ELECTRICMOTORS (21EE44)

MODULE-2
(A) TESTING OF DC MOTORS
(B) 3 PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

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Module-2(a)
Testing of D.C Motors
Introduction:
The various losses taking place in the d.c motor is given by
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 − 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
Theefficiencyofad.c.motorisgivenby,
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
Efficiency = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

2.1 Types of Tests performed on D.C motors

The various tests are performed on d.c motors to determine the following parameters
 Open circuit characteristics
 Load characteristics
 Determine the various losses and temperature rise taking place in the d.c motor
 Determination of efficiency of motor.

There are different methods of testing d.c motors.

1) Direct method of testing /Load test/Brake test
2) Indirect method of testing
a) Swinburne’s test/No load test
b) Retardation test/running down test
c) Hopkinson’s test/Back to back test/Regenerative test.
d) Field test
First three methods of indirect tests are performed on d.c shunt motors and d.c compound motors. The
field test is performed only on d.c series motor due to its constraint of running dangerously high speed at
no load or light load condition

2.1 Swinburne’s test

Figure 2.1: Circuit diagram for Swinburne’s test

This is indirect method of testing, constant losses are determined without actually loading the d.c
motors (losses are determined under no load condition). Efficiency of machines as generator and motors at
any desired load is predetermined. The circuit diagram for conducting Swinburne’s test is as show in the
figure 2.1. The machines are made to run as a motor at normal voltage and speed. The copper losses are
calculated from measured values of the various resistances.

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LetV be the supply voltage, Let𝑰𝒂𝟎 be the no load armature current, where as 𝑰𝒔𝒉 be the shunt field
current.
Power input at no load =𝑽(𝑰𝒂𝒐 + 𝑰𝒔𝒉 ) watts
Field copper loss 𝑾𝑭 = 𝑽 × 𝑰𝒔𝒉
Armature copper loss at no load = 𝑰𝟐𝒂𝒐 𝑹𝒂
Thus the stray losses which includes iron, friction and windage losses can be obtained as,
Stray losses = Input at no load – Field copper losses – No load copper losses
𝟐
∴ 𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐲 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬𝐞𝐬 𝐖𝐬 = 𝐕 𝐈𝐚𝐨 + 𝐈𝐬𝐡 − 𝐕 × 𝐈𝐬𝐡 − (𝐈𝐚𝐨 𝐑𝐚)
Power input at full load 𝑷𝒊𝒏 = 𝑽 𝑰𝑳
𝑰𝑳 = 𝑰𝒂 + 𝑰𝒔𝒉
Armature copper loss at full load = 𝑰𝟐𝒂 𝑹𝒂
Total losses of the motor 𝐖𝐓 = 𝐀𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐜𝐮𝐩𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬 + 𝐒𝐡𝐮𝐧𝐭 𝐟𝐢𝐞𝐥𝐝 𝐜𝐨𝐩𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬 + 𝐒𝐭𝐚𝐲 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬
∴ 𝐖𝐓 = 𝑰𝟐𝒂 𝑹𝒂 + 𝑽 × 𝑰𝒔𝒉 + 𝐖𝐬
Power output 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 + 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔
∴ 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑷𝒊𝒏 + 𝐖𝐓
Efficiency of the motor
𝑷 𝑷 −𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔
% 𝜼𝒎 = 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝒊𝒏 𝑷 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒊𝒏 𝒊𝒏
Similarly efficiency of generator
Power input to the generator 𝑷𝒊𝒏 = 𝑽𝑰
Power output 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑷𝒊𝒏 + 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔
𝑷 𝑷
∴ % 𝜼𝒈 = 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝑷 +𝒐𝒖𝒕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒊𝒏 𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔
But when the motor is fully loaded, the temperature of the winding increases. This increase in temperature
will affect their resistance as about 𝟒𝟎𝒐 C.
If ∝𝟏 = resistance temperature coefficient of copper at room temperature.
𝑹′𝒂 = 𝑹𝒂 (𝟏 +∝𝟏 × 𝟒𝟎)
If at room temperature the shunt field winding
𝑽
𝑹𝒔𝒉 = 𝑰
𝒔𝒉
𝑹′𝒔𝒉 = 𝑹𝒔𝒉 (𝟏 +∝𝟏 × 𝟒𝟎)
𝑽
New shun field current 𝑰′𝒔𝒉 = 𝑹′
𝒔𝒉
New field copper loss = 𝑰′𝒔𝒉𝟐 × 𝑹𝒔𝒉
This new value of losses has to be considered for the total loss calculation and new value of efficiency for
motor and generator has to be calculated.

Advantages
1. Very convenient and economical method since power required is very small.
2. Stray or constant losses are determined, therefore, efficiency at any desired value of load can be
determined.

Disadvantages
1. Since the test is performed at no-load, the effect of temperature rise and performance of commutator
cannot be assessed properly.
2. This test cannot be performed with DC series motors because at no-load series motors obtain
dangerously high speeds.
3. The change in iron losses from no-load to full-load are not accounted for, although this change is
prominent due to armature reaction

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2.2 Hopkinson’s test/Back to Back test/ Regenerative test :
In this test full-load test can be carried out on two identical shunt machines without wasting their
outputs. Figure 2.2 shows the connection diagram for this test on a pair of shunt machines.
Figure shows two machines which are mechanically coupled. Their filed are adjusted in such a way
that one runs as a generator and other as a motor. The power produced by the generator is utilized by the
motor driving the generator. The power taken from the supply is used to supply losses only.

Figure 2.2: Circuit diagram for Hopkinson’s test

Two identical machines of any size can be tested under full-load conditions. This method is very
useful to determine the efficiency as well as for a heat run test for determining the temperature rise. The
following procedures are followed.
 The Machine motor is started by applying the rated voltage. Its field excitation is adjusted to take
it to normal speed. The motor drives the generator G. The switch S is kept open.
 The excitation of generator is gradually increased so that the reading of the voltmeter across
switch S becomes zero. Then switch S is closed and the generator is at the floating stage. The
shunt field regulators are adjusted to put any desired load.
 The input power is only to meet the constant losses.

