Ichtiology Applied

MSCZO-607
Fish and Fisheries (Applied

Ichthyology)
M. Sc. IV Semester
PLANT DEVELOPMENT
DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY
SCHOOL OF SCIENCES
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY
Fish and Fisheries (Applied Ichthyology)
(MSCZO-607)
DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY
SCHOOL OF SCIENCES
Phone No. 05946-261122, 261123
Toll free No. 18001804025
Fax No. 05946-264232, E. mail [email protected]
htpp://uou.ac.in
MEMBER OF THE BOARD OF STUDIES& PROGRAMME COORDINATOR
Dr. Neera Kapoor Dr. A. K. Dobriyal

Professor & Head Professor & Head
Department of Zoology, Department of Zoology
School of Sciences BGR Campus Pauri
IGNOU Maidan Garhi, New Delhi HNB Srinagar Garhwal
Dr. S. P. S. Bisht Dr. Shyam S. Kunjwal

Professor, & Head Assistant Professor
Department of Zoology, Department of Zoology,
DSB Campus Uttarakhand Open University
Kumaun University Nainital Haldwani, Nainital.
Dr. Mukta Joshi

Assistant Professor
Department of Zoology,
Uttarakhand Open University
Haldwani, Nainital.
PROGRAMME COORDINATOR
Dr. Pravesh Kumar Sehgal

Associate Professor
Department of Zoology, School of Sciences,
Haldwani, Nainital
EDITOR
EDITOR
Dr. H. C. S. Bisht
Professor
Department of Zoology
D. S. B. Campus,
Kumaun University,
Nainital
UNIT WRITERS
Dr. Deepali Rana(Unit No:1, 3, 4 ) Dr. Shyam S. Kunjwal (Unit No. 8)

Assistant Professor Assistant Professor
Department of Zoology, Department of Zoology,
Dolphin P.G. Institute, Dehradun Uttarakhand Open University
Haldwani, Nainital.
Dr. Mukta Joshi (Unit No. 2, and 7)

Assistant Professor
Department of Zoology, Dr. Poonam Tripathi (Unit No. 9, 10)
Assistant Professor
Haldwani, Nainital.
M. B. P. G. College
Haldwani
Dr. Smita Badola (Unit No. 5, 6)
Professor
Department of Zoology
P. L. S. M. Post Graduate College, Rishikesh
Shri Dev Suman University
Course Title and Code : Fish and Fisheries (Applied Ichthyology)

MSCZO 607
ISBN :
Copyright : Uttarakhand Open University
Edition : 2023
Published By : Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani,
Nainital- 263139
Contents
Course I: Fish and Fisheries (Applied Ichthyology)

Course code: (MSCZO-607) Credit: 3
Unit Block and Unit title Page

Number Number
Block I: General Fishery Management
Unit : 1 General fishery resource in India and Uttarakhand: Objectives, Introduction, 1-29
Resources, Riverine fisheries, Regulation and exploitation, Improvement of
fish stocks, River pollution, Dams, their effect on fish migration and remedial
measures, Lacustrine fishery: management, development and exploitation,
Cold water fishery: management, development and exploitation, Estuarine
fisheries: management, development and exploitation, Marine fishery:
exploitation of marine fishery resources of India, Summary
Unit : 2 Fish growth and Age: Objectives, Introduction, Factors responsible for 30-44
growth, Age and growth relationship, Natural fish food organism & their
role in fish growth: Plankton, Benthos, Summary
Unit : 3 Fish Breeding and Spawning: Objectives, Introduction, Factors responsible 45-80
for induced breeding, Hypophysation, Use of different synthetic and natural
hormones, their formulation and Mechanism of action, Bundh breeding,
Hapa breeding, Hatchery management, Flow through hatchery for Mahseer
and Trout, Ploidy induction, Production of monosex population,
Hybridization, Cryo-preservation of gametes and embryo, Transgenic fish
Summary
Unit : 4 Fish culture systems and management: Objectives, Introduction, Ponds and 81-112
pond ecology, Fish farm: construction and lay out of different types of ponds
Different types of culture system, Cultivable indigenous & exotic fishes,

Pond management: Water, soil, manuring and liming, Manuring (organic and
inorganic) and liming, Concept of Composite fish farming and polyculture,
Summary
Unit : 5 Inland fishing gears and fishing methods: Objectives, Introduction, 113-144
Biological factors in fishing, Types of fishing gears, Natural and synthetic
fibers, Preparation and maintenance of fishing nets, Different fishing method
Summary
Block II: Aquaculture Practices
Unit : 6 Cold water aquaculture and its scope in Uttarakhand: Introduction, Scope of 145-168
aquaculture for sustainable livelihood, Aquaculture of cold water fishes,
Polyculture of carps, Sewage feed fisheries, Summary
Unit : 7 Exotic fishes and their role in fish farming: Introduction, Exotic fishes for 169-180
aquaculture, Trout farming in uplands and culture of common carp, Summary
Unit: 8 Larvivorous fishes and their culture: Introduction, Larvivorous fishes, 181-207
Indigenous, Exotic, Culture of larvivorous fishes, Use of larvivorous fishes
for biological control, Summary
Unit 9 Integrated Aquaculture: Introduction, Concept of integrated fish farming, 208-227

Different practices of integrated fish farming, Fish-cum-poultry, Fish-cum-
duckery, Fish-cum-piggery, Fish-cum-Horticulture, Paddy-cum-fish culture
Economic and biological importance of integrated fish culture
Unit 10 Fish nutrition and pathology: Introduction, Nutritional requirement of fish, 228-280
Feed and feed formulation, Different type of feed, Artificial feeding, Feeding
devices, Fish diseases and their control, Different fish pathogens: Viral,
Bacterial, Fungal and Parasitic, Different fish diseases: Pathogenic,
Nutritional, Parasitic and Environmental, Prophylactic measures to control
fish diseases, Summary
MSCZO 607 Fish and Fisheries (Applied Ichthyology)
UNIT 1: GENERAL FISHERY RESOURCE IN INDIA

AND UTTARAKHAND
CONTENTS
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Resources
1.3.1 Riverine fisheries
1.3.2 Regulation and exploitation
1.3.3 Improvement of fish stocks
1.3.4 River pollution
1.3.5 Dams, their effect on fish migration and remedial measures
1.4 Lacustrine fishery: management, development and exploitation
1.5 Cold water fishery: management, development and exploitation
1.6 Estuarine fisheries: management, development and exploitation
1.7 Marine fishery: exploitation of marine fishery resources of India
1.8 Summary
1.9 Terminal Questions and Answers
1.10 References
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1.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this module, you shall be able to learn and understand:
i. Basic concept of Fishery Resources
ii. Riverine fisheries, their regulation and exploitation
iii. Improvement of fish stocks
iv. River pollution and dams
v. Lacustrine, Cold water, Estuarine and Marine fishery management, development and
exploitation
1.2 INTRODUCTION
India is a South Asian nation bordered on both side by Pakistan and Burma. It is located
in between the Himalayas in the North and the Indian Ocean in the South. India has a total area
of 3287728 km2 and is a federal country. India is a diverse country. The region's climate ranges
from mild in the North to hot and humid in the South. There are high mountains, broad alluvial
plains, riverine marshes, plateaus, deserts, coastal plains, and deltas in the terrain. The
Himalayas, the Indo Gangetic plains, the Vindhyas, the Satpuras, the Western Ghats, the Eastern
Ghats, coastal plains, deltas, and riverine wetlands are the key physiographic divisions. The
nation's inland fishing resources include rivers, canals, tanks, ponds, estuaries, brackish water
lakes, backwaters, floodplain lakes (oxbow lakes), etc. While inland water bodies are frequently
utilized for both culture and capture fisheries, marine water bodies are mostly employed for this
purpose. India's inland catch fisheries play a significant role in the country's fish production,
making up around 30% of the total. A prosperous catch fishery has a lot of promise.
1.3 RESOURCES
With a total water surface area of 3, 14,400 square kilometers, 8129 kilometers of
coastline, 0.5 million kilometers of continental shelf, and 2.02 million kilometers of exclusive
economic zone, India has an abundance of rivers, streams, wetlands, lakes, and other bodies of
water, as well as an average annual rainfall of 1,100 millimeters. The states of Uttar Pradesh,
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Jammu and Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamil
Nadu have the majority of the river sections and canals. The states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,
Maharashtra, Orissa, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan
contain the majority of the reservoir areas. The states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, West
Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Orissa have the highest concentration of tanks and
ponds.
In Kerala, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, and Assam, a sizable portion of the land is covered by
lakes and abandoned water bodies on flood plains. The maritime states of Orissa, Kerala, West
Bengal, Gujarat, Goa, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu, as well as the union territory of the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, are particularly rich in brackish water areas. Orissa is determined
to have the most total area under water bodies (apart from rivers and canals), followed in order
by Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, etc. Many wetlands are also shared with neighbouring
nations, like in the cases of the Ladakh and Sunder bans. The Ganges, Brahmaputra, Narmada,
Tapti, Godavari, Krishna, and Cauvery are the country's principal river basins. Inland fisheries
resources Rivers, floodplains, estuaries, mangroves, reservoirs, and ponds are just a few of
India's abundant and diversified inland fishing resources.
Inland fisheries in India are divided into three categories: capture fisheries in rivers,
estuaries, lakes, reservoirs, etc.; freshwater aquaculture, which includes the pond culture of carp;
brackish water aquaculture, which mostly involves shrimp culture. There are numerous rivers
throughout the nation, totaling 45,000 km in length. These rivers are part of 113 river basins with
a 3.12 million km2 catchment area. There is a substantial network of perennial rivers, each of
which is distinguished by very large seasonal variations in their discharge due to seasonal rainfall
and prolonged dry periods.
1.3.1 RIVERINE FISHERIES
In riverine fisheries, a type of inland fishing, fish are harvested straight from the many
river systems. For this, scientifically constructed boats and fishing equipment are employed. The
huge number of fertile river systems in India contributes to the country's thriving riverine
fisheries. The Ganges, Brahmaputra, Indus, peninsular East coast (which includes the
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Mahanandi, Godavari, Krishna, and Cauvery), and the West Coast make up the majority of
India's river systems (which includes basins of the Narmada and Tapti west of Western ghat).
India's largest river system is the Ganga River System. The Ganges is a perennial river that
originates in the Gangotri region of the Himalayas and finally joins the Bay of Bengal after
passing through the states of West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar. The principal tributaries of
the Yamuna include the rivers Chambal, Betwa, and Ken, as well as the Tons and Song,
Ramganga, Gomati, Ghaghra, Gandak, Kosi, and Yamuna. All leads to a catchment area of about
9.72 lakh sq. km. Cirrhinus mrigala, Labeo rohita, Labeo calbasu, Mystus aor, Mystus
seenghala, Wallago attu, Hilsa ilisha, and several other diverse species are the main carps of this
river system.
 The Brahmaputra River System:
This river system originates from a glacier mass at Mansarowar Lake and travels through
Bangladesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Tibet (where it is known as Ptsango), Tibet, and Assam before
joining the Ganga at Goalundo. The Brahmaputra and the Ganga combine to produce the Padma,
which flows into the Bay of Bengal via the Meghna estuary. Many of its tributaries originate in
Assam, and the system as a whole has a catchment area of about 2,900 square kilometers.
Although it is uncertain how much commercial fish are produced by this river system, some
important fish species include Labeo gonius, Wallago attu, Puntius sarana, and Notopterus
notopterus.
 The Indus River System:
The Indus River originates in Tibet and travels through that country before entering
Kashmir, some 100 kilometers north of Mansarowar. It goes south after travelling of these 800
kilometers and enters the Ladakh range. It enters Pakistan through Kashmir. It has five tributaries
on its left bank: the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej. It is impossible to estimate how
much economic produce comes from this river system.
The East Coast System:
It consists of four significant rivers. Godavari begins in the Northern Western Ghat's
Deolali Hills and empties into the Bay of Bengal. Its whole catchment area is 315 980 square
kilometers. River Krishna has its source in the Western Ghat, flows south of Poona, and empties
into the sea at its delta. Its catchment area is around 233,229 square kilometers. The Brahmagin
Hills on the Western Ghat are the source of the Cauvery River, which flows southeast before
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emptying into the Bay of Bengal in Tamil Nadu. The main fishes of Godavari and Krishna are
Labeo fimbriatus, Cirrhinus mrigala, Labeo calbasu, Catla catla, Mystus aor, Mystus seenghala,
Silomia childreni, Pangasius pangasius, Wallago attu, Hilsa ilisha etc. Cauvery has some special
features in fish fauna. It consists of Acrossocheilus hexagonelopis, Tor putitora, Barbus
carnaticus, Barbus dubias, Labeo kontius, Labeo oriza, Osteochilus brevidorsalis, Osteochilus
nashi etc.
The Western Coast River System:
The Narmada and Tapti rivers are its two most significant rivers. The Narmada River
rises in the Amarkantak Hills of Madhya Pradesh and flows through Gujarat state before ending
in the Gulf of Cambay. About 94,235 square kilometers make up the catchment area. The
majority of the fish that are produced in this river are Tor tor. Additionally to this, there are other
species like Labeo fimbriatus, Labeo calbasu, Cirrhinus mrigala, Puntius sarana, Cirrhinus
reba, Rita pavimentata, Mystus seenghala, Clupisoma garua, Ompak bimaculatus, Notopterus
notopterus, etc. River Tapti originates on Mount Vindhya and flows through Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, and Gujarat before joining the Arabian Sea in Dumas, which is close to Surat. Its
catchment area is approximately 48,000 square kilometers. Fishes are Tor tor, Labeo fimbriatus,
Labeo calbasu, Labeo bata, Labeo boggut, Mystus aor, Mystus seenghala etc.
1.3.2 REGULATION AND EXPLOITATION
A new and specialized subject of law is fisheries law. The study and examination of
various methods for fisheries management, such as catch sharing, is known as "fisheries law."As
an illustration, consider TURFs (Terrestrial Use Rights for Fishing) with individual
transferable quotas. To create policy directives that promote sustainability and legal
enforcement, it is crucial to research fisheries law. There is a dearth of advocacy and research in
this particular legal area because it is rarely taught in law schools around the world. In order to
assess fisheries management regulations, fishing law also considers international treaties and
business principles. Additionally, access to justice for small-scale fishermen, coastal
communities, and indigenous peoples as well as labour concerns such child labour laws,
employment law and family law. Laws and regulations pertaining to aquaculture are also covered
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in the study of fisheries. Fish and aquatic plants are farmed as part of aquaculture, commonly
referred to as aqua-farming.
Regulations and specifications for animal feed are included in this body of study. To
reduce threats to human health and safety, it is crucial to manage the diet that fish are given.
Aquaculture and fishing are significant economic natural resources in India that, since time
immemorial, have fed millions of people there. As with any other industry that supports a
practice's safety, health, and sustainability, laws and regulations are essential in the fishing
sector. Let's examine the main conservation laws and rules that apply to Indian fisheries.
 Historic laws and regulations
1. British Era Fisheries Act (1897): For the first time, this law was formulated in the year
1897 with the view to prevent unhealthy practice of killing fish the thence times. Chiefly, this
law penalized the killing of fish by use of poison and explosives. It is quite clear that
poisoning fish or killing them with explosives will be unhealthy for consumption and will
ruin the future of fish in affected areas.
2. Wildlife Protection Act (1972): Due to agriculture, urbanization and industry, wildlife
habitats were lost or severely degraded. This law was written to help protect wildlife and
their habitats by providing conservation programs. Local and international laws related to the
trade of wild animals and setting up of law enforcement type agencies helped to enforce
laws.
3. Water Prevention and Control of Pollution Act
(1974):This law was established in 1974 with the intention of preventing industrial, agricultu
ral, and domestic sources from contaminating waterways. The main goals were to prevent an
d
regulate pollution, rehabilitate water bodies, track pollution levels, and hold polluters
accountable.
4. The 1986 Environment Protection Act:
This act, which was passed in the wake of the Bhopal Gas Tragedy, established a framework for
cooperation between municipal, state, and federal agencies in order to safeguard the environment
and reduce risks to people and other living things.
Current Laws and Regulations
• The federal government and state governments share the duty of passing legislation.
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• States may also create laws governing fisheries and the pollution of streams and
waterways in addition to the historical laws.
• The National Fisheries Development Board was established by the Indian government
in 2006 and focuses on a variety of fisheries related activities and problems, including
aquaculture in ponds and tanks, fisheries development in reservoirs, coastal aquaculture, deep
sea fishing, tuna processing, and other fisheries-related activities.
• The Indian Fisheries Act, 1897, or ACT NO. 4 of 1897, was passed on February 4, 1897,
and it addressed a number of fisheries related issues.
1.3.3 IMPROVEMENT OF FISH STOCKS

 Sustainable Fisheries Management
The improvement of fish output has a lot of room to grow in the inland open water sector
without jeopardizing the aquatic ecosystems ecological and biological integrity. The most crucial
environmentally friendly method for producing fish from inland waterways on a sustainable
basis is stock enhancement/culture-based fishing. Cage and pen enclosure culture is a productive
method for growing seeds and rearing table fish. Another crucial management strategy for river
fisheries is the preservation of fish diversity and the rehabilitation of fish habitat.
• Wetlands and reservoirs fisheries management:

The basic management steps for sustainable enhancement of reservoir and wetlands include
stock enhancement, culture-based fisheries and enclosure culture.
1. Stock enhancement in medium and large reservoir:
Stocking of quickly expanding, commercially significant species like Indian big carps has
been shown to be an effective management method for increasing fish productivity. Natural fish
stocks of economically important fish species have been diminished in open water bodies where
riverine connection has been lost due to the building of embankments and siltation due to the
disruption of the auto-stocking process from the main rivers. In such circumstances, it is
discovered that stocking with fingerlings of the necessary fish species is useful for enhancing
their fish yield. The primary goal of stock improvement is to increase fish populations that self-
recruit.
2. Culture-based fisheries in small reservoirs and wetlands:
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When the recruitment of targeted species is less than the carrying capacity, the primary
goal of culture-based fisheries is to improve the fish production. Fish growth and survival in
culture-based fisheries are influenced by stocking density and fish size, respectively. Stocking at
the proper size and period, stocking density, fishing effort, size at capture (species dependant),
species choice, and fishing gear can all contribute to the success of culture-based fisheries. Over
the years, ICAR - CIFRI has supported reservoir fisheries management technologically in 21
states, which has led to a marked rise in average reservoir fish output across the nation. The
average fish output of 2300 reservoirs increased as a result of stocking from 20 kg/ha/year to 110
kg/ha/year. Production levels of 1000-1500kg/ha/year have been demonstrated in beels in many
parts of West Bengal.
3. Enclosure culture (pen and cage culture):
Through the maintenance of free water exchange, culture fish are raised in confinement in an
enclosure to raise fish seed and grow fish to marketable size. Table-sized fish can be produced in
good quantities in cages (Fig. 1) and pens (Fig. 2), enhancing the productivity of wetlands and
reservoirs). A practical and economical solution for improving fisheries in wetlands and
reservoirs is in situ seed growing in an enclosure. Technologies created for cage culture have
been successfully used in other reservoirs across the nation. Currently, there are 20,000 cages
operating in 20 different Indian State reservoirs, which is a significant quantity.
Fig. 1 Layout of a cage culture
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Fig. 2 Layout of a pen culture
1.3.4 RIVER POLLUTION
 Causes of River Pollution

The two main categories of river contaminants are naturally occurring pathogens and
synthetic chemicals. In essence, germs are a variety of disease causing organisms, dead corpses,
etc. Unconcerned people discard a variety of carcasses into the rivers. This might contaminate
rivers. Faeces and sewage are freely being dumped into the water. Infectious disorders that affect
both aquatic and terrestrial life are frequently caused by microbial contaminants from sewage.
Pollutants released from numerous companies, industries, etc. include harmful chemicals. Before
being released into the rivers, these wastes are not appropriately handled, which causes river
pollution.
 Most Polluted Rivers in India
Ganga, Yamuna, and Sabarmati are among the most polluted rivers in India, according to
a survey. Some of the most advanced cities in the nation are located along these riverbanks. They
have proven to be the most heavily contaminated rivers due to a lack of an effective disposal
9
mechanism. Domestic garbage is primarily to blame for the contamination of the Ganga river.
This "holy river" is used for a variety of religious rituals. Mass bathing and rituals play a
significant role in pollution. Additionally, the home and agricultural wastes are a significant
cause of worry. However, industrial waste is primarily thrown into the Yamuna River. It
becomes contaminated in Haryana by pesticides and agricultural trash. However, it transforms
into a commercial waste disposal drain once it reaches Delhi. The Taj Mahal was even
constructed by the Mughals on the banks of the Yamuna River because it was once thought to be
so pure. However, the situation has changed since then. Even though there are only two
examples shown here, other Indian rivers face a similar situation. River contamination is
becoming more and more hazardous with time. We might not have access to any sources of
drinking water if this keeps happening.
 Harmful Effects of Water Pollution
The repercussions of water contamination are numerous. However, the creatures and
vegetation that live in these rivers will be affected most immediately. The surface water is
covered in dangerous contaminants, making it difficult for aquatic life to breathe. The marine
animals that die as a result cause a disruption in the natural food chain. The contamination of
rivers has significant effects on people as well. It causes a decline in fresh water supply for
drinking. Consumption of dirty water can cause a number of fatal diseases, including cancer.
One of the fundamental requirements for maintaining life on this planet is potable water. The
human race will vanish if it disappears. The environment is harmed by river pollution. The
ecology around us is harmed by it.
 How to Prevent from River Pollution?
It hasbeen suggested that prevention is preferable to treatment. It is a very appropriate comment.
Our river bodies have been damaged in numerous ways. River pollution can be avoided in a
number of ways.
1. To start, it is crucial to inform people about the problem.
2. Next, a suitable sewage disposal system needs to be built
upon. The handling of garbage properly is crucial in today's society. Before dumping industrial
trash into rivers, it should be treated properly.
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3. River contamination should be addressed with tight regulations. Furthermore, regulations must
befollowed.Every type of civilisation depends on rivers. For the survival and advancement of t
he human
species, it is crucial.
1.3.5 DAMS, THEIR EFFECT ON FISH MIGRATION AND

