLE
BJT Passes or blocks current in one direction.
MOSFET Passes or blocks current in one direction.
CONTROLLABLE
IGBT Passes or blocks current in one direction.
Thyristor Passes current in one direction or blocks in both directions.

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Introduction to Power Semiconductor Devices

http://www.iue.tuwien.ac.at/phd/park/node14.html

Fig. 3 Operating frequency and capacity of available power semiconductor devices.

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 Application of Power Electronics

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 Power Diodes
• The simplest power switches.

• Their operation is uncontrollable; it depends by voltages and

currents.

• When current flow from https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/diodes

anode to cathode, diodes are
forward-biased (on).

• When current flow form http://my.element14.com/fairchild-semiconductor/1n4148/diode-100v-

cathode to anode, diodes are 200ma-do-35/dp/9843680?MER=bn_browse_1TP_MostPopular_1

reverse-biased (off).
Fig. 4 Diode

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 (Practical) Power Diodes
http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/diode/diode_4.html

Fig. 5 I-V characteristic curve of diode.

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 Power Diodes
• To increase reverse blocking capability → connect several
diodes in series.

• To increase higher current conductivity → connect several

diodes in parallel.

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 (Practical) Power Diodes
• When a diode turns off, leakage current decreases
until negative value before returning to zero.

• The time taken for the current to be zero is known

as reverse recovery time, trr. The current is known as
reverse recovery current.

• Small trr is important in high frequency applications.

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 (Practical) Power Diodes
https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/technical-articles/a-review-on-power-semiconductor-devices/

(a) (b)
Fig. 6 Transient characteristics of diode (a) soft and (b) abrupt recovery.

𝑡𝑟𝑟 = 𝑡𝑎 + 𝑡𝑏 (1)
𝑡𝑎 : due to charge storage in the depletion region of the junction.
𝑡𝑏 : due to charge storage in the bulk semiconductor material.
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 (Practical) Power Diodes
• Effects of trr :
1
– Switching frequency, 𝑓𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 ∝
𝑡𝑟𝑟
– Voltage ratings ∝ 𝑡𝑟𝑟
– Voltage spikes (due to over-voltage): transition from on-
state to off-state does not occur smoothly → use snubber
circuit to limit voltage spikes.

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 (Practical) Power Diodes
Table 3 Types of diodes.

Diode trr Voltage & current ratings Application

General High ≈ 25 s High (up to 5 kV, 5 kA) Low switching frequency
purpose applications such as
diode rectifiers and line
commutated converters.
Fast- Low < 5 s Medium (typically, from 50 V High switching frequency
recovery to around 3 kV, and from less applications such as DC-
diode than 1 A to hundreds of DC and DC-AC converters.
amperes.
Schottky Very low ≈ 0 Low voltage (around 100 V) Low voltage and high
diode and high current (from 1 A to current applications such
400 A) as DC power supplies.

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 Power Transistors
• Fully controllable power switches.

• The switching operation (turn-on and turn-off) of these

devices is controlled using small control/gate signals.

• Their voltage and current ratings are lower than

thyristors.

• They are normally used in low- to medium-power

applications.
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 Power Transistors
• 3 common types:
1) Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT),
2) Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor
(MOSFET), and
3) Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT).

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 (Practical) Power Transistors

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 7 I-V characteristic curve of (a) BJT, (b) IGBT and (c) MOSFET.

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 (Practical) Power Transistors (BJTs)
Bipolar Junction Transistor

• They operate as current driven devices → a sufficiently high base

current 𝐼𝐵 will turn on the devices.
• They have forward voltage blocking capability but reverse-
blocking capability (they need additional series/ parallel diode).
C (Collector) C (Collector)

IC
IC
+ -
IB IB
VCE VCE
B B
(Base) - (Base) +

E (emitter) E (emitter)
NPN PNP
Fig. 8 BJT (NPN and PNP).
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 (Practical) Power Transistors (BJTs)
Bipolar Junction Transistor
http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/transistor/tran_2.html

BJTs work in saturation

region and cut-off region for
conducting current and
blocking current respectively.
• High 𝐼𝐵 .
• Low (on-state) 𝑉𝐶𝐸 . Fig. 9 I-V characteristic curve of BJT.
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 (Practical) Power Transistors (BJTs)
Bipolar Junction Transistor

• Ratings:
– Voltage: VCE < 1500 V.
– Current: IC < 600 A.
– Switching frequency up to 5 kHz.
– Low on-state voltage: VCE(sat): 2 – 3 V.