Let 𝑽= Supply voltage

𝑰𝟏 = Current taken from the supply
𝑰𝟐 = Current supplied by generator
𝑰𝟑 = Exciting current of generator
𝑰𝟒 = Exciting current of motor
𝑹𝒂 = Armature resistance of each machine
a) If input of the both machines are equal
𝜼 =Efficiency of both generator and motor.
Input to the motor = 𝑽(𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 )
Output to motor = η × 𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕=η× 𝑽(𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 )
The output of motor will be given as input to the generator.
Input to the generator = output of the motor = η× 𝑽(𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 )
Output of the generator = η × 𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓=η× 𝛈 𝑽(𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 ) ------1
But output of the generator = 𝑽𝑰𝟐 ------2
From equation 1 & 2
𝑽𝑰𝟐 = 𝜼𝟐 𝑽(𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 )
𝑰𝟐
∴𝜼=
𝑰𝟏 +𝑰𝟐

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b)But practically efficiencies cannot be assumed to be same, In that case the stray losses can be
calculated as below,
Armature copper loss in the generator = 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑 𝟐 𝑹𝒂
Armature copper loss in the motor = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟒 𝟐 𝑹𝒂
Copper loss in field winding of generator = 𝑽𝑰𝟑
Copper loss in field winding of motor = 𝑽𝑰𝟒
But total losses in generator and motor are equal to the power supplied by the mains
Power drawn from the supply = 𝑽𝑰𝟐
Total stray loss for both the machines = Power drawn from the supply – Total copper loss of the set
𝑾𝒔 = 𝑽𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑 𝟐 𝑹𝒂 + 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟒 𝟐 𝑹𝒂 + 𝑽𝑰𝟑 + 𝑽𝑰𝟒
𝑾
Stray loss of each machine = 𝟐𝒔
i)Efficiency of motor
Input to the motor 𝑷𝒊𝒏 = 𝑽(𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 )
Total losses of the motor = Armature copper loss in the motor + Copper loss in the field+ Stray loss
𝑾
𝑾𝑻 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟒 𝟐 𝑹𝒂 + 𝑽𝑰𝟒 + 𝟐𝒔
Output of the motor 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 − 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔
𝑾
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑽 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟒 𝟐 𝑹𝒂 + 𝑽𝑰𝟒 + 𝟐𝒔
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕
∴ 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 = %𝜼𝒎 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝒊𝒏
𝑾
𝑽 𝑰𝟏 +𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟏 +𝑰𝟐 −𝑰𝟒 𝟐 𝑹𝒂 +𝑽𝑰𝟒 + 𝒔
𝟐
%𝜼𝒎 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽(𝑰𝟏 +𝑰𝟐 )
ii) Efficiency of generator
Output of the generator 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑽𝑰𝟐
Total losses of the generator= Armature copper loss in the generator+ Copper loss in the field of generator
+ Stray loss
𝑾
𝑾𝑻 = 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑 𝟐 𝑹𝒂 + 𝑽𝑰𝟑 + 𝟐𝒔
Input to the generator 𝑷𝒊𝒏 = 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 + 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔
𝑾
𝑷𝒊𝒏 = 𝑽𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑 𝟐 𝑹𝒂 + 𝑽𝑰𝟑 + 𝟐𝒔
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕
∴ 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓 = %𝜼𝒈 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝒊𝒏
𝑽𝑰𝟐
%𝜼𝒈 = 𝑾 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟐 +𝑰𝟑 𝟐 𝑹𝒂 +𝑽𝑰𝟑 + 𝒔
𝟐

Advantages
1. It is economical since small power is required.
2. Commutation ans temperature rise of the machine can be studied properly
3. Since the test is conducted at full-load, any change in iron losses due to flux distortion at full load
is taken into account.
Disadvantage
1. The main disadvantage of this test is that there is necessity of two identical machines which are
rarely available.
2. The iron losses in the two machines cannot be separated. The iron losses are different in botht he
machines because of different excitations.
3. The machines are not loaded equally in case of small machines which may lead to difficulty in
analysis.

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2.3 Field Test :
To determine efficiency of large DC series machines usually field test is employed. Figure 2.3
shows the connection diagram for field test. In this test two machines which are mechanically coupled
together and their series field connected in series to make the iron losses of both the machines equal.
One machine runs as a motor and drives the generator whose output is wasted across variable load
resistance R. the Load R is varied till ammeter A1 reads the full-load current of the motor.

Figure 2.3: Circuit diagram for Field’s test

The readings of the following instruments are taken:

V= Supply voltage
𝑰𝒂𝒎 = Current taken by motor
𝑰𝒂𝒈 = Load current of generator
𝑽𝒂𝒎 = Input voltage of Motor
𝑽𝒂𝒈 = Terminal voltage of generator
𝑹𝒂 , 𝑹𝒔𝒆 = Armature and series field resistance of each machine.
Power taken from supply = 𝑽𝑰𝒂𝒎
Output obtained from generator =𝑽𝒂𝒈 𝑰𝒂𝒈
Total losses in both the machines 𝑾𝑻 = Power taken from supply – Power output from generator
𝑾𝑻 = 𝑽𝑰𝒂𝒎 − 𝑽𝒂𝒈 𝑰𝒂𝒈
Armature & Field copper losses of motor = 𝑰𝟐𝒂𝒎 𝑹𝒂 + 𝑹𝒔𝒆
Armature & Field copper losses of generator =𝑰𝟐𝒂𝒎 𝑹𝒔𝒆 + 𝑰𝟐𝒂𝒈 𝑹𝒂
Total Copper losses of the set𝑾𝑪𝒖 = 𝑰𝟐𝒂𝒎 𝑹𝒂 + 𝑹𝒔𝒆 + 𝑰𝟐𝒂𝒎 𝑹𝒔𝒆 + 𝑰𝟐𝒂𝒈 𝑹𝒂
∴ 𝑾𝑪𝒖 = 𝑰𝟐𝒂𝒎 𝑹𝒂 + 𝟐𝑹𝒔𝒆 + 𝑰𝟐𝒂𝒈 𝑹𝒂
Total stray losses = 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 − 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔
𝑾𝒔 = 𝑾𝑻 − 𝑾𝑪𝒖
𝑾
Stray loss per machine = 𝟐𝒔
Since the two machines are equally excited and are running at same speed the stray losses are equally
divided.
i)Motor Efficiency:
Input to the motor 𝑷𝒊𝒏 = 𝑽𝒂𝒎 𝑰𝒂𝒎
Total losses of the motor = Armature & Field copper losses of motor + Stray loss of each machine
𝑾
= 𝑰𝟐𝒂𝒎 𝑹𝒂 + 𝑹𝒔𝒆 + 𝟐𝒔
Power out of motor 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 = Power input to the motor – Total losses of the motor
𝑾
∴ 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑷𝒊𝒏 − 𝑰𝟐𝒂𝒎 𝑹𝒂 + 𝑹𝒔𝒆 + 𝟐𝒔
𝑾
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑷𝒊𝒏 − 𝑰𝟐𝒂𝒎 𝑹𝒂 +𝑹𝒔𝒆 + 𝒔
𝟐
Efficiency of the motor 𝜼𝒎 = =
𝑷𝒊𝒏 𝑽𝒂𝒎 𝑰𝒂𝒎

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ii) Generator Efficiency

Power output from generator 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑽𝒂𝒈 𝑰𝒂𝒈
𝑾𝒔
Total losses of the generator =𝑰𝟐𝒂𝒎 𝑹𝒔𝒆 + 𝑰𝟐𝒂𝒈 𝑹𝒂 + 𝟐
𝑾𝒔
Power input to the motor 𝑷𝒊𝒏 =𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 + 𝑰𝟐𝒂𝒎 𝑹𝒔𝒆 𝟐
+ 𝑰𝒂𝒈 𝑹𝒂 + 𝟐
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑽𝒂𝒈 𝑰𝒂𝒈
Efficiency of the generator 𝜼𝒈 = = 𝑾
𝑷𝒊𝒏 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 +𝑰𝟐𝒂𝒎 𝑹𝒔𝒆 +𝑰𝟐𝒂𝒈 𝑹𝒂 + 𝒔
𝟐

2.4 Direct method of testing /Brake drum test/Load test on DC shunt motor:
In this method, the motor is put on the direct load by means of a belt and pulley arrangement. By adjusting
the tesnsion of belt, the load is adjusted to give the various values of currents. The load is finally adjusted
to get full load current . The power developed gets wasted against the friction between belt and shaft. Due
to the braking acting of belt the test is called brake test. The figure shows the circuit diagram for the
conducting the load test.

