Power Electronics Drives U3

UNIT 3 i
Converters and power supplies
Unit 3
TEL 202/05
Power Electronics and Drives
Converters and
Power Supplies
ii WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
TEL 202/05 Power Electronics and Drives
COURSE TEAM
Course Team Coordinator: Dr. Magdalene Goh Wan Ching
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COURSE COORDINATOR
Dr. Magdalene Goh Wan Ching
EXTERNAL COURSE ASSESSOR

Associate Professor Cheong Kuan Yew, Universiti Sains Malaysia
PRODUCTION
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UNIT 3 iii
Contents
Unit 3 Converters and Power
Supplies
Unit overview 1
Unit objectives 1
3.1 Converters 3
Objectives 3
Introduction 3
dc-to-dc converter 3
Buck step-down converter 4
Boost step-up converter 7
Buck-Boost inverting dc-to-dc converter 10
CÚK dc-to-dc converter 12
ac-to-dc converter 14
Single-phase 14
Three-phase 16
dc-to-ac converter 18
Suggested answers to activities 23
3.2 Power supplies 27
Objectives 27
Introduction 27
Rectification and capacitor filter 27
Voltage regulation 28
Line regulation 29
Load regulation 29
Classification of voltage regulator 29

Linear voltage regulator 30
Switching voltage regulator 33
Variable pulse width oscillator 43

iv WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
Integrated circuit voltage regulator 43

Increasing power dissipation and current 44
limiting
Current source regulator 45
Configuration of switching voltage regulator 46
Adjustable positive linear and negative linear 48
voltage regulators
Suggested answers to activities 50
Summary of Unit 3 53
Suggested answers to self-tests 55
References 59
Glossary 61
UNIT 3 1
Unit Overview
In this unit on Converters and Power Supplies, you will learn two main topics
which are dc-to-dc and ac-to-dc converter circuitries, and various types of designing
methodology for power supplies. In each topic, you have to study and achieve what
have been specified in the learning objectives via tutorials, activities and self-tests.
In section one on converters, you will learn and achieve the ability and confidence
to explain and design different types of dc-to-dc converters such as Buck, Boost,
Buck-Boost inverting, and CÚK converters; and able to explain, design, analyse
single-phase and three-phase ac-to-dc converter, and dc-to-ac converter.
In section two on power supplies, you will study and achieve the ability to describe,
distinguish, and design different types of voltage power supplies namely Buck step-
down voltage regulator, Boost step-up voltage regulator, and Buck-Boost inverting
voltage regulator. Besides those mentioned topics, you need to learn other methods
of designing variable pulse width oscillator, which is an equivalence of pulse width
modulator. The use of integrated circuit voltage regulator to design various types
of dc voltages and describing a current source regulation are the last two topics
covered in this section.
Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1. Design and implement various types of dc-to-dc converter circuits.
2. Design and analyse Buck dc-to-dc converter.
3. Design and analyse Boost dc-to-dc converter.
4. Design and analyse Buck-Boost inverting dc-to-dc converter.
5. Design and analyse CÚK dc-to-dc converter.
6. Design and implement single phase and three phase ac-to-dc converter
circuits.
7. Design and implement dc-to-ac converter circuits.
8. Design different types of power supplies.

2 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
UNIT 3 3
3.1 Converters
Objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
1. Explain the principle of Buck, Boost, Buck-Boost inverting, and CÚK

converters.
2. Explain the concept of designing dc-to-dc converter.
3. Draw the block diagram and explain the operation of a dc-to-ac converter.
4. Analyse the voltage at various points of the converter.
5. Explain the principle of designing a single-phase ac-to-dc converter.
6. Investigate the characteristics of a single-phase ac-to-dc converter.
7. Explain the principle of designing a three-phase ac-to-dc converter.
8. Explain the characteristics of a three-phase ac-to-dc converter.
9. Explain the principle of designing dc-to-ac converter.
Introduction
Converting power from one form to another form and using it to control the motion
of a motor are two majoring applications of power electronics. The operation must be
as efficient as possible because large amount of power are being controlled and a small
percentage loss would mean that the circuit may overheat and fail. Accurate control is
required to assure that the load is properly serviced and the source is not overloaded.
Rapid switching of large current and voltage generates considerable amount of
electromagnetic interference. Thus, careful circuit design and implementation are
required to avoid this noise interference in the circuit.
dc-to-dc converter
Electrical power is commonly available either in dc form or sinusoid. Its magnitude
and shape may not be what we need in the application. Thus, conversion of it to
the form required by the circuit is necessary.
In this section, we shall discuss three basic design configurations of converting dc

voltage of a certain value to another dc voltage value i.e., the dc-to-dc converter. We
shall consider Buck, Boost, Buck-Boost, and CÚK dc-to-dc converters.
Buck step-down converter
The Buck step-down dc-to-dc converter converts an input dc voltage to an output

voltage that has value lower than the input voltage. A p-channel MOSFET driven
Buck step-down dc-to-dc converter circuit is shown in Figure 3.1.
MOSFET + −
Vin Vout
+ +
Q1 D L C
R1 RL
−
Switching
driver R2
Difference
VREF amplifier
Zener Pulse width + R3
Diode modulator −
Figure 3.1 A block diagram of a basic Buck step-down dc-to-dc converter
The input voltage (Vin) is switched on and off by the p-channel MOSFET according
to the switching time of switching driver and output a pulse dc voltage to the load.
If the switch on time of the MOSFET is ton and the period of switching is T, then
the duty cycle (D) of the switching is
ton
D= (3.1)
T
Activity 3.1
If the switching time is 3.0 ns and the period of the wave is 5.0 ns,
what is the duty cycle of the wave?
The difference amplifier takes portion of the output voltage to its positive input
and the reference voltage (VREF) to its negative and output a difference voltage that
would feed into the pulse width modulator (PWM). The PWM compares the input
voltage with the sawtooth wave. If the output voltage (Vout) is too low, the PWM
would output a pulse voltage of higher duty cycle that would increase the the output
voltage. Likewise, if the output voltage is too high, the output of difference amplifier
would output a higher voltage feeding into the input of PWM. When PWM sees a
higher input voltage, it would output a voltage of lower duty cycle. Consequently,
the output voltage (Vout) will be lower.
UNIT 3 5
A typical design of a pulse width modulator (PWM) is shown in Figure 3.2. The
comparator is configured as a single positive power supply comparator, whereby
the positive supply voltage is connected to 5.0 V, whereas its negative supply is
connected to ground.
VC
t
From output
−
of difference
t amplifier
t Sawtooth
+
wave
VS
Comparator
Figure 3.2 A typical design of a pulse width modulator
The voltage output (VC) of the difference amplifier is compared with the amplitude
(Vs) of sawtooth wave and frequency (fs). If the output voltage (VC) of the difference
amplifier is lower than the intantaneous voltage of the sawtooth wave, the output of
the comparator will swing to positive saturation voltage of the amplifier. Likewise, if
the output voltage (VC) of the difference amplifier is higher than the intantaneous
voltage of the sawtooth wave, the output of the comparator will swing to zero volt.
The illustration is shown at the output of the comparator in Figure 3.2.
Activity 3.2
The input waveform and voltage to the comparator of the Buck

step-down dc-to-dc converter is shown in the figure below. Draw
the expected waveform.
VC
VC C t
From output
+ of difference
V+ amplifier
V−
− Sawtooth
wave
Comparator VS
t
After the inverter driver, the square wave at the output of comparator is flipped as
shown in Figure 3.3. The negative going pulse switches on and off the p-channel
MOSFET. When the pulse goes to negative, it switches on the MOSFET. When it
is at zero volt, it switches off the MOSFET.
Figure 3.3 The switching signal for switching of p-channel MOSFET
The inductor and capacitor act as low pass filter. The inductor charges storing energy
in its magnetic field when the switch is on (p-channel MOSFET). It provides load
current to the load. When the switch is off, the magnetic field collapses, flipping
the polarity of the inductor’s voltage from positive to negative and from negative to
positive. This will forward bias the schottky diode and continues to provide current
for the load. As the result of store energy and discharge of energy in the inductor (L),
there is a ripple voltage registered at the load due to the fact the inductor current
is not constant, and charging and discharging of capacitor. The illustration of the
ripple voltage with the switching duty cycle is shown in Figure 3.4. The presence of
ripple voltage is due to the charging and discharging of capacitor caused by storing
and release of energy from inductor. Theoretically, if the capacitance is very large,
the ripple voltage is very low. This is because the switch on and switch off time are
much shorter than the charging and discharging time of capacitor.
t
0 ton T
vout
t
0
Figure 3.4 Illustration of the ripple current caused by inductor during switching
UNIT 3 7
In practice, the output peak-to-peak ripple voltage (∆Vout) is defined by the equation
(3.2).
T Vout
∆Vout = . (1 − D)T (3.2)
8C L
The fraction of ripple voltage to output voltage is equal to

∆ Vout T2(1 − D)
Vout
=
8LC
=
p2
2
f
(1 − D) C
fS ( ) (3.3)
where fS is the switching frequency, which is also the frequency of saw tooth wave.
fC is the critical frequency of the low-pass filter, which makes of the inductor (L)
and capacitor (C). The critical frequency (fC) is defined as
1
fC = (3.4)
2p√LC
Based on equations (3.2) and (3.3), in order to have small ripple voltage, the Buck
step dc-to-dc converter needs to be designed with large inductance and capacitance
values, and the switching frequency (fS) has to be much larger than the critical
frequency (fC) of the low-pass filter.