• Switching operation:
– Turn-on = inject + or - IB for NPN or PNP base terminal.
– Turn-off = remove IB.

• Not popular in new products.

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 (Practical) Power Transistors (BJTs)
Bipolar Junction Transistor

• Advantage:
– Low on-state voltage (𝑉𝐶𝐸 ) → low 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠

• Disadvantages:
– Low current gain  = IC / IB which is approximately between
20 to 100.
• We can use Darlington pair to increase  → reduce 𝐼𝐵 → simplify
driver circuit.
– Long turn off time → for low speed application.
– Second breakdown phenomena → high 𝐼𝐵 creates localized
hot sports →damage devices.

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 (Practical) Power Transistors (BJTs)
Bipolar Junction Transistor

• Darlington pair C 𝛽=
𝐼𝐶
IC
𝐼𝐵1
Ic1
𝐼𝐶1 + 𝐼𝐶2
=
Driver IC2 𝐼𝐵1
Transistor
(Q2) Output
IB1 𝐼𝐶2
B +
Transistor = 𝛽1 +
IB2 (Q1) 𝐼𝐵1
Vce
G 𝐼𝐶2 𝐼𝐵2
(Gate) = 𝛽1 + ×
- 𝐼𝐵2 𝐼𝐵1
𝐼𝐵1 +𝐼𝐶1
= 𝛽1 + 𝛽2
𝐼𝐵1
Biasing/ stabilising
network = 𝛽1 + 𝛽2 + 𝛽1 𝛽2 (2)
E
Fig. 10 Darlington circuit configuration.
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 (Practical) Power Transistors (MOSFETS)
Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor

• They operate as voltage driven devices → a sufficiently large

gate-to-source voltage 𝑉𝐺𝑆 will turn on the devices.
D (Drain) D (Drain)

ID
ID
+ -
VDS VDS
G + - G - +
(Gate) VGS (Gate) VGS
- +

http://my.element14.com/fairchild-
semiconductor/rfp30n06le/mosfet-n-logic-to-
S (Source) S (Source)
220/dp/1017798?ost=RFP30N06LE&selectedCatego
n-channel p-channel
ryId=&categoryNameResp=All&searchView=table
&iscrfnonsku=false
Fig. 11 MOSFET (n-channel and p-channel).
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 (Practical) Power Transistors (MOSFETS)
Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor
http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/transistor/tran_7.html

Linear Region

MOSFETs work in linear

region and cut-off region for
conducting current and
blocking current respectively. Fig. 12 I-V characteristic curve of MOSFET.

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(Practical) Power Transistors (MOSFETS)
Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor

• Ratings:
– Voltage: VDS <500 V. They are used in low-
– Current: IDS <300 A. power high
– Switching frequency (>100 kHz). frequency converters.
– High on-state voltage drop.

• Switching operation (n-channel):

– Turn-on = apply VGS +15 V; voltage threshold 𝑉𝑇 = 7 V.
– Turn-off = apply VGS = 0 V.
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(Practical) Power Transistors (MOSFETS)
Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor

• Advantages of MOSFETs over BJTs:

– Simpler gate drive requirement.
– Higher switching frequency with low switching losses.
– Higher positive temperature coefficient→ devices can be
connected in parallel to conduct high current.
– Higher current gain → low gate current 𝐼𝐺 .
– No second breakdown phenomena → low gate current
𝐼𝐺 .