Figure 2.4: Circuit diagram for Load test

The tension in the belt can be adjusted using the handle. The tension in kg can be obtaind from the spring
balance readings.
R= Radius of pulley in meter
N= Speed in r.p.m
𝑾𝟏 = Spring balance reading on tight side in kg
𝑾𝟐 = Spring balance reading on slak side in kg
So net pull on the belt due to friction at the pulley is the difference between the two spring balance
readings.
Netpull = 𝑾𝟏 − 𝑾𝟐 𝒌𝒈 = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 𝑾𝟏 − 𝑾𝟐 𝑵𝒆𝒘𝒕𝒐𝒏
As radius R and speed N are known, the shaft torque developed can be obtained as,
𝑻𝒔𝒉 = 𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝑷𝒖𝒍𝒍 × 𝑹 = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 𝑾𝟏 − 𝑾𝟐 𝑹 𝑵 − 𝒎
Hence the output power can be obtained as,
𝟐𝝅𝑵
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑻𝒔𝒉 × 𝝎 = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 𝑾𝟏 − 𝑾𝟐 𝑹 × 𝟔𝟎 watts
Let V= Voltage applied in volts
I= Total line cuccent drawn in amps
Then power input 𝑷𝒊𝒏 = 𝑽𝑰
Thus if the reading are taken on full load condition then the efficiency can be obtained as,
𝑷
%𝜼 = 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒊𝒏
Adjusting the load step by step till full load, number of readings can be obtained. The speed can be
measured by using tachometer. Thus all the motor characteristics can be plotted.

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Advantages of Brake test:
The advantages of brake test,
1. Actual efficiency of the motor under working conditions can be found out.
2. The method is simple and easy to perform.
3. Can be performed on any type of d.c.motor.
Disadvantages of brake test:
This Method has the following disadvantages:
 It is not possible to measure the output power directly.
 It is not possible to use this method for determining the internal losses and efficiency of large
motors

2.5 Retardation Test/Running test

Retardation test is also called as running down test. This is the very efficient way to find out stray
losses in dc shunt motors. In this test, The total stray losses nothing but the combination of mechanical
(friction & windage) and iron losses of the machine. The circuit diagram of retardation test on dc
machines shown below.

Figure 2.5: Circuit diagram for Retardation test

The procedure of Retardation Test on D.C Machines
The main points in the retardation or running down test are discussed below,
1. Now start the dc machine normally, run the machine slightly above the rated speed by adjusting field
resistance.
2. After achieving the rated speed just cut off the power supply to the armature, but keeping field normally
excited.
3. Now wait for some time to fall down of speed below rated, then using the tachometer note down the
valuesofspeed (in rpm) and time (in the sec).
4. The armature consequently slows down and the amount of kinetic energy present in the armature is
used to supply the rotational or stray losses which include iron, friction and winding loss.
If J is the amount of inertia of the armature and 𝜔 is the angular velocity
1
The kinetic energy of armature =2 𝐽 𝜔2
Rotational losses,W = Rate of change of kinetic Energy
𝑑 1 𝑑𝜔
𝑊 = 𝑑𝑡 2 𝐽𝜔2 =J𝜔 𝑑𝑡
J= Moment of Inertia of the armature.
In Retardation test of dc machines, the rotational losses are given by
Let N = normal speed in r.p.m
2𝜋𝑁
𝜔 = normal angular velocity in rad/s = 60
2𝜋𝑁 𝑑 2𝜋𝑁 2𝜋 2 𝑑𝑁
𝑊 = 𝐽 60 𝑑𝑡 60 = 60 𝐽𝑁 𝑑𝑡
By using above formula rotational losses of dc motor can be determined. But here moment of Inertia J and
𝑑𝑁
must be known.
𝑑𝑡

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𝒅𝑵
2.5.1. Determination of 𝒅𝒕 :
The voltmeter (V) across the armature will give the
value of back e.m.f. of the motor. We know that back e.m.f. is
proportional to speed so that we calibrate the voltmeter to
show the speed reading directly.When the motor is cut off
from the supply, the speed decrease in speed is noted with the
help of stopwatch. A curve is drawn between calibrated
values of time and speed.
At any point C corresponding to normal speed, a tangent AB
is drawn. Then the value obtained from below can be
substituted in the expression for W which can give the
rotational losses. Figure 2.6 Speed Vs time
𝑑𝑁 𝑂𝐴(𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑝𝑚 )
=
𝑑𝑡 𝑂𝐵(𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 )

2.5.2 Methods of finding the moment of Inertia (J)

a)Using Flywheel
b)Without using Flywheel

a)Using Flywheel in retardation test : In this method, we use the flywheel whose moment of inertia is
𝑑𝑁
𝐽1 to find the I value. In the first case, retardation test is performed with armature alone and 𝑑𝑡 is
1
𝑑𝑁
determined. In next case, the flywheel is employed on the shaft, changes in speed, is noted.Addition of
𝑑𝑡 2
fly-wheel will not materially affect the rotational losses.

2𝜋 2 𝑑𝑁
For the first case, 𝑊 = 𝐽𝑁 𝑑𝑡 -------1
60 1
2𝜋 2 𝑑𝑁
For the second case 𝑊 = (𝐽 + 𝐽1 )𝑁 𝑑𝑡 -------2
60 2
From equation 1 & 2
2𝜋 2 𝑑𝑁 2𝜋 2 𝑑𝑁
𝐽𝑁 𝑑𝑡 = (𝐽 + 𝐽1 )𝑁 𝑑𝑡
60 1 60 2
𝑑𝑁 𝑑𝑁
𝐽 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐽 + 𝐽1
1 𝑑𝑡 2
𝐽 +𝐽 1 𝑑𝑁 𝑑𝑡 1 𝑑𝑡 2
= =
𝐽 𝑑𝑁 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 1
𝐽1 𝑑𝑡 2 −𝑑𝑡 1 𝑡 2 −𝑡 1
= 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡
𝐽 1 1
𝑡1
𝐽 = 𝐽1 𝑡 −𝑡
2 1

b) Without using fly wheel in retardation test:

Without using the flywheel, I am eliminated from the expression by an experiment. First, retardation test
is performed by armature alone. The rotational losses are given by;
2𝜋 2 𝑑𝑁
𝑊= 𝐽𝑁 𝑑𝑡 --------1
60 1
Next, the motor is loaded with a known amount of power 𝑊 ′ with a break. For
𝑑𝑁
the same change in speed, 𝑑𝑡 is noted. Then,
2
′ 2𝜋 2 𝑑𝑁
𝑊+𝑊 = 𝐽𝑁 𝑑𝑡 --------2
60 2
𝑊+𝑊 ′ 𝑑𝑡 1 𝑡 1
∴ =𝑑𝑡 =𝑡
𝑊 2 2
′ 𝑡2
∴ 𝑊 = 𝑊 × 𝑡 −𝑡
1 2
′
The values of 𝑊 and 𝑡1 and 𝑡2 are known, the value of W can be determined.