Boost step-up converter
A Boost step-up dc-to-dc converter converts an input dc voltage to an output voltage

that has value higher than the input voltage. A Boost step-up dc-to-dc converter
circuit is shown in Figure 3.5.
When the n-channel MOSFET is switched-off by the pulse width modulator, the
voltage across the inductor is basically equal to the input voltage (Vout) if the switch-
off time is small. The input voltage supplies energy to the inductor. In this condition,
the diode (D1) is in reverse biased mode. The output remains at its initial voltage.
When the n-channel MOSFET is switched off, the inductor reverses its polarity
such that the voltage across the inductor (VL) is now in series with the input voltage
(Vin). In this circumstance, the diode (D1) is in forward biased mode whereby the
instantaneous voltage at the anode of diode will be equal to the input voltage (Vin)
and the switched-off mode voltage across inductor (VL).
+ −
Vin Vout
+
L D1 C
R1 RL
Pulse width Q1
modulator −
R2
− +
VREF
R3
Zener
Diode
Figure 3.5 A block diagram of a basic Boost step-up dc-to-dc converter
The load voltage (Vout), which is the average voltage (Vavg), is dependent on the
switch-off time (toff) of the switching circuit. Thus, the load voltage (Vout) can be
calculated using equation (3.5).
D
Vout = Vin (3.5)
1−D
By proper controlling the reference voltage (VREF) and feedback voltage that would
control the switch-off and switch-on times of the n-channel MOSFET, desired
step-up voltage can be obtained at the load.
Activity 3.3
The input of the basic Boost dc-to-dc converter is 30.0 V and the
switch-on time and period of the switching control are 1.2 µs and
2.0 µs respectively. Calculate the voltage received by the load.
Figure 3.6 shows the steady state waveform for continuous conduction mode where
the inductor current flows continuously.
UNIT 3 9
VL
Vin
t
ton
(Vin − Vout)
toff
(a) Inductor voltage
iL
IL
t
ton toff
(b) Inductor current during switch-on and switch off modes
Figure 3.6
The time integral of the inductor voltage over one time period must be zero. Thus,
Vinton + (Vin − Vout)toff = 0 (3.6)
Dividing equation (3.6) with the period of switching (T), it becomes

Vout T 1
= = (3.7)
Vin toff 1 − D
If we assume that there is no power loss, which is Pin = Pout or VoutIout = VinIin then
the ratio of output current (Iout) and input current (Iin) is
Iout
= (1 − D) (3.8)
Iin
The output peak-to-peak ripple voltage (∆Vout) is defined as

VoutDT
∆Vout = (3.8)
RC
Activity 3.4
Based on equation (3.9), if an engineer would like his/her Boost

circuit to have low peak-to-peak ripple, what should he/she do to
the design?
Buck-Boost inverting dc-to-dc converter
The main application of a step-down/step-up or Buck-Boost inverting converter is

in regulated dc power supplies, where negative polarity output may be desired with
respect to the common terminal of the input voltage.
A Buck-Boost dc-to-dc converter can be obtained by cascade connection of the

two basic converters, which is the step-down Buck converter and the step-up Boost
converter. The basic circuit of a Buck-Boost converter is shown in Figure 3.7.
Vin
Pulse width
Q1
modulator
−Vout
− + −
+
D
L C RL
Portion Portion
from input from output −
+
Figure 3.7 The basic circuit of a Buck-Boost inverting dc-to-dc converter
When the p-channel MOSFET is closed, the input voltage (Vin) provides energy to
the inductor and the schottky diode (D) is in reverse biased. When the p-channel
MOSFET is open, the polarity of the inductor changes and provides energy in the
form of negative current to the load. This will result in a negative output voltage
across the load (RL).
Figure 3.8 shows the steady state waveform for continuous conduction mode where
the inductor current flows continuously. Equating the integral of inductor voltage
over one period then

Vinton + (−Vout)(1 − D)T = 0 (3.10)
or
UNIT 3 11
Vout D
= (3.11)
Vin 1 − D
If we assume no power loss, then the ratio of output current (Iout) to input current
(Iin) is equal to
Iout 1−D
= (3.11)
Iin D
VL
Vin
t
ton
(Vin − Vout)
toff
(a) Inductor voltage
iL
IL = (Iin + Iout)
t
ton toff
(b) Inductor current during switch-on and switch off modes
Figure 3.8
The output peak-to-peak ripple voltage (∆Vout) is defined as

VoutDT
∆Vout = (3.13)
RC
CÚK dc-to-dc converter
The circuit of CÚK dc-to-dc converter is shown in Figure 3.9. This converter is
obtained by using the duality principle on the circuit of a Buck-Boost converter. Like
the Buck-Boost converter, it provides a negative polarity regulated output voltage
with respect to common terminal of the input voltage. The capacitor C1 acts as the
primary means of storing and transferring energy from the input to the output.
In steady state, the average inductor voltage VL1 and VL2 are zero. From Figure 3.9,
voltage across the capacitor C1 is equal to the sum of input voltage (Vin) and output
voltage (Vout).
VC1 = Vin + Vout (3.14)
When the switch is off, the inductor current IL1 and IL2 flow in the diode. The
capacitor C1 is charged through both input voltage (Vin) and inductor L1. As the
capacitor is charging up, the inductor current iL1 is decreased. This is also true for
inductor current iL2 because it feeds the output load.
+ − − +
Vin −Vout
+ L1 − L2
C1
D
C RL
Figure 3.9 A CÚK dc-to-dc converter
When the switch is on, the voltage across capacitor C1 is reverse biasing the diode. The
inductor current iL1 and iL2 flow through the switch. Since VC1 > Vout, C1 discharges
through the switch transferring energy to output and inductor L2. Therefore, current
of inductor L2 (iL2) increases. The input feeds energy to inductor L1 causing inductor
current of L1 (iL1) to increase.
Figure 3.10 shows the voltages and currents across inductor L1 and L2 during
switching on and off of the CÚK converter. Equating the integral of the voltages
across inductors L1 and L2 over one period of the switching yields zero. Thus, at
inductor L1,
VoutDT + (Vout − VC1)(1 − D)T = 0
and
1
VC1 = Vin (3.15)
1−D
UNIT 3 13
At inductor L2,
(VC1 − Vout)DT − Vout(1 − D)T = 0
and
1
VC1 = Vout (3.16)
D
VL1
Vin
t
ton
(Vin − VC1= − Vout)

toff
iL1
IL1
t
ton toff
(a) Inductor current and voltage of inductor L1

VL2
(VC1− Vout)
t
ton
− Vout
toff
iL2
IL2
t
ton toff
(b) Inductor current and voltage of inductor L2
Figure 3.10 Inductor voltages and inductor currents during switch-on and switch
off modes
Activity 3.5
Draw the circuit of CÚK dc-to-dc converter when the switch is on.
ac-to-dc converter
The most common source of power is sinusoidal ac single phase commercial line
voltage from electrical company. Practically all the electronic circuits require steady
dc source. In this section, we shall study two types of ac-to-dc converter, which are
the single phase ac-to-dc converter and three-phase ac-to-dc-converter.
Single-phase
The traditional way for providing dc voltage from a single-phase sinusoidal voltage
is by main of transformer-bridge rectifier-capacitive filter circuit as shown in Figure
3.11.
UNIT 3 15
F
T
D3 D1
ac
D2 D4
+C
RL
−
Figure 3.11 Simple transformer-bridge rectifier-capacitive ac-to-dc converter
During the positive cycle of the ac voltage, diodes D1 and D2 are forward biased and
supply current to the load RL. During the negative cycle of the ac voltage, diodes D3
and D4 are forward biased and supply current to the load RL. The capacitor C acts
as a low pass to provide smoothing of dc voltage across the load.
This ac-to-dc converter circuit provides ac into pulsating dc as shown in Figure 3.12.
The capacitor charges a small portion of each cycle and then discharges through the
load resistance for most of the cycles. This charging and discharging processes hold
the load voltage to a steady value.
Load voltage
Charging Discharging
of capacitor of capacitor
Figure 3.12 Bridge and filter waveform of a single-phase ac-to-dc converter
The maximum voltage that the capacitor will charge to is the peak voltage
of the secondary voltage minus the voltage drop by two diodes. Shortly after
the peak voltage, the capacitor begins to discharge following the equation of
VC = Vpexp ( )
−t
RLC
. If the ac voltage of secondary ac is VSec = VSecPeaksin(wt), then the
charging voltage is equal to
Vpexp
( )
−t
RLC
= VSecPeak sinwt −1.4V (3.17)
Equation (3.17) is true with the assumption that the forward voltage of a diode is
0.7 V.
The peak-to-peak ripple voltage (∆VLoad) can be determined by assuming that the
charging and discharging of capacitor is linear. For a ripple voltage of less than 10%
of the load voltage, the peak-to-peak ripple voltage is defined as
Idc load
∆VLoad = (3.18)
2f C
where f is the line frequency.
The average dc load voltage is