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(Practical) Power Transistors (MOSFETS)
Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor

• Disadvantages:
– Has electrostatic discharge problem → special care in
handling.
– Difficult to protect them under short-circuited fault
conditions.
– Has internal resistance between drain and source during
on-state, RDS(ON) → high on-state losses → low voltage
and current ratings.

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 (Practical) Power Transistors (IGBTs)
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor

• They inherit the advantages http://my.element14.com/infineon/ir

g4bc40fpbf/igbt-to-220/dp/9105018
of BJTs and MOSFETs.
– Voltage driven devices (like
MOSFETs)
– High input impedance (like
MOSFETs).
– Easy to turn on and off (like
MOSFETs).
– Low on-state conduction
losses (like BJTs). http://www.newtoncbraga.com/index.php/articles/16-how-
they-work/347-isolated-gate-bipolar-transistor-igbt-art112

Fig. 13 IGBT.
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 (Practical) Power Transistors (IGBTs)
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor

• However, the performance of the IGBT is closer to a BJT

than an MOSFET → no second breakdown problem.

• Very popular in new products and snubberless operation is

possible.

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 (Practical) Power Transistors (IGBTs)
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor

IBJTs work in saturation

region and cut-off region for
conducting current and http://protorit.blogspot.my/2013/02/insulated-gate-bipolar-transistor-igbt.html
Fig. 14 I-V characteristics of IGBT.
blocking current respectively. EPO510 ~ IR. DR. NOR FARAHAIDA ABDUL
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 (Practical) Power Transistors (IGBTs)
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor

• Ratings:
– Voltage: VCE <3.3 kV.
– Current: IC <1.2 kA.
– Switching frequency up to 100 kHz (typically used at 20 – 50
kHz).
– Low on-state voltage: VCE(sat): 2 – 3 V.

• Switching operation:
– Turn-on = apply +VGE.
– Turn-off = apply VGE 0 V.
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 (Practical) Power Transistors
• Comparison Power BJT IGBT Power MOSFET

between BJTs,
MOSFETs & IGBTs:

Increasing gate voltage

Increasing base current

– Steady-state

Ids
Ice
characteristics
→ during on-state.

Vth Vce
Vds

Fig. 15 Steady-state (or I-V) characteristics of BJT,

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MOSFET and IGBT.
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 (Practical) Power Transistors
– Dynamic-state characteristics → transient between on-state
to off-state → recovery time.

Ids
Ice

Power BJT

IGBT
Power MOSFET

time
Fig. 16 Dynamic-state (or transient) characteristics of BJT, MOSFET and IGBT.

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 (Practical) Thyristors
• Also known as Silicon Controlled
Rectifier (SCR):
– They require gate signal 𝐼𝑔 to
turn-on during forward-biased).
The gate signal is not required
after the conduction starts. http://electronicspost.com/draw-and-explain-
the-v-i-characteristics-of-an-scr/

– However, they do not have gate

controlled turn-off capability.

http://my.element14.com/on-semiconductor/2n6509g/thyristor-25a-800v-to-220/dp/9557202

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 (Practical) Thyristors
http://www.eng.uwi.tt/depts/elec/staff/rdefour/ee33d/s4_tchar.html
Minimum anode current to maintain the
thyristor in on-state condition
immediately after a thyristor has been
turned on and the gate signal has been
removed.

Minimum anode current to

maintain the thyristor in on-
state condition
Fig. 18 I-V characteristics of thyristor.
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 (Practical) Thyristors
• Once turn-on, they will conduct current until the anode
current remains positive and higher than the holding
value.

• They will turn-off when the anode current becomes

negative (reverse-biased) due to
– natural commutation → it occurs in AC circuit,
– forced commutation using external circuitry → it
occurs in DC circuit, or
– cut-off supply voltage.

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 (Practical) Thyristors
• Advantages of thyristors:
– They can handle high power, voltage and current → high
voltage and current ratings.
– They require simple gate driver circuits → simple to control.
– High current gain → low 𝐼𝑔 .
– High blocking voltage.
– Very low on-state resistance.
– Low cost.