REMEDIAL MEASURES
The quality of any aquatic habitat, which supports all of their biological functions, have
a significant impact on fish populations. For the key stages of their life cycles—reproduction,
juvenile production, growth, and sexual maturation migratory fish need various settings
The reproduction of anadromous species occurs in freshwater, whereas catadromous
species migrate to the sea for breeding and back to freshwater for trophic reasons. Diadromous
species spend part of their life cycle in freshwater and part of it in seawater. It is also necessary
to take into account the movement of potamodromous species, whose full life cycle is completed
within the inland waters of a river system.
The building of a dam (Fig. 3) on a river can impede or delay upstream fish migration, which in
turn causes species that depend on longitudinal migrations along the stream continuum during
specific stages of their life cycles to diminish or perhaps become extinct. Fish migration
downstream can result in severe mortality if they cross over spillways or hydraulic turbines.
Experience has taught us that issues with downstream migration can also have a significant
impact on the stocks of anadromous or catadromous fish.
Significant problems include habitat loss or modification, discharge adjustments, changes in
water temperature and quality, increased predation pressure, and migration delays brought on by
dams.
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Fig. 3 Layout of a dam
Diverse fish ways, such as fish lifts or locks, collecting and transportation facilities, fish
passes, natural bypass channels, pool- type fish passes, and fish lifts or locks, can be used to
allow anadromous and potamodromous species to pass barriers upstream. Only a few unique
designs, specifically for eels, have been created in Europe, Japan, New Zealand, and Australia
for catadromous species. The position of the fish pass entrance and the attraction flow, which
must take into consideration river discharge during the migratory period and the behaviour of the
target species in relation to the flow pattern at the foot of the dam, are the key design elements
for upstream fish passage.
Some locations could need several entry and fish passes. The issues related to
downstream migration have not been as thoroughly researched or thought through as those
related to upstream migration. Physical screens, angled bar racks, and louvers connected to
surface bypasses are the most used downstream passage solutions to keep fish away from
turbines. The effectiveness of behavioural guidance devices (attraction or repulsion by lights,
sound, or electricity) has not been established, and they are still regarded as experimental. The
usage of fish facilities at dams around the world is reviewed in a non-exhaustive manner, with
the primary target species from North America, Western Europe, Eastern Europe, Latin America,
Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, and Asia.
The most frequent reasons for fish pass failure include a lack of attraction flow, an
inappropriate entrance position, poor maintenance, and hydraulic conditions (target species-
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inappropriate flow patterns, velocities, turbulence, and aeration levels) in the fish pass. Only a
few anadromous species, such as salmonids (such as Atlantic and Pacific salmon, sea-run trout)
and clupeids (such as American and Allis shad, alewives, and blueback herring) in North
America and Europe, can be deemed to have well-developed upstream transit mechanisms.
Better biological data, including information on migration times, swimming abilities, and
migratory behaviour, are urgently needed, as is study on fish passage (both upstream and
downstream) for other native species. A fish pass's effectiveness is determined qualitatively by
determining whether it can permit passage of all target species within the parameters of
environmental variables noted throughout the migratory period. Inspections and checks, such as
visual inspection, traps, and video checks, can be used to gauge effectiveness. A fish pass's
efficiency provides a more precise assessment of its performance. It can be described as the
percentage of stock that is present at the dam that successfully enters and moves through the fish
pass in a period of time that is deemed appropriate. The techniques for determining a pass's
efficacy are simpler than those for efficiency. To evaluate the overall effectiveness of fish
passages and the cumulative impact of several dams along a migration path, marking and
telemetry are useful tools.
It is necessary to establish the targeted efficacy for a certain site in relation to the desired
biological goals. As a result, it depends on the species under consideration, the quantity of
obstacles in the river, and the location of the impediments along the path of migration. It must
not be an excuse to do nothing at a dam that nearly no one knows anything about migratory
species, particularly in poor nations. The fish passes must be made to be as versatile and
adaptable as feasible in the absence of solid knowledge about the species. When pursuing a
variety of migratory species, some fish passes—like vertical slot passes with succeeding pools—
are better suited than others. Installing fish passage monitoring equipment is necessary. The fish
pass will be able to be evaluated, thanks to this monitoring procedure, and the input gathered
may be helpful for other fish pass initiatives in the same regional context. When there are several
species with poorly understood varied swimming skills, migratory behaviour, and population
size near high dams, it is better to focus mitigation efforts on the lower portion of the fish pass at
first, which entails building and optimizing the fish collection system including the entrance, the
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complementary attraction flow and a holding pool which can be used to capture fish to
subsequently transport them upstream, at least in an initial stage.
Designing a fish pass requires an interdisciplinary approach. Managers, biologists, and

engineers must collaborate closely. Facilities for fish passage must be systematically assessed. It
is important to keep in mind that the fish pass technique is empirical in the truest sense of the
word, meaning it is based on feedback from experience. The most significant advancements in
fish passage technology have been accomplished in nations that routinely evaluate the efficacy of
the passes and where it is required to report monitoring results. The efficiency of fish passes has
its bounds, which must always be kept in mind. Indirect consequences of dams, such as changes
in flow, water quality, and an increase in predation, may prove to be quite significant in addition
to issues with fish passage at obstructions and drastic changes to the habitat upstream or
downstream. The protection of migratory species for a given dam must be studied in a much
wider context than the strict respect of fish passage alone.
 FISH MIGRATION
The qualities of the aquatic habitat, which supports all of their biological functions, have
a significant impact on fish populations. Migratory fish are particularly prone to this reliance
because they need various settings to complete the four main stages of their life cycle—
reproduction, juvenile production, development, and sexual maturation.
To live, the species must transit from one environment to another.
Fish are now typically categorised based on how well they can adapt to different salinities of
water at different points in their life cycles.
 The potamodromous species' whole life cycle takes place in a river system's freshwater.
The distances separating the reproduction and feeding zones can range from a few metres
to hundreds of kilometers.
 The diadromous species' life cycle occurs in both fresh and salt water, with up to several
thousand kilometres separating the reproduction zone from the feeding zone.
Between the reproduction zone and the feeding zone, which can be up to several
thousand kilometres apart, the diadromous species' life cycle is divided between fresh and
marine waters.
14
Fig. 4 Different types of Fish Migration

Anadromous species, like salmon, are those species growth phase occurs in the sea after
a freshwater stage of reproduction. The objective of migration back to freshwater is to breed.
Catadromous organisms, like eels, have a life cycle that is reversed. Migration to the sea is for
spawning, while migration back to freshwater is for trophic colonization. Compared to
anadromy, catadromy is far less frequent. Anadromous species are able to distinguish their home
river basin and reliably return there to give birth. Homing, a phenomenon where people return to
their natal river, is primarily dependent on the ability to smell streams. As a result, each river
basin has its own stock, which is a distinct entity. Amphidromous animals, like the striped
mullet, spend a portion of their life cycle in both freshwater and saltwater. Their travel is
typically linked to the search for food and/or shelter rather than the purpose of breeding. There
are approximately 120 species of fish that routinely transition between freshwater and saltwater,
out of a total of about 8,000 freshwater species and 12,000 marine species.
Effect of dams on fish communities
The construction of a dam typically has a significant effect on fish populations.
Migrations and other fish movements may be halted or delayed, and the habitat, which is crucial
to the sustainability of population growth, may change in terms of quality, quantity, and
accessibility.
15
Fish passing through hydraulic turbines or over spillways can sustain severe injury. Fish
species may also be indirectly impacted by modifications to the water quality or discharge
schedule. Dams are also associated with increased upstream and downstream predation on
migratory fish because they delay and concentrate the fish and improve the habitat for some
predatory species.
 Upstream Migration
1. The reduction of anadromous species is one of the main effects of dam construction on
fish populations.
2. Migration between the breeding and feeding zones is stopped by the dam.
3. When there are no spawning grounds in the river or tributary downstream of the dam, the
effect can grow severe and result in the extinction of species.
4. The idea of impeding migration is frequently connected to the height of the dam.
5. However, even small weirs can be a significant barrier to upstream migration.
6. The hydraulic conditions over and at the foot of the obstruction (velocity, depth of the
water, aeration, turbulence, etc.) in connection to the swimming and leaping abilities of
the species in question determine whether an obstacle may be traversed or not.
The ability to swim and leap depends on the species, the size of the individual, their
physiological state, and elements affecting the quality of the water, such as temperature and
dissolved oxygen. When migrating upstream, some catadromous species have a special ability to
overcome obstacles. Some species, like gobies, have enlarged fins and suckers that allow them to
cling to the substrate and climb around the edge of waterfalls and rapids. Young eels can also
climb through brush or over grassy slopes if they are kept completely wet. A total blockage, or
one that is permanently impenetrable for every member of a target species, is possible. It might
be partial, or at least acceptable to certain people. It might just be ephemeral, i.e., navigable
during specific seasons (under certain hydrological or temperature conditions). Weirs may be
impossible to cross during low flow circumstances because the water depth on the face is too
shallow for fish to be able to swim. However, if water depth rises and the structure's overall fall
lessens, they can become accessible at a higher discharge rate. The harm that temporary barriers
do to fish, delaying their migration and maybe forcing them to stay in unsuitable areas in the
river's lower reaches or even injuring them, as a result of repeated, fruitless attempts to pass,
must not be underestimated.
16
 Downstream Migration
1. Engineers and fishery biologists were focused on building upstream fish passage
facilities during the early stages of the dam's construction.
2. It was not thought that passage via hydraulic turbines and over spillways was a
particularly significant factor in fish migration damage upstream.
3. Experience has taught us that issues with downstream migration can have a
significant impact on diadromous fish stocks.
Diadromous species, including certain anadromous species, adults of catadromous
species, and juveniles of anadromous species, migrate downstream (repeat
spawners).
In Europe and North America, downstream fish passage at hydroelectric power dams is
typically viewed as less necessary for potamodromous species. The necessity for
mitigation to facilitate passage for potamodromous fish must be evaluated species- and
site- specific because some potamodromous species can travel over very large distances.
 Delays in Migration
1. Fish downstream migration timing may be impacted by impoundments.
2. When river flows are low in the Columbia basin, young Chinook salmon arrive at
the estuary roughly 40 days later than they did before the dams were built. This is
because river flows have been impounded by dams, more than doubling the time n
eeded for juvenile salmon to migrate to the sea.
3. By exposing fish to intense predation, nitrogen supersaturation, and a number of
other dangers like exposure to disease organisms and parasites, such delays can
have a pretty significant effect.
4. A considerable fraction of the juvenile population may residualize and spend
several months in fresh water as a result of the delay.
 Loss of Habitat
Dam construction is dramatically affected by migratory fish habitat. The consequences of river
impoundment are the transformation of lotic environment to lentic habitats. Independent of free
passage problems, species which spawn in relatively fast flowing reaches can be eliminated.
Water levels and speeds may fluctuate due to electricity demand, which could be devastating for
17
fish. For example, spawning behaviour may be hindered, immature fish may be washed away by
rapid flows, and flow rates may suddenly drop which could leave eggs or juveniles stranded.
1.4 LACUSTRINE FISHERY: MANAGEMENT, DEVELOPMENT

AND EXPLOITATION
Reservoirs are artificial lakes formed by damming rivers to hold water for irrigation,
electricity production, flood control, and industrial water requirements. Since independence,
many river valley projects have been ordered as a part of our development efforts, creating a
series of these artificial impoundments. These water sheets are one of the most significant
resources for the development of inland fisheries in the nation because of their immense size and
strong biogenic output capacity.
A recent study by the Indian Institute of Management, Ahmadabad, found that the 975
reservoirs, ranging in size from 1000 to 10000 ha, covered an area of 1m ha. The national
average production rate from Indian reservoirs is currently dismally low, with estimates ranging
from 6 to 14 kg per hectare per year. This opens up this industry to enormous potential for
growth and necessitates a quickening of efforts to raise productivity. According to estimates, the
development of reservoir fisheries has the potential to increase national income by about Rs. 100
crores annually and to employ thousands of fishermen and people working in related businesses
The lack of scientific management approaches as a result of inadequate understanding of the
ecology and production functions of this biotope is mostly to blame for the low fish output from
reservoirs.
The Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute's (CIFRI) research over the past four
decades has essentially created the groundwork for India's notion of scientific reservoir fisheries
management. A man-made habitat without comparison in nature is the reservoir. It demonstrates
both lentic and fluviatile traits, as well as some distinctive qualities of its own. The reservoir
fisheries management approach includes both standards for catch and culture, and it takes into
consideration the current environmental variables.
 Factors Influencing The Biological Productivity In Reservoirs
Indian reservoirs receive runoff from a variety of catchment areas and are located in
various geoclimatic regions. Additionally, the morpho-edaphic properties of reservoirs varies due
18
to the various dam designs and purposes. The reservoirs are an interesting biotope because of all
these variations. There are three basic categories of habitat characteristics that affect reservoir
productivity: morphometric, climatic, and edaphic.
1. Morphometric factors:
The most significant single morphometric variable that can be linked to production is depth.
Greater amounts of the substrates in shallower lakes are found in the euphotic zone. On the other
hand, the majority of the substrate in deeper lakes is trapped in the aphotic zone. The degree of
abnormalities in the shoreline is indicated by shore development, another helpful metric for
assessing productivity. A defining aspect of the reservoir ecosystem is water level volatility.
Plankton pulses have been seen to occur during the months with the fewest level changes. During
the months with the highest level variations, all biotic communities are at their lowest point. It is
easier for organisms to grow when the reservoir level is more consistently high. More or less
fluviatile conditions occur in the months with higher inflow and outflow rates, as opposed to the
seasons with lower water movements, when the reservoir is more lacustrine in nature. The
percentage of shallow places (littoral formation), which varies depending on the reservoir level,
is another crucial consideration.
2. Climatic factors:
The latitudinal location, which influences the amount of solar energy available for
photosynthetic activities, is the most crucial climatic component that affects a lake's production.
In the summer, warm air temperatures cause the upper layer to warm up and the thermal gradient
to form. In peninsular India, there is no winter deserving of the name, and the temperature is
consistently high. The high temperature at the bottom during the summer, when the surface water
warms up, eliminates any opportunity for thermal resistance by the warmer upper layer. Because
the water above and below the thermocline in thermally stratified lakes does not mix, the rich
nutrients at the bottom layer are locked up, making thermal stratification crucial for limnology.
Wind an important meteorological factor which helps in mixing up of water facilitating nutrient
transport. The rainfall at the catchment areas is more important than the rainfall at the reservoir
site due to obvious reasons. The soil status of any catchment area affects the nutrient status of the
reservoirs.
3. Edaphic factors:
19
The primary determinants of a reservoir's biogenic productivity are the physico-chemical

properties of its soil and water. Transparency is another physical factor important to production
besides temperature. Poor light penetration could be caused by living creatures or suspended
materials like silt and mud. While reduced visibility brought on by planktonic organisms is a
positive indicator of production, turbidity caused by suspended particles slows productivity. The
main sources of dissolved oxygen in water are photosynthesis and atmospheric absorption. The
putrefaction of organic matter and respiration are the two basic processes that remove it.
The balance of the two processes mentioned above determines how much dissolved
oxygen is accessible in water at any given time. Less than 5 ppm of dissolved oxygen can be
fatal to biota. It is thought that productivity is enhanced by a pH that is not more than 8 and just
slightly over alkaline. A total alkalinity of more than 50 ppm and a hardness of more than 70
ppm are signs of productive betting. The electrical conductivity serves as a trustworthy indicator
of water quality and represents the total solvable solids. As opposed to the lower tropholytic
zone, which is characterized by the breakdown of organic matter, the higher water column where
photosynthetic activities take place is known as the trophogenic zone. The metrics like O 2, CO2,
pH, CO3, and CO2 show dramatic variations in productive reservoirs with high rates of the
aforementioned processes. HCO3 from surface to bottom while low productive reservoirs have
uniform distribution.
Fisheries in reservoirs are mostly extractive in nature, and the development strategy is
based primarily on catch lines. However, intensive aquaculture practices are used in smaller
irrigation impoundments that are characterized by a nearly entire drawdown of water. There is
minimal opportunity for maintained natural populations of commercial fish because the focus is
on artificial recruitment and annual total collection. The three guiding concepts of ecosystem-
oriented management norms are stock monitoring, stocking support, and effort monitoring. In a
perfect world, the fish species that are used for commerce would share ecological niches in a
way that maximizes the use of trophic resources. The fish should also have a short food chain in
order to transform the primary food as efficiently as possible, converting food resources into
usable materials.
Zooplankton like copepods, cladocerans, and rotifers are outnumbered by phytoplankton,
which includes the families Myxophyceae, Chlorophyceae, Dinophyceae, and Bacillariophyceae.
Insect larvae, nymphs, oligochaetes, nematodes, and molluscs all serve as representatives of the
20
benthos. With the probable exception of insects, Myxophyceae, and molluscs, many of the
aforementioned niches are shared by Gangetic large carps and trash fishes, highlighting the
significance of managing carp minnows and weed fishes. The ecosystem oriented management
strategy calls for giving the trophic strata the attention they deserve in terms of shared, unshared,
and unoccupied niches.
 Stocking :
Stocking becomes important to broaden the range of species and to address imbalances in
how commercial species use certain ecological niches. The reservoirs go through a brief period
of trophic burst during the first two to three years after impoundment, which is marked by an
abundance of fish food species. The best time to introduce desirable species to increase stock
levels is right now. Any failure to implement this crucial management strategy might cause a
trophic burst, which would lead to a proliferation of trash fish, which would then serve as a
source of food for catfish. Due to significant energy loss at all trophic levels, from fundamental
resources to catfishes, the whole condition becomes unsatisfactory. Additionally, inconsistent
fish breeding creates circumstances that require stocking to be corrected. Even when mating is
successful, certain undesirable aspects of lake morphometry can cause the progeny to sometimes
not survive, as has been seen in several DVC reservoirs.
 Selection of fishes for stocking :
The main goal of artificial recruitment is to direct energy away from shared trophic
niches and onto fish meat. Therefore, the choice of fish for stocking is based on an evaluation of
the biotic communities that already exist and how well they are able to transform basic trophic
supplies into usable goods. Our nation has access to a wide range of quickly growing fishes that
eat in various trophic niches and can be effectively used for reservoir fisheries management. For
instance, Indian Major Carps are essential when stocking reservoirs because to their close-to-
primary-producer eating preferences and rapid development rate.
However, the Indian triad of Catla, Rohu, and Mrigal is unfit to make use of the blue-
green algae, which makes up the majority of plankton. In the reservoirs of Kulgarhi, Getalsud,
and Govindsagar, silver carp's extraordinary capacity for the quick and efficient conversion of
phytoplankton into fish flesh has been established. Due to the potential harm to native
populations, the introduction of alien fish into Indian waterways is still a contentious issue.
21
1.5 COLD WATER FISHERY: MANAGEMENT, DEVELOPMENT

AND EXPLOITATION
 Cold water fisheries:

Coldwater fish have adapted to survive in temperatures between 100 and 200 degrees
Celsius. In temperate regions, spring water at low height and upland water at high altitudes of
mountains both remain cooler than the rest, where cold water fishes thrive. These bodies of water
which include a number of hill streams, rapids, pools, lakes, and reservoirs, are widely
distributed over peninsular India's Deccan plateau and Himalayan regions.
As in the North, these are either fueled by springs and melting snow, or as in the Deccan
Plateau, by rainwater.Since the production from cold water fisheries is enclosable in comparison
to total inland catch, there has been a growing realisation for the development of cold water
fisheries in India in recent years.The trout hatchery established in Kashmir is one of the potential
sources from where the brown trout have been transplanted to the upland waters of Jammu,
Kashmir, Kullu, Shimla, Kangra, Nainital, Shillong and Arunachal. Other hatcheries are
constructed at Nilgiris and Kerala.
 Indigenous cold water fishes:
The three main coldwater fish species that live in India's mountainous waters are Mahseer, Snow
Trout, and Indian Hill Trout.
Mahseer cold water fishing:
It is a significant Himalayan game fish. However, it hasn't drawn much notice in India as an
unusual fish. Great sizes and large volumes are usually found in mountain streams and rivers.
Among the crucial Mahseer species are:
1) Tor tor (Hamilton): It is characterized by shorter head than the depth of the body. It attains a
length of 1.5 m and occurs along the foot hills of Himalayas from Kashmir to Assam and in the
river Narmada and Tapti. It is insectivorous in its juvenile stage but becomes herbivorous when
adult. It has a prolonged breeding season from July to December. The eggs are laid in batches. It
constitutes the major fisheries of rivers Narmada and Tapti.
2) Tor putitora (Hamilton): It is commonly called as golden or common Himalayan Mahaseer.
It has head longer than the depth of the body. It occurs in Himalayas from Kashmir to Darjeeling
22
hills. This fish breeds thrice in a year, firstly during winter months (January to February),
subsequently in summer (May to June ) and lastly in August to September.
3) Tor mosal (Sykes): Mosal Mahaseer has head more or less equal to the depth of the body. It is
found in the Mountain Rivers on foot hills of Himalayas, Kashmir, Assam and Sikkim.
4) Tor mosal mahanadicus: It resembles the mosal mahaseer in all aspects except, it is found in
the river Mahanadi and that its head having small eyes is often higher than the depth of the body.
5) Tor khudree (Sykes): It is characterized by its head being as long as the depth of the body. It
is found in Orissa and throughout peninsular India. It attains a length of about 1.3 m.
6) Acrossocheilus hexagonolepis (Mc Clelland): It is commonly known as copper or chocolate
Mahaseer. It has an oblong and compressed body with an obtusely rounded and prominent
mouth. The colour of the body is deep bluish grey with darkish fins. These are mainly distributed
Upper Odissa, Assam and Cauvery River in Tamil Nadu. It attains a length over 60 cm. It differs
from Tor tor in having hexagonal shape of its scales and the thin lips.
7) Snow trouts: Snow trouts are chiefly represented by two genera, namely Schizothorax and
Schizothoracthys.
Schizothorachthys: It is represented by three species in Himalayas viz. S. richardsonii, S.
plagiostomus and S. molesworthi. These are found in snow fed streams of Assam, Eastern
Himalayas, Sikkim, Nepal, and Kashmir. The genera is represented by S. esocinus, S. progastus
and S. kumaonensis, of these, the S. esocinus is found in Kashmir and Ladhak, S. progastus in
the hill streams of Ganges at Hardwar and Darjeeling and S. kumaonensis in Nainital.
The Indian hill trout: Barilius is known as Indian hill trout. It is represented by four species,
namely B. bendelisis, B. bola, B. vagra and B. gatensis.
 Exotic cold water fishes:
The exotic fishes found in the hill streams of India chiefly include the trouts, mirror carps and
crucian carps.
1. Trouts: Exotic trouts in India are represented by three species, two of them belonging to
genera Salmo and one to Onchorhynchus.
(a) Salmo gairdneri gairdneri –
It is a native of the Pacific Ocean in North America, and it was imported to India in 1907. It is
also known as rainbow trout or steelhead. Due to their ease of adaptation compared to brown
trout, these are currently one of the most successful trouts in Indian waters for cultural purposes.
23
Additionally, they quickly consume artificial food and can endure both high temperatures and
water with low oxygen levels.
They develop and mature more quickly, and their incubation period is shorter. They grow to be
400–500 mm long and weigh around 5.5 kg after three years of good nutrition. The mouth is
rather small, the head is short, and the body is elongated. Depending on sex and surroundings,
the colour of the body varies. It is chiefly a river fish but is cultivated in confined water as well.
It does not breed in ponds but artificial fertilization is possible. The fry feed mainly on planktons
but half grown and adults are carnivorous. It is a game fish too.
(b) Salmo trutta fario –It is frequently referred to as brown trout. It originated in the water-filled
mountains of Central and Western Europe. This fish was the first to be artificially generated and
raised in India. Even though it was introduced to the mountain waters of all hills, it could only
grow in Kashmir's streams and fields and Punjab's river Beas. It consumes huge living prey near
the bottom, including crustaceans. It grows to a maximum length of 46.5 cm, depending on the
availability of natural food. The fish migrates upstream during the breeding season to spawn in
shallow water with a fast current and gravel beds.
1.6 ESTUARINE FISHERIES: MANAGEMENT, DEVELOPMENT

AND EXPLOITATION
Various estuarine systems spreading over 14.22 lakh hectare form an important
component of the fisheries resources of the country. The fisheries of estuaries are above
subsistence level and contribute significantly to the production. The average fish yield varies
from 45 to 75 kg per ha. Estuarine fishery is the mainstay during the monsoon season when
fishing in the sea, because of turbulent conditions and stormy weather, gets suspended. Food
chains in the estuaries differ from the open sea in several aspects. A greater part of the organic
production in estuaries is controlled by larger plants (macroalgae, mangroves, etc.) rather than
phytoplankton. As consumers of the organic matter, zooplankton becomes less important than
the suspension and deposit feeders. Organic detritus forms a major source of food for the
estuarine communities. Nearly 49% of Indian marine fish catch originate from estuaries which
provide indication of the dependence of marine species on estuaries in early life history.
24
The National Commission on Agriculture stated that “under the term estuarine
fisheries is included the fishery output from the mouth of rivers, the large brackish water
lakes, the innumerable tidal creeks and backwaters along the coast and the coastal canal
system”. Fishes of brackish water are usually marine which can tolerate wide salinity changes
and are called euryhaline. These are clupeids, mullets, catfishes, perches and prawns. Mugil
cephalus forms a large part of the estuarine fishery. In addition, species that are not of
commercial value also contribute to the fishery of brackish water. They include gar fishes,
halfbeaks, eels, flatfishes, sharks, rays and oysters. Some migratory fishes that migrate to
freshwater from sea or vice versa are also included. They include Hilsa ilisha, Polynemus spp,
Pama pama, Tachysurus spp, Pangasius spp and the prawn, Macrobrachium spp.
The major estuarine systems in India are the Hooghly-Matlah estuarine system in West
Bengal; the Rushikulya estuary in Orissa; the Godavari and the Krishna in Andhra Pradesh; the
Adyar, the Cauvery, Vellar and Vaigai estuaries in Tamil Nadu, the Narmada and the Tapti in
Gujarat, Asthamudi in Kerala, Kalinadi in Karnataka and Mandovi – Zuari system of Goa. The
important brackishwater lakes of the country are the Chilka Lake in Orissa, the Pulicut Lake and
Killai backwaters in Tamil Nadu and Cochin and Vembanad backwaters in Kerala. Though the
fisheries of various estuarine systems have been studied in the last two decades, a continuous
monitoring of the fisheries is done only in the Hooghly-Matlah estuarine system, the largest
estuarine complex in India.
1.7 MARINE FISHERY: EXPLOITATION OF MARINE FISHERY

RESOURCES OF INDIA
Resources:
India has approximately 8118 kilometers of coastline, nearly 2 million square kilometers of
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), and 500,000 square kilometers of continental shelf. India has a
potential catch of 4.41 million tonnes from these maritime resources. Similar to this, our 3.15
million hectares of reservoirs, 2.5 million hectares of ponds and tanks, 1.25 million hectares of
brackish water area, cold water resources of mountainous states, and all other inland fishery
resources have an estimated 15 million tonnes of output potential. In comparison to this
potential, the inland sector's fish production in 2016–17 was just 7.77 million tonnes. In this
situation, effective resource management becomes essential to achieving the desired
25
productivity. With this background in mind, we want to harness all possibilities for intensive and
integrated development of fishery sector.
Responsibility of the DADF for fisheries development:
The Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare's Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairy and
Fisheries (DADF), which is in charge of the country's fisheries development and management,
develops sector-specific development strategies and publishes directives for the management of
fisheries and aquaculture. Additionally, it offers different States/UTs and other implementing
agencies technical and financial help for the execution of fishery development schemes.
Marine capture fisheries:
The increased fishing effort is causing significant changes in marine capture fisheries. Nearly all
commercially significant marine fin fish and shellfish capture is declining, which has a negative
impact on resource availability and increases unemployment. The availability of affordable
protein for the general public and the expansion of the national GDP are both impacted by the
decline in marine capture fishing. Mariculture, which includes the growing of finfish and
shellfish in open marine cages, became significant in this environment.
What is Mariculture?
Mariculture is a specialized form of aquaculture that involves growing marine organisms for
food and other goods in the open ocean or in seawater-filled tanks, ponds, or raceways. As an
illustration, consider the farming of marine fish in salt water resources, including finfish and
shellfish like cobia, pompano, sea bass, lobster, oysters, and seaweed. Mariculture also produces
cosmetics, nutritional agar, jewellery (like cultivated pearls), and fish meal, which are non-food
items. When compared to fish raised in ponds or tanks, mariculture fish are said to be of greater
quality and come in a wider variety of varieties.
What is open sea cage culture?
Open sea cage farming is environmentally benign and carried out there where there is less wave
movement. Due to the high value of the fish raised in cages, there is a significant export market
for these fish. A cage is an enclosure that can be any size or shape and is used to cultivate biotic
organisms like finfish and shellfish in captivity for a specific purpose. All sides of the cages are
completely closed off, with the exception of the top entrance for feeding. For fish farming in
open waters where the wave and tidal influence is adequate for farming, the size of a sea cage
can range from 6 to 12 m dia. There are several cages spaced out in a battery for better operation.
26
Initiatives and status of Mariculture practices in India:

A. Marine Finfish Culture:
(i) Cobia (Rachycentron canadum):
Cobia is one of the suitable species for open sea cage farming. It can grow to about 3-4 kg body
weight in one year and 8-10 kg in two years. Brood stock development of cobia was initiated by
CMFRI at Mandapam during 2007-08. The technology of cobia seed production and farming
was standardized by CMFRI and is being taken up by fish farmers successfully.
(ii) Sea bass (Lates calcarifer):

One of the most significant prospective species for pond and open sea cage cultivation, sea bass
is very valuable commercially. The ICAR Institutes have created and standardized seed
production technology. CMFRI and CIBA have developed a sea bass nursery and rearing
protocol. Several demonstrations of pond and cage farming were successful.
(iii) Silver pompano (Trachinotus blotchii):
Due to its widespread acceptance and medium size that is ideal for a small family, silver
pompano is another species that is good for marine aquaculture. It has a strong market demand, a
wide range of water quality tolerance, and the capacity to adapt to taking pellet diets. The
CMFRI has successfully increased the brood stock, stimulated spawning, and produced silver
pompano larvae. Fish producers have successfully used the silver pompano seed manufacturing
and farming technique that CMFRI developed and standardized between 2011 and 2015.
1.8 SUMMARY
India has significant coldwater aquatic resources in terms of upland rivers, streams, high and low
altitudinal natural lakes, reservoirs that hold large population of indigenous and exotic, cultivable
and non-cultivable fish species. Information on resources is obsolete and updating information is
a challenge due to its kaleidoscopic topography of the sector. The lacustrine, cold water,
estuarine and marine fishery also holds a promise but through proper management and
development. Indian lacustrine, cold water, estuarine and marine fishery resources offer a vast
scope if there is proper fishery management through laws and management practices. Dams also
effect the fish behavior and their migration pattern. The capture and culture fisheries both have a
huge possibility in terms of social, economical and ecological aspect.
27
1.9 TERMINAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Question No.1 Give a brief account on the fishery resources of India.

Question No.2 Explain methods for improvement of fish stocks.
Question No.3 Explain in detail river pollution and its control.
Question No.4 Explain various steps for conservation of fishery resources in India.
Question No.5 Give a brief account of the marine fishery resources in India.
1.10 REFERENCES
 Anon, 2007. Statistical Bulletin of Fisheries 2006 – 2007. Directorate of Fisheries of

Karnataka, Bangalore: 83 pp
 Baruah, U.K., A.K. Bhagowati, R.K. Taliukdar and P.K. Sharia, 2000. Beel fisheries of
Assam: Community-based Co-management imperative. Naga, The ICLARM Quarterly,
Vol. 23, No. 2: 36-41
 Biswas, K.P., 1996. A textbook of fish, fisheries and technology, Narendra Publishing
House, Delhi, 578 p.
 FAO, 2007. The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 2006. Food and agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome: 180
 FAO, 2007. Fishery Statistics: Capture Production 2005, FAO yearbook, Vol. 100/1
 Gupta, S.K. and P.C. Gupta, 2006. General and applied ichthyology (Fish and Fisheries).
S. Chand Company Ltd., New Delhi: 1130
 Jackson, D and Marmulla, G., 2001. The influence of dams on river. Thematic Review
II.1 Dams, ecosystem functions and environmental restoration, Working paper submitted
to the World Commission on Dams: 46 pp
 Jhingran, V.G., 1991. Fish and Fisheries of India. Hindustan Publishing Corporation
(India), Delhi. 727 pp.
 Kaur, K. and A. Dhawan, 1997. Introduction to inland fisheries. National Agricultural
Technology Information Centre, Ludhiana, India: 1-22
 Misra, S.R., 2006. Inland fisheries in India - issues and concerns. Concept Publishing
Company: 136 pp
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 Modayil, M.J. and A.A. Jayaprakash (Eds.). 2003. Status of exploited marine fishery
resources of India. Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Kochi, India: 302 pp
 Pandey, A. K. and Punyabrata Das, 2002. Ichthyobiodiversity conservation for
sustainable production. In: Riverine and Reservoir fisheries of India (Eds. M.R.
Boopendranath, B. Meenakumari, J. Joseph, T.V. shankar, P. Pravin and L. Edwin),
Society of Fisheries Technologists (India), Cochin: 70 – 90
 Pillai, N.G.K. and Katiha, P.K., 2004. Evolution of Fisheries and Aquaculture in India.
ICAR, New Delhi: 240 pp.
 Sanjeeva Raj, P.J., 2006. Macro fauna of Pulicat Lake. NBA Bulletin No. 6, National
Biodiversity Authority, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India: 67 pp.
 Shafi, S.M., 2003. Applied Fishery Science (Volume 2). Atlantic Publishers and
Distributers. New Delhi: 307 – 601
 Sinha, M. 2002. Riverine and Reservoir fisheries of India – Present status and future
prospects. In: Riverine and Reservoir fisheries of India (Eds. M.R. Boopendranath, B.
Meenakumari, J. Joseph, T.V. shankar, P. Pravin and L. Edwin), Society of Fisheries
Technologists (India), Cochin: 197 – 203
 Sugunan, V. V., 1995. Reservoir fisheries in India. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No.
345. Food and agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome: 423 pp.
 Sugunan, V.V. and M. Sinha, 2001. Sustainable capture and culture-based fisheries in
freshwaters of India. In Pandian, T.J. (ed.), Proceedings of the National Seminar on
Sustainable Fisheries for Nutritional Security, held at Chennai from 29th November to
2nd December 2000. National Academy of Agricultural Sciences, New Delhi: 43 – 70
 Welcome, R.L., 2007. Inland fisheries – Ecology and management. Discovery Publishing
House, New Delhi: 358 pp
29
UNIT 2: FISH GROWTH AND AGE
CONTENT
2.1 Objective
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Factors responsible for growth
2.4 Age and growth relationship
2.5 Natural fish food organism and their role in fish growth: Plankton, Benthos
2.6 Summary
2.7 Terminal questions and answers
2.8 References
30
2.1 OBJECTIVE
Study of this unit will let the students to:
 What are the Factors responsible for growth?

 What are the relationship of age and growth?
 Natural fish food organism and their role in fish growth
2.2 INTRODUCTION
Growth is a characteristic feature of living beings. Every organism grows and attains its normal
size. Growth is really an increase in any measurement of any organism in relation to time.
Growth is the process of addition of flesh as a result of protein synthesis.
A fact of fish growth is of vital significance for obtaining high yield of fish. The rate of fish
growth varies from species to species and sometimes it varies even along with species also.
Growth of an organism can be defined as a change in its length and weight over a period of time.
It indicates the health of the individual and of the population and has been broadly studied for a
various species of fishes. The growth and age of a fish are closely related to each other and
depends on several factors.
The length and weight are two parameters demonstrate growth of a fish. The growth in length
indicates long term change, whereas growth in weight is further subject to seasonal variation.
Absolute growth: Absolute growth refers to a fish's perfect development from the time of its
embryo to its senescence.
Relative growth: Growth in relation to one life period to another is referred to as relative
growth. For obvious reasons, growth is never comparable between any two life stages.
Isometric growth: Fish with parity of measure and projection planes that are equally inclined to
three vertical axes at right angles to one another are said to have isometric growth. The growth is
referred to as isometric if the fish is obeying the cube law.
Algometric growth: This growth is asymmetrical. This form of expansion may take on a
number of different patterns. For instance, more fish grow in length than in width or mass.
31
Growth is a bio-energetic process that is characterised by an increase in an object's length and