∆ Vload
Vdc load = Vp − (3.19)
2
whereby Vp = VSecPeak − 1.4V.
Activity 3.6
A full wave rectifier has 28Vrms secondary voltage, 4,700 µF capacitor

and 16 Ω load. Calculate the peak dc voltage Vp, Vdc load, and ripple
voltage ∆VLoad. You may take the line frequency as 50 Hz.
Three-phase
Most industrial facilities have electrical power provided in three phases, which are
EAN = 120Vrms∠0°, EBN = 120Vrms∠−120°, and ECN = 120Vrms∠120°. If the neutral is
not used then EAB = EAN − EBN = 120Vrms∠0° − 120Vrms∠−120° = EAB = 208Vrms∠30°.
Similarly, EBC = 208Vrms∠−90°, and ECA = 208Vrms∠150°. One can see that the line
voltage is larger than the phase by √3 and advanced by 30°.
Figure 3.13 shows that the three phase ac signals can be converted to drive dc into
a single grounded load.
UNIT 3 17
D1 D2 D3
A
E0 = 120Vrms∠0°
B
E0 = 120Vrms∠−120° RL
C
E0 = 120Vrms∠120°
N
D4 D5 D6
Figure 3.13 Three-phase ac-to-dc converter
The plot of line voltage and the load voltage is shown in Figure 3.14. The peak of
line voltage is equal to 120Vrms × √3 × √2 = 293.9 V. The peak voltage (Ep line) received
by the load is 293.9 V − 2 V = 291.9 V. Two volts are the voltage drop across two
diodes. The dc load voltage is fairly smooth even without any filtering capacitor.
Load voltage
292V
EAB EBC ECA
t
0
−292V
Figure 3.14 The load voltage and the line voltages
Load voltage is the peak of a sine wave that starts 300 before the peak and ends 30°
after the peak. Thus, the minimum load voltage is
Vmin load = Ep line sin(60°) (3.20)
The three-phase ac-to-dc converter has a peak-to-peak ripple that is 13.4%

(1 − sin60°) of the peak without capacitive filter. The average value of load voltage
(Vdc load) is
120°
1
Vdc load = ∫ Vp line sinθdθ (3.21)
120° − 60° 60°
The diode turns on and passes the signal to the load at 60° and goes off when the
next phase comes on at 120°. For the equation to work correctly, the angle must be
expressed in radians i.e.,
3 120°
Vdc load = ∫ Vp line sinθdθ
p 60°
or
3Vp line 3Vp line
Vdc load = (−cosθ)60°
120°
= (3.22)
p p
Activity 3.7
The load of a three-phase ac-to-dc converter is 10 Ω. Calculate the

average load current and no capacitive filter ripple current.
dc-to-ac converter
As we already know, ac voltage is necessary to power much equipment such as laptop
computer, mainframe computer, printer, critical hospital equipment and etc. It is
necessary at time to produce ac voltage to continue operation of this equipment
during power failure because these equipments are not allowed to have downtime.
Thus, we can see that backup battery and uninterruptible power are necessary.
Conversion from dc-to-ac becomes necessary for the design of uninterruptible
power supplies.
There is a variety of ways to produce a high voltage ac from dc battery, for producing
precise ac from dc is simple. However, producing a clean sine wave at a precise voltage
over a controlled frequency range requires more design techniques.
A typical block diagram of a dc-to-ac converter is shown in Figure 3.15. The dc

voltage is converted in square wave via a square generator and an n-channel MOSFET.
When the transistor Q1 is switch in by the positive square wave, energy is stored in
the inductor T1 and magnetic field built up. When the transistor Q1 is switched off,
the polarity of the inductor change and magnetic field begins to collapse and current
generated. This will induce an emf at the secondary coil of T1. The top part of the
transformer would step up the desired square wave voltage that would eventually
be converted into ac. The bottom part of the transformer is used to provide dc
voltage required to power the microcontroller and H-bridge driver. Capacitors C1,
C2, and C3, and C4 are used as low-pass filters to smoothen the square pulse after
rectifiers D2 and D3.
UNIT 3 19
−
RLoad
feedback
Negative
C5
T2
Q5
Q3
C4
Q2
Q4
bridge
driver
PWM H
Dir
High voltage dc bus
controller
Micro
C3
Reg
12V
C1
C2
D2
D3
Q1
T1
D1
Square
wave
gen
protect
Filter
&
Vin
Figure 3.15 The block diagram of a dc-to-ac converter
Based on the feedback portion of the amplitude of voltage across the load, the analog-
to-digital converter of microcontroller will provide right pulse width modulation
signal (PWM) that is used to control average voltage to be output to the load (RLoad).
A typical example of a PWM is shown in Figure 3.16 (a). The microcontroller also
provides the directional signal H-bridge driver. A typical direction signal is shown
in Figure 3.16 (b). The high directional signal is used to switch on the positive
voltage to the load (RLoad), while the zero directional signal is used to switch on the
negative voltage to the load.
For positive signal For negative signal
(a) Pulse width modulation signal
(b) Directional signal
Figure 3.16 PWM and directional signal
A typical design of H-bridge and driver is shown in Figure 3.17. HIP2500 is a

high voltage integrated circuit optimised to drive n-channel MOSFET gated power
devices in half bridge topologies. Thus, the circuit required two HIP2500 devices.
High voltage dc
50V 12V 12V

1.5 UF4005 0.1
9 3 6 50V Q2 Q3
Dir IRF636 IRF636
10 VDD VCC Vh 7 1.5 15
PWM hin hout
11
SD Vs 5 − RLoad + 15
UF4005
12 HIP2500IP Q4 Q5
Iin
Iout 1 IRF636 IRF636
Vss com 15
13 2 15
50V 12V 12V

1.5 UF4005
9 3 6 50V
10 hVDD VCC Vh 7 1.5
in hout
11
SD Vs 5
12 I HIP2500IP UF4005
in Iout 1
Vss com
13 2
Figure 3.17 A design of H-bridge and driver

UNIT 3 21
When the directional signal is high, MOSFETs Q3 and Q4 are switched on and off
according to the PWM signal by the HIP2500 devices. This is achieved by the lout
pin of the top HI2500 and Hout of the bottom HIP2500 device. High voltage dc is
provided to the load via Q3 and Q4. When the directional signal is low, MOSFETs
Q2 and Q5 are switched on and off according to the PWM signal by the HIP2500
devices. This is achieved by the hout pin of the top HI2500 and lout of the bottom
HIP2500 device. High voltage dc is provided to the load via Q3 and Q4.
Based on the PWM signal, an ac voltage will be provided as load voltage. The
illustration is shown in Figure 3.18.
d e
c
a
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
Figure 3.18 The construction of ac load voltage from PWM signal
First cycle T1 of the signal has very small duty cycle. Thus, it will have average dc
value at point a. The second cycle T2 of the signal has larger duty cycle than the first
cycle. Thus, it has average value at point b. The third cycle has duty cycle larger than
the duty cycle of second cycle. Thus, it has average value at point c. The stair-like
square pulse is then smoothened by the low-pass filter formed by inductor T2 and
capacitor C5 to form sinusoid.
Activity 3.8
It takes 20 pulse width modulated signal to form an ac voltage of 50

Hz. What would be the period of pulse if the same 40 pulse width
modulated signal is used to form an ac voltage of 60 Hz?
Summary
In this section, you have achieved the learning objectives as specified

in the objectives section. You have obtained the ability to explain
the principle of Buck, Boost, Buck-Boost inverting, and CÚK
converters; explain the concept of designing dc-to-dc converter;
draw the block diagram and explain the operation of a dc-to-ac
converter; analyse the voltage at various points of the converter;
explain the principle of designing a single-phase ac-to-dc converter;
investigate the characteristics of a single-phase ac-to-dc converter;
explain the principle of designing a three-phase ac-to-dc converter;
decribe the characteristics of a three-phase ac-to-dc converter; and
describe the principle of designing dc-to-ac converter.
Self-test 3.1
The input voltage to a Buck step-down dc-to-dc converter is 30.0

V, while the duty cycle of the switching wave is 30%, calculate the
average voltage measured at the load.
Self-test 3.2
A Buck step-down dc-to-dc converter has a load voltage of 30.0

V, switching pulse frequency of 500 kHz, duty cycle of 60%, and
LC value of 1.0 × 10−11 HF. Calculate the value of ripple voltage.
Self-test 3.3
A Buck-Boost converter operates at 20 kHz with inductor L = 0.05

mH. The output capacitor C is sufficiently large and input voltage
(Vin) is 15 V. The output is regulated at 10 V and the converter is
supplying power of 10W to the load. Estimate the duty cycle of
the switching signal.
UNIT 3 23
Suggested answers to activities
Feedback
Activity 3.1
3.0
The duty cycle is = 0.6 or 60%.
5.0
The average dc voltage (Vavg) at the load (RL) is equal to Vout is
[ ]
DT T
1
defined as
T
∫ Vindt + ∫ 0dt , which is equal to Vout = DVin
0 DT
From this equation, one can see that the output voltage (Vout) is less
than the input voltage (Vin) since the duty cycle (D) is less than one.
Activity 3.2
The output of the comparator is shown as follows:
t
Input voltages
t
Output waveform
Activity 3.3
The switch-on time is 1.2µs and the period is 2.0µs. Thus the duty
1.2
cycle (D) is = 0.6.
2.0
The voltage across the load is

D 0.6
Vout = × Vin = × 30 = 45V.
1−D 1 − 9.4
Activity 3.4
He/she should design the circuit with large capacitor value and low
duty cycle switching circuit.
Activity 3.5
The CÚK dc-to-dc converter is as follows.
+ − − + −Vout
Vin
+ L1 −
C1 L2
C RL
Activity 3.6
The peak secondary voltage 28Vrms√2 = 39.6V.