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Module-2(b)

Three Phase Induction motor

2.6 Introduction:
 An electric motor which operates on a.c supply is called a.c. motor.
 The a.c. motors are classified as single and three phase induction motors, synchronous motors and
some special purpose motors.
 Out of all these types the induction machine is an important class of electric machines which finds
wide applicability as a motor in industry and in its single-phase form in several domestic
applications. More than 85% of industrial motors in use today are in fact induction motors.

2.7 Constructional features of a three phase IM

A 3-phase induction motor consists of two main parts, namely stator and rotor.

2.7.1. Stator:It is the stationary part of the motor. It has three main parts, namely.
(i) Outer frame,(ii) Stator core and(iii) Stator winding.

(i) Outer frame: It is the outer body of the motor. Its function is to support the stator core andto protect
the inner parts of the machine. For small machines the fame is casted but forlarge machines it is
fabricated. To place the motor on the foundation, feet are provided in the outer frame as shown in Fig.2.7.

(ii) Stator core: The Stator is cylindrical in shape with circular shaped laminations or stampings. This
alternating field produces hysteresis and eddy current loss. To minimize these losses, the core is made of
high grade silicon steel stampings. The thickness to the stamping usually varies from0.3 to 0.5 mm. Slots
are punched on the inner periphery of the stampings, as shown in Fig.2.8 , to accommodate stator winding.
When AC supply is given to the stator winding an alternating flux is set -up inthe stator core.

(iii) Stator winding: The stator core carries a three phase winding which is usually supplied from a three
phase supply system. The six terminals of the winding (two of each phase) are connected in the terminal
box of the machine. The stator of the motor is wound for definite number of poles, the exact number being
determined by the requirement of speed.

Figure 2.7 Outer Frame Figure 2.8 Stator stamping

2.7.2.Rotor:The rotating part of the motor is called rotor. Two types of rotors are used for 3-phase
Induction motors. (i) Squirrel cage rotor (ii) Phase wound rotor.

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Squirrel Cage Rotor/Short circuit Rotor Slip ring rotor/Phase wound rotor

Figure 2.9 Squirrel cage rotor

Figure 2.10 Slip ring rotor
Squirrel cage rotor consists of a laminated This rotor is also cylindrical in shape which consists
cylindrical core having semi-closed circular of large number of stampings. A number of semi-
slots at the outer periphery. closed slots are punched at its outer periphery. A 3-
phase insulated winding is placed in these slots
Copper or aluminum bar conductors are placed The rotor is wound for the same number of poles as
in these slots and short circuited at eachend by that of stator. The rotor winding is connected in star
copper or aluminum rings, called short and its remaining three terminals are connected to the
circuiting rings or end rings as shown in the slip rings as shown in the Figure 2.10
figure 2.9
Construction is very simple Construction is complicated
As rotor conductors are permanently shorted, Resistance can be added externally
external resistance cannot be added.
Slip rings and brushes are absent Slip rings and brushes are present
The construction is simple, strong and Construction is quite complicated and frequent
maintenance free. maintenance is required.
Due to simple construction, the rotors are The Rotors are very costly
cheap.
These rotors are very common, over 95% of Only 5% of induction motors in industry use slip ring
industrial application based on this type of rotor.
rotor.
Moderate starting torque and speed can not be High starting torque and speed through can be
controlled through rotor controlled by adding external resistance with the help
of slip ring assembly.

2.8 Rotating Magnetic field (RMF):

When 3-phase supply is fed to the stator winding of the 3-phase induction motor, a rotating
magnetic field (RMF) is produced. Rotating magnetic field is magnetic field which rotates in space about
some point or axis with constant magnitude. The North and South poles continuously rotates with a
120 𝑓
specific speed, called synchronous speedNs and it is given by 𝑁𝑠 = 𝑃 .

2.8.1Production of RMF:
Consider three identical stator coils which are displaced 120° apart from each other in space. Let
these three coils are energized from a balanced 3-phase supply. The three phase currents flows
simultaneously through the windings and are displaced from each other by 120𝑜 electrical. Hence, each
coil will produce an alternating flux along its own axis. The waveforms and phasor diagram of three
fluxes are shown in the figure 2.11

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Figure 2.11
Three fluxes are mathematically expressed as
𝜙𝑅 = 𝜙𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 =𝜙𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝜙𝑌 = 𝜙𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 − 120𝑜 =𝜙𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 120𝑜
𝜙𝐵 = 𝜙𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 − 240𝑜 =𝜙𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 240𝑜 or 𝜙𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 120𝑜
Assuming three phase balanced supply, maximum flux 𝜙𝑚 remains same for each flux.
Phasor diagram clearly shows the assumed positive directions of each flux.
The resultant flux 𝜙𝑇 is the phasor addition of 𝜙𝑅 ,𝜙𝑌 and 𝜙𝐵 .
∴ 𝜙𝑇 = 𝜙𝑅 + 𝜙𝑌 + 𝜙𝐵
Let us find 𝜙𝑇 at various instants shown in Figure 2.11(a). The phasor addition can be performed by
obtaining the values of 𝜙𝑅 , 𝜙𝑌 and 𝜙𝐵 by substituting the values of 𝜃 in the above equations.