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 (Practical) Thyristors
• Disadvantages of thyristors:
– They are not suitable for high frequency converters/
application.
– They are not fully controllable devices.

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 (Practical) Thyristors
• The regenerative or latching action of thyristors can be
demonstrated using two-transistor model of thyristor.
= 𝑰𝑬𝟏

PNP

NPN

= 𝑰𝑬𝟐

http://www.eng.uwi.tt/depts/elec/staff/rdefour/ee33d/s4_model.html
Fig. 19 Two-transistor model of thyristor.
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 (Practical) Thyristors
C (Collector) C (Collector)

• Consider a single transistor: IC

IC
+ -
IB IB
𝐼𝐶 = 𝛼𝐼𝐸 + 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂 (3) VCE VCE
B B
(Base) - (Base) +

where
E (emitter) E (emitter)
NPN PNP
Fig. 8 BJT (NPN and PNP).

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 (Practical) Thyristors
• From Fig. 19b, the collector • From Fig. 19b, the collector
current 𝐼𝐶1 of transistor current 𝐼𝐶2 of transistor
pnp Q1 is npn Q2 is
𝐼𝐶1 = 𝛼1 𝐼𝐸1 + 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂1 𝐼𝐶2 = 𝛼2 𝐼𝐸2 + 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂2
= 𝛼1 𝐼𝐴 + 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂1 (4) = 𝛼2 𝐼𝐾 + 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂2 (5)

where 𝛼1 , 𝐼𝐸1 and 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂1 are the where 𝛼2 , 𝐼𝐸2 and 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂2 are the
current gain, emitter current and current gain, emitter current and
leakage current respectively for Q1. 𝐼𝐴 leakage current respectively for Q2. 𝐼𝐾
is the anode current of thyristor. is the cathode current of thyristor.

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 (Practical) Thyristors
• By referring to Fig. 19(b),
𝐼𝐴 = 𝐼𝐶1 + 𝐼𝐶2
= 𝛼1 𝐼𝐴 + 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂1 + 𝛼2 𝐼𝐾 + 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂2 (6)

• When gate current IG is applied → thyristor is

forward biased. Hence, http://electronicspost.com/draw-and-explain-
the-v-i-characteristics-of-an-scr/

IA IK
𝐼𝐴 = 𝐼𝐴 + 𝐼𝐺 (7)
IG
Fig. 17 Thyristor.
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 (Practical) Thyristors
• Solving 𝐼𝐴 : (7) → (6). 𝛼2 𝐼𝐺 + 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂1 + 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂2
𝐼𝐴 = (8)
1 − 𝛼1 + 𝛼2

• According to Fig. 20, 

varies with IE. Thus,
𝛼1 ∝ 𝐼𝐸1 ∝ 𝐼𝐴 for Q1 (9)

𝛼2 ∝ 𝐼𝐸2 ∝ 𝐼𝐾 ∝ 𝐼𝐴 + 𝐼𝐺 for Q2 (10)

http://www.eng.uwi.tt/depts/elec/staff/rdefour/ee33d/s4_model.html

Fig. 20 Typical variation of current gain with emitter current.

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 (Practical) Thyristors
• Based on (8) → if the gate current IG is increased from 0 to some positive
value, this will increase the anode current IA immediately.

• According to (9) and (10) → An increase of IA will increase 1 and 2.

• Subsequently, the increase in 1 and 2 values will further increase the value
of IA→ regenerative/ positive/ latching action.

• If 1 and 2 approach unity, the denominator of (8) approaches 0 and large

value of IA is produced and causing the thyristor to turn on as a result of the
application of a small IG.