The peak dc voltage is 39.6 − 1.4 = 38.2V.
∆ VLoad I
Vdc load = Vp − and ∆VLoad = dc load
2 2f c
Idc load V
Vdc load = Vp − , which is also equal to Vdc load = Vp − dc load .
2f C 2f CR
Vdc load
Thus, the Vdc load is equal to Vdc load = 38.2 − .
2 × 50 × 4700 × 10−6
This will give rise to Vdc load = 33.72V.
33.72
The dc load current is = 2.108A.
16
UNIT 3 25
The ripple voltage is equal to ∆VLoad

Idc load 2.108
= = = 4.48V.
2f C 2 × 50 × 4700 × 10−6
Activity 3.7
The peak line voltage received by the load is Ep line = 120Vrms × √3

× √2 − 2V= 291.9V.
3Vp line 3 × 291.9
The average load voltage is Vdc load = = 278.74V.
p p
278.74V
The average load current is = 27.87A.
10Ω
The ripple voltage is 13.4% of the peak line voltage (Ep line), which
is 0.134 × 291.9V = 39.11V.
39.11V
The ripple current is = 39.1V.
10V
Activity 3.8
50Hz ac voltage has period of 20ms. The period of each pulse is

1.0ms.
60Hz ac voltage has period of 16.6ms. The period of each pulse

is 0.415ms.
UNIT 3 27
3.2 Power Supplies

Objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
1. Differentiate types of voltage regulation.
2. Discuss and design Buck step-down voltage regulator.
3. Discuss and design Boost step-up voltage regulator.
4. Discuss and design Buck-Boost inverting voltage regulator.
5. Design variable pulse width oscillator.
6. Use integrated circuit voltage regulator to design various types of dc voltages.
7. Describe the working principle of a current source regulation.
Introduction
The purpose of voltage regulation is to provide constant dc output voltage, which
is practically independent of the rectified and filtered dc input voltage, output load
current, and temperature.
There are four basic elements for most regulators, which are fixed voltage reference
source, an operational amplifier error detector, a voltage divider sampling element,
and a bipolar junction transistor or a field effect transistor as control device. It may
also contain a current limiting protection circuitry.
In this section, we shall discuss the topics mentioned in the objectives so that by the
end of learning these topics, you are able to design and analyse the various types of
voltage regulatory circuitries.
Rectification and capacitor filter

A rectifier circuit is necessary to convert ac voltage of average zero value into nonzero
average value. The result of the rectification is the pulsating dc voltage. Therefore, it
is necessary to add in filter circuit to obtain dc voltage with ac called ripple voltage,
riding on it as shown in Figure 3.19.
Vripple(p − p)
Vdc
t
0
Figure 3.19 Filter voltage waveform showing dc and ripple voltages
Ripple factor r is defined as percentage of rms ripple voltage to dc voltage. Thus,

the ripple factor r is
Vr(rms)
r= × 100% (3.23)
dc voltage
Vm
For half-wave rectifier, the average dc voltage is = 0.318Vm, where Vm is the
p
amplitude. As for the full-wave rectifier, the average dc voltage is equal to 0.636Vm.
The rms ac ripple voltage (Vr(rms)) of a half-wave rectifier can be proved to be equal
to Vr(rms) = 0.385Vm, whilst the rms ac ripple voltage Vr(rms) of a full-wave rectifier is
equal to Vr(rms) = 0.308Vm. Thus, the ripple factor r for half-wave rectification and
full-wave rectifier are respectively equal to 121% and 48%.
The rms ripple voltage (Vr(rms)) of a full-wave capacitor-filter circuit is equal to

Idc V I2dcRL
Vr(rms) = · dc = (3.24)
4√3f C Vm 4√3f CVm
where C is the filtering capacitor, Idc is direct current, and RL is the load. The dc
voltage (Vdc) of a full-wave capacitor-filter circuit is equal to
Idc
Vdc = Vm − (3.25)
4f C
Voltage regulation
Voltage regulation deals with two basic concepts, which are line regulation and load
regulation. We will discuss them in detail.
UNIT 3 29
Line regulation
As the line dc input changes, which should be within a certain limit, and there is
no change at the output is called line regulation. Line regulation can also be defined
as the percentage change in the output voltage for a given change in the line input
voltage. Thus, mathematically, line regulation can be expressed as
Line regulation =
( )
∆ Vout
V out
100%
(3.26)
∆Vin
where delta (∆) shall mean change.
Load regulation
When the output voltage remains constant within a certain limit for a change of
output load is called load regulation. Load regulation is also defined as the percentage
change of output voltage for a given change in load current. Thus,
% of output voltage
Load regulation = (3.27)
Given change of load current
In terms of voltage, it can be expressed as percentage change in output voltage from

no-load NL to full-load FL conditions.
(VNL − VFL)100%
Load regulation = (3.28)
VFL
Activity 3.9
Using a multimeter to measure the output signal from a filter circuit,

dc voltage and rms ac voltage of 25 V and 1.5 V are obtained.
Calculate the ripple factor of the circuit.
Classification of voltage regulator

Voltage regulator can be classified into two main categories, which are linear regulator
and switching regulator.
Linear voltage regulator
Linear voltage regulator is divided into series and shunt types. Each type has its
difference in terms of the methods of controlling the voltage regulation. In this
section, the discussion of the difference is detailed.
Series linear regulator
The block diagram of a series linear regulator is shown in Figure 3.20. The regulator
contains a reference voltage section, an error detector, sampling circuit, and control
circuit.
VIN Control VOUT

Circuit
Reference Error Sampling

Voltage Detector Circuit
Figure 3.20 A block diagram of a series linear regulator
A typical linear series regulator circuit is shown in Figure 3.21. The reference voltage
utilises a zener diode, an error detector consists of an operational amplifier with
feedback loop from the sampling circuit, and a control circuit contains an npn
transistor used to regulate the output voltage.
Vin Vout
I
Q1
R1
VREF
+
IZ
R2
Zener −
RZ Diode
R3
Figure 3.21 A linear series regulator circuitry

UNIT 3 31
The operational amplifier circuit is configured as a non-inverting amplifier with
the gain approximately equals to 1 +

( R2
R3 )
. Thus, the output voltage (Vout) of the
regulator is
(
Vout = 1 +
R2
R3 )
VREF (3.29)
Based on equation (3.29), one can also see that the output voltage can be a variable
output if one varies the value of resistor R2.
R3
If there is any voltage overdrawn at the output, the feedback voltage · Vout
R2 + R3
will be larger than its original value. It would cause the output voltage of operational
amplifier to be smaller than its original value because the gain is smaller. Consequently,
it reduces the base current (IB) of the npn transistor. With the decrease of base current
(IB), emitter current (IE) would be decreased. This causes the output voltage (Vout)
to decrease. Thus, this process regulates the output voltage. The opposite process is
true for output voltage smaller than its original value.
If there is a ripple voltage (Vr) at the input, which normally is true because input
voltage comes from the rectifier and capacitive filtering circuit. The ripple voltage
(Vr) can be obtained from equation (3.30).
I
Vr = (3.30)
2f C
where f is the frequency of the ac which is normally 50 Hz and C the value of

filtering capacitor.
The ripple voltage (V r’ ) at the Vin+ of operation amplifier is equal to