Case 1:𝜽 = 𝟎𝒐
𝜙𝑅 = 𝜙𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 0 = 0
𝜙𝑌 = 𝜙𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 0 − 120𝑜 = −0.866𝜙𝑚
𝜙𝐵 = 𝜙𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 0 + 120𝑜 = +0.866𝜙𝑚
The phasor addition is shown in the figure 2.12
Reverse 𝜙𝑌 to get −𝜙𝑌 . From point B, draw a line
perpendicular to phasor OA, which meets at point D.
𝜙
∴ 𝑂𝐷 = 𝐷𝐴 = 2𝑇 , OB= 0.866 𝜙𝑚
In triangle OBD, ∠𝐵𝑂𝐷 = 30𝑜
𝑂𝐷 𝜙𝑇 2
cos 30𝑜 = 𝑂𝐵 =0.866 𝜙
𝑚
∴ 𝜙𝑇 = 2 × 0.866 𝜙𝑚 = 1.5 𝜙𝑚 Figure 2.12(a) vector diagram for 𝜃 = 30𝑜
So magnitude of 𝜙𝑇 is 1.5 𝜙𝑚 and its position is vertically upwards at 𝜃 = 0𝑜

Case 2:𝜽 = 𝟔𝟎𝒐

𝜙𝑅 = 𝜙𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 60 = +0.866𝜙𝑚
𝜙𝑌 = 𝜙𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 60 − 120𝑜 = −0.866𝜙𝑚
𝜙𝐵 = 𝜙𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 60 + 120𝑜 = 0
Reverse 𝜙𝑌 to get −𝜙𝑌 . From point B, draw a line
perpendicular to phasor OA, which meets at point D.
𝜙
∴ 𝑂𝐷 = 𝐷𝐴 = 2𝑇 , OB= 0.866 𝜙𝑚
In triangle OBD, ∠𝐵𝑂𝐷 = 30𝑜
𝑂𝐷 𝜙𝑇 2
cos 30𝑜 = 𝑂𝐵 =0.866 𝜙𝑚
∴ 𝜙𝑇 = 2 × 0.866 𝜙𝑚 = 1.5 𝜙𝑚 Figure 2.12(b) vector diagram for 𝜃 = 60𝑜
It can be observed that flux magnitude is 1.5 𝜙𝑚 is has rotated through 60𝑜 in space, in clockwise
direction, from its previous position.

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Case 3:𝜽 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒐

𝜙𝑅 = 𝜙𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 60 = +0.866𝜙𝑚
𝜙𝑌 = 𝜙𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 120 − 120𝑜 = 0
𝜙𝐵 = 𝜙𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 120 + 120𝑜 = −0.866𝜙𝑚
Reverse 𝜙𝐵 to get −𝜙𝐵 . From point B, draw a line
perpendicular to phasor OA, which meets at point D.
𝜙
∴ 𝑂𝐷 = 𝐷𝐴 = 2𝑇 , OB= 0.866 𝜙𝑚
In triangle OBD, ∠𝐵𝑂𝐷 = 30𝑜 Figure 2.12(b) vector diagram for 𝜃 = 120𝑜
𝑂𝐷 𝜙𝑇 2
cos 30𝑜 = 𝑂𝐵 =0.866 𝜙
𝑚
∴ 𝜙𝑇 = 2 × 0.866 𝜙𝑚 = 1.5 𝜙𝑚
Again the Flux has rotated through 60𝑜 in space, w.r.t previous position.

Case 4:𝜽 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝒐

𝜙𝑅 = 𝜙𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 180 = 0
𝜙𝑌 = 𝜙𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 180 − 120𝑜 = +0.866𝜙𝑚
𝜙𝐵 = 𝜙𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 180 + 120𝑜 = −0.866𝜙𝑚
Reverse 𝜙𝐵 to get −𝜙𝐵 . From point B, draw a line
perpendicular to phasor OA, which meets at point D.
𝜙
∴ 𝑂𝐷 = 𝐷𝐴 = 2𝑇 , OB= 0.866 𝜙𝑚
𝑂𝐷 𝜙 2
In triangle OBD, ∠𝐵𝑂𝐷 = 30𝑜 cos 30𝑜 = 𝑂𝐵 =0.866
𝑇
𝜙 𝑚
∴ 𝜙𝑇 = 2 × 0.866 𝜙𝑚 = 1.5 𝜙𝑚
Again the Flux has rotated through 60𝑜 in space, w.r.t
previous position
Figure 2.12(b) vector diagram for 𝜃 = 180𝑜

From the above discussion following points can be concluded

a) The resultant of the three alternating fluxes, separated from each other by 120𝑜 , has constant
amplitude of 1.5 𝜙𝑚 , where 𝜙𝑚 is maximum amplitude of an individual any phase.
b) The Resultant flux always keeps on rotating with a certain speed in space. Such a magnetic field is
called rotating magnetic field.

NOTE:
1) Speed of RMF :
For a standard frequency whatever speed of RMF results is called synchronous speed, in case of
induction motor. It is denoted as 𝑁𝑠 .
120𝑓
∴ 𝑁𝑠 = 𝑃 , where P is no of poles.
2) Direction of RMF :
The direction of rotating magnetic field depends on the phase sequence of the supply. If the phase
sequence of the supply is interchanged the direction of RMF also changes.

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2.9 Working Principle of Induction motor:
When three phase A.C supply is given to stator winding , a rotating magnetic field of constant
magnitude is produced.
When this rotating magnetic field , sweeps across the stationary rotor conductors. Whenever
conductor cuts the flux, emf gets induced emf. This is electro-magnetic induction. As rotor forms closed
circuit, induced emf circulates current through rotor called rotor current as shown in the figure (a). Rotor
conductor’s forms a closed circuit, induced emf circulates current through rotor conductors, this current
produces one more flux called rotor flux.

Figure 2.13 Working of three phase IM

There are two fluxes in actual working condition

1) Rotating magnetic field
2) Rotor flux.
When these two fluxes interact with each other the rotor starts rotating in the resultant direction of the flux
as shown in the figure (d).So interaction of these two fluxes is essential for motoring action. As seen from
the figure (d), the direction of force experienced is same as that of rotating magnetic field. The speed of
RMF is known as synchronousspeed ‘Ns’ and speed of rotor is called rotor speed N.
𝑁𝑠 − 𝑁 = Relative speed between two, rotating magnetic field and the rotor conductors. It is also known
as slip speed.
NOTE:
Whether Speed of IM can be = 𝑵𝒔 ?
Theoretically, the Induction motor can never run at synchronous speed. However, if by some
external force, or system fault such as voltage surge, somehow speed of induction motor becomes equal to
the synchronous speed, then relative speed between both the fluxes becomes zero and no more current will
be induced in the rotor winding. This will result in no torque on the rotor, and it will stop moving due to
this. Or in some cases like very short term spike, current induction and hence torque will stop resulting in
a reduction of speed. But due to the reduction of speed, again lag influx will be achieved, and the motor
will continue to move at this speed due to flux difference between rotor and stator

2.10 Slip of Induction motor (s) : Slip of Induction motor can be defined as difference between
synchronous speed 𝑵𝒔 and actual speed(𝑵) expressed as a fraction of 𝑵𝒔 .
𝑁 −𝑁
Slip s = 𝑠𝑁 ---- Absolute slip
𝑠
𝑁𝑠 −𝑁
Slip %s = × 100 ------ Percentage slip.
𝑁𝑠
Actual speed of motor interms of slip s can be given by
𝑁 = (1 − 𝑠)𝑁𝑠
At start, motor is at rest and hence its speed N is zero.
Slip s = 1 at start
This is maximum value of slip s possible for induction motor which occurs at start.
While 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑠 , s = 0 which is not possible for an induction motor. So slip of IM cannot be zero under
any circumstances.
Practically motor operates in the slip range of 0.01 to 0.05 i.e. 1% to 5%. The slip corresponding to full
load speed of the motor is called full load slip.