weight over time. It provides information about population and individual fitness and has been
extensively researched for a variety of fish species. A fish's age and growth are intimately related
to one another and are influenced by various factors. The two factors that demonstrate a fish's
growth are its length and weight. While growth in weight is more prone to seasonal volatility,
growth in length implies a long-term shift.
2.3 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR GROWTH
The growth rate in fishes is highly changeable and depends upon a number of environmental
factors such as temperature, amount of dissolved oxygen, ammonia, salinity, photoperiod, degree
of competition, quality of food taken, age and the state of maturity of the fish. Temperature is
one of the most important environmental factors and along with other factors, influences growth
rate. The optimum food consumption for maximum growth is temperature dependent. According
to recent studies, endogenous regulators of growth may also include the individual's
physiological state, hormones, and genetics.
Dissolved oxygen level depends on temperature and by itself is also an important factor affecting
growth rate of fishes. Possibly, the fish is deprived of ‘extra’ aerobic energy required for growth
and reproduction, if dissolved oxygen falls below a certain level. Ammonia if present in high
concentration will slow down the growth and lower densities tend to increase it. This way also be
due to competition for available food.
Food availability which depends upon temperature affects growth rate on a seasonal basis.
Growth may be rapid during warmer months, when plenty of food is available and slow during
winter. Similarly photoperiod may also affect seasonal growth. Age and maturity are also
important factors. Fish typically grow very fast in length in the first few months or years of life
until maturation. Later, large amount of energy is diverted for the growth of gonads, hence body
growth slows down. Growth rate of mature fish are therefore, much less than those of immature
fish. However, mature fish are typically heavier per unit of length than the immature fish, partly
due to the large sized gonads. This is shown by their higher condition factor (K), condition factor
32
represents the condition of the fish during a certain period, and is the ratio of the length to the
weight of the fish, as calculated by the following formula:
𝑤
𝐾 = 𝐿3 × 100
Where, W is the weight of fish in grams, and L is the length in cms.
The condition factor is generally used by the biologists as an indication of the health of the fish
population. A high value of K shows that plenty of food is available to support both somatic and
gonadal development of the fish.
2.4 AGE AND GROWTH RELATIONSHIP
Growth rates in fishes can be determined by measuring the changes in size in relation to time.
One of the following methods can be used:
DIRECT METHODS FOR DETERMINATION OF GROWTH
Fish can be raised under controlled settings to directly determine their growth rate. For this,
known-age eggs or larvae are housed in an experiment pond. For the purpose of estimating
growth rate, length and weight of each are measured at known intervals of time. The direct
approach is particularly useful for determining the growth of cultured fish since it allows for the
control of feeding rate, temperature, and other environmental parameters.
FISH TAGGING
With this technique, fish are tagged or marked for identification after being measured for length
and weight before being released back into their natural habitat. These fish are taken again and
measured after a few months. The amount of time a fish spent in its native habitat is used to
compute the growth rate. Cutting the fin rays, using spray paint to colour the fish's skin, or
placing fluorescent rings on scales or bones are all methods of marking that should be done
without affecting the fish's behavior or rate of feeding. The fish may be injected with various
colours, such as chromium dioxide, Fast Blue, Lead acetate, or Latex, to help identify it when it
is caught again. The tagging technique is more widely used. To ensure that the tags stay in place
33
and are not lost, various types of tags holding information about the fish, the date of tagging, etc.,
are fastened to the body. A tag is a circular object that can be constructed of plastic, aluminium,
silver, nickel, etc. A tag lacking a caudal peduncle may be fastened to the body with a tiny wire.
Sometimes a tiny wire is really utilized to puncture the bodily tissue. The wire carries the disc or
plate, and to maintain it in place after piercing the tissue, the two ends of the wire are twisted.
Another type of tag is a straight metal shaft that is inserted into the tissue. To keep it from falling
out, the shaft has one or more barbs on one end. In order to keep it from falling out, the outside
end. The disc, which contains information on the fish, is attached to the shaft's outer end. Small
metal rods called magnetic tags are placed into the body and can be found in a magnetic field. A
very large number of fish must be employed in this strategy since marked or tagged fish provide
more accurate information about growth and movement of the fish but are more challenging to
recapture.
LENGTH FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION METHOD
This method is based on the assumption that a species' individuals from any given age group,
gathered on the same day, will exhibit variation around the mean length when measured using a
length-frequency analysis. Additionally, it is predicated on the idea that when data from the
entire population are displayed in a basic manner, succeeding ages at successively longer
intervals would group together, allowing for the separation of different age groups.
This method involves measuring the lengths of 300–500 fish from a population once a month at
appropriately spaced intervals, making sure the sample is taken from a catch that includes fish of
different sizes. The information is split up into frequencies. For instance, the length can be
tabulated in frequencies of 1-19, 20-39, 40-59, 60-79, etc. if the highest recorded length is
400mm. On graph paper, the model values are shown with the time in equal intervals of months
on one axis and the model values for each month derived from these. The age and rate of growth
of the models are then calculated month by month. Young fish benefit greatly from this method.
One can assess the growth rate at different ages by comparing the mean length between age
classes.
34
The sample must be made up of a sizable number of people, ideally collected on a single day,
and it must be representative of all population sizes and age groups in order for the above
procedure to produce results that are quite reliable.
RINGS OR ANNULI ON HARD SUBSTANCES
In many species, the rate of growth in the size of the fish's bones, spines, and scales is inversely
correlated with that rate. The otoliths, vertebral centra, opercular bones, coracoids,
hyomandibular, and other hard parts can be studied to determine an animal's age. Of these, the
scales and otoliths are the most frequently employed.
Spines and rays have occasionally proved helpful in determining age. To do this, rays or spine
segments are broken apart and analysed. The vertebral centrum can also be helpful, and some
researchers have employed vertebrae from various places. The chosen vertebrae are treated with
an acidic solution to remove any connected tissue, then they are washed in soapy water, dried,
and checked under a microscope for growth rings.
The vertebra's centrum displays annual growth rings. As zones of growth may be visible on their
surface, opercular bones can also be utilised to determine age. To determine a fish's age, the
opercular bone is extracted from a fresh specimen, boiled in water for 10 minutes, and then
cleaned to get rid of any associated muscles. The bone is next treated for 10 to 20 minutes with
50% hydrogen peroxide, cleaned with water, and dried for two to three days in the sun. These
bones exhibit annuli or rings under a microscope, which are counted to determine the age of fish.
Fig.2.1 A scale with annuli
35
Scales are generally used to determine a fish's age. With a little practise, annuli on the scales can
be easily numbered using this method, which is the simplest and most accurate. On average, 10
sales are extracted from the fish immediately above the lateral line, below the commencement of
the dorsal fin. 'Key scales' are what these are known as. Scrubbing the scales in water removes
them. Then, wet or dry mounts are made. Permanent preparations can be created either through
the impression of cellulose or plastic, or they can be mounted entire in a glycerine, balsam, or
glycerine-gelatin solution.
For quick and precise counting of growth rings, the scale is inspected through a binocular
microscope or the image can be expanded by using a microprojector. The core of the scale
typically houses the scale's focus, which is the first component to form. An annulus is typically
identified by a distinct, concentric streak that surrounds the focus. An annulus is a year, and the
addition of more annuli shows how many years the fish has lived.
Scales are used to estimate a fish's age because they produce successive rings as it gets older.
Since there is a surplus of food available in the summer and autumn and the fish are growing
more quickly, these seasons cause the rings to form to be spaced widely apart. Wintertime food
availability and growth restrictions result in closely packed rings that look as alternating bands of
light and dark. Together, these two bands—known as the annuli—are thought to have formed
within a year. Age of the fish is determined by the number of annuli on the scale. The actual sites
of dense bone deposition are called annuli, and they signify the year's slow development stage. A
fake annulus does not run the entire length of the scale and can emerge at any time due to a
variety of causes. Fake annuli can also occasionally appear in some species due to slowdown or
temperature fluctuations. These must be identified from actual annuli, which form at the same
time every year.
This strategy works for fish living in temperate zones where the amount of food fluctuates with
the season, but it is unreliable for fish living in tropical regions where food is always accessible.
Previously, it was believed that the availability of food was what caused the creation of rings.
However, it is now thought that lack of nourishment throughout the maturation and spawning
processes, as well as other factors, may also contribute to the annuli's creation. Since summer
and winter are not clearly distinguished seasons in the tropics, it is simple to interpret the scales
on marine fishes, claims Qasim (1973).
36
Thus, fish lengths at each year may be back-calculated by measuring the linear distance (radius)
from the 'focus' of the scale to each annulus, and fish age can be established by counting the
annuli.
For example, the length at ‘n’ years can be calculated by using the following formula:
( 𝐿−𝑎)(𝑉𝑛)
Ln=a+ 𝑉𝑟
Where Ln= fish length at n years.
a=a constant that often approximates fish length at time of scale formation.
L= fish length at the time of capture.
Vn= Scale radius, distance from focus to nth annulus.
Vr= Scale radius from focus to scale edge.
Growth rates can be derived from these backcalculations of length at various years. Fish from the
families Cypriniformes, Perciformes, and Channiformes have all been treated with this
technique.
Otoliths, which are situated on either side of the skull where the upper arm of the gill arch is
connected to the otic bone, are created in the embryo as soon as the inner ear is established. After
the muscles of the pro-otic bone have been removed, the otolith can be viewed. The sagitta is the
largest and is employed in thick at the extremities of the three otoliths (lapillus, asteriscus, and
sagitta) on either side of the skull. The thinner otolths can be inspected directly, whilst the
thicker ones need to be properly grounded. The rings are then counted beginning with the central
nucleus while the specimens are being inspected under a binocular microscope. However, it is
important to double-check and confirm the age estimated by the scale or otolith method, as well
as ages determined by other techniques such random population sampling over a long period of
time or by direct observation of fish raised in tanks or cages.
RADIO-CARBON UPTAKE METHOD
37
Scales from a live fish's epidermis were removed, and they were then incubated in a mixture
containing the radioactive amino acid glycine created by C14.The amount of beta radiations
released by the scale is used to calculate the rate of C14-glycine incorporation into the scale
following an incubation of less than four hours. The scintillation counter indicates more
incorporation of C14 by the scale, which corresponds to a quicker growth rate.
RNA- DNA RATIO METHOD
This technique calculates the rate of protein synthesis and provides a growth rate index. The
amount of DNA in each cell is constant, whereas the amount of RNA depends on the rate of
protein synthesis in the cell. Thus, the RNA DNA ratio in a tissue sample demonstrates this rate
per total number of cells. Some fish have a correlation between this ratio and observed weight
growth. However, within the same species, such comparisons are possible.
Animal growth is not steady throughout the course of a lifetime. As animal ages, its growth rate
slows down until it eventually stops growing altogether, which is denoted by the letter L and is
known as length at infinity. This length is the most that the fish can theoretically reach.
However, in the wild, fish do not grow to this length because they perish from diseases or
fishing-related natural causes.
Numerous growth characteristics, including the rise in absolute length, the rate of increase in
weight, the growth constant, etc., can be estimated by examining a species' age and growth.
Calculating these parameters is helpful when comparing growth constants and other factors.
These variables are helpful for comparing the rates of growth of various species within the same
water body or between different water bodies. These studies also show "good" and "bad" growth
years for fish. When favourable conditions return, observations of a species' annual growth rate
also imply the prevalence of the phenomena of growth compensation, as in the case of the carp
species Tor putitor, Lebeo dero, and Cyprinus carpio (Tandon and Johal, 1994). A species'
growth constant and average growth constant values demonstrate that there are three distinct life
stages: youth, sexual maturity, and old age. These studies are very helpful for fishery
management.
38
2.5 NATURAL FISH FOOD ORGANISM AND THEIR ROLE IN

FISH GROWTH: PLANKTON, BENTHOS
Natural Fish Food Organism:
The natural food supplies all the necessary nutrients for a balanced diet. The desire for natural
food differs between species and between age groups of people as well as between species. For
instance, silver carp prefers phytoplankton, while catla prefers zooplankton. The fish may
consume plankton when they are younger, but they may prefer animal food as they get older.
The high protein and fat content of natural diets helps fish flourish. In order to boost fish growth,
it is therefore required to increase the live food in the aquatic habitat.
A water body has a range of natural fish food organisms, which are dependent on the water
body's output. Natural food sources for some fish include molluscs, annelids, worms, insects, and
phytoplankton. Natural foods supply the elements of a complete and balanced diet. The need for
natural food differs between species and between age groups of people. For instance, silver carp
prefers phytoplankton, while catla prefers zooplankton. The fish may consume plankton when
they are younger, but they may later prefer animal food. The growth of fish is supported by the
high protein and fat content of natural diets. In order to restore the growth of fish, it is crucial to
increase the live food in the aquatic habitat.
Plankton
Plankton is made up of tiny, free-floating plant and animal organisms that have weak
locomotional systems and only float along with the water's currents. Macro, microscopic, and
nanno plankton are the three types of plankton that are separated based on size. Macro-plankton
consists of organisms that are larger than 3 mm and are readily seen. such as salpa, mysids, and
larva.
Phytoplankton and zooplankton are additional types of plankton. These include non-
photosynthetic plants like bacteria and fungi as well as organisms containing chlorophyll like
Microcystis, Volvox, and others. It contains all of the microscopic plants, diatoms, and
39
dinoflagellates that float passively. The zooplankton is a term used to describe microscopic
organisms such as rotifers, copepods, ostracoda, amphipods, worms, eggs, and larvae.
Meroplankton, a type of transient plankton, may exist. These are planktonic eggs and larvae,
which are only abundant during specific seasons depending on the spawning behaviours of the
parents. However, these habits vary widely, therefore there is no single pattern for all parents.
However, because there is a wide range in the timing of animal spawning, these plankton may be
present in tiny or large amounts throughout the year. Holoplankton, often known as permanent
plankton, is prevalent throughout the year.
Plankton exhibit a variety of adaptations that help them stay afloat in the surface layer of the
water and avoid sinking. As an illustration, consider a cell that has grown to the size of a bladder
and is filled with a thin fluid. Some have fine hairy extensions that resemble cylindrical hairs,
while others are broad and flat like ribbons or may branch.
A pond's plankton will fluctuate quantitatively over the season. Peak plankton levels are said to
occur in Uttar Pradesh's freshwater ponds throughout the spring and monsoon while a slack
phase is seen during the summer. Zooplankton predominate at periods of minima, while
phytoplankton are prominent during periods of peak production. In several ponds, a bimodal
pattern of plankton production has been observed, with phytoplankton dominating the monsoon
peak and zooplankton dominating the winter peak. The differences in the physic-chemical
conditions of the pond are what cause these pronounced seasonal oscillations in the prevalence
and abundance of plankton. Plankton blooms are what these abundance waves are referred to as.
The cladocera, rotifers, and copepods in particular undergo diurnal vertical migration. Positive
effects result from this downward migration during the day, and phytoplankton grows rapidly at
this time.
Fisheries depend on zooplankton because they transform phytoplankton into food for fish and
animals. Zooplankton availability affects the quantity and distribution of carnivorous pelagic
fish. Diatoms, single-celled algae, Volvox, Anabaena, Oscillatoria, and Microcystis are some
examples of planktons. Fish eggs and larvae, Eudorina, Protozoans (Foraminifera, Radiolaria,
Ciliates, Flagellates, Arcella, Difflugea, etc.), Larvae of Crustaceans (like Daphnia, Cyclops,
Copepods, Sagitta, Tomopteris, Pteropods, Hetropods and Rotifers.
40
Rotifers as fish feed organisms have a number of benefits: They procreate easily. According to
estimates, populations can double every one to five days in ideal circumstances. Rotifers are a
vital first food source for many fish and prawns because they are small enough to be accepted as
food by some creatures that cannot eat larger zooplankton. They are nourishing, and like with
other zooplankton, their true nutritional content can be increased by adding particular strains of
algae or other feed to the rotifers.
Role of Plankton in the Survival and Growth of Fry
Research has demonstrated that zooplankton is the primary source of nutrition for newborn carp
fry, and in the absence of predators, their ability to survive completely depends on the amount of
zooplankton produced and the timing of pond stocking. However, the growth of dense algal
blooms causes the water to become oversaturated with dissolved oxygen, which frequently
creates gas problems for the fry and high rates of mortality.
The results of experiments have demonstrated that zooplankton is the primary source of nutrition
for immature carp fry, and that, in the absence of predators, their ability to survive completely
depends on the quantity and timing of zooplankton blooms in the ponds. However, the growth of
a thick algal bloom results in a super saturation of dissolved oxygen in the water, frequently
causing gas problems for the fry and significant mortality.
In around 10 days, Volvox, Eudorina, and Anabaena usually appear in blooms of various
intensity after heavy manuring of ponds with cowdung. These blooms typically comprise of
rotifers, cladocerans, and copepods. Additionally, algae grow, and Euglena could produce
surface scum. Algal growth and multiplication occur very quickly; blooms may form and then
entirely vanish in a matter of 2-3 weeks. Among zooplankton, they reproduce quickly, form
swarms in 4-6 days, and then vanish in 7-8 days.
According to laboratory tests, if fry are stocked during zooplankton swarms and there is an
abundance of food, 90–100% of them will survive. Fry prefer zooplanktons because they can
digest them readily. Since phytoplankton is hard to digest, it is not used as food. Phytoplankton
has a lower nutritional value than zooplankton.
41
However, the occurrence of zooplankton in a pond following intensive manuring is purely a

question of luck. The occurrence of phytoplankton or the production of zooplankton is uncertain.
Heavy doses of cowdung applied to tanks typically cause early zooplankton swarm generation,
necessitating a change in fry stocking to coincide with the peak period of production.
2.6 SUMMARY
Growth is a trait shared by all living things. Every living thing develops and reaches its ideal
size. Increasing any measurement of any organism in relation to time is what is meant by growth.
As a result of protein synthesis, growth is the process of adding meat. A change in an organism's
length and weight over time is referred to as growth. A fish's age and growth are intimately tied
to one another and are influenced by various factors. Fish growth is shown by two parameters:
length and weight. While development in weight is additionally influenced by seasonal variation,
growth in length implies long-term change.
Fish development rates are very variable and influenced by a variety of environmental
parameters, including temperature, dissolved oxygen levels, ammonia, salinity, photoperiod,
level of competition, kind of food consumed, age, and fish maturity.
Fish growth rates can be calculated by observing the variations in size over time. Direct methods
for measuring growth, fish tagging, the length frequency distribution approach, rings or annuli on
hard objects, the radio-carbon uptake method, and the RNA-DNA ratio method are among the
techniques that can be utilised.
A water body has a range of natural fish food organisms, which are dependent on the water
body's output. Natural food sources for some fish include molluscs, annelids, worms, insects, and
phytoplankton. For instance, silver carp wants phytoplankton whereas catla favours zooplankton,
both of which help fish thrive. To restore the growth of fish, it is therefore required to enhance
the living food in the aquatic habitat.
Plankton is made up of tiny, free-floating plant and animal organisms that have weak
locomotional systems and only float along with the water's currents. Macro, microscopic, and
nanno plankton are the three types of plankton that are separated based on size. Phytoplankton
and zooplankton are additional types of plankton. These include non-photosynthetic plants like
bacteria and fungi as well as organisms containing chlorophyll like Microcystis, Volvox, and
others. It contains all of the microscopic plants, diatoms, and dinoflagellates that float passively.
42
The zooplankton is a term used to describe microscopic organisms such as rotifers, copepods,
ostracoda, amphipods, worms, eggs, and larvae. Fisheries depend on zooplankton because they
transform phytoplankton into food for fish and animals.

2.7.1 Multiple Choice Questions:
1. Age and maturity are usually the best predictors of ______ in fishes.
a. Absolute growth rates b. Relative growth rates
c. Approximate growth rates d. Convertible growth rate
2. Nursery ponds are used for growing
a. Marketable fishes b. Brooders
c. Spawn to fry d. Fry to Fingerlings
3. Wallago attu is commonly known as
a. Freshwater shark b. Trout
c. Minor carp d. Mahaseer
4. Width of the rings (scales/otolith) gives an estimation of:
a. Health of fish b. Age
c. Growth d. Ecology of fish
5. Most preferred food item of carp spawn
a. Clliorelln b. Chaetocerous
c. Phytoplankton d. Rotifer
6. Grass carp are used for control of–
a. Phytoplankton b. Macrophytes
c. Zooplankton d. Insects
Answers: 1(b), 2. (c),3(a),4(b),5(d), 6(b)
2.7.2. Short Answer Question:

1. What is the growth of fish?
2. Write about the role of plankton in the survival and growth of Fry.
3. Write short notes on: i) Fish tagging ii) Radio-carbon uptake method
43
2.7.3. Long Answer Question:
1. What are the relationship of age and growth?

2. What are the Factors responsible for growth?
3. Describe Length frequency distribution method.
2.8 REFERENCES
1. https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/fish/anatomy-and-physiology/growth-of-fishes-with-
diagram/88371
2. http://agropedia.iitk.ac.in/content/natural-fish-food-organism
3. A introduction to Fishes by S.S.khanna
4. Fish and fisheries of India by Jhingran
44
UNIT 3: FISH BREEDING AND SPAWNING
CONTENTS
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Introductions
3.3 Factors responsible for induced breeding
3.3.1 Hypophysation
3.3.2 Use of different synthetic and natural hormones, their formulation and
Mechanism of action
3.4 Bundh breeding
3.5 Hapa breeding
3.6 Hatchery management
3.6.1 Flow through hatchery for Mahseer and Trout
3.6.2 Ploidy induction
3.6.3 Production of monosex population
3.6.4 Hybridization
3.6.5 Cryo-preservation of gametes and embryo
3.6.6 Transgenic fish
3.7 Summary
References
45
3.1 OBJECTIVES
vi. Basic concept of Fish Breeding and Spawning
vii. Learn methods of Induced Breeding
viii. Detailed process of Hypophysation
ix. Different methods of breeding
x. Hatchery management
3.2 INTRODUCTION
Induced breeding is the process of artificially inducing fish to reproduce when it does not
occur naturally. One of the most critical requirements for effective fish farming is the availability
of the necessary quantity of preferred species of fish seed. In general, limited waterways are not
where the widely cultivated major carps of inland Indian waters like Catla, Rohu, Mrigal, and
Calbasu, as well as Chinese carps like Silver carp, Big head, Grass carp, Black carp, and mud
carp, breed.
They do mature there, but they only breed in their natural habitat during the monsoon
season in the flooded shallow areas along the path of the rivers. The specific settings of bundhs,
both wet and dry, are where the Indian main carps do spawn. In such cases, fish farmers must
rely on river systems for the fish seed collection, and the fish seed gathered includes both
desirable species and unprofitable species, such as predators. Asiatic carps cannot reproduce in
small, stagnant bodies of water because there are not enough environmental cues to cause the
necessary amount of gonadotrophic hormones to be secreted. In order to get brood fish to
reproduce, exogenous hormones like pituitary extract or synthetic hormones are administered
into them. Indian major carps were successfully induced for the first time in 1957, followed by
silver and grass carp in 1959 and 1962, respectively. Typically, pituitary glands are used as an
inducer in India.
46
BREEDING TECHNIQUES
Indian Major Carps
 Selection of Breeders:
When the temperature drops and there is a deposit of new rainwater, induced
breeding typically begins. The spawners are carefully chosen, netted out, and weighed
separately. Males can be identified by their pectoral fins, which are rough in contrast to
smooth in females. By gently pressing the belly close to the vent, the males are chosen
for injection if the milt oozes out freely or easily. The larger protruding abdomen of the
females makes them easy to identify. Under normal circumstances, they may be chosen
for injection if they have a fully protruding abdomen and a somewhat swollen pinkish
vent. By using a catheter, a sample of ovarian eggs (oocytes) may be collected and
examined to find out the ripeness of oocytes.
 Dosage of Pituitary Injection:
The dosage of pituitary extract to be administered is determined by the gonad's
maturity and the local climate. A very modest amount is enough to trigger spawning
when the receiver is at their best. In most cases, a somewhat greater dose is initially tried
at the start of the season, reduced later, and then increased once again tolarvals the end of
the season. The pituitary extract is injected into the females in escalating amounts,
usually in two separate injections, whereas the males only receive one. For the initial
injection, female patients may receive 2-4 mg/kg of body weight, and for the second
injection, 5–10 mg/kg of body weight. Males receive one injection in addition to the last
injection given to the female, and the period between two injections is typically 6 hours.
The dose ranges from 2-4 mg/kg body weight. Even with the little dose of the initial
injection, the females may reproduce if they are in excellent condition. The dosage also
relies upon the potency of the glands employed.
 Preparation of Pituitary extract and Injection (Fig. 1):
The number of glands needed to inject the spawners is computed after the dosage is
chosen. The necessary number of glands is removed, and any extra alcohol is allowed to
evaporate. If not weighed previously, the gland is weighed and then homogenized in a
homogenizer in a known volume of distilled water or 0.3% saline solution. Following
homogenization, the gland is diluted to the required volume at a rate of 0.2 ml/kg of the
47
recipient fish's body weight. After centrifuging the pituitary extract, only the supernatant
solution is used for injection.
Pituitary extract can also be made in advance in large quantities, stored, and refrigerated.
In this instance, the extract is made using distilled water and kept fresh with glycerine in 1:2
ratio. When a pituitary gland extract is prepared in bulk, it can be used in numerous sets with
comparable outcomes because the extract's potency is constant, unlike when it is done
individually.
Fig.1.1 Dose administration