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 (Practical) Thyristors
Table 4 Types of thyristor.
Thyristor Conduction Gate controlled Gate controlled Application
turn-on turn-off
Phase 1 direction Yes No (take longer Low switching frequency
control time to turn- applications with high
thyristor off) voltage and current ratings
(SCR) such as AC and DC motor
drives.
Fast 1 direction Yes No (but it has High switching frequency
switching fast turn-off applications with forced
thyristor time which is 5 commutation such as
(SCR) - 50 s) inverters and choppers.

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 (Practical) Thyristors
Thyristor Conduction Gate controlled Gate controlled Application
turn-on turn-off
Light 1 direction Yes (in a form of No Used in high
Activated direct radiation/ voltage and high
Silicon pulse of light) current
Controlled applications such
Rectifiers as High Voltage
(LASCR) Direct Current
(HVDC)
transmissions.

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 (Practical) Thyristors
Thyristor Conduction Gate controlled Gate controlled Application
turn-on turn-off
Bidirectional 2 directions Yes No For low power
Triode (each applications such
Thyristor antiparallel as AC phase
(TRIAC) thyristor control.
conducts at
opposite
direction
Gate Turn- 1 direction Yes Yes (by applying For low and fast
Off Thyristor large negative switching
(GTO) gate signal → applications.
difficult) Mostly used in
voltage source
converters.
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 (Practical) Thyristors
• Advantages of GTOs:
– Eliminate commutating component in forced commutation
circuit.
– Faster turn-off time.
– Improve a converter efficiency.

• Disadvantages of GTOs:
– Has low current gain during turn-off → high negative 𝐼𝑔 .
– Has higher on-state voltage than SCRs → high power losses.
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Summary of Controllable Power Switches Capabilities

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 Other Devices: Pulse Transformers
• They have one primary winding and one
or more secondary windings.
• They transfer signal in a form of pulse.
• They provide isolation between
controller circuit and power circuit. http://www.directindustry.com/prod/murat
a-power-solutions/product-101149-

• They do not work with DC or pure 927585.html

sinusoidal signal. Fig. 21 Pulse transformer.

• They are used widely in thyristors or

TRIACs.
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 Other Devices: Optocouplers
• They allow 2 circuits to exchange signal yet remain electrical
isolated.
• They can transfer DC signal, square pulse at a very high speed.
• Standard circuit is using LED.

http://usources.manufacturer.globalsources.com/si/6008800061742/pdtl/Microc
ontroller/1123509615/Optocouplers.htm

Fig. 22 Optocouplers.
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 Power Losses in Power Semiconductor Devices
• The importance of reducing power switch losses:
– To ensure system reliability.
– To specify an appropriate heat remover mechanism (such as
heat sink, radiator and coolant). https://www.amazon.com/ELEGIANT-7-1x3-
9x1-8inch-Aluminum-Amplifier-
Transistor/dp/B01HMCYV80

Fig. 23 Heat sink.

– To improve an efficiency of the system.

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 Power Losses in Power Semiconductor Devices

• Main losses:
1. Forward conduction losses → product of the on-state voltage and
forward current.
2. Blocking state losses →product of the voltage (blocked by power
semiconductor devices) and (small) leakage current.
3. Switching losses → product of voltage and current during transition-
time/ delay (between turn-on and turn-off and vice versa).

Fig. 24 Ideal and real switching profiles.

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 Snubber Circuits
• They are used to limit switching voltage (spike) and its rate of rise
dv/dt during the transition of tun-on and turn-off→ switching
voltage raises slowly (below the switch rated blocking voltage)→
protect power switches.

• They are connected in parallel to

the power switches.

http://ecetutorials.com/electrical/snubber-circuits-for-power-electronics/
Fig. 25 Snubber circuit, and switch (voltage, current and power).
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 Driver Circuits
• They act as interface between control circuits (that generate gate signal) and power
switches.

• They amplify control signals (current or voltage) to a level required to drive power
switches,

• They also provide electrical isolation between control circuits and power switches →
protection.

Fig. 26 Block diagram for power switch operation.