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2.10.1 Effect of Slip on Rotor Parameter:
As the load changes, speed changes, relative motion /slip speed 𝑁𝑠 − 𝑁 also changes. Since the Energy
will be transferred from stator to rotor through the process of mutual induction. So many parameters
related to rotors are affected by slip. The effect of slip on the following rotor parameters
1. Rotor Frequency
2. Magnitude of Rotor Induced emf
3. Rotor reactance
4. Rotor power factor
5. Rotor current.

1) Effect of slip on rotor frequency 𝒇𝒓 :

120 𝑓
Speed of RMF is synchronous speed 𝑁𝑠 = -------------1
𝑃
where f= frequency of supply Hz.
Motor actually rotate with speed N, the induced e.m.f in rotor depends on rate of cutting flux. i.e. relative
speed (𝑁𝑠 − 𝑁). Hence in running condition magnitude of induced e.m.f decreases so as its frequency.

If ‘𝑓𝑟 ’ is the rotor frequency induced emf in running condition, P is no of poles as that of stator poles.
120 𝑓
∴ The relative speed (𝑁𝑠 − 𝑁) = 𝑃 𝑟 -------------2
Dividing equation 2 by equation 1,

(𝑁𝑠 −𝑁) 120 𝑓𝑟 𝑃 𝑓𝑟

=
𝑁𝑠 120 𝑓 𝑃 𝑓
(𝑁𝑠 −𝑁)
w.k.t s= 𝑁𝑠
𝑓𝑟
=𝑠
𝑓
∴ 𝑓𝑟 = 𝑠 𝑓
Rotor frequency is slip times supply frequency.

2)Effect of slip on rotor Induced E.M.F

Let 𝐸2 = Rotor induced e.m.fper phase on standstill condition which is proportional to 𝑁𝑠 .
As rotor gains speed, Rotor induced e.m.f decreases which is proportional to the relative speed (𝑁𝑠 − 𝑁).
Let this e.m.f be 𝐸2𝑟 = rotor induced emf per phase in running condition.
Now 𝐸2 ∝ 𝑁𝑠 , while 𝐸2𝑟 ∝ 𝑁𝑠 − 𝑁
Dividing the two equations
𝐸2𝑟 𝑁𝑠 −𝑁
= =𝑠
𝐸2 𝑁𝑠
∴ 𝐸2𝑟 = 𝑠 𝐸2
Rotor induced e.m.f under running condition is slip times the rotor e.m.f at standstill condition.

3)Effect of slip on Rotor Impedance (Rotor resistance and Reactance):

The rotor winding has its own resistance and the inductance.
𝑅2 = Rotor resistance per phase on standstill
𝑋2 = Rotor reactance per phase on standstill
𝑋2 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿2 Ω/ph
Now in running condition 𝑓𝑟 = 𝑠𝑓 hence,
𝑋2𝑟 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑟 𝐿2 = 2𝜋𝑠𝑓𝐿2 = 𝑠 2𝜋𝑓𝐿2 = 𝑠𝑋2
𝑋2𝑟 = Rotor reactance in running condition
Rotor impedance on standstill (N=0) condtion
𝑍2 = 𝑅2 + 𝑗𝑋2
𝑍2 = 𝑅22 + 𝑋22 Ω/ph
While 𝑍2𝑟 be the rotor impedance in running condition
𝑍2𝑟 = 𝑅2 + 𝑗𝑋2𝑟
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𝑍2𝑟 = 𝑅22 + 𝑋2𝑟
2
= 𝑅22 + 𝑠𝑋2 2 Ω/ph

4)Effect of slip on Rotor Power Factor

𝑅 𝑅2
Let cos 𝜙2 = 𝑧 2 = , this is power factor under standstill condition.
2 𝑅22 + 𝑋22

Impedance under running condition is given by 𝑍2𝑟 .

The power factor under running condition is given by
𝑅 𝑅2
∴ cos 𝜙2𝑟 = 𝑧 2 =
2𝑟 𝑅22 + 𝑠𝑋2 2

5) Effect of slip on rotor current

Let 𝐼2 = Rotor current per phase on stand still condition.
The magnitude of 𝐼2 depends on magnitude of 𝐸2 and impedance 𝑍2 per phase.
𝐸 𝐸2
𝐼2 = 𝑍2 = A
2 𝑅22 + 𝑋22

During running condition rotor impedance changes from 𝑍2 to 𝑍2𝑟 . The equivalent rotor current under
running condition is given by
𝐸 𝑠 𝐸2
𝐼2𝑟 = 𝑍2𝑟 =
2𝑟 𝑅22 + 𝑠𝑋2 2

2.11 Torque Equation :Torque produced in the induction motor depends on

1) The part of RMF which reacts with rotor i.e. flux 𝜙
2) The magnitude of rotor current in running condition i.e.𝐼2𝑟
3) The Power factor of the rotor circuit in running condition cos 𝜙2𝑟
From the above points the torque mathematically expressed as
Torque developed by three phase I.M
𝑇 𝛼 𝜙 𝐼2𝑟 cos 𝜙2𝑟 ---------1
The flux produced in the stator is proportional to 𝐸1
𝜙 𝛼 𝐸1 ---------2
The rotor induced e.m.f𝐸2 and 𝐸1 are related by transformation ration K
𝐸
∴ 𝐸1 = 𝐾 ---------3
2
From Equation 2 & 3
∴ 𝐸2 𝛼 𝜙 ---------4
Rotor current and power factor under running condition is given by
𝐼2𝑟 = 𝑠 𝐸 2 ---------5
𝑅2
2 + 𝑠𝑋 2
2

𝑅2
cos 𝜙2𝑟 = ---------6
𝑅22 + 𝑠𝑋2 2

Substituting equation 4,5 and 6 in equation 1

𝑠 𝐸2 𝑅2
𝑇𝛼 𝐸2 × ×
𝑅22 + 𝑠𝑋2 2 𝑅22 + 𝑠𝑋2 2
𝑠𝐸 2 𝑅
𝑇 ∝ 𝑅 2 + 2𝑠 𝑋2 2
2 2
𝑘 𝑠𝐸22 𝑅2
∴𝑇= ---------7
𝑅22 + 𝑠 𝑋2 2
Where ‘k’ is constant proportionality the value of ‘k’ is given by
3
𝑘 = 2𝜋𝑛 ---------8
𝑠
Using equation 8 in equation 7
𝟑 𝒔𝑬𝟐𝟐 𝑹𝟐
∴𝑻= ---------9
𝟐𝝅𝒏𝒔 𝑹𝟐𝟐 + 𝒔 𝑿𝟐 𝟐