 Breeding:
One female and two males are released in the breeding hapa after the initial injection.
Breeding hapas are rectangular cloth containers with an entrance on one side (the breadth side)
that can be used to introduce and remove breeders as well as be secured securely. Hapas that
breed are used to the margins of ponds, canals, lakes, and reservoirs. Water bodies with common
carp and tilapia are avoided while mending the hapas, as are ponds with recent manure buildup
and algae blooms. Breeding takes place within 3–6 hours after final injection to females.
Stripping method is not followed, since Indian major carps breed fully after injection with high
percentage of fertilization.
Silver Carp and Grass Carp
 Selection of Breeders:
Males in good health who easily ooze sperm under light pressure are typically preferred.
The pectoral fins of males are rough to the touch, whereas those of females are smooth, like
48
those of Indian big carps. The most common selection criteria for females are a soft, round,
protruding abdomen and a slightly enlarged, pinkish vaginal entrance.
 Selecting female
Silver and Grass carps can be made easier with the aid of a catheter. By inserting
catheter, some oocytes are taken out and examined in the field by keeping them in petridish.
Silver carp female with uniform size of eggs, very pale blue in colour, but slightly pinkish in
smaller ones are usually selected for breeding. Since well-fed females may appear mature, the
use of a catheter is more helpful when choosing Grass carp females to make sure they are
pregnant. Because they will be at a more mature stage, females with uniformly sized, brownish
or copper coloured eggs are preferable.
Breeding Technique:
Similar to Indian major carps, Silver and Grass carps are bred using the same methods.
Pituitary gland extract is administered to females at a dosage of 10–14 mg/kg body weight and to
male at a rate of 3–4 mg/kg body weight. As in the case of Indian major carps, males receive one
treatment while females receive two injections in escalating amounts. The injected fish are put
into the breeding hapas in sets of one female and two males each. Three to four hours after the
last injection, the females are checked to see if they are ready for stripping. If the eggs start to
leak out immediately after applying a little pressure to the genital hole, the fish is ready to be
stripped.
Fish occasionally move quickly, and then some eggs are released. If not, the fish are
returned and examined once more after 30 minutes or an hour, depending on the situation. The
eggs are stripped into a well-cleaned, dry enamel basin and promptly fertilized with milt when
using the dry method of stripping, which involves wiping the fishes with a towel to remove any
excess water.
Eggs and milt are vigorously combined for one or two minutes using clean feathers.
Water is then added, and the mixture is then washed three to four times to eliminate any
remaining milt. Once the eggs have properly swollen and hardened, they are kept in breeding
hapas. After receiving pituitary injections, Grass carps can spawn themselves with a high success
rate; in contrast, Silver carp rarely produce fertilized eggs, and when they do, the success rate is
poor. The amount of milt recovered from Silver carp males is frequently insufficient; therefore
additional males are injected, stored apart, and used as needed. Even with a single low dose of 3-
49
5 mg/kg body weight of pituitary extract, free discharge of eggs has been seen in grass carp and
silver carp on chilly rainy days, and the eggs could be fertilized by uninjected males.
 Multiple Breeding:
Major Chinese and Indian carps only reproduce annually during the monsoon season. It
was believed until a few years ago that females could only be artificially inseminated once each
year. Since the majority of these carps were forced to reproduce a second time within the same
season, this idea has modified. When fish are properly cared for and start breeding early in the
season, they typically have this success. The Silver carp and Grass carp which have bred in
February/March can be hypophysed a second time between May-July and the spawners lay more
eggs during the second breeding. Chinese carps only spawn once a year in China's natural
waters, however carps raised in captivity can spawn multiple times annually. This alteration in
reproduction cycle is induced by the change in environmental conditions. Intensified culture of
post spawner is carried out when temperature is above 20°C. The brood stock reach maturity
again and thus Grass carp could be bred three times in a year from April to August.
 Breeding Period:
Major Indian carps naturally reproduce in flooded rivers during the monsoon season. This
time frame often falls between April and August/September in various regions of India. The
period also coincides with extensive and vigorous induced breeding of Chinese carps in India.
Induced breeding experiments on Indian major carps and Chinese carps have found that there are
occasions when fishes could be successfully bred for a longer period than generally thought
possible. Breeding of Labeo rohita was permitted through the end of September, and that of
Silver carp through November.
Grass carp can be made to breed in September, but the best time to do it is from July to
August. This was most likely caused by the monsoon continuing over a longer period of time and
creating favourable meteorological conditions. Labeo fimbriatus could reproduce in Kerala from
April to August and then again in November. Apart from breeding in July-August, the same
species is effectively induced to breed in Tamil Nadu in October. At the Rahara Center of the
Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, silver carp and Mrigal were forced to reproduce in
the months of March and April (CIFRI). At the All India Coordinated Research Project on
Composite Fish Culture Centers in Jaunpur (Uttar Pradesh) and Karnal (Haryana), Rohu, Mrigal,
and Silver carp could be coaxed to spawn 40–50 days before the monsoon under 38°C water
50
temperature. From the latter week of March through September, silver carp, grass carp, and
Indian major carps might be effectively reared. By getting the fish to the appropriate maturity by
injecting pituitary extracts in the month of November, Mrigal may be bred by hypophysation in
the month of December.
3.3 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR INDUCED BREEDING
 Breeding environment and conducive ecological factors for induced breeding

Breeders that have been injected are typically released in India in hapas that are fastened
to the margins of ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and canals for breeding. With the exception of canal
systems, the water will stay still, but in some areas of the nation where it hasn't rained in two or
three days, the temperature of the water can soar to 38°C and even up to 35°C. However,
improved facilities are now available in some stations where running water or circulation of
water with the ability to somewhat adjust water temperature is possible because to the
development of hatchery systems.
The weather and water parameters examined during the breeding of Indian major carps in
ponds by hypophysation revealed that spawning takes place in clear and turbid water at
temperatures ranging from 24-36°C.The ideal conditions are cool, rainy days with water
temperatures of 27°C, with the best outcomes being seen between 30 and 33°C. A regulated
temperature of 28°C resulted in better spawning than field circumstances, where the temperature
was 3.1 to 5.6°C higher. In Kerala, Labeo fimbriatus can be bred as early as April 10th at
controlled temperatures of 29–30°C.
Indian major carps may reproduce in a wide range of temperatures under hypophysation,
however when the water is 30°C or colder, a higher percentage of fertilization and improved
hatching are seen. Silver carp and grass carp can spawn in hapas fastened in stagnant pond water
when there has been a substantial buildup of rainwater, a sudden rise in water level, and the
water temperature is below 30°C. Eggs and brood fish kept in hapas typically have difficulty
spawning and hatching when the water temperature is above 33°C.
Almost 100% breeding of Silver carp and Grass carp was accomplished on three
consecutive days at water temperature of 24-28°C while performing tests in a pond with stored
rain water of the season and with constant slow rise in water level due to the flow of rain water
into pond. Silver carp and Mrigal were successfully induced to breed in March and April at the
51
CIFRI Rahara Center at a controlled temperature of 25 to 26°C. From March through September,
a modified version of the Chinese hatchery method was used to mechanically oxygenate the deep
tube well water, which had a temperature of 28 to 29°C, in order to breed Chinese carps and
Indian major carps. Running water (flow of 0.2–0.4 ml/sec) is effective in encouraging fish to
spawn in Chinese carp breeding, and water temperatures between 23–29°C are regarded as ideal.
According to the elements influencing carp reproduction in nature and hypophysation,
water/floods play a part in lowering the electrolytic level of water, which results in gonadal
hydration and successful spawning. While in natural spawning, a sudden drop in electrolytic
level in the water caused by a flood or heavy monsoon rain caused hydration of the fish as a
whole, which in turn caused the gonad and those fish that were ripe in condition to start
spawning in nature. Gonadal hydration is achieved during induced breeding by additional
amounts of exogenous pituitary extract.
It is common knowledge that fish gain water and hence weight as they transition from
higher electrolytic level water, such as sea water to fresh water, and that the opposite is true
when they transit from lower electrolytic level to higher level water. In rivers and reservoirs, the
electrolytic level rises noticeably in the summer and then abruptly falls after monsoon rains.
Furthermore, the ovary's overall water content, the presence of fluid between follicular cells, the
loss of adhesion between cells and eggs, and the increase in egg diameter all point to the fact that
the remarkable absorption of water into the ovary and the ovarian eggs precedes these
morphological changes that accompany ovulation.
Investigation is necessary to determine if the conditions in ponds during the spawning
season encourage such water absorption or not, especially since these carps mature in ponds but
do not spawn there. The pond water may not be as heavily diluted by rain or floodwater as the
river where they typically reproduce. It is significant to highlight in this context because while
males sperm in ponds, females do not ovulate there. This might be the case because, in contrast
to the chorion, which may mechanically oppose or support the admission of ions and water to the
egg for its final maturation, sperms do not have a mechanical barrier to water transport.
3.3.1 HYPOPHYSATION
Currently, the method most frequently employed for fish reproduction is hypophysation.
It is used in the commercial production of millions of fish in addition to reproduction
52
experiments. Hypophysation is achieved by induced ovulation and spawning are essentially

shortcuts to the normal process. In the wild, the pituitary gland of fish produces and stores its
own gonadotropin hormone, which regulates and causes ovulation. When all the necessary
conditions are met, the hormone that has been stored is released into the circulation. However,
the hypophysation approach induces the final ovulation by injecting the breeder with
gonadotropic hormone that has been taken from the donor fish's pituitary.
 Fish pituitary glands and their substitute
The big Indian carps, Chinese carps, and common carps' glands are frequently used in
India for the hypophysation technique. Chinese carps were not given the same treatment as
Indian big carps were given. When administered at a rate of 10–16 mg/kg body weight, the
glands of freshwater catfishes including Pangasius pangasius, Silonia siondia, Bagarius
bagarius, Mystus seenghala, and Wallago attu stimulate effective spawning. The pituitary glands
of Channa sp., Tilapia mossambica, and Notopterus chitala, when given to females at doses of 8
to 20 mg/kg, had no impact.
HATCHERY SYSTEMS
Pituitary gland extract from Tachysurus sp. given at 20–30 mg/kg body weight has been
found to affect spawning in Indian major carps, in contrast to pituitary gland extract from Arius
sp. Mystus gulio, and Tachysurus sp. at 12–20 mg/kg body weight failed to stimulate spawning.
When administered to L. rohita at 460–2010 IU/kg body weight, organon did not trigger
spawning. However, it has been suggested in a small number of instances that L. rohita could be
bred by administering organon at a dose of 600 IU/kg body weight. For Silver carp, organon
injections alone at 630–660 IU and organon 240 IU plus 12 mg carp pituitary per kg body weight
both resulted in effective spawning. Using synahorin and the carp pituitary gland, Rohu was
successfully bred.
Hatching:
To improve hatching and survival rates from the earthen hatchery pits and cement
hatchery pits at spawn collection centres, the hatching methods for carp eggs have undergone
numerous improvements. With or without temperature control, running water systems are
replacing the use of twin hatching hapas. To determine the percentage of fertilization, the water-
hardened eggs are weighed, their number is calculated, and a sample is analyzed. Under field
conditions, the eggs are housed in double-walled hapas with an inner hapa composed of a thin,
53
round-meshed mosquito net and an exterior hapa made of cotton or nylon with a close mesh.
Since the inner hapa is smaller, there are gaps of 15 cm between the inner and outer hapa on all
sides and at the bottom. A total of 50,000 to 100,000 eggs can be held for hatching in an outside
hapa of the dimensions 2 m ×1 m ×1 m and a suitable inner hapa, depending on fertilization. The
eggs are evenly distributed throughout the inner hatching hapa. When the water temperature is
between 26 and 31 degrees Celsius, the ideal hatching time for Indian main carps is 16 to 18
hours, while it takes about two hours longer for silver and grass carp. The inner hapa is removed
as the hatchlings progress from the inner to the outer hapa.
3.3.2 USE OF DIFFERENT SYNTHETIC AND NATURAL

HORMONES, THEIR FORMULATION AND MECHANISM OF
ACTION
Synthetic Hormones
 Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG):

The placenta of a pregnant woman produces the glycoprotein hormone known as HCG.
The hormone is detected in substantial amounts in the urine during the early stages of pregnancy.
The hormone is known to induce maturation and the release of gametes when it is injected into
mature fish. Together, the circulating pituitary hormones and the action of promoting sperm
release and ovulation work synergistically. HCG is not as effective when administered alone as it
is when combined with pituitary gland extract.
The substance is mixed with distilled water, ground (2 mg in 0.2 ml), and centrifuged.
Injection is then performed using the supernatant.
Dose: The female is given the first injection, and then both the male and female receive the
second injection at the same time. The initial dose is less. Along with the extract from the
pituitary gland, the second dose is administered. Weight affects the dose. A completely ripe
breeder and ideal weather conditions are necessary for the greatest outcomes.
 Synahorin:
54
This is another hormone preparation of chorionic gonadotropin and mammalian

hypophysial extract.
 Ovaprim :Salmon gonadotropin RH and a dopamine antagonist are combined to form
"Ovaprim," which is a stable solution. It is made in a certain ratio of glycerin to alcohol.
Dr. Richard Peter of the University of Alberta in Canada was the one who initiated this
ground-breaking effort. He discovered that the hypothalamic neuromodulator dopamine
inhibits the production and release of gonadotropins from the pituitary in fish.
Gonadotrophic releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons and dopamine neurons in the
hypothalamus share synaptic connections. Thus, synaptic connections allow the
inhibitory signal from dopamine neurons to reach the GnRH neurons. Since 1988, this
hormone has been commercially available and is widely used. 0.3 to 0.5 mg/kg body
weight for females and.01 to 0.3 mg/kg body weight for males are used to introduce them
to the fish. In India, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Odisha, and Maharashtra have seen positive outcomes from
using it. It is thought to be superior to pituitary extract. When pituitary extract is used,
1.15 lakh eggs from "rohu" are produced; however, when ovaprim is used, that number
rises to 1.41 lakh. Ovaprim can be stored at ambient temperature even in the tropics for
more than a year.
 Pimozide and LH RH-A :
Pimozide is a dopamine antagonist with LHRH-ovulatory function. When used on Indian

big carps, it works fairly well. When it comes to brackish water fish, the LHRH (Luteininsing
hormone releasing Hormone) and its counterpart (LHRH-A) are particularly effective (Mugil and
Lates). They are inexpensive, but the preparations are currently just temporary. Their use will be
held up until preparations with a lengthy shelf life are made.
 DOCA (II-Desoxycorticosterone – acetate):
DOCA is another effective drug which has been tried on catfish, Clarias and Heteropneustes.
They are a bit different in the sense that they not only cause ovulation but may also bring about
maturation of eggs. Antiestrogen Tamoxifen: (I-CP-(Beta-dimethyl aminoethoxy) phenyl)-1, 2 –
transdiphenyl but-1- ene) has given good results on coho salmon.
LH and human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG), two mammalian gonadotropic hormones,
are powerful inducers of maturation and ovulation in fish. HCG or a combination of HCG and
55
mammalian pituitary extract has been used to promote spawning in a number of species,
although for some recalcitrant breeders, such as Indian and Chinese carps, it is necessary to
administer fish pituitary homogenates or extracts. There are instances of even these species being
successfully bred using HCG in specific situations. The Chinese carps will respond favourably to
injections of HCG after having been successfully bred two or three times using fish pituitary
extract.
However, it has been shown that HCG injections may cause a "drug resistance effect"
associated with the development of antibodies against foreign proteins. However, it would seem
that complete pituitary gland homogenates and extracts, as well as partially purified fish
gonadotropins, are more effective than mammalian gonadotropins at causing fish to mature and
ovulate, and can be utilized widely in commercial fish production.
3.4 BUNDH BREEDING

Bundh Breeding:
Bundh is a type of perennial and seasonal tank or impoundment where riverine conditions
are simulated and where major carps are known to breed. After a heavy shower, the bundhs
receive large quantity of rain water with washings from their catchment areas and provide large
shallow areas that serve as spawning grounds for the fishes. The first bundh (dry bundh) was set
up in Madhya Pradesh at Sonar Talliya in 1958. After this, persistent expansion of bundhs had
taken place due to its simplicity of operation and high rate of success.
Types of Bundh:
Bundhs are generally of two types:
(A) Wet Bundhs and
(B) Dry Bundhs.
A. Wet Bundhs (Fig. 2):
1. Wet bundhs are perennial ponds situated in the slope of an undulating terrain. It provides a
vast catchment area and facilitates quick filling even with a short spell of rain.
2. It has proper embankments with an inlet tolarvals the high catchment area and an outlet at the
opposite lower end.
3. The deeper portion of the bundh during summer, retain water containing major carp breeders.
4. During monsoon, after a heavy shower, water from the catchment area rushes into the bundh.
56
5. The major portion of the bundh gets submerged and the excess water passes out through the
outlet. The shallow areas of the bundh are called moans where the breeders actually spawn.
6. The outlet is protected by a bamboo fencing called chheva.
7. The outflow of the water through the chheva can be controlled by blocking the spaces in it
with straw and mud.
8. Fine meshed nylon cloth is placed in the outlet to stop the hatchlings from escaping. Similar
nylon cloth is placed i n the inlet to stop the entry of unwanted fishes.
Fig. 1.2 Wet Bundh

B. Dry Bundhs:
Fig. 1.3 Dry Bundh
57
1. Dry bundh is a seasonal one, which remains more or less dry during greater part of the year.
2. It is a shallow depression enclosed on three sides by an earthen embankment.
3. During the monsoon season it imports fresh rain-water from the catchment area.
4. In modern constructions, the embankment is a pucca stone masonry with a small sluice gate in
the deepest portion of the bundh for complete drainage and one or two waste weirs for overflow
of excess water.
5. A dry bundh unit (apart from the bundh) also consists of storage ponds for stocking breeders,
an observation post with arrangement for storing necessary equipment and a set of cemented
hatcheries (2.4 m x 1.2 m x 0.3 m) along with overhead tank and regular supply of water for
handling large number of eggs at a time.
6. In dry bundhs, selected numbers of female and male (in the ratio 1:2) breeders of major carps
are introduced. Though major carps breed at any spot in the bundh, it is advantageous to prepare
‘spawning grounds’ at different levels which could get flooded at different water levels. It has
been stated that the water depth where sex play/courtship behaviour and spawning take place,
varies between 8 cm and 1.2 m. In both wet and dry bundhs, spawning usually occurs after a
large quantity of rain water fills up the bundh during continuous heavy showers of the monsoon
period. It has been seen that at first smaller sized mature fishes (rohu, mrigal) get stimulated to
breed and in order to spawn, migrate either to the shallow areas of the bundh or to those
adjoining it. Bigger fishes, like catla, spawn next in the same area. Spawning occurs on hard or
sandy soil and on rocky embankment. In one year (spawning season of 30-40 days) as much as
five crops could be obtained in a dry bundh, whereas only one or two crops possible in wet
bundh.
Prerequisites of Bundh Breeding:
For successful bundh breeding the prerequisites are:
(1) Heavy showers during the monsoon season.
(2) Flow of water from up-land to bundhs and then through outlet, makes some sort of water
current.
(3) Inlet and outlet of the bundhs are to be kept closed after the water level reaches brim point.
(4) Sudden fall of temperature.
(5) No definite depth for breeding, as breeding can take place even in paddy fields having a
depth of 31-35 cm.
58
(6) Smaller fishes first get inducement to breed and the bigger ones are attracted later.
Drawbacks of Bundh Breeding:
(1) Indiscriminate killing of brood fishes particularly milters during dry months, result in
improper sex ratio.
(2) It is not possible to hygienically maintain mud hatching pits.
(3) Large scale mortality of spawn takes place as they are not transported before the 3rd day.
(4) Other limiting factors for successful spawning are:
(a) Presence of excessive numbers of copepods (Cyclops, Diaptomus, etc.) that accumulate in the
water of the bundh.
(b) Large scale deposition of alluvium in the breeding grounds.
3.5 HAPA BREEDING