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 Exercise 1
1. State three fully controllable semiconductor power switches with
their application .
2. During on-state and off-state operations, practical power switches
experience two types of power losses. Name and describe both
power losses.
3. Figure 1 shows the connection of control circuit, drive circuit and a
power switch. Based on the figure, explain three roles of the drive
circuit.

+ +
Control Driver
circuit 5V 15 V
_ circuit
_

Figure 1
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DC & AC Analysis
 DC Analysis
1. Average or DC voltage VDC of the instantaneous voltage v(t):

1 𝑇
𝑉𝐷𝐶 = ‫𝑣 ׬‬ 𝑡 𝑑 𝜔𝑡 (1) where 𝑇 = period for a complete cycle in radian
𝑇 0

2. Average or DC power PDC:

𝑉𝐷𝐶 2
𝑃𝐷𝐶 = 2 where 𝑅 = resistor
𝑅

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 Exercise 2

Figure 1

ωt rad

Figure 1 shows the instantaneous output voltage vo(t) waveform of a single-phase half-
wave rectifier. For 1 cycle of the waveform, t=ωt and Vm = 100 V, vo(ωt) can be
expressed as

100 sin ωt for 0≤ωt≤π

vo ωt = ቐ
0 for π≤ωt≤2π

Calculate the average output voltage and sketch the average output voltage waveform.
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 DC Analysis
3. Ripple Factor (RF):

𝑉ℎ,𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 2 − 𝑉𝐷𝐶 2

𝑅𝐹 = = 3
𝑉𝐷𝐶 𝑉𝐷𝐶

where
𝑉ℎ,𝑅𝑀𝑆 is the RMS value of harmonic components of v(t)
𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 is the RMS voltage of v(t)

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 AC Analysis
1. RMS voltage VRMS of v(t):

𝑇 ∞ 2
1 𝑉𝑛
𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 = න 𝑣 𝑡 2𝑑 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑉𝐷𝐶 2 + 𝑉ℎ,𝑅𝑀𝑆 2 = 𝑉𝐷𝐶 2 + ෍ (4)
𝑇 0 2
𝑛

Where Vn is the peak amplitude of harmonic components of v(t)

2. AC power PAC:
𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 2
𝑃𝐴𝐶 = (5)
𝑅

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 Exercise 3

Figure 1

ωt rad

Figure 1 shows the instantaneous output voltage vo(t) waveform of a single-phase half-
wave rectifier. For 1 cycle of the waveform, t=ωt and Vm = 100 V, vo(ωt) can be
expressed as

100 sin ωt for 0≤ωt≤π

vo ωt = ቐ
0 for π≤ωt≤2π

Calculate the RMS output voltage and sketch the RMS output voltage waveform.
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 AC Analysis
3. Input Power Factor (PF):
𝑃𝐴𝐶 𝑉𝑆,𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝐼𝑆1,𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝐼𝑆1,𝑅𝑀𝑆
𝑃𝐹 = cos Φ = cos Φ = cos Φ (6)
𝑉𝑆,𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝐼𝑆,𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑉𝑆,𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝐼𝑆,𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝐼𝑆,𝑅𝑀𝑆

where
VS,RMS is the RMS voltage of AC input voltage
IS,RMS is the RMS current of AC input current
IS1,RMS is the RMS fundamental current of AC input current
cos Ф is the Displacement Power Factor (DPF)
Ф is the angle between the fundamental components of the input current and
voltage

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 AC Analysis
4. Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)

𝐼ℎ,𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝐼𝑆,𝑅𝑀𝑆 2 − 𝐼𝑆1,𝑅𝑀𝑆 2 𝐼𝑆,𝑅𝑀𝑆

2
𝑇𝐻𝐷 = = = −1 (7)
𝐼𝑆1,𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝐼𝑆1,𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝐼𝑆1,𝑅𝑀𝑆

where Ih, RMS is the RMS harmonic current of AC current

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 Fourier Analysis
• This analysis is used to analyze frequency components of
any instantaneous voltage v(t) and current i(t) waveforms.