2.11.1 Condition for maximum torque

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The Torque equation of three phase Induction motor is given by
𝑘 𝑠𝐸22 𝑅2
𝑇= ---------1
𝑅22 + 𝑠 𝑋2 2
In the above equation, it is observed that slip controls the torque, since 𝐸2 , 𝑅2 and 𝑋2 and k are constants.
According to theory of maxima, in order to obtain the condition for maximum torque differentiate the
equation 1 w.r.t slip s and equate first order derivative to zero.
𝑑𝑇
=0
𝑑𝑠
𝑑 𝑘𝑠𝐸22 𝑅2
∴ 𝑑𝑠 =0
𝑅22 + 𝑠𝑋2 2
2
𝑘𝑠𝐸22 𝑅2 ) ×2𝑠𝑋22 − 𝑘𝐸2 𝑅2 (𝑅22 + 𝑠𝑋2 2 )
∴ 2 =0
𝑅22 + 𝑠𝑋2 2
∴ 2𝑠 2 𝑋22 − 𝑅22 − 𝑠 2 𝑋22 = 0
∴ 𝑠 2 𝑋22 = 𝑅22
𝑅22
∴ 𝑠2 = 𝑋22
𝑅2
∴𝑠= 𝑋2
The above equation is slip at maximum torque and is denote by 𝑠𝑚 .
𝑅
∴ 𝑠𝑚 = 𝑋2
2
It is the ratio of standstill per phase values of resistance and reactance of rotor.
Magnitude of maximum torque is denoted by 𝑇𝑚 and is given by
𝑹𝟐
𝑘 𝑠𝑚 𝐸22 𝑅2 𝑘 𝐸22 𝑅2
𝑿𝟐
𝑇𝑚 = = 2
𝑅22 + 𝑠𝑚 𝑋2 2 𝑹𝟐
𝑅22 + 𝑋2
𝑿𝟐
𝑘𝐸22
∴ 𝑇𝑚 = N-m
2𝑋2

NOTE: From the torque equation it can be observed

1) Maximum torque is inversely proportional to rotor reactance
2) It is directly proportional to square of the induced e.m.f at standstill
3) It does not depend on the rotor resistance 𝑅2 . But slip value at which maximum torque occurs
depends on the value of rotor resistance 𝑅2 .
4) To achieve maximum torque at starting 𝑅2 = 𝑋2 , 𝑠 = 𝑠𝑚 = 1

2.11.2 Starting torque 𝑻𝒔𝒕 : At starting or at standstill the speed of rotor N=0, therefore the
corresponding slip s=1. The torque developed at the starting of Induction motor is denoted as 𝑇𝑠𝑡 .
𝒌 𝑬𝟐𝟐 𝑹𝟐 𝟑 𝑬𝟐𝟐 𝑹𝟐
𝑻𝒔𝒕 = =
𝑹𝟐𝟐 +𝑿𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝒏𝒔 𝑹𝟐𝟐 +𝑿𝟐𝟐

2.11.3 Torque ratios

a)Ratio of full load torque𝑻𝑭𝑳 to maximum torque𝑻𝒎 :
Torque developed by 3 phase Induction motor is given by
𝑠𝐸22 𝑅2
𝑇∝ ---------1
𝑅22 + 𝑠 𝑋2 2
Let 𝑇𝐹𝐿 be the full load torque, the corresponding slip is denoted by 𝑠𝑓
𝒔𝒇 𝑬𝟐𝟐 𝑹𝟐
∴ 𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑻𝑭𝑳 𝜶 𝟐 ---------2
𝑹𝟐𝟐 + 𝒔𝒇 𝑿𝟐
Let 𝑻𝒎 be the maximum torque and slip at maximum torque is denoted as 𝑠𝑚
𝒔 𝑬𝟐 𝑹
∴ 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑻𝒎 𝜶 𝑹𝟐 +𝒎𝒔 𝟐 𝑿𝟐 𝟐
---------3
𝟐 𝒎 𝟐

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Taking the ratio of 𝑇𝐹𝐿 and 𝑇𝑚
𝟐
𝑇𝐹𝐿 𝒔𝒇 𝑬𝟐𝟐 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟐𝟐 + 𝒔𝒇 𝑿𝟐 𝑠𝑓 𝑹𝟐𝟐 + 𝒔𝒎 𝑿𝟐 𝟐
∴ = = × 𝟐
𝑇𝑚 𝒔𝒎 𝑬𝟐𝟐 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟐𝟐 + 𝒔𝒎 𝑿𝟐 𝟐 𝑠𝑚 𝑹𝟐𝟐 + 𝒔𝒇 𝑿𝟐
Dividing both numerator and denominator by 𝑋22
𝑅2
2 +𝑠 2
𝑚
𝑇𝐹𝐿 𝑠𝑓 𝑋2
2
∴ = × 2
𝑇𝑚 𝑠𝑚 𝑅2
+𝑠𝑓2
𝑋2
2
𝑅
But 𝑠𝑚 = 𝑋2
2
𝑇𝐹𝐿 𝒔𝒇 ×𝟐𝒔𝟐𝒎
∴ =
𝑇𝑚 𝒔𝒎 × 𝒔𝟐𝒎 + 𝒔𝟐𝒇
𝑇𝐹𝐿 𝟐 𝒔𝒎 𝒔𝒇
∴ =
𝑇𝑚 𝒔𝟐𝒎 + 𝒔𝟐𝒇

b)Starting Torque 𝑇𝑠𝑡 to maximum torque𝑇𝑚 : Torque equation is given by

𝑠𝐸 2 𝑅
𝑇 ∝ 𝑅 2 + 2𝑠𝑋2 2
2 2
Let Let𝑇𝑠𝑡 be the starting torque and corresponding slip s=1
𝐸2 𝑅
𝑇𝑠𝑡 𝛼 𝑅 2 +2 𝑋2 2
---------1
2 2
Let 𝑇𝑚 be the maximum torque and slip at maximum torque is denoted as 𝑠𝑚
s E2 R
∴ MaximumtorqueTm α R 2 +m s 2 X2 2
---------2
2 m 2
𝑅2
2 +𝑠 2
𝑚
𝑇𝑠𝑡 𝐸22 𝑅2 𝑅22 + 𝑋2 2 𝑥2
2
Taking the ratio of = = 𝑅2
𝑇𝑚 𝑠𝑚 𝐸22 𝑅2 𝑅22 + 𝑋2 2
𝑠𝑚 22 +1
𝑋2
𝑅
Substituting 𝑋2 = 𝑠𝑚
2
𝑇𝑠𝑡 2
2𝑠𝑚 2𝑠
= 2 = 1+𝑠𝑚2
𝑇𝑚 𝑠𝑚 1+𝑠𝑚 𝑚