The double-walled hatching hapa
It is one of the traditional and common devices used to hatch carp eggs. A hatching hapa
consists of two separate pieces of hapas, the inner and the outer hapa. The inner hapa is smaller
and fitted inside the outer hapa. The fertilized are released in the inner hapa. Upon hatching, the
newly hatched hatchlings wriggle out through the round meshes of the inner wall and collect
themselves in the outer hapa. Remove the inner hapa containing egg shells and dead eggs once
the hatching is completed. The hatchlings remain in the outer hapa till the third day when they
are ready for stocking in nursery pond. The outer hapa is made of markin cloth or any fine-
meshed durable cloth, stitched in the shape of a rectangular trough, without any cover and
provided with ropes at its 4 upper and bottom corners. The size of the outer hapa usually is 2 x 1
x 1m. The inner hapa is made of round-meshed mosquito net cloth with the dimension of 1.75 x
0.75 x 0.5 m; rectangular in shape and provided with ropes at its 4 upper and bottom corners.
The hapas are tied to bamboo poles and fixed in a pond or river margin or cement cistern or
channel with clear, oxygen-rich circulated water, not having algal blooms. About 25-30 cm of
the outer hapa should be kept above the surface of water to prevent entry of weed fishes, insects,
etc. The haching of eggs takes place 14-20 hours after fertilization at a temperature of 26-310 C.
About 75,000-100,000 eggs can be hatched in a standard hapa if fertilization rate is over 75%.
59
Fig. 1.4 Double-walled Hatching Hapa

Merits :
1. Useful for hatching relatively small number of eggs.
2. Separates egg shells from hatchlings very effectively.
Demerits :
1. Water quality cannot be controlled.
2. Fish from outside can damage eggs and spawn through the hapa wall by sucking.
3. Recurring expenditure is high.
3.6 HATCHERY MANAGEMENT

A fish hatchery is a facility used for the artificial breeding, hatching, and raising of young
animals, particularly fish and shellfish. In order to serve the aquaculture sector, hatcheries create
larval and young fish, shellfish, and crustaceans that are then transported to on-growing systems,
like fish farms, to mature into harvestable sizes. Fin fish hatcheries create larval and young fish
that are then moved to aquaculture facilities to be "on-grown" until they are ready for harvest.
Hatchery production confers three main benefits to the industry.
1. Out of season production,
2. Genetic improvement and
3. Reduced dependence on wild-caught juveniles.
There is, however, little to no assurance that an adequate number can be caught and
stored in the time frame required for ideal production circumstances. As a result, the fish farmer
is forced to find alternative sources of stock. Fish that can only spawn at first must be stimulated
to develop in the proper conditions in order to hatch and grow into fry. A few important elements
60
that must be taken into consideration include the water quality parameters, feed for optimal
nutritional composition and particle size, and disease resistance. For optimal fish production, a
thorough understanding of each of these components is required.
The farmer can choose for desirable traits through artificial propagation, such as quick
growth and disease resistance. The most important element of contemporary fish farming is a
hatchery. Hatcheries are enclosures, either natural or man-made, where eggs are bred and
hatched. Some authors define a "hatchery" in its broadest meaning as a facility that conducts
everything from fish spawning to the production of fingerling fish for stocking in grow-out
ponds, fish fattening, and brood stock rearing. However, a hatchery is a facility that is indoors
and used for fish spawning, egg incubation, hatching, and nurturing the hatchlings to spawn
stage.
Need for Hatchery
• Lack of understanding leads to the raising of mixed varieties, which has a lower survival
rate.
• The seed that was collected is a mixture of various kinds. For their seed needs, fish
growers are limited to natural water bodies.
• The amount of seed harvested from the riverine source is really small.
• Earlier, the only source of fish seed was natural catch during the rainy season from rivers
and huge reservoirs, which was accomplished by a number of issues.
• In today's scenario it is attempted to use rearing ponds for raising fry to fingerlings and
nursery ponds for rearing larvae to fry stage.
• Modern aquaculture requires brood fish ponds to house adult fish used as pituitary gland
spawning donors as well as discarded male and female fishes.
Role of Hatchery
• The importance of the hatchery is evident in the fact that it has increased fish seed
production and developed an environment that makes it possible to generate seeds of any
grade or quantity.
• State and federal hatcheries are anticipated to play a bigger role in biodiversity
preservation through preserving rare, endangered, and threatened genotypes.
 Essential Components of a Hatchery
Traditional Hatchery Earthen Hatching Pits:
61
Carp breeders used earthen hatching pits as the oldest method of hatching carp eggs.
There is a 3x2x1 diameter pit that was specifically built. The interior walls of the rows of pits are
coated with mud, or red soil. The hatching pits are filled with the fertilized eggs that have been
gathered from bund tank types. Each pit may hold between 36,000 and 400,000 eggs, and each
egg hatches in around 24 hours. To promote optimum aeration and prevent waste from building
up, a steady flow of water is maintained. The accessible spawn is collected with a piece of cloth
and moved to nurseries after around 3 days, when the yolksac is absorbed.
a) Earthen Pot Hatchery:
This was one of the earliest strategies used to increase hatching rates. The fertilized eggs
are removed from the bundh and maintained in a variety of locally constructed earthen pots that
have been organized in a specific way. This creates a current of water that is moving and is kept
cold by the surface evaporation of the porous earthen pots where the crab eggs were laid. This
approach uses baked clay and jars to regulate temperature and pH changes. Even though they are
inexpensive, vessels have the drawback of being opaque and are easily changed.
b) Double Cloth Hatching Hapa:
In 1976, this technique was uncovered. The outer hapa and the inner hapa are two
rectangular shapes. The inner hapa measures 1.75m*0.75m*0.5m, while the outside hapa
measures 2m*1m*1m. The inside hapa is constructed of round mesh mosquito netting cloth,
while the outer hapa is made of tightly woven cotton fabric. The inner hapa's water is kept at a
depth of about 30 cm. Normal egg hatching yields between 75,000 and 100,000 eggs. The inner
hatching hapa is removed together with the egg shells and the bad eggs once the hatching has
passed through the mesh into the outside hapa. Until the yolk sac is digested, the hatchlings in
the outer hapa are retained for a period of 48 hours (2 to 3 days). The hapa is installed on frames
that are constructed by combining polyethylene or aluminum pipes, making this method the
better one. Floats are included to make floating easier.
I. Plastic Bucket Hatchery:
 A plastic hatchery consists of two components.
 One is an outer plastic bucket with an aluminum bin egg vessel that has perforations in it,
and the other is a spawnery made of galvanized iron sheet.
 The plastic bucket is 47 cm in height, 30 cm in diameter, and has three top outlets.
 45 litres of water is held.
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III. Modern Hatcheries Glass Jar Hatchery:

 It is the first ever hatchery in India where it is possible to see the developing eggs through
transparent windows.
 It has a spawnery, incubation unit, and breeding tank.
 Water is obtained through a bore well or freshwater pond.
 5500 litre capacity overhead tanks are situated next to the hatchery.
 This device comprises of a battery of glass jars with conical bottoms and cylindrical
shapes that have 6.35 litre capacities.
 One jar can produce the hatching of about 50,000 eggs.
IV. Vertical Hatcheries Modern Carp Hatchery CIFE D-80 Model:

 The CIFE D-80 model modern carp hatchery was created in the year 1980.
 The former director of the Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Dr. S.K. Dwivedi, is
honoured in the name of this contemporary carp hatchery.
 In this model, attempts have been made to regulate environmental factors such as
temperature, oxygen content, silt content, water flow, and egg-moving area.
 The hatchery is made up of an overhead tank for water storage, a cooling tower, a
portion for the eggs, a compressor for aeration, a vertical egg container, PVC pipes,
valves, showers, channels, hatchery stands, and hapas.
 The incubation tank and the egg collection tank are the two separate components of this
sort of hatchery.
 There are four vertical jar complexes with six funnels each.
 The total capacity of the hatchery complete is 50 lakh eggs at a time.
Chinese Hatchery for Fishes:

Chinese technologies for carp breeding and egg hatching rely on a constant flow of water
driven by gravity. Compared to any other design for the same output capacity, a Chinese
hatchery is less expensive to build and run. The Chinese hatchery system is currently regarded as
being extremely suitable for the production of high-quality fish seed in India. This system is
intended for the incubation and breeding of fish. One hatching operation lasts for four days. It
may be done again after four days.
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General Requirements of Fish Hatcheries

 A crucial component of contemporary fish culture is the fish hatchery, which produces
young fish year after year and distributes them to fish producers.
 It is clear that smaller fish farms lack the resources and expertise necessary to meet their
own needs for fish seed, particularly for species of fish that are difficult to reproduce or do
not ordinarily reproduce in limited waters.
 There are two different kinds of hatcheries: one that can manage only one kind of fish
(special hatchery) and another that can handle a variety of fish species.
 In order to fully utilize the pond's food supplies and provide the best potential production,
multi-species hatcheries are currently being established in line with the modern trend of
mixed culture, or composite culture, of diverse species with distinct eating patterns.
 The number and size of the brood stock, the variety of species to be propagated, the timing
of their spawning, the capacity of the larval tanks, incubators, and larva-rearing
equipment, the quantity and quality of the water, and the experience of the operators are
just a few of the variables that affect a hatchery's production capacity.
 The other crucial elements are the size of the fingerling and fry nursing tanks (or ponds)
and the rate at which the young fish are dispersed.
 It is simple to set up sizable central hatcheries and distribution hubs in nations where the
transportation of young fish does not present a problem (due to the presence of a good
network of roads and dependable low-cost transport infrastructure).
 The research efforts of thes centers can advance and enhance the current technologies.
 Even though large central hatcheries have many benefits, it is advisable to establish a
number of medium-sized hatcheries in tropical and subtropical areas, with a capacity to
produce about 7–10 million 20–30 day-old fingerlings. This is because long distance
transportation is limited by the region's high temperatures.
 If the various species' mating seasons do not coincide, serial propagation of the different
species over a longer period of time can significantly boost a hatchery's production
capacity with only minimal additional costs.
The requirements and general lay-out of a medium-sized warm-water fish hatchery are as
discussed here:
The prerequisites of a fish hatchery are:
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• Qualitatively and quantitatively adequate water,

• Adequate land for the ponds, hatchery tanks, buildings, etc.,
• Electricity, if possible,
• Transportation facilities, and
• Manpower.
Description of the Facilities
A hatchery complex consists of four units:
(1) brood fish ponds,
(2) the hatchery with ante ponds and larval basins (tanks),
(3) fry nursing units and
(4) the fingerling rearing cum-production ponds.
I. Brood Fish Ponds:
 Care must be used when handling the brood fish or breeders, which give the sexual
products needed to begin new fish generations.
 One thousand square metres, or 0.1 hectares, of pond area can support 20–50 brood
fish, which weigh 150–250 kg collectively.
 When propagation techniques are used correctly, 2-3 million and 20–30 day-old fish
can be produced from 50–150 brood fish of one species (with 40% females and 60%
males).
 This would imply that the 50–75 normal size brood fish (3-6 kg) needed for one species
may be maintained in two brood fish ponds, each with a 2000 m2 surface area.
 Eight to ten of these ponds with a combined surface size of 1.5 to 2.0 ha would be
sufficient if the hatchery is working with five kinds of fish.
 Fish broods with various feeding preferences can be stocked in the same pond.
 It is not suggested to reduce the number of ponds and raise the size of individual ponds
beyond 2000 m2, as it is challenging to net the brood fish in large ponds when it
becomes required to separate them by sex.
 Ponds for brood fish need to be deep enough (about 1.5 m), and they also need to have
a plentiful supply of water. For a pond with a surface size of 1 ha, 100–200 m3 of water
would be needed each day to replace the water that was evaporated during the dry
season.
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 Ponds for brood fish should be placed in a location where they may be protected from
potential theft of the fish and ideally close to the hatchery.
 The need for a separate watch and larval as well as transportation issues may result
from a more remote site.
 Given the required space, it is advised to build the brood fish ponds in rectangular
shapes.
VI. Hatchery Facilities:
 The hatchery is where most propagation activity is completed.
 Work in the hatchery starts with bringing in ripe breeders for induced spawning and
lasts until feeding fry are distributed for stocking elsewhere.
 In the propagation season, staff and commercial hatcheries typically work nonstop.
 Two small ponds, each 200-450 m2 in size and 1.0-1.5 m deep, are needed to retain the
chosen ripe breeders before their hypophysation.
 In these two ponds, all the fish (about 25–50) needed for breeding over the course of a
week can be kept (with sexes separated).
 These ponds are sometimes known as storage ponds or ante ponds.
 Brick or concrete tanks or basins with a constant supply of filtered, clean, and well-
oxygenated water are required for housing the injected brood fish. Larval basins or
tanks are the names for them.
 These basins' bottoms should gradually slope in the direction of the drain so that they
can be entirely drained whenever necessary. The turn-down pipe has a 5 cm diameter
and controls the water level.
 The turn-down pipe is secured in place with a chain and peg to prevent it from moving
and allowing the water in the larval tank to drain.
 When stripping the injected fish, having a 20–25 cm deep and 50 cm wide ditch along
the longitudinal axis of the basin is quite helpful since it makes it simple to remove the
fish without causing too much disruption.
 In larval tanks with level bottoms, induced spawning can be successfully performed.
 For 4-6 breeders weighing 3-6 kg each, the most practical sizes for these basins are 2.5
x 1.5 x 1.0 m and 4 x 2 x 1 m.
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 Extra large breeders, weighing between 12 and 20 kg per piece, are best housed in
bigger larval tanks.
 It is not a good idea to have too many fish in one tank, especially if they are going for
induced spawning. However, each fish species must be tested in order to identify the
ideal stocking density. It is critical to provide the breeders enough air.
 One normal-sized brood fish is thought to require 4 litres of water each minute (3–6
kg).
 Many river spawners, including Silver carp, Grass carp, Catla, Rohu, and Mrigal, can
grow disturbed and anxious.
 In order to prevent them from jumping out of the water during treatment, it is best to
keep these fish in shallow water (25–30 cm deep).
 In order to stop the injected breeders from jumping out of the basin, it is also advisable
to fix a net cover to the top of the basin.
 For the injected brood fish to have a place to hide, a floating shade on the surface of the
basin must be of an appropriate size and dark colour.
 The water level in the larval tanks can be increased to 60–70 cm for fish that do not
grow anxious during induced breeding.
 If a hapa is installed inside the tank, handling brood fish in the larval tank is made
significantly simpler.
 An iron rod frame is fastened around the bottom of the hapa in order to stretch it out
and prevent it from disturbing the brooders.
 It is practical to have the hapa's length and width should be 5–10 cm less than the larval
basin's.
VII. Nursery Facilities:
The hardest and most important part of fish farming is raising fry successfully on simply
feeding until they are about 25 mm in size.
 The primary bottleneck in most hatcheries is a shortage of room for nursing the fry up
until they reach the fingerling stage at 3–4 weeks of age.
 Fry nursing is undoubtedly a delicate task needing a high level of expertise.
 By giving them larvae or only feeding fry, fish farmers shouldn't be left with the full
responsibility of raising fry.
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 Of course, some growers can be taught how to get their ponds ready for the delicate fry.
 However, it is always preferable for professionals to care for nursing infants.
 As a result, nursery ponds should be a crucial component of the hatchery complex.
 Since the different parameters affecting fry survival are now well understood, raising
fry is lot easier than it used to be.
 A modern hatchery complex needs specialized nursery tanks and small clay ponds to
achieve the greatest results, despite the fact that various varieties of common nursery
ponds have been reported.
Special Nursery Tanks:
• A unique nursery tank has dimensions of 20–40 m, 5–6 m, and a surface area of 100–
240 m2.
• A tank of this type may typically hold 2,000–4,000 simply feeding fry.
• Usually, concrete or bricks are used to construct these tanks.
• One successfully reproduced female fish weighing 4-6 kg can lay 0.5–0.7 kilograms of
dry eggs, according to previous research.
• This could produce the necessary quantity of fry for filling a dedicated nursery tank.
• It would take 30–40 nursery tanks to raise the offspring for up to 21–28 days if 10 of
these female fish were to be reproduced in a single week.
Earthern Nursery Ponds:
• A decent nursery pond should be rectangular in shape with a width of approximately
10–12 m, and it should not be more than 500–1,000 m2.
• The nursery pond's bottom is shaped so that it runs flat for approximately 2.0–2.5 m
from the longitudinal walls before gradually sloping from either side to ward the centre,
where it forms a 2-3 m wide ditch that is 0.5 m deeper than the flat part of the bottom.
• The fry can find sanctuary in this ditch.
• The walls dividing the nursery ponds will occupy a substantial portion of the area if
they are built of clay materials.
 If the nursery ponds' partitioning walls are constructed of brick, concrete pre-fabricated
slabs, or concrete, the wastage of land will not amount to more than 5–7%. If bricks are
used, they must be set in good mortar up to a height of 120–130 cm, with half of the
bricks positioned above and the other half below the surrounding ground.
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 The nursery ponds' bordering walls should be built stronger than the longitudinal walls
that divide them.
 Frogs, toads, and snakes are kept out by the brick walls.
 The nursery ponds' drainage system is quite straight forward, and a fish capturing box
can be added to it in a brick harvesting hole (for collecting the fry when the pond is
drained).
Relative merits of Special nursery tanks and Earthern nursery ponds
The following benefits pertain to the unique nursery tank:
1. The shallow tank, where the fry like to live and eat, is around 70% of the tank.
2. Extra vegetation (grass and other plants) would not be present during the nursing time
because the shallow region is partly covered with hard bottom (about 50–60%). It can
also be readily dried, cleaned, and disinfected whenever necessary. The fry can also be
easily inspected.
3. By netting the central ditch, it is simple to thin out the fry if necessary.
4. Due to its small size, it is easier to provide intensive nursing, and its ability to treat
parasites internally means that control and preventative measures may be taken.
5. Maybe the high initial cost of construction is the only drawback.
The main significant drawbacks of earthen nursery ponds, particularly if they are square rather
than rectangular, are listed below.
a. The shallow area is smaller, only comprising 40–60%.
b. Too much grass and other plants could prevent the growth of food producing
creatures.
c. The prevention of silting in the deeper areas makes cleaning and disinfection
activities more challenging.
d. The thick foliage makes net operations difficult.
IV. Fingerling rearing-cum-production Units:
The objectives of the fingerling rearing-cum-production unit are basically for:
 Raising potential brood fish, rearing the donor fish for the pituitary gland (often
common carp), rearing large-sized fingerlings and young fish for delivery to fish
farmers, and, if necessary, producing marketable fish.
 Polyculture is typically practiced in the production ponds and fingerling raising ponds.
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 The fingerling rearing-cum-production facility operates year-round, but the propagation

activity of the hatchery and nursery typically lasts no longer than 5 to 6 months.
 If the hatchery also raises marketable fish in addition to producing its own pituitary
glands from donor fish, the expense of producing fingerlings can be kept to a minimum.
 The fingerling rearing-cum-producing unit ponds are often built as production ponds,
with sizes ranging from 0.5 to 1.0 hectares and an overall area of 2-3 ha.
 In general, 10-15 ha of suitable terrain are required to build a medium-sized hatchery-
cum-seed distribution facility.
Manpower Requirements:
Work in a hatchery is delicate and demands careful attention, punctuality, accuracy, and
ability. The safety of the brood fish, eggs, and different stages of seed must be regularly
maintained in the hatchery. Throughout the propagation season, the hatchery's personnel must
put in 8 to 10 hours every day. Fish eggs must be transported and sorted by three to four people.
3.6 FLOW THROUGH HATCHERY FOR MAHSEER AND TROUT
The most valuable sport fish found in all Himalayan waters is the golden mahseer. Due to
illicit fishing practices, habitat degradation, and the introduction of foreign species, this species
is currently regarded as one that is endangered. As a result, a drop in its captures is observed in
practically all natural resources. Artificial reproduction is a crucial component of this species'
rehabilitation. It has been built and produced a specialized hatchery that can control the volume
and flow of water to incubate and hatch eggs.
The designed hatchery system included nursery tanks, raising tanks with continuous
water flow, and a series of troughs under which trays of a particular size and mesh could be
found. For a constant supply of water to the hatchery, a 1000 L overhead tank is made at a height
of 5 m. The trays containing fertilized eggs are kept in a rectangular trough that measures 220 cm
× 50 cm x 40 cm. 50 cm x 30 cm x 10 cm trays are used to incubate 5000–6000 eggs each tray.
For the purpose of raising fry, tanks of 200x60x30cm are made of fibre glass or galvanized iron
sheets. For 2000 eggs to be incubated at a water temperature of 20–28 °C, 1 LPM of water flow
is necessary. For the rearing of 2000 fry at a water temperature of 20–28°C, a water flow of 3–4
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LPM is necessary. In coldwater environments, the structure is suitable for the generation of
spawn and fingerlings. Mahseer fish seed can be grown in controlled conditions and is of high
quality. For the bulk seed production of this fish species, a flow-through Mahseer hatchery has
been created. For breeding, egg incubation, and larval rearing with continuous water flow, the
system is straight forward and farmer-friendly. This species' artificial mass seed production
might be useful for both increasing aquaculture output and rehabilitating this species through
ranching in upland water bodies.
3.6.2 PLOIDY INDUCTION