• According to Fourier theorem, v(t) and i(t) can be described

by a constant term plus an infinite series of sine and cosine
terms of frequency n, where n is an integer.

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 Fourier Analysis

Fig. 1 Instantaneous voltage v 𝑡 with its harmonic Fig. 2 Harmonic spectrum of v 𝑡 .

components.

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 Fourier Analysis
∞ ∞

𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝐷𝐶 + ෍ 𝑣𝑛 𝑡 = 𝑉𝐷𝐶 + ෍ 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡

𝑛=1,2,3,… 𝑛=1,2,3,…

= 𝑉𝐷𝐶 + ෍ 𝑉𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡 + ∅𝑛 (8)

𝑛=1,2,3,…
where
𝑎𝑜 1 𝑇
𝑉𝐷𝐶 = = න 𝑣 𝑡 𝑑 𝜔𝑡 = average voltage (9)
2 𝑇 0

2 𝑇
𝑎𝑛 = න 𝑣 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑 𝜔𝑡 (10) 𝑉𝑛 = peak amplitude = 𝑎𝑛 2 + 𝑏𝑛 2 (12)
𝑇 0

2 𝑇 𝑎𝑛
𝑏𝑛 = න 𝑣 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑 𝜔𝑡 (11) ∅𝑛 = delay angle = tan−1 (13)
𝑇 0 𝑏𝑛
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 Fourier Analysis
Symmetry Condition required an and bn
Even Functions are even if 2 𝑇
they are symmetrical 𝑎𝑛 = න 𝑣 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑 𝜔𝑡 10
about the y-axis. 𝑇 0

For instance, a cosine 𝑏𝑛 = 0

function is an even
function
Odd A function is odd if it is
𝑎𝑛 = 0
inversely symmetrical
about the y-axis.
2 𝑇
𝑏𝑛 = න 𝑣 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑 𝜔𝑡 11
The sine function is an 𝑇 0
odd function.

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 Fourier Analysis
Symmetry Condition required an and bn
Half-wave We need to examine a
single period of the 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑏𝑛 = 0 for even 𝑛
signal.
4 𝑇/2
𝑎𝑛 = න 𝑣 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑 𝜔𝑡 14 for odd 𝑛
If, when shifted by half 𝑇 0
the period, the signal is
found to be the 4 𝑇/2
𝑏 = න 𝑣 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑 𝜔𝑡 15 for odd 𝑛
negative of the original 𝑛 𝑇 0
signal, then the signal
has half-wave
symmetry.

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 Fourier Analysis
Symmetry Condition required an and bn
Even and Combination of even
quarter- and half-wave 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑏𝑛 = 0 for even 𝑛
wave symmetrical
8 𝑇/4
𝑎𝑛 = න 𝑣 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑 𝜔𝑡 16 for odd 𝑛
𝑇 0

𝑏𝑛 = 0

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 Fourier Analysis
Symmetry Condition required an and bn
Odd and Combination of odd
quarter- and half-wave 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑏𝑛 = 0 for even 𝑛
wave symmetrical
𝑎𝑛 = 0

8 𝑇/4
𝑏𝑛 = න 𝑣 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑 𝜔𝑡 17 for odd 𝑛
𝑇 0

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 Example
Calculate the DC, 1st and 2nd and 3rd harmonic components of current
iDC on the AC side. Then, write the current equation, and calculate the
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD).
vO (t), V
339.41

iO (t), A
Fig. 3 Circuit diagram.

Fig. 4 Waveforms of output voltage vO (t) and output current iO (t).

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 Exercise 4
A mathematical expression of the instantaneous output current iac(t) of a single-phase
AC voltage controller is as follow:

1. Identify the average current value of iac(t).

2. Identify the peak amplitude of fundamental and seventh components of iac(t).
3. Sketch harmonic spectrum of iac(t).
4. Assess the properties of iac(t).
5. Calculate the RMS current IRMS of iac(t). Consider the first three AC components
only.
6. Calculate the THD of iac(t).

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