RZ
V r’ = Vr (3.31)
RZ + R
where RZ is the resistance of zener for a given current IZ that flows in the zener diode.
The ripple voltage V ”r at the output shall be equal to
(
V ”r = 1 +
R2
R1 )
·
RZ
RZ + R
Vr (3.31)
If there is excessive drawing of current, the linear series regulator can be damaged
or burnt. As shown in Figure 3.22, a current limiter is designed into the circuit
to protect it. The load current IL through resistor R4 creates a voltage for base to
emitter of transistor Q2. When the load current is greater than the pre-determined
value, the transistor Q2 will conduct and part of the base current of transistor Q1
is diverted to the collector of transistor Q2. Thus, it reduces the emitter current of
transistor Q1. In this manner, it protects the regulator.
Since base-to-emitter voltage of Q2 cannot be more than 0.7 V, the maximum load
current IL(max) shall be determined by
0.7V
IL(max) = (3.33)
R4
Usually the value of R4 is small, which can be less than 1.0 ohm.
R4
Vin Vout
R1 Q1
Q2 RL
VREF
+ Current Limiter
R2
Zener −
Diode
R3
Figure 3.22 A linear series regulator circuitry with current limiter transistor Q2
Activity 3.10
Determine the output voltage (Vout), output current Io, maximum

output current (Io(max)), and output ripple voltage V ”r for a regulator
circuit shown in Figure 3.22 given that Vin = 20V, Vr = 3Vp − p,
R1 = 6.2 kΩ, R2 set at 6.0 kΩ, R3 = 10 kΩ, R4 = 1.0 Ω, RL = 24 Ω,
and zener diode is IN5236 that has specification VZ = 7.5 V, IZK =
0.25 mA and Rz@IZT = 2 mA is 6.0 Ω.
Shunt linear regulator
The basic shunt linear regulator circuit is shown in Figure 3.23. The control circuit
of this regulator consists of a series resistance R4 and an npn transistor Q1. The
collector-to-emitter resistance of the transistor is in series with resistor R4. Note also
that the feedback voltage is a positive feedback.
If the output voltage is decreased due to increase in load current or temperature,

the feedback voltage into the operational amplifier is decreased. As a result, the
gain of the operational amplifier is decreased. This causes the base current and
UNIT 3 33
collector current of transistor Q1 to decrease. Consequently, the collector-to-emitter

resistance is increased. Thus, the voltage at output is brought to the constant value.
The opposite is true when there is an increase of output voltage.
The collector current of transistor Q1 is also called shunt current IS. With constant
load current IL and output voltage Vout, the change in input voltage Vin gives rise to
the change of shunt current. Thus,
∆ Vin
∆IS = (3.34)
R4
It is also true that the change in load current ∆IL is equal to the negative change of
shunt current IS i.e., ∆IL = −∆IS.
Vin
If the output voltage Vout is shorted, then the maximum load current IL(max) = .
R4
R4
Vin Vout
R1
VREF
−
Q1 R2
Zener +
Diode
R3
Figure 3.23 A basic shunt linear regulator circuit
Switching voltage regulator
Switching regulator uses different method of controlling the voltage regulation.

The control element operates like a switch. It is more efficient than linear type
because the switching pulse width is controlled to deliver the power depending on
consumption at the load.
Switching regulator has three basic configurations, which are Buck step-down, Boost
step-up, and Buck-Boost inverting step-down/up that have been discussed earlier
in section 3.1.
Buck step-down switching regulator
In the Buck step-down switching regulator, the output voltage is always less than
the input voltage. A basic schematic of the regulator is shown in Figure 3.24. The
main difference of this circuit as compared with linear regulator is that there is a
variable pulse width control oscillator, which is used to control the turn-on and
turn-off time of the transistor Q1.
Vin Vout
I L Io
Q1 D1 C
R1 RL
Variable R2
pulse width
oscillator −
Zener +
R3
Diode
VREF
Figure 3.24 A basic step-down switching voltage regulator circuit
The transistor Q1 is used to switch the input voltage at a duty cycle based on the
regulator load and is controlled by the variable pulse width oscillator. Figure 3.25
shows three switching pulse width conditions and their corresponding output voltage
delivered at the load. The larger the pulse width, the higher will be output voltage.
During the switch-on time (ton) of the transistor, the capacitor (C) is charging and
during turn-off time toff of the transistor, the capacitor is discharging. Longer switch-
on time shall mean more charging which in terms more output voltage is delivered.
Longer switch-off time shall mean more discharging which in terms less output
ton
voltage is delivered. By adjusting the cycle duty D = of transistor Q1,
(ton + toff)
the output voltage can be varied. The inductor (L) is used to smoothing the
fluctuation due to charging and discharging of the capacitor.
When the output voltage drops, the pulse width of the oscillator is longer. Thus, it
increases the turn-on time of the transistor. This in terms compensates the voltage
drop at output. The opposite is true when the output voltage is increased. The pulse
width of the oscillator is shorter. Thus, it reduces the turn-on time of the transistor.
The output voltage is reduced.
UNIT 3 35
Q1
ON/OFF ton toff ton toff ton toff ton
Control
VC
VOUT
(a)
Q1
Control
VC
VOUT
(b)
Q1
Control
VC
VOUT
(c)
Figure 3.25 Switching regulator waveform
dc voltage transfer of Buck step-down switching regulator
For steady state, the inductor current at time t = 0 equals to the current at time
t = T. The voltage across the inductor V L is equal to the integration of

di L 1T T
VL = L i.e., ∫ VLdt = ∫ iL = iL(T) − iL(0) = 0. This shall mean the voltage across
dt L0 0
the inductor over a period T is equal to zero.
During the switch-on of the transistor, the diode (D1) is open. The voltage across
the inductor is VL = (Vin − Vout) for switch on time ton. During the switch-off time
(toff), the diode D1 is forward bias. The voltage across the inductor is −Vout. By volt-
second principle, (Vin − Vout)Ton = |−Vout(toff)| = Vout (T − ton). This relationship yields
equation (3.35).
Vout =
( )
ton
T
Vin (3.35)
Vout
The dc voltage transfer function MV(DC), which is defined as is equal to
Vin
Vout t
MV(DC) = = on = D (3.36)
Vin T
where D is defined the duty cycle.
For lossless conversion, the input power (Pin) is equal to the output power (Pout)
i.e., Pin = Pout = VinIin = VoutIout. This implies that duty cycle (D) is equal to
Vout Iout
D= = . For a lossy converter, the output power is not equal to input power.
Vin Iin
Thus, the efficiency (η) is less than 100%, which is defined as

Pout V I M
η= = out · out = V(DC) (3.37)
Pin Vin Iin D
Iout
Since duty cycle (D) is also equal to , therefore, the efficient (η) is also equal to
Iin
IoutMV(DC)
η= (3.38)
Iin
Analysis of the operation of Buck step-down switching regulator
During the switch-on time ton, the voltage across the inductor L is VL = Vin − Vout
di L
=L . The inductive current (iL) during the switch-on interval i.e., time t = 0
dt
t t
1 on 1 on
to time t = ton, is iL = ∫ L
Lo
V dt + i L(0). It is also equal to i L =
Lo
∫ (Vin − Vout)dt + iL(0).
The result of integration yields equation (3.39) for inductive current (iL) during
the switch-on time (ton).
(Vin − Vout)ton
iL = + iL(0) (3.39)
L
The change in inductive current (∆iL) is

(Vin − Vout)ton (Vin − Vout)D V (1 − D)
∆iL= = = out (3.40)
L Lf s Lf s
where fs is the switching frequency of the modulator.

UNIT 3 37
During the switch-off time (toff), which is from time interval between t = ton to t =
T, the voltage across the inductor is VL = −Vout. The inductive current iL during this
1 T
time interval is iL = ∫ −Voutdt + iL(ton). The result of integration yields the inductive
L ton
current (iL) to be
−Vout(T − ton)
iL = + iL(ton) (3.41)
L
The change in inductive current (∆iL) is

Vout(T − ton) V (1 − D)
∆iL = = out (3.42)
L Lf s
From the results shown in equations (3.41) and (3.42), the peak to peak ripple
current is the same for both switched-on and switch-off time. This is analogous to
the ripple voltage shown in Figure 3.25.
The maximum ripple inductive current ∆iL(max) is equal to

Vout(1 − Dmin)
∆iL(max) = (3.43)
Lmin f s
The maximum ripple voltage (Vr(p-p)max) is equal to
Vr(p-p)max = rC∆iL(max) (3.44)
where rC is impedance of capacitor.
In the modern switching power regulator, power MOSFET is normally used instead
of power BJT transistor. Thus, we shall consider the losses due to design with power
MOSFET instead of power BJT transistor.
Power loss due to MOSFET (PFET) consists of two parts namely switch loss (Psw)
and conduction loss (Pcon). Thus,
f s Co V2out
PFET = Psw + Pcon = + I2out · D · rDS (3.45)
M2V(DC)
where Co and rDS are the output capacitance and turn-on resistance of power
MOSFET.
Power loss due to diode (PD) consists of two parts namely forward bias loss (PVF)
and forward resistance loss (PRF). Thus,
PD = PVF + PRF = Iout(1 − Dmin)VF + I2out(1 − Dmin)RF (3.46)

Power loss due to inductor (PL) and filter capacitor (PC) are respectively equal to
∆ i2L(max)
PL = rLI2out and PC = rC(1 − Dmin)2I2out = , where rL is equivalent series inductive
12
impedance and rC the equivalent series capacitive impedance. The total power loss is
PLoss = PFET + PD + PL + PC (3.47)
The power efficiency (η) shall be equal to