Induction of triploidy
Several physical shocks and chemical treatments are used to directly induce triploidy
during the second meiotic division shortly after fish eggs have been fertilized. An alternate way
to create hybrid triploid fish is by marrying conventional diploid and tetraploid fish. Many
researchers have successfully employed pressure stocks as well as temperature (cold and heat) as
efficient factors to induce triploidy in a variety of fish. Although there was less inter-individual
variance in response to heat shock than was shown for cold, pressure was generally more
effective in maximizing triploid yields. There have been reports of a similar circumstance where
pressure shock was chosen over temperature shock for triploidization of Atlantic salmon eggs
because to the great variety in how the eggs from various females responded to the identical heat
shock treatment.
3.6.3 PRODUCTION OF MONOSEX POPULATION

As some fish have superior sex specific growth rates, where one sex of fish grows
quicker than the other, sex control is desirable for the development of aquaculture. The crucial
instance is tilapia, where males grow more quickly than females. The females also appear to
grow more quickly than the males in Himalayan golden Mahseer. Sex control is essential for
population control, especially in fish species that reproduce a lot and negatively impact
production because of stunting brought on by overcrowding. Aquaculturists may also be drawn
to sex-specific attractive colorations and body shapes if they plan to use sex manipulation
technologies in the aquarium commerce. Many foreign fish species are also viable candidates for
aquaculture, but they have certain negative ecological effects, such as invasiveness. The use of
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monosex/sterile fish production methods will thereby ensure ecological protection by preventing
introduced fish species from reproducing in the wild, even if they escape from farm facilities.
Certain species of fish are better suited for monosex and sterile culture than for
indiscriminate culture of both sexes and fertile forms. Such fish seed types are cultivated in the
typical way. Getting pure monosex or sterile seedlings is the main challenge. Certain steroids,
such as methyl testosterone and estradial-17B in large dosages, inhibit spermatogenesis in Salmo
gairdneri trout. However, it is not recommended for commercial production to employ
exogenous (hormone) steroids to limit gametogenesis because the resulting fish might not be safe
for human consumption. The chemosterilants lessen the synthesis of gonadotropin , reduce
androgen production without stopping gonad maturation. They will also need to be given to the
young for inclusion in their diet, making their usefulness for business purposes questionable.
(i) Radiation treatment to induce in embryonic or fry stage.
(ii) Many fish hybridize successfully to produce sterile offspring.
(iii) Modifying the chromosomes to produce polyploidy
They lack meiosis normally, hence they are sterile. Only auto diploids and closely related types
are viable.
Importance:
(1) Fishes' growth slows down as they reach sexual maturity. Because the energy resources used
for reproduction are gradually redirected for growth, sterile fish exhibit improved and faster
growth as well as greater vigour than they would normally. Fish flesh is produced more
efficiently from food.
(2) Sexually mature fish, such as salmon, lose flavour because their meat becomes watery and
unhealthy because it is more prone to microbial (fungal) illness.
Production of monosex
Through mechanical sexing and individual stock sorting in fish that exhibit sexual dimorphism,
such as tilapia. The approach is not commercially viable since it is very time-consuming and
labor-intensive. By sex reversal, in which the gonads differentiate in a different way from how
they normally do. biological makeup.
Fish have the ability to reverse their phenotype both from male to female genetically
(feminization) and from female to male phenotypically (masculinization). An important method
of sex reversal is the introduction of exogenous sex hormones that over ride the endogenous
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hormones to the early developing masculinization or feminization. Such hormones are

administered through breeding of hormone incorporated diet to the early developing
masculinization or feminization. Production of sex reversal male is simple. Males who have had
hormone treatment are unfit for human consumption, but because F progeny are genetically xx
safe, they only create x-bearing sperm after fertilization, which only produces female offspring
when fertilized with x-ovum (undesirable). The conversion of such fertilized eggs into triploid
females, which are desired since they are sterile, is attempted in trout farming. Hormonal sex-
reversal therapy is a reliable treatment as long as the right doses are administered at the right
time (early life) and for the requisite amount of time.
3.6.4 HYBRIDIZATION
Hybridization is a conventional technique commonly used in fish breeding. Hybrids are
defined as the products of crossing distinct species. A considerable number of hybrids have been
produced between different fish species. The occurrence of natural hybridization in fishes is
known since long. It is more common in freshwater fishes than in marine. By crossing fish with
various phenotypes and genotypes, hybridization aims to bring out or combine valuable features.
• The F1 hybrids frequently display heterosis and will have novel genotypes and traits.
• Fish breeding as well as commercial fish production can both use hybrids with clear heterosis
in the first generation.
• Hybridization can be used in one of several ways to improve productivity. This can be
incorporated into a selection programme as a final cross to produce animals for grow-out. In this
case, the fishes are selected in two lines that have been shown to produce good hybrids; after the
selection programmes, the selected lines are hybridized.
• Interspecific hybridization has been successful in improving production traits (such as growth
rate, survival, disease resistance) as well as manipulating sex ratios in many fish and shellfish
genera and/or families (carps, catfishes, cichlids, moronids, salmonids, sparids, sunfishes,
oysters, crayfish).
• Sometimes an interspecific hybrid shows a nice blend of advantageous features from both
parent species even when it does not show heterosis for any trait.
• The majority of the hybrids tested showed no promise for aquaculture.
• A few desirable hybrids are, nevertheless, used economically.
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3.6.5 CRYO-PRESERVATION OF GAMETES AND EMBRYO
The cryopreservation is a storage technique with practically no time limits. Preservation

of fish gametes has been tried with this technique. The cryopreservation of sperms is a well-
established procedure in animal husbandry. Now, cryopreserved sperms are used successfully in
insemination of cattle, horse, pig, sheep and poultry breeding. It is interesting to note that great
efforts have been put to transfer this technology to the preservation of sperms, ova and embryos
of fish.
This technique will help the fish breeders in the following ways:
(1) The problem of non-coincidence maturation of male and female can overcome, if sperms or
ova are held in storage.
(2) The programme of selective breeding can be undertaken which will improve the indigenous
stock and will help the third world to breed their indigenous species and to produce special
strains of superior stalk.
(3) The technique of cryopreservation of gametes will play an important role in conservation of
indigenous germplasm as many of indigenous Indian fish cannot compete with exotic fishes. By
this technique the gametes from threatened species are banked as a hedge against dwindling
genetic variability caused by environmental disturbances.
(4) It can help in production of mono-sex culture.
(5) If gametes can be successfully preserved we can develop fish throughout the year as per our
requirement and can help to establish gene bank to preserve genetic originality of population and
keep them available for re-introduction when general conditions for survival have improved.
The sperms, eggs and embryos can be cryopreserved, but the preservation of egg and embryos
are difficult because of unavailability of cryoprotectant to be absorbed sufficiently in these cells
because of their large size in comparison to spermatozoa.
The cryopreservation of spermatozoa in fishes is successful in man; species These species are
Oncorhynchus, Salmo, Salvilinus fontinalis, Hucho hucho, Thymallus thymallus, Esox lucius and
Cyprinus carpio, Serothodon mossambicus; Labeo rohita, Catla catla and Cirrhinus mrigala.
The following steps are to be followed in preserving spermatozoa:
(1) Collection of milt (semen).
(2) Preparation of extender solution.
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(3) Selection of cryoprotectant.

(4) Freezing.
(5) Success at fertilization.
Collection of Milt:
The first step is to collect sperms. Normally the sperms are collected from healthy fishes by
stripping method. The catheter may be used, which is better alternative to stripping. The male
brooders with best characteristic traits were selected and washed with Ringers solution and
genital papillae region is made dried.
The brooder may be anaesthetized or not anaesthetized. The anaesthesia generally used is
0.3 ml/l of phenoxyethanol. The milt is collected in syringes or haemolysis tubes and later
preserved in glass ampules (sealed or unsealed), plastic straws and often in plastic bags. The
colour, volume, density, pH and motility of sperms are to be noticed.
The sample should be free from urinary and faecal matter. A smear of the sample is to be
examined under microscope to notice abnormalities in sperms. If sample is OK, then put for
further processing, otherwise fresh sample from new brooders may be taken.
During the period of collection and preservation of spermatozoa, the syringe/ampules/
straw may be kept in pond water to maintain constant temperature. The preparation and selection
of extender, a solution in which milt is collected, is most critical for cryopreservation. The
extender prevents depletion of sperm energy and maintain sperm in quiscent condition but alive.
There are two basic extenders. They are called Mounibs medium (M) and Menezo medium (Me).
In these two media bovine serun albumin (BSA) and tellurite egg yolk are added. For Indian
fishes, several extenders were tried by modifying in their following constituents.
The common constituents are sodium chloride, KCI, CaCl2, NaHCO3, Na2 HPO4, and MgSO4. In
addition to these, nutrients and glycine are also added to improve cryopreservation. Antibiotics
such as gentomycin or streptomycin are also added to the extender solution if needed.
Cryoprotectant:
The cryoprotectant’s main function is to penetrate in the cell and may help spermatozoa to
tolerate freezing temperature. The most important and used widely is DSMO (Dimethyl
sulfoxide) and glycerol. Cryoprotectant and extender solution in a fixed ratio, generally one part
of cryoprotectant and nine parts of extender solution is known as diluent. In this diluent the
sperms are collected for further processing for freezing.
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The diluent (cryoprotectant + extender + sperms) are taken in polyvinyl straws and both
ends of straws are sealed and now they are ready for freezing or chilling. The milt can be chilled;
the temperature is maintained between 0-5oC. While in freezing, CO2 and liquid nitrogen are
used Chilled storage of teleost milt (0-50oC) has been studied extensively in Salmonids.
In freezing procedure many problems such as cold shock, formation of intracellular ice and
osmotic shock should be controlled. Cryopreservation generally means storage of cells or tissue
at -196oC, the temperature of liquid nitrogen.
Cell injury should be controlled. Three types of cell injury generally occur. The first is
cold shock, which is caused by cooling above freezing temperatures. This is more important for
ova, not very much important for sperms.
This occurs up to 0°C. When the temperature goes from 0°C and-80°C the osmotic shock
and formation of intracellular ice in ova and sperm takes place. For successful cryopreservation
these things are controlled.
In short, the straws containing diluent, are transferred into cannisters. The cannisters
holding straws after allowing varying equilibration period are dipped first into liquid nitrogen
vapours and then into liquid nitrogen at the temperature -196°C.
In a number of fresh water species freezing has been carried out by pelleting suspend
sperms into dry ice. The transition from 0°C to -70°C lasts approximately 2 minutes resulting in
a rate of 35oC/min. Since the rate decreases above – 60°C. The best results are obtained in liquid
nitrogen.
Thawing:
The thawing is reverse event of freezing. Thawing is done in water bath at temperatures
ranging 10°C to 60°C. The success of whole procedure depends upon the motility of
spermatozoa and capability of fertilizing ova. The eggs of Salmo gairdeneri, Onchorhynchus
kisutch and O.keta were fixed by removing through the process of stripping and sealed in plastic
bags together with coelomic fluid and kept under oxygen at 1°C. The eggs are then allowed to
spread to form a layer one or two eggs deep. The eggs then mixed with extender solution and
cryoprotectant almost in similar way as described earlier for sperms. Unfrozen (chilled) storage
of ova has been moderately successful in salmonids, with storage times in order of a few weeks
obtained through refrigeration of oxygenated eggs in coelomic fluid.
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3.6.6 TRANSGENIC FISH

The ground-breaking technology of transgenesis allows for the creation of genetically
altered organisms. It's interesting to note that fish are easier to manipulate genetically than their
mammalian counterparts since they breed more quickly, produce more eggs per female (greater
fecundity), and have autonomous embryonic biology. The main objectives of genetically
modifying fish species used in aquaculture are to:
a) Boost the growth and effectiveness of food conservation,
b) Develop a higher tolerance for environmental factors like temperature and salinity,
b) Release ornamental fish in new colour varieties, and
c) Create pathogen-resistant strains.
The various methods for producing transgenic fish have been used, and each has benefits
and drawbacks that call for further development. While selective breeding technology has shown
its influence on fish output, it takes a long time; in contrast, genetic improvement through direct
gene manipulation or a transgenic technique might be completed in a matter of years. Therefore,
to supplement drastically increased future food requirements brought on by the development in
the human population, both the conventional selective breeding and transgenic techniques are
necessary. With the enormous variety of fishes, transgenesis could be helpful for developing a
new colour form of attractive species as well as to modify sexual phenotype or reproductive
performance. A foreign DNA sequence has been incorporated into the chromosomal DNA of the
transgenic fish.
ISSUES OR CONCERNS RELATED TO TRANSGENIC FISH
Due to the higher rate of differentiation compared to laboratory or farmed animals, the
failure of ubiquitous expression, which resulted in mosaicism, was the main issue in the
development of transgenic fish. This resulted from the transgene's delayed integration at the one-
cell stage, random transgene integration into host DNA, host enzyme destruction of foreign
DNA, end-to-end ligation of the injected DNA before to integration, and the inability of foreign
DNA to pass down. It was possible for the transgenes to integrate at one or more chromosomal
sites. Several transgenic food fish have been created, however they have not been
commercialized (with the exception of AquAdvantage salmon) due to societal and ecological
concerns. As a result, it's crucial to comprehend the use of transgenic fish that pose serious
threats to both human health and biodiversity. The development of transgenic fish via viral
77
vectors may be harmful to human health. The extinction of biodiversity and genetic diversity are
the ecological issues with the adoption of transgenic fish. Since fish have the intrinsic ability to
escape captivity and potentially enter native or wild environments, their transgenic production
creates ecological problems. Generally speaking, it is accepted that fertility and viability are the
most important fitness traits for determining the ecological safety of transgenic fish. Evidence
suggested that transgenic fish displayed numerous behavioural and phenotypic alterations,
including altered predation, migratory, and incentive to feed.
3.7 SUMMARY
Fish breeding is a natural process. However, in certain conditions (environmental, physiological,

captive) artificial breeding is done and that procedure is called as hypophysation or induced
breeding. There are multiple factors associated with it. Induced breeding is the process of
artificially inducing fish to reproduce when it does not occur naturally. It is mainly done on
Indian Major Carps and other finfishes of food values. Multiple steps are followed up like
selection of breeders, preparation of pituitary extract. Bundh breeding and hapa breeding are few
types of fish breeding techniques. Bundh breeding is divided into two types – dry and wet. In
hapa we use a fine meshed cloth. There are different types of finfish hatcheries. Fishes are placed
in these hatcheries according to their need.
Proper management of these hatcheries is a tedious task. Ploidy induction is another important
technique where we can change the ploidy level of fish. Through this method even monosex
populations could be produced. In cryopreservation we use cryoprotectant to store fish gametes.
Through transgenic mechanism genetically modified fishes are produced. They help in boosting
the growth and effectiveness of food conservation, develop a higher tolerance for environmental
factors like temperature and salinity, release ornamental fish in new colour varieties, and create
pathogen-resistant strains.

Question No.1 Explain the various factors responsible for induced breeding.
Question No.2 What is the process of hypophysation? Explain in detail the se of different synthetic
and natural hormones, their formulation and mechanism of action.
Question No.3 Explain the difference between Bundh and Hapa breeding.
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Question No.4 Explain the steps of Hatchery management.

Question No.5 Explain the terms Ploidy induction, monosex population, hybridization and
transgenic fish.
3.9 REFERENCES
 Abraham, M. 1988. Recent trends in research on induced spawning of fish in aquaculture.

Journal of Applied Ichthyology, 4, 49-64.
 Axelrod, H.R. 1987. A complete introduction to breeding aquarium fishes. TFH
Publications, Neptune City, NJ, USA. 125 pp.
 Bok, A.H.; Immelman, P.P. 1989. Natural and induced spawning of whitefish (Barbus
andrewi). South African Journal of Wildlife Research, 19, 1-3.
 Cerda, J.L.; Carrillo, M.; Zanuy, S.; Ramos, J.; Serrano, R. 1990. Effects on fecundity
and egg quality of three different diets supplied during two reproductive cycles to
broodstock sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax). In Scott, A.P.; Sumpter, J.P.; Kime, D.E.;
Rolfe, M.S., ea., Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on the Reproductive
Physiology of Fish, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK, 7-12 July 1991. University
of East Anglia, Norwich, Norfolk, UK FishSymp 91, p. 270.
 Cho, C.Y.; Cowey, C.B.; Watanabe, T. 1985. Finfish nutrition in Asia: methodological
approaches to research and development. IDRC, Ottawa, ON, Canada. IDRC-233e, 154
pp.
 Dwivedi, S.N.; Reddy, A.K. 1986. Fish breeding in a controlled-environment carp
hatchery CIFE-D81. Aquaculture, 54, 27-36.
 Foscarini, R. 1988. Intensive farming procedure for red sea bream (Pagrus major) in
Japan: a review. Aquaculture, 72, 191-246.
 Lam, T.J.; Munro, A.D. 1987. Environmental control of reproduction in teleosts: an
overview. In Idler, D.R.; Crim, L.W.; Walsh, J.M., ea., Proceedings of the 3rd
International Symposium on Reproductive Physiology of Fish, St John's, Newfoundland,
Canada, August 2-7, 1987. Marine Sciences Research Laboratory, Memorial University
of Newfoundland, St John's, NF, Canada. Pp. 279-288.
 Munro, A.D.; Scott, A.P.; Lam, T.J., ed. 1990. Reproductive seasonality in teleosts:
environmental influences. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA. 254 pp.
79
 Rosenblum, P.M.; Home, H.; Chatterjee, J.; Brandt, T.M. 1991. Influence of diet on
ovarian growth and steroidogenesis in largemouth bass. In Scott, A.P.; Sumpter, J.P.;
Kime, D.E.; Rolfe, M.S, ea., Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on the
Reproductive Physiology of Fish, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK, 7-12 July
1991. University of East Anglia, Norwich, Norfolk, UK FishSymp 91, pp. 265-267.
 Taruchalanukit, W. 1987. Induced spawning of walking catfish (Clarias batrachus) by
water level regulation. In Idler, D.R.; Crim, L.W.; Walsh, J.M., ea., Proceedings of the
3rd International Symposium on Reproductive Physiology of Fish, St John's,
Newfoundland, Canada, August 2-7, 1987. Marine Sciences Research Laboratory,
Memorial University of Newfoundland, St John's, NF, Canada. P. 138.
 Watanabe, T.; Takeuchi, T.; Saito, M.; Nishimura, K 1984. Effect of a low protein-high
calorie or essential fatty acid deficient diet on growth and reproduction of rainbow trout.
Bulletin of the Japanese Society for Scientific Fisheries, 50, 1 207-1 215.
 Young, M.J.A.; Fast, A.W.; Olin, P.G. 1989. Induced maturation and spawning of the
Chinese catfish (Clarias fuscus). Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 20, 7-11.
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UNIT-4: FISH CULTURE SYSTEMS AND

MANAGEMENT
CONTENTS
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Introduction
4.3 Ponds and pond ecology
4.4 Fish farm: construction and lay out of different types of ponds
4.5 Different types of culture system.
4.6 Cultivable indigenous and exotic fishes.
4.7 Pond management: Water, soil, manuring and liming.
4.8 Manuring (organic and inorganic) and liming
4.9 Concept of Composite fish farming and polyculture
4.10 Summary
4.11 Terminal questions and Answers
4.12 References
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4.1 OBJECTIVES
xi. Basic concept of pond and its ecology
xii. Learn about fish farm and its construction
xiii. Have knowledge about different culture systems.
xiv. Learn methods of pond management
xv. Basic concept of Composite fish farming and polyculture
4.2 INTRODUCTION
Many fish in the wild die from disease or a lack of oxygen or are devoured by other
creatures or predators before they can grow to adult size. Pond fish farming makes an effort to
maintain the situation in order to increase fish production. In ponds, predators can be managed to
increase the pond's fish production above natural waterways. Fish in ponds thrive mostly because
they cannot escape and because feeding, breeding, growing, and harvesting the fish are done in a
systematic manner. In ponds, fish culture is practiced. These are tiny, shallow bodies of water
that are totally drainable in their natural settings and are typically man-made. The natural ponds
are different from the lakes in having a relatively large littoral zone and a small profundal zone.
Their source of water is varied.
History
Pond fish farming is a very old activity. Fish have been cultivated since 2698 B.C. Every
time civilization was established for a long time, fish culture appeared. Ancient Egypt and China,
which has maintained a continuous civilization for more than 4,000 years, both practiced fish
culture. Chinese fish farmer Fan Lai wrote the first account of fish cultivation in ponds around
475 B.C. Asiatic carp was brought to Greece and Italy by the ancient Romans. In Europe wide
carp culture was practiced by the seventeenth century.
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Why fish grow in ponds
Pond fish culture is a more favourable approach. Fishing from a pond is simpler than
fishing from an abundant natural resource. It is possible to manage fish growth. To increase the
market value of fish, more food can be provided to them. Fish in ponds can be protected from
natural predators. Diseases can be prevented in fish. With proper management, fish productivity
in ponds can be enhanced and more money can be made. A farmer can maximize the utilization
of their land by engaging in fish farming. Additionally, fish farming will generate extra income.
4.3 PONDS AND POND ECOLOGY
Pond Ecosystem (Fig. 1):