𝑅
NOTE:𝑋2 = 𝑠𝑚 = 𝑎
2
𝑇𝐹𝐿 𝟐 𝒂𝒔𝒇
=
𝑇𝑚 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒔𝟐𝒇
𝑇𝑠𝑡 2𝑎
= 1+𝑎 2
𝑇𝑚

2.12 Torque slip characteristics:

𝑠𝑅
𝑇 ∝ 𝑅 2 + 𝑠 2𝑋 2
2 2
Supply voltage 𝐸2 is constant
Torque of Induction motor depends on slip value. The performance of IM can be studied by plotting
Toque against slip graph called torque-slip characteristic. In order to understand the nature the torque-slip
characteristics slip range divided into low slip and high slip region.
i)Low slip region: In low slip region ‘s’ is very small , due to this 𝑠 2 𝑋22 ≪ 𝑅22 , hence 𝑠𝑋22 can be
neglected
sR
∴ T ∝ 22 ∝ s
R2
Hence in low slip region torque is directly proportional to slip. So as load increases, speed decreases,
increasing the slip. Hence the graph is straight line in nature.
At 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑠 , s=0 hence T=0. Motor stops if it tries to achieve synchronous speed.
ii) High slip region: In this region slip is high.i.e. slip value is approaching to 1, the value 𝑅22 ≪ 𝑠 2 𝑋22 , hence
𝑠𝑋22 can be neglected.

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𝑠𝑅 1
𝑇 ∝ 𝑠 2 𝑋22 ∝ 𝑠 , Where 𝑅2 and 𝑋2 are constants.
2
So in high slip region torque is inversely proportional to the slip. Hence the nature of the graph is
rectangular hyperbola.
When load increases, load demand increases but speed decreases, as speed decreases, slip
1
increases.In high slip region as ∝ 𝑠 , torque decreases. Due to extra loading effect , speed further decreases
and eventually motor come to standstill condition.
The motor cannot continue to rotate at any point in this high slip region. Hence this region is called
unstable region of operation..
So torque slip characteristics has two parts
1. Straight line called stable region of operation
2. Rectangular hyperbola called unstable region of operation.
The characteristics graph is as shown in figure 2.14 below

Figure 2.14 Torque Slip characteristics.

The motor operates safely when slip range lies between ‘0’ and 𝑠𝑚 . If the load is increased beyond
maximum torque, motor slip acts dominantly pushing motor into high slip region. Due to unstable
conditions, motor comes to standstill condition at such load. Hence 𝑇𝑚 is also called breakdown torque or
pull out torque.

2.13 Torque slip characteristics including motoring, braking and generating region:
Figure 2.15 shows the complete torque-slip characteristics showing motoring, generating and the braking
region.

Motoring Region :
In this mode of operation, the slip of an induction motor is between zero to one 0 < 𝑠 < 1 . When
the stator is supplied by electric power, the rotor rotates below synchronous speed 𝑁 < 𝑁𝑠 . And the
torque of a motor varies from zero to full-load torque as slip varies from zero to one.
During this condition, the torque is directly proportional to the slip. Generally, the induction motor
operates in this region. The slip is zero at synchronous speed and the slip is one at standstill condition.

Generating Region;
In generating mode of operation, the induction motor runs above the synchronous speed 𝑁 > 𝑁𝑆 ,
slip is negative and it behaves as an induction generator. The speed of a motor increases above
synchronous speed with the help of external devices like a prime mover.

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During generating region, the slip and torque both are negative. Hence, the machines receive
mechanical energy and deliver electrical energy. During the generating region, the motor requires to
supply reactive electric power.

Figure 2.15
Braking Region:
In the braking region, the polarity of supply voltage is changed. Hence, the motor rotates in a
reverse direction. This mode is used to stop the motor. This method of electrical braking is known as
plugging. During braking mode, the slip is greater than one 𝑠 ≥ 1 .
By this method, the motor stops within a short time. But the kinetic energy stored in the load is
dissipated as heat. Therefore, during the breaking, a very high amount of heat is generated. And also, if the
stator is connected with the supply, it is also generated as heat. Hence, it is contained to disconnect the
supply from the stator before entering the braking mode.

2.14 Effect of rotor resistance on torque slip characteristics

In slip ring Induction motor , externally resistance can be added in the rotor. The added resistance will
change the torque slip characteristics.
Let𝑅2 = Rotor resistance per phase.
𝑠𝐸 2 𝑅
Corresponding torque, 𝑇 ∝ 𝑅 2 + 2𝑠𝑋2 2
2 2
Let 𝑅2′ = New rotor resistance per phase
𝑠𝐸22 𝑅2′
Corresponding torque , 𝑇 ′ ∝ 2
𝑅2′
+ 𝑠𝑋2 2
Similarly at starting s=1 for 𝑅2 and 𝑅2′ can be written
as
𝐸2 𝑅 𝐸22 𝑅2′
𝑇𝑠𝑡 ∝ 𝑅 22+𝑋22 and 𝑇𝑠𝑡′ ∝ 2
2 2 𝑅2′ +𝑋22
𝐸22
Maximum torque 𝑇𝑚 ∝ 2𝑋
2
𝑅
For 𝑅2 slip at which 𝑇𝑚 occurs 𝑠𝑚 = 𝑋2 Figure 2.16 T vs Slip
2
𝑅2′
For 𝑅2′ slip at which 𝑇𝑚 occurs 𝑠𝑚
′
=𝑋
2
From the above equations it is clear that full load torque and starting torques are affected by the change in
the resistance values but Maximum torque is not affected by any changes in the external resistance.
Slip at which maximum torque occurs is directly proportional to resistance value. So corresponding slip
value at which maximum torque occurs also changes as the resistance changes.

As 𝑅2′ > 𝑅2 the slip 𝑠𝑚 ′

> 𝑠𝑚 , due to this new torque slip characteristics for 𝑅2′ parallel to 𝑅2 with same
′
𝑇𝑚 but occurring at 𝑠𝑚 . The torque slip characteristics are shown in the figure 2.16

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2.15 Speed Torque characteristics:
To compare the performance of induction motor with d.c. shunt and series motors, it is possible to
plot speed-torque curve of an induction motor.
At N = 𝑁𝑠 , the motor stops as it can not produce any
torque, as induction motor can not rotate at synchronous motor. At
N = 0, the starting condition, motor produces a torque called
starting torque.
For low slip region, i.e. speeds near the synchronous
speed 𝑁𝑠 , region is stable and the characteristics are straight in
nature. Fall in speed from no load to full load is about 4 to 6 %.
The characteristics are shown in the Figure 2.17. It can be seen
from that the figure that for the stable region of operation, the
characteristics is similar to that of d.c. shunt motor. Due to this,
three phase induction motor is practically said to be ‘constant
speed’ motor as drop in speed from no load to full load is not
significant. The unstable region of operation is shown dotted in the
Figure 2.17 Speed vs Torque

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