Pout I2 R
η= = 2 out L (3.48)
Pout + PLoss IoutRL + PLoss
Boost step-up switching regulator
The Boost step-up switching regulator circuit is shown in Figure 3.26. The output
voltage delivered is higher than the input voltage because the inductor (L) induced
voltage is added to the input voltage.
When the transistor is switched-on, the magnetic field expands quickly and the
voltage across the inductor is immediate equal to Vin − VCE(sat). The voltage across
the inductor is slowly decreasing to a value (VL) depending on the turn-on time of
the transistor. The longer the switch-on time, the smaller will be the VL. During
this time, the diode is in reversed bias mode. Thus, the capacitor is not charging but
discharging. As soon as the transistor is switched-off, the magnetic field collapses
and the polarities of inductor are reversed. The voltage across the inductor (VL) is
added to input voltage (Vin). Thus, it produces an output voltage greater than the
input voltage. During this time, the capacitor is also charging up to smoothing the
output voltage during the turn-on time of the transistor.
VL
Vin Vout
L D1 C
R1 RL
Variable
pulse width Q1
oscillator
R2
− +
VREF
R3
Zener
Diode
Figure 3.26 Boost step-up switching regulator circuit

UNIT 3 39
When the output voltage drops, the pulse width of the oscillator is shorted to
decrease the turn-on time of the transistor. Thus, VL is larger to compensate the
voltage drops at output.
dc voltage transfer of Boost step-up switching regulator
Using the similar approach done in Buck step-down switching regulator, the output
voltage follows equation (3.49).
( )
T
Vout = Vin (3.49)
ton
Following the volt-second balance principle, Vinton = (Vout − Vin)(T − ton). The dc
voltage transfer function (MV(DC)), which is defined as Vout/Vin is equal to
Vout 1
MV(DC) = = (3.50)
Vin 1 − D
For lossless conversion, the input power (Pin) is equal to output power (Pout) i.e., Pin
= Pout = VinIin = VoutIout. This implies that one minus duty cycle is equal to (1 − D) =
Vout I
= out . For a lossy converter, the output power is not equal to input power.
Vin Iin
Thus, the efficiency η is less than 100%, which is defined as

Pout V I
η= = out · out = MV(DC)(1 − D) (3.51)
Pin Vin Iin
Iout
Since (1 − D) is also equal to , therefore efficient (η) is also equal to
Iin
Iout MV(DC)
η= = MV(DC)(1 − D) (3.52)
Iin
Analysis of the operation of Boost step-up switching regulator
Following the procedure used in the analysis of Buck step-down switching regulator,
the peak-to-peak inductive current (∆iL) during the switch-on and switch-off is
Vinton V (1 − D)D
∆iL = = out (3.53)
L Lf s
The maximum peak-to-peak inductive current (∆iL) occurred when duty cycle is
D = 50%. i.e.,
Vout
∆iL(max) = (3.54)
4Lf s
The maximum ripple voltage (Vr(p − p)max) is equal to

Vout
Vr(p − p)max = rc (3.55)
4Lf s
Power loss due to MOSFET (PFET) consists of two parts namely switch loss (Psw)
( )
2
Iout
PFET = Psw + Pcon = fsCoV 2out + · D · rDS (3.56)
1−D
MOSFET.
Power loss due to diode (PD) consists of two parts namely forward bias loss (PVF)
PD = PVF + PRF = IoutVF + I 2out (1 − D)RF (3.57)
Power loss due to inductor PL and filter capacitor PC are respectively equal to
( )
2
Io
PL = rL and PC = rC(1 − D)I 2out, where rL is the equivalent series inductive
1−D
impedance and rC is the equivalent series capacitive impedance.
Total power loss is PLoss = PFET + PD + PL + PC. The power efficiency (η) shall be equal to
Pout I2 R
η= = 2 out L (3.58)
Pout + PLoss Iout RL + PLoss
Buck-Boost inverting down/up switching regulator
Buck-Boost inverting switching down/up regulator produces an output voltage that

has opposite in polarity to the input. The circuit is shown in Figure 3.27.
When the transistor is switched-on, the voltage across the inductor is immediately
equal to Vin − VCE(sat) and the magnetic field is expanding quickly. The voltage across
the inductor then shows a slowing decrease to a value VL depending on the switch-
on time of the transistor. During this time, the diode is in reversed bias mode and
UNIT 3 41
the capacitor is discharging. As soon as the transistor is switched-off, the magnetic

field collapses immediately and the polarity of the inductor is reversed and produces
a negative voltage at output. During this time, the capacitor is also charging.
Vin −Vout
Q1 D1 C
R1 L RL
Variable R2
pulse width
oscillator +
−
R3
VREF
Zener
Diode
Figure 3.27 Inverting switching regulator circuit
When the negative output voltage decreases, the switch-on time (ton) of the transistor
is decreased, causing voltage across inductor VL to increase. This compensates the
decrease of voltage at output.
dc voltage transfer of Buck-Boost step-down/up switching regulator
Following the volt-second balance principle, Vinton = Vout(T − ton) = Vout(1 − D)ton.
Vout
The dc voltage transfer function MV(DC), which is defined as is equal to
Vin
Vout D
MV(DC) = = (3.59)
Vin 1−D
For lossless conversion, the input power (Pin) is equal to output power (Pout) i.e.,
Pin = Pout = VinIin = VoutIout. For a lossy converter, the output power is not equal to the
input power. The efficiency η is less than 100%, which is defined as
η=
Pout
Pin
V
Vin
I
= out · out = MV(DC)
Iin
1−D
D ( )
(3.60)
Since
( )
1−D
D
I
is also equal to out , therefore efficient (η) is also equal to
Iin
IoutMV(DC) M (1 − D)
η= = V(DC) (3.61)
Iin D
Analysis of the operation of Buck-Boost step-down/up inverting switching

regulator
Following the procedure used in the analysis of Buck step-down inverting switching
regulator, the peak-to-peak inductive current (∆iL) during the switch-on and switch-
off is
Vinton V D V (1 − D)D
∆iL = = in = out (3.62)
L Lf s Lf s
The maximum peak-to-peak inductive current (∆iL(max)) is

Vout
∆iL(max) = (1 − Dmin) (3.63)
Lf s
The maximum ripple voltage (Vr(p − p)max) is equal to

Vout
Vr(p − p)max = rC (1 − Dmin) (3.64)
Lf s
Power loss due to MOSFET (PFET) consists of two parts namely, switch loss (Psw)
PFET = Psw + Pcon = fsCo V 2out +

( )
Iout 2
1−D
· D · rDS (3.65)
MOSFET.
Power loss due to diode (PD) consists of two parts namely, forward bias loss (PVF)
I2o RF
PD = PVF + PRF = IoutVF + (3.66)
1−D
Power loss due to inductor (PL) and filter capacitor (PC) are respectively equal to
( )
2
Iout I2out
PL = rL and PC = rC , where rL is the equivalent series inductive
1−D 1−D
impedance and rC is the equivalent series capacitive impedance.

UNIT 3 43
The total power loss is PLoss = PFET + PD + PL + PC. The power efficiency (η) shall
be equal to
Pout I2 R
η= = 2 out L (3.67)
Pout + Ploss I out RL + Ploss
Variable pulse width oscillator

A typical variable pulse width oscillator is shown in Figure 3.28. It has the same
function as the pulse width modulator (PWM).
Oscillator S Q Q1
Circuit
Flip-flop
Q2
R
−
Comparator
R
+
Figure 3.28 A typical variable pulse width oscillator
The oscillator has a fixed timing. The variable pulse width is controlled by the output
of the comparator. This will cause set and reset of the flip-flop, which in turn will
switch the transistor Q1 and Q2 on and off. The collector and emitter terminals of
transistor Q2 are respectively connected to the dc-to-dc converter/regulator circuitry.
Integrated circuit voltage regulator

Many types of IC's voltage regulators are available such as the 7800 and 7900 series
voltage regulators which are three terminal devices. They can provide fixed positive
and negative output voltage. Besides these regulators, there are others such as LM317
which provides adjustable positive linear voltage, and LM337 which provides negative
adjustable linear voltage. 78S40 is an integrated switching voltage regulator, which
can be configured as Buck step-down, Boost step-up, or Buck-Boost inverting voltage
regulators. Others such as LM2595 and LM2586 can be used too.
When the internal current of the regulator exceeds its limit, the regulator will shut
down, which is termed as thermal shut down. We shall discuss some applications
and configurations of these IC's.
Increasing power dissipation and current limiting
78XX series regulators such as LM7812 can provide positive 12V output voltage
and a maximum output current of at least 1.3A or 2.5A depending on the packags
style. If there is a need to increase the power dissispation, an external pass transistor
can be added to the circuit which is shown in Figure 3.29.
Vin
Q
7812
Voltage Vout
1 Regulator 3
2
RL
Figure 3.29 7812 regulator circuit connected with external pass transistor
When the current is less than the maximum current (Imax), the external transistor
is at OFF-state. When the load current exceeds maximum curent (Imax), the voltage
developed at emitter-to-base of transistor Q via resistor (R) is greater than 0.7V.
This voltage turns-on the transistor and extra current is provided to the load. The
0.7V
value of the resistor R shall be determined by R = .
Imax
The regulator circuit shown above does not have protection against excessive current
drawn at the output such as short-circuit. A current limiter can be added such as
the one shown in Figure 3.30.
R2
Vin
Q1
R1
Q2 7812
Voltage Vout
1 Regulator 3
2
RL
Figure 3.30 Regulator with current limiting protection

UNIT 3 45
Any excessive drawing of current will cause the transistor Q2 to turn-on via resistor
R2 and diverts part of the current to the input of the regulator. This will cause the
input current to be greater than its maximum current (Imax). Thus, it causes thermal
shutdown of the regulator. Hence the regulator is protected from being damaged.
Current source regulator
Regulator can be configured as current source. The basic circuit is shown in Figure
3.31. From the circuit, the desired source current (IL) to the load is equal to the
sum of the output current (Iout) from the regulator and the ground pin current (IG).
Thus, source current (IL) can be expressed as
Vout
IL = + IG (3.68)
R
For the case of 7812 regulator and if 1A load current is desired, then the value of
resistor R should 12 ohm. Since the ground pin current (IG) is usually in mA range,
therefore it is ignored in the calculation.
7812 Iout
Vin Voltage Vout
1 Regulator 3
2
R
IG
IL
RL
Figure 3.31 7812 voltage regulator as current source
Activity 3.11
Describe how you can configure a 7812 voltage regulator into a

current source. Design the circuit so that it can deliver 0.5 A of
current to the load.
Configuration of switching voltage regulator
The block diagram of an 78S40 integrated circuit switching voltage regulator is

shown in Figure 3.32. The IC's can be configured as a Buck step-down, Boost
step-up voltage, and Buck-Boost inverting regulators as shown in Figure 3.33, 3.34
and 3.35 respectively.
Noninvert Invert Timing Ipk Driver Switch

input input Gnd cap Vcc sense collector collector
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
S Q Q1
Oscillator
Flip-flop
Q2
− R
Comp.
+
1.25 V −
reference
+ D1
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Reference Invert Noninvert Vcc Output Switch Anode Cathode
voltage input input op-amp emitter
Figure 3.32 A block diagram of a 78S40 switching voltage regulator
Vin
CT R1
Vcc
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Oscillator S Q Q1
Flip-flop
Q2
− R
Comp.
+
1.25 V −
reference
+ D1
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
L
Vout
R2 C0
R3
Figure 3.33 78S40 switching voltage regulator configures a Buck step-down regulator
UNIT 3 47
L
VIN
CT R1
VCC
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
S Q Q1
Oscillator
Flip-flop
Q2
− R
Comp.
+
1.25 V −
reference
+ D1
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
VOUT
R2
R3 C0
Figure 3.34 78S40 switching voltage regulator configures a Boost step-up regulator
VIN
CT R1
VCC
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
S Q Q1
Oscillator
Flip-flop
Q2
− R
Comp.
+
1.25 V −
reference
+ D1
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
−VOUT
R2
R3 L C0
Figure 3.35 78S40 switching voltage regulator configures Buck-Boost inverting

regulator
The extra operational amplifier in the 78S40 IC’s can be used for other purpose
such as using it as a comparator and amplifier. The timing of the oscillator can be
controlled externally using a capacitor (C T) connected between pin (11) and pin
(12). Other integrated circuit voltage regulators such as LM2595 and LM2585 etc.,
are also available for configurating into step-down/step-up regulator.
Adjustable positive linear and negative linear voltage regulators
LM317 is a good example of an adjustable positive linear voltage regulator that its
output voltage can vary from 1.2V to 37.0V. Likewise, LM337 is an example of
negative adjustable linear voltage regulator that its output can vary from −1.2V to
−37.0V. Figure 3.36 and Figure 3.37 show the circuit connections of these regulators
respectively.
3
Vin LM317 Vout
1
IREF
2
VREF R1
VREF = 1.25V
IAdj IAdj + IREF
R2
Figure 3.36 LM317 adjustable positive linear regulator
3
Vin LM337 Vout
1
IREF
2
VREF R1
IAdj IAdj + IREF
R2
VREF = −1.25V
Figure 3.37 LM337 adjustable negative linear regulator

UNIT 3 49
A constant voltage reference of 1.25V is maintained by the regulator between the

output terminal and the adjustment terminal. It produces a constant current (IREF)
through resistor R1 regardless of the value of resistor R2. Thus, by KVL law, the
output voltage (Vout) is
Vout = VR1 + VR2 = VREFR1 + IREFR2 + IAdjR2 (3.69)
(
Vout = VREF 1 +
R2
R1)+ IAdjR2 (3.70)
Once the value of resistor R1 is set, the output voltage can be increased or decreased
by varying the value of resistor R2.
Summary
In this section, you have achieved the learning objectives as

specified in the objectives section. You have obtained the ability
to differentiate the types of voltage regulation; discuss and design
Buck step-down voltage regulator; discuss and design Boost step-up
voltage regulator; discuss and design Buck-Boost inverting voltage
regulator; design of variable pulse width oscillator; use integrated
circuit voltage regulator to design various types of dc voltages; and
describe a current source regulation.
Self-test 3.4
Calculate the ripple voltage and ripple factor of a full-wave rectifier

with 100 µF connected to a load that draws 50 mA. The frequency
and amplitude of transformer output to the circuit are 50 Hz and
30 V respectively.
Self-test 3.5
Determine the power efficiency and the maximum ripple voltage

of a Buck converter with Vin = 10V±25%, Vout = 5 V, RL = 5 Ω
and fs = 50 kHz. The values of other components are MOSFET:
rDS = 0.25 Ω, Co = 100 pF; Diode: VF = 0.5 V, RF = 0.2 Ω; Inductor:
L = 0.47 mH, rL = 0.25 Ω; Capacitor: C = 47 µF, rC = 0.25Ω.
Self-test 3.6
Determine the power efficiency and maximum ripple voltage of a

Buck-Boost inverting step down/up switching regulator with the
following specifications: Vin = 8 V± 25%, Vout = −12 V, RL = 10 Ω
and fs = 100 kHz. The values of other components are MOSFET:
rDS = 0.1Ω, Co = 100 pF; Diode: VF = 0.3 V, RF = 0.1 Ω; Inductor:
L = 0.47 µH, rL = 0.1 Ω; Capacitor: C = 47 µF, rC = 0.1 Ω.
Suggested answers to activities
Feedback
Activity 3.9
Vr(rms) 1.5
The ripple factor is = × 100% = × 100% = 6%.
dc voltage 25
Activity 3.10
The output voltage Vout is
(
Vout = 1 +
R2
R3 ) (
VREF = 1 +
6.0k
10k )
· 7.5V = 12.0V.
The output current

Vout 12V
Io = = = 0.5A.
RL 24Ω
0.7V 0.7
The maximum output current Io(max) = = = 0.7A
R4 1
(12 − 7.5)
The current flows through zener diode is = 2.0mA.
6.2kΩ
UNIT 3 51
From specification of zener, the impedance of zener at 2.0mA shall

20mA × 6Ω 120mV
be Rz = = = 60Ω.
IZ 2mA
The ripple voltage at the input of operational amplifier shall be

RzVin 60
V r’ = = 3V = 28.75mV.
RZ + R1 60 + 6.2k
The ripple voltage at output
(
V ”r = 1 +
R2
R3 ) (
V r’ = 1 +
6.0k
10k )
28.75mV = 46mV
Activity 3.11
Regulator can be configured as current source as shown in the figure

below. From the circuit, the desired source current (IL) to the load
is equal to the sum of the current (Iout) from the regulator and the
ground pin current (IG). Thus, source current (IL) can be expressed
Vout
as IL = + IG. For the case of 7812 regulator and if 1A load
R
current is desired, then the value of resistor R should be 12Ω. Since
IG is usually in mA range, therefore it is ignored in the calculation.
7812 Iout
Vin Voltage Vout
1 Regulator 3
2
R
IG
IL
RL
UNIT 3 53
Summary of Unit 3
Summary
In this unit on Converters and Power Supplies, you have learnt two
main sections which are dc-to-dc and ac-to-dc converter circuitries
and various types of designing methodology for power supplies.
In each section, you have studied and achieved what have been
specified in the learning objectives via tutorials, learning activities,
and self-tests.
In section one on converters, you have learnt and achieved the

ability and confidence to explain and design different types of dc-
to-dc converters such as Buck, Boost, Buck-Boost inverting, and
CÚK converters; able to explain, design, analyse single-phase and
three-phase ac-to-dc converter, and dc-to-ac converter.
In section two on power supplies, you have studied and achieved the
ability to describe, distinguish, and design different types of voltage
power supplies namely, Buck step-down voltage regulator, Boost
step-up voltage regulator, Buck-Boost inverting voltage regulator.
Besides those mentioned topics, you have also learnt another method
of designing variable pulse width oscillator, which is an equivalence
of pulse width modulator. The use of integrated circuit voltage
regulator to design various types of dc voltages and describing the
current source regulation were the last two topics covered.
UNIT 3 55
Suggested Answers to Self-tests
Feedback
Self-test 3.1
The average voltage measured at the load is 30.0 × 0.3 = 9.0V.
Self-test 3.2
The ripple voltage can be calculated using equation

T2(1 − D)
∆Vout = · Vout.
8LC
The frequency of the switching wave is 500kHz. Thus, its period

1
is = 2.0 × 10−6s.
500kHz
The value of ripple voltage is

T2(1 − D) (2.0 × 10−6)2(1 − 0.6)
∆Vout = · Vout = · 30V = 0.6V
8LC 8 × 1.0 × 10−11
Self-test 3.3
10W
The output current is = 1.0A.
10V
Vout D 10 D
= . Thus, = and the estimated duty cycle
Vin 1−D 15 1−D
is 0.4.
Self-test 3.4
The ripple voltage is

Idc V 50mA 1
Vr(rms) = · = dc = · = 1.44V.
4√3f C Vm 4√3 × 50 × 100 × 10−6 1
Idc 50mA
The dc voltage is Vdc = Vm − = 30 − = 27.5V.
4f C 4 × 50 × 100x−6
1.44
The ripple factor is × 100% = 5.34%.
27.5
Self-test 3.5
Vout 5V V 5V
MVDC(min) = = = 0.4; MVDC(max) = out = = 0.666
Vin(max) 12.5V Vin(min) 7.5V
If efficiency η of 90% is assumed, then minimum duty cycle is

MVDC(min) 0.4
Dmin = = = 0.444 and maximum duty cycle is
η 0.9
MVDC(max) 0.666
Dmax = = = 0.74
η 0.9
Vout 5V
The output current Iout = = = 1.0A.
RL 5Ω
Maximum ripple current is

Vout(1 − Dmin) 5V(1 − 0.444)
∆iL(max) = = = 118.3mA.
f SL 50kHz × 0.47mH
Thus, the maximum ripple voltage is V r(p − p)max = r C∆i L(max) =

0.25 Ω × 118.3mA = 29.57mV.
Losses in MOSFET are:
Conduction loss is Pcon = D(max) I2out rDS = 0.74(1A)2(0.25Ω) =

0.1665W.
Switching loss Psw = fsCo V2in(max) = (50kH)(100pF)(12.5V)2 =

0.78mW.
UNIT 3 57
Losses in diode are:
Resistance loss PRF = (1 − Dmin)R FI2out = (1 − 0.44)(0.2Ω)(1A)2 =

111.2mW.
Forward loss PVF = Iout(1 − Dmin)V F = (1A)(1 − 0.444)(0.5V) =

278mW.
Loss in inductor is PL = rLI2out = (0.25Ω)(1A)2 = 0.25W.

∆ i 2L(max) 0.25Ω (118.3mA)2
Loss in capacitor is PC = rC = = 0.29mW.
12 12
Total power loss is 806.77mW.

Pout 5W
The power efficiency η = = = 86.1 %.
Pout + PLoss 5W + 0.8067W
Self-test 3.6
Vout 12V Vout 12V
MVDC(min) = = = 1.2; MVDC(max) = = = 2.0.
Vin(max) 10V Vin(min) 6V
If efficiency (η) of 85% is assumed, then the minimum duty cycle

MVDC(min) 1.2
Dmin = = = 0.585 and maximum duty
MVDC(min) + η (1.2 + 0.85)
MVDC(max) 2
cycle Dmax = = = 0.7
MVDC(max) + η (2 + 0.85)
Vout 12V
The output current Iout = =− = −1.2A.
RL 10Ω
Thus, the maximum ripple voltage is

Vout(1 − Dmin) 12(1 − 0.585)
Vr(p − p)max = rC = 0.1Ω = 10mV.
f SL 100kHz(0.47µH)
Losses in MOSFET are:
Conduction loss is
Pcon = D(max)
I20
(1 − Dmax)2
r DS = (
0.7 )
1.2A 2
1 − 0.7
× 0.1Ω = 1.12W.
Switching loss Psw = fsCoV2in(max) = (100kHz)(100pF)(12.0V)2 =

1.44mW.
Losses in diode are:

I2out 1.22
Resistance loss PRF = RF = 0.1 = 0.48W.
1 − Dmin 1 − 9.7
Forward loss PVF = IoutVF = (1.2)(0.3V) = 0.36W.

I2out(max) 1.22
Loss in inductor is PL = rL = 0.1 = 1.6W.
(1 − Dmax)2 (1 − 0.7)2
I2out(max) 1.22
Loss in capacitor is PC = rC = 0.1Ω = 0.48mW.
(1 − Dmax) (1 − 0.7)
Total power loss is 4.04W.
Pout 14.4W
The power efficiency η = = = 78.1%.
Pout + PLoss 14.4W + 4.04W
UNIT 3 59
References
Floyd, T L (1999) Electronic Devices, New York: Prentice Hall International, Inc.
Jacob, J M (2002) Power Electronics: Principles & Application, New York: Delmar
Thomson Learning.
Mohan, N, Undeland, T M and Robbins, W P (2003) Power electronics: converters,

applications, and design, 3rd edn, New York: John Wiley.
UNIT 3 61
Glossary
C Capacitance
fc Corner frequency
Idc Direct current
IMax Maximum current
Io Output current
∆iL(max) Maximum ripple inductor current
L Inductance
MOSFET Metal oxide semiconductor
MV(DC) dc voltage transfer function
PD Power loss due to diode
PL Power loss
PRF Power loss due to forward resistance
PVF Power loss due to forward bias
PWM Pulse width modulation
rds Turn-on resistance of power MOSFET
R Resistance
IL Load current
RL Load resistance
ton Switch-on time
toff Switch-off time
T Period
Vavg Average voltage
Vdc load dc load voltage

Vin Input voltage
VL Inductor voltage
Vout Output voltage
∆Vout Peak-to-peak ripple voltage
η Power efficiency

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UNIT 3 i

Converters and power supplies

EXTERNAL COURSE ASSESSOR

© 2014 Wawasan Open University

Wawasan Open University [DU013(P)]

Suggested answers to activities 23

3.2 Power supplies 27

Rectification and capacitor filter 27

Classification of voltage regulator 29

Variable pulse width oscillator 43

Integrated circuit voltage regulator 43

Suggested answers to activities 50

Suggested answers to self-tests 55

1. Design and implement various types of dc-to-dc converter circuits.

2. Design and analyse Buck dc-to-dc converter.

3. Design and analyse Boost dc-to-dc converter.

4. Design and analyse Buck-Boost inverting dc-to-dc converter.

5. Design and analyse CÚK dc-to-dc converter.

7. Design and implement dc-to-ac converter circuits.

8. Design different types of power supplies.

1. Explain the principle of Buck, Boost, Buck-Boost inverting, and CÚK

2. Explain the concept of designing dc-to-dc converter.

4. Analyse the voltage at various points of the converter.

5. Explain the principle of designing a single-phase ac-to-dc converter.

6. Investigate the characteristics of a single-phase ac-to-dc converter.

7. Explain the principle of designing a three-phase ac-to-dc converter.

8. Explain the characteristics of a three-phase ac-to-dc converter.

9. Explain the principle of designing dc-to-ac converter.

In this section, we shall discuss three basic design configurations of converting dc

Buck step-down converter

The Buck step-down dc-to-dc converter converts an input dc voltage to an output

Figure 3.1 A block diagram of a basic Buck step-down dc-to-dc converter

Figure 3.2 A typical design of a pulse width modulator

The input waveform and voltage to the comparator of the Buck

Figure 3.3 The switching signal for switching of p-channel MOSFET

The fraction of ripple voltage to output voltage is equal to

Boost step-up converter

A Boost step-up dc-to-dc converter converts an input dc voltage to an output voltage

Figure 3.5 A block diagram of a basic Boost step-up dc-to-dc converter

(a) Inductor voltage

(b) Inductor current during switch-on and switch off modes

Vinton + (Vin − Vout)toff = 0 (3.6)

Dividing equation (3.6) with the period of switching (T), it becomes

The output peak-to-peak ripple voltage (∆Vout) is defined as

Based on equation (3.9), if an engineer would like his/her Boost

Buck-Boost inverting dc-to-dc converter

The main application of a step-down/step-up or Buck-Boost inverting converter is

A Buck-Boost dc-to-dc converter can be obtained by cascade connection of the

Figure 3.7 The basic circuit of a Buck-Boost inverting dc-to-dc converter

(a) Inductor voltage

(b) Inductor current during switch-on and switch off modes

The output peak-to-peak ripple voltage (∆Vout) is defined as

CÚK dc-to-dc converter

VC1 = Vin + Vout (3.14)

Figure 3.9 A CÚK dc-to-dc converter

VoutDT + (Vout − VC1)(1 − D)T = 0

(VC1 − Vout)DT − Vout(1 − D)T = 0

(Vin − VC1= − Vout)

(a) Inductor current and voltage of inductor L1