A biological community made up of various species of creatures is referred to as an
ecosystem. To adapt to changing environmental conditions, these organisms communicate with
one another. Around us, there are various ecological types. The existence of nearby
environmental factors may also be used to define an ecosystem. Pond ecosystems, forest
ecosystems, ocean ecosystems, and others are some of the best examples of ecosystems. The
pond serves as an illustration of an ecosystem created in a region where water overflows and
contains aquatic plants and animals. An ecosystem is created when the many kinds of plants and
animals in a pond ecosystem interact with one another and their surroundings.
Pond Ecosystem: Definition

Pond ecology is a type of freshwater ecosystem that can be temporary or permanently
made up of a range of aquatic organisms interacting with one another and the aquatic
environment around them. The longer amount of time that the water is stagnant makes the pond
environment a lentic ecosystem.
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Fig4.1: Pond Ecosystem
Types of Pond Ecosystem
There are the following types of pond ecosystems:

 Garden pond ecosystems:
These are artificial ponds that were created by humans and contain decorative plant and animal
species imported from all over the world.
 Salt pond environments:
These ecosystems, which contain brackish water, are generated naturally by the sea. These
result from water logging. These can also be found in rock pools, which are rocky regions on
the beach. Because it contains brackish water, it can support marine life.
 Freshwater pond ecosystems :
Freshwater pond ecosystems are created naturally as a result of rainfall or soil saturation
brought on by on-going rain. They may also develop as a result of river water flowing into a
significant depression. Freshwater fish, amphibians, crabs, and many other species of wildlife
all call these habitats home.
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 Venereal pond ecosystems:

These are temporary ponds that occur during periods of heavy rain as a result of the buildup of
water in the ground depressions. They frequently become desert terrain as the seasons change.
 Mountain pond ecosystems:
Ponds that have naturally formed might be found in mountainous areas. These are the result of
rock movement and snow melting. They provide habitat for rare or threatened aquatic species.
Characteristics of Pond Ecosystem:

The following are the main characteristics of the pond ecosystem:
1. The pond environment is surrounded by either natural or man-made barriers; the water in
the pond is stagnant.
2. The littoral zone, limnetic zone, profundal zone, and benthic zone are the three separate
zones that make up the pond ecosystem.
3. The biotic elements of the pond ecosystem are located at various levels, which prevents
them from competing with one another for life.
4. Scavengers and decomposers occupy the bottom level, and fish occupy the middle level.
5. Pond ecosystems demonstrate a wide range of variability in their size. The plants enclose
the pond's edges and offer protection to little creatures and insects.
6. Pond ecosystems show a wide range of variety in their size.
Stratification in the Pond Ecosystem (Fig. 2)

The following zones are found in the pond ecosystem, and they are determined by
various characteristics including proximity to the shore, light penetration, water depth, plant and
animal species, etc.
 Littoral zone : The zone closest to the shore is known as the littoral zone. Shallow water
is present, and light can easily enter. It is home to rooted plant species. Reeds, crawfish,
snails, insects, etc. are examples of different animal species.
 Limnetic zone: The open water of a pond in which light can effectively penetrate is
referred to as the limnetic zone. Phytoplankton dominates this region. Small fish and
insects are the two predominant animal species.
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 Profundal zone: An area of a pond below the limnetic zone is referred to as a profound
zone since it is completely dark. It is home to certain turtles and amphibians.
 Benthic zone: The bottom zone of a pond is benthic and is occupied by a community of
decomposers. The decomposers are called benthos.
Fig 4.2: Stratification of the Pond Ecosystem
Abiotic Components of the Pond Ecosystem

The non-living elements of an ecosystem known as abiotic components are crucial for the
survival of aquatic life. The following are the pond ecosystem's primary abiotic elements:
1. Light: Light is a key abiotic element needed for phytoplankton to engage in photosynthetic
activity. Light penetrates most deeply in the littoral zone and least deeply in the profound
zone.
2. Temperature: The progressive reduction in light penetration causes the temperature of the
water to gradually drop as the depth of the pond increases.
3. Dissolved oxygen: As you move from the pond's surface to its depth, the amount of
dissolved oxygen steadily drops. It is highest in the shallow water.
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Biotic Components of the Pond Ecosystem (Fig. 3)

Living things make up biological components. The following list of living organisms that
make up the pond ecosystem can be discussed:
1. Producers: These comprise a variety of rooted, submerged, emergent, floating, and algal
species. Spirogyra is the most prevalent type of filamentous algae found in ponds. Other
algae in the pond include Mougeotia and Zygnema. In the pond ecosystem, green plants like
Azolla, Hydrilla, Pistia, Wolffia, Lemna, Eichhornia, Nymphaea, Potamogeton, Jussiaea, etc.
can be found.
2. Primary consumers: The principal primary consumers are a sizable population of
zooplanktons. The main consumers typically found in the pond are small herbivores like
snails, insects, small fish, tadpoles, and larvae of aquatic creatures. Large animal species like
frogs, large fish, water snakes, crabs, etc. are examples of secondary consumers. Mammals
such as water shrews and water voles, as well as herons, ducks, kingfishers, and other birds,
may be among the highest order of consumers.
3. Decomposers: These are the various bacterial and fungal species that consume the dead and
decomposing components of aquatic species.
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Fig.4.3 : Biotic and Abiotic Factors of the Pond Ecosystem

Food Chain in the Pond Ecosystem
The food chain is a group of animals in which each one consumes the lower member
before being consumed by the species above it. Algae and phytoplankton act as producers,
converting solar energy into chemical energy. Zooplankton is consuming phytoplankton
(primary consumers). Small pond creatures that eat zooplankton continue the food chain's
progression. Large pond species consume little pond species. Some bacteria and fungi are
known as decomposers because they consume dead and rotting animal species' components.
Decomposers break down organic materials (dead plants and animals) into their inorganic
constituents, which are then used again by producers. This maintains a constant flow of
energy.
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Fig. 4.4: Food Chain in the Pond Ecosystem

Importance of Pond Ecosystem
The following points can be made regarding the significance of pond ecosystems:
• Some aquatic plants contribute to better water quality by removing heavy metals and
pollutants from the water.
• Shoreline plants absorb nitrogen and phosphorus, which helps to prevent algal blooms
and maintains the pond's oxygen level.
• The pond ecosystem is one of the sites for the conservation of biodiversity as different
types of plants and consumers occupy different strata in the pond and live together by
interacting with each other. In addition, aquatic plants absorb animal wastes to reduce the
nutrient availability for plants and thereby prevent the growth of algae. Mountainous
ponds protect the endangered species.
• Pond ecosystems add to the beauty of nature by supporting a range of decorative
flowering plants, as well as acting as a supply of water for species that do not dwell in the
pond.
• The distribution of animal species within the pond is governed by stratification in the
pond ecosystem. It somewhat lessens competition between the species.
• Pond ecology is best defined as the relationship between the life in your pond and its
surroundings.
• Algae and aquatic plants will flourish in a shallow, nutrient-rich pond that is exposed to
sunshine and has little water running through it. Due to the low oxygen levels, there may
not be much animal life there.
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• A newly constructed, deep, spring-fed pond, on the other hand, might not have any life in
it at all due to the cold temperatures and scarcity of food.
• Every pond ages. A pond's initial components are mainly water, few nutrients, and not
much aquatic life. The pond builds up nutrients over time. The term "eutrophication"
refers to this enrichment process. Aquatic life grows as a result of the supply of nutrients.
These organisms are alive, develop, and pass away.
• Their remnants decompose in the pond, releasing the nutrients needed to grow them back
into the water to continue the cycle. However, eventually there will be a buildup of
material that is resistant to degradation, and the pond will overflow. It will eventually
turn into a bog and resemble dry terrain.
Returning to dry land can take a decade or it can take generations. It is your responsibility as the
pond owner to delay the process as much as you can. The guidelines you can use are described
below.
• Exclude Nutrients
Aquatic organisms are created from four fundamental components. They are
phosphorus, nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon. Of course, more than these are needed to create
even the most basic organism, but these are the widely available ingredients. Aim to avoid
the rapid introduction of substances, especially nitrogen and phosphorus, to avoid the rapid
ageing of a pond (eutrophication). In order to reduce inputs of nitrogen and phosphorus from
animal waste, animal access to ponds or streams that feed ponds should be restricted.
• Buffers
The pond benefits greatly from maintaining vegetation in all locations where water
must pass in order to reach the pond. These buffers filter and slow down the flow of water.
Sediment can fall out of water that is moving slowly. Since phosphorus is heavily bound to
soil particles, sedimentation is an efficient way to keep it out of ponds. The pond won't get
shallow by being filled with sediment if sediment is kept out of it. This immediately adds to
our main goal of preventing the pond from reverting to dry ground. Ponds that are deeper
will also be colder. The growth of organisms is slowed down by colder temperatures, which
is a general biological principle. So once more, the buffer zone influences the conditions that
help slow the aging process for the pond.
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• Sedimentation
Creating a small pool at the pond's entrance is another way to prevent sediment
from entering ponds. Water will have the chance to deposit its sediment load in the pool as it
passes through it on its way to the pond. The size of the pool should be such that a backhoe
can readily clean it from the pool's shore. Similar to how silt removal via buffer strips
benefits the pond, a sedimentation pool accomplishes the same.
• Limit Fertilization
The pond will profit when it is possible to reduce the usage of fertilizer on turf or
crops cultivated in the pond's watershed. This is due, in part, to the fact that plants never
utilize fertilizer components with 100% efficiency. Therefore, even when fertilizers are
applied at the proper rates, some elements, especially nitrogen, are not utilized and end up
moving off the site. The quantity leaving the site will be lessened by lowering fertilizer rates.
• Maintain Ecological Balance
Ponds perform best when a complete and balanced food web is present. This indicates
that there are enough planktonic algae present, starting at the top, to feed some zooplankton.
The smallest fish and aquatic insects eat the zooplankton, which in turn provide food for
them. Larger fish then prey on these, which may then be caught by raccoons, bears, or
fishermen.
The higher plant community is involved in ecological balance in another way. The
pond owner is discouraged by too many plants, and the food side of the ecology we just
discussed suffers as a result. From the perspective of the pond owner, a pond covered in
vegetation gives a terrible aspect and hinders boating, swimming, and fishing. There are
issues from the perspective of aquatic life as well. Some aquatic plants are useful for
shadiness, hiding places for little fish, habitat for some aquatic insects and animals, and as a
source of food for some fish and animals. In addition to the angler's hook becoming tangled
in too much vegetation, the bait is hidden from that magnificent bass. The greenery
concealing the bait and his prey renders the pursuit fruitless. A pond of this type has a
reduction in fish production.
No other vegetation will grow beneath the water in a pond that is entirely surrounded
by lotus or water lilies. In addition, there won't be enough light for planktonic algae to
flourish. For plants other than lilies, this pond won't be very useful. The other instance is the
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overgrowth of watermeal or duck weed. When these plants completely cover the pond's
surface, the light is once more turned off and there isn't much life beneath the water.
By maintaining a full isolation of the water surface from the atmosphere, these plants
also nearly eliminate oxygenation of the water. The possibility of eradicating excessive
amounts of vegetation or eradicating beneficial plants alongside the intended weeds is a
rarely mentioned issue in the management of aquatic vegetation. When thinking about weed
control in ponds, keep this in mind. Some solutions include treating the pond in sections over
time, using mechanical techniques, or even using the right number of grass carp to keep
things "pruned up" rather than wiped out. As a result such a pond becomes oxygen deficient
to such an extent that any fish present are killed from lack of oxygen.
• Maintain Water Flow
When a new pond is being designed, the water source for the pond is a topic of
discussion. A pond with a consistent water supply will almost always be more satisfying than
one with a variable water supply. Ponds lose a lot of water through evaporation in the
summer. Ponds with enough input remain full, but as the water level drops in others, a
muddy beach forms at the edge, which is unsightly. Because surplus nutrients will be carried
away by the overflow water, the nutrient conditions in a pond with a continuous overflow are
probably superior. In contrast, the intermittent flow pond only has the opportunity to remove
extra nutrients during storm occurrences. These ponds are more likely than their overflowing
relatives to acquire nutrients considerably more quickly. As was said above, an
overabundance of nutrients causes excessive vegetative growth of all kinds.
• Encourage Aeration
The presence of oxygen in pond water is particularly advantageous to the pond's
general health. It is clear why fish are valuable. The pond's capacity to remove waste is less
evident but very significant. The garbage that accumulates in the pond consists of "deposits"
from the fish and geese that inhabit it, waste materials that are carried in by storm water
runoff, as well as dead plants and animals. Aerobic bacteria work about 20 times faster than
anaerobic bacteria in breaking this waste down and putting it into solution. Once in solution,
it can be removed or used to create new life. Pond oxygenation is a fascinating process.
There are two main ways that it occurs.
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During the day, plants and algae synthesize oxygen, while at night, wind contributes
oxygen. The oxygen that plants create is discharged into the pond's water and keeps the
oxygen level there high. Therefore, it is important to keep an eye on the factors preventing
light from entering the pond, or else a catastrophe like the one caused by watermeal's total
cover may occur. Instead of being discharged into the pond water, all of the oxygen produced
by the watermeal is released into the atmosphere. Unless the pond is being mixed from top to
bottom, any area of the pond that is too dark for photosynthesis to take place is likely to lack
oxygen. To determine visibility, a Secchi disc can be lowered into the water. It is observed
the extent of disappearance. Photosynthesis will oxygenate surface water above this
disappearance depth, whereas water below that depth needs to be mixed to get oxygen.
The second way to provide oxygen to pond water is by oxygen exchange with the
atmosphere at the pond's surface. The rate of exchange increases with surface roughness.
Furthermore, the exchange happens more quickly the more oxygen-deficient the water is.
This procedure is crucial for the pond, which has a significant burden of plants and animals,
and especially necessary at night. Similar to animals, plants respire at night rather than
photosynthesis. By dawn, the pond water may be oxygen deficient if atmospheric aeration is
impeded by lack of wind or especially by a covered surface.
Winter Pond Ecology
The water in the pond may become significantly colder in the winter and become
completely covered in ice at times. What effects do these elements have on the pond's animal
inhabitants?
Amphibians like fish, frogs, and turtles have evolved special adaptations to survive in this
hostile environment. As the water gets warmer, their body temperature drops along with their
requirement for energy and respiration. At the pond's bottom, frogs and turtles dig burrows
and spend the winter there. They can accomplish this because they breathe via their skin.
You might be curious as to how even the minimal amount of oxygen required during this
period is supplied as ice prevents oxygen from entering the pond water through the surface.
The ice lets in enough light for some aquatic plants to begin photosynthesis. Fish, frogs, and
turtles may die from "winter kill" in a pond that is entirely covered in snow. However, that is
avoided by manually clearing snow off about half of the ice in routes across a pond. It is
important to keep roughly 30% of the ice free of lengthy snow cover during the winter. Make
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that the intended snow removal method is secure on the ice. Use a diffuser-style aerator as an
alternative to keep a small area free of ice while supplying oxygen.
4.4 FISH FARM: CONSTRUCTION AND LAY OUT OF

DIFFERENT TYPES OF PONDS
Site selection
One of the most crucial elements that affect the success of the fish farm is choosing the
right location. Prior to building the pond, it is important to consider the soil's ability to retain
water and its fertility because these aspects affect how the organic and inorganic fertilization in
the farm pond will affect plant growth. The chosen location should have year-round access to
sufficient water supplies for uses such as filling ponds. The topography area must be taken into
consideration when building the pond. To construct a pond of a suitable size in swampy and
marshy locations, bundhs should have a bigger accumulation of dirt. Higher elevation sites are
best suited for self-draining ponds. For convenient fish removal, the site should be easily
reachable by road or any other mode of transportation. Additionally, it should be possible to get
inputs like feed, seed, fertilizer, and building supplies close to the project site. Pollution,
residential, industrial, and other detrimental activities should not occur on the site.
The following ecological, biological, and social elements need to be taken into account
while choosing a site.
 Ecological factors
While site selection for a pond, the ecological factors to be considered are soil, water,
topography and climate.
 Soil
The pond's productivity, water quality, and dyke building are all impacted by the soil
quality. The appropriateness of a location is evaluated by the characteristics of soil texture and
soil permeability. The water should be able to hold in the pond bottom. The best soil types for
building ponds are loamy, clay loamy, and silt clay. Good gravel shouldn't include more than
10%. Soil types such as limestone, gravel, sand, and rocks should be avoided.
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Evaluation of soil suitability
Soil suitability can be evaluated by three methods -

1. To use the squeeze method, place the soil in your damp hand and tightly close your fist.
Soil is appropriate for pond construction if it maintains its shape even after you open your
hand.
2. The best way to assess the appropriateness of the soil is through a ground water test. One
metre deep pit should be dug, and then covered with leaves for the night. A pond could
be constructed if the pit is filled with ground water the next morning. However, because
there is enough groundwater available in such soils, drainage may take longer. The site is
appropriate for pond building if the pit is empty the following morning, but the water
permeability needs to be verified first.
3. The water permeability test is the third technique. Fill the pit with water, and then cover it
with leaves. The next morning, if there is no water in the pit, seepage has occurred. Pour
the water into the pit once more and cover it with leaves to verify this. The land is
appropriate for building if water is readily available. However, if the water is drained, the
location is unsuitable for building a pond. However, the property can be utilized by
covering the pond's bottom with plastic or dense clay.
Water
The fish farm must be constructed in an area with enough water since the water depth
must be altered periodically. When compared to borewell and well water, natural water bodies
including reservoirs, rivers, and lakes exhibit steady water quality parameters (water
temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, alkalinity, and water hardness). The location ought to be far
from a flood plain. If water is determined to be either acidic or alkaline, the appropriate
correction should be made by adding lime or organic manure, respectively. For a fish farm, the
recommended water temperature range is 20–300°C. The quantity of salt dissolved in water is
known as salinity. Freshwater fishes such as Tilapia and catfishes grow even in salt water, but
the carps can withstand only in freshwater.
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Topography
The geography of the terrain influences the type of pond building. Normally, it is best to
steer clear of locations with frequent floods and little rain. It is also not advised to build ponds in
places like industrial zones, fields with underground oil pipelines, uneven soil, fields with tall
power poles and radio towers, and areas with deeply rooted vegetation.
Biological factors
Biological factors include the species which are to be cultured, seed source and culture
type and they need to be considered before site selection of fish farm.
Social and economic factors

Good site selection and management procedures for aquaculture are dependent on
ecological and biological considerations. Knowing the area's social and economic history as well
as its culture and traditions in particular, those that are regionally related with aquaculture
practices is crucial. It is important to take into account the social fabric, the market and its
structure, and any services directly or indirectly related to the aquaculture industry. Examples
include issues of transportation, storage, and wholesale markets. Legal concerns should not exist
on the property chosen for farming, and locals should support fish farming. The availability of
labour, electricity, medical services, and transportation are other considerations.
Pond Construction
An effective pond construction requires a thoughtful design and layout. The earth from the
excavation should be used to build the dyke, which should have a sloping slope leading to the
outflow for the right drainage facility. The construction of the pond should ideally be finished in
the summer so that it may be stocked.
Steps in pond construction
Normally, the pond construction includes the following steps:
Step 1: Prepare the location by clearing it of undesired objects like rocks, bushes, and trees.
Step 2: Using the clay core to build a secure, seepage-free dyke.
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Step 3: Excavating a pond and building a dike over the clay core.
Construction of the inlet and outlet is completed in steps four and five. The pond should
be guarded to prevent theft and the entry of predatory animals. Avoid using long-rooted plants
like Rhodes grass and star grass.
Site preparation
Ropes, wires, and other objects have been removed from the area. Removal of trees,
bushes, and other obstructions that prevent heavy equipment from moving about the site must be
done manually, with the assistance of animals, or with the use of machines. In the area, all
vegetation, including timber, must be removed (inclusive of 2 to 3 m beyond the dyke for
workspace). Large stones, tree slumps, and trees within a 10-meter radius must all be removed.
Pond construction is not appropriate for the surface soil with the maximum concentration of
roots and organic substances. As a result, approximately 30 cm of surface dirt must be removed.
Construction of dyke
Dykes ought to be tightly packed, sturdy, and leak-free. 15 to 30 percent silt, 45 to 55
percent sand, and 30 to 35 percent clay are used to build a good dyke. For loamy silt or sandy
soils, the embankment slope should be 3:1 and for good quality clay soils, it should be 2:1. The
clay buddle (1:2 sand and clay) is deposited as a 10–15 cm thick layer at the centre or inside the
pond's waterside in order to raise the dyke. The top of the embankment should be higher than 1
m, and the crest of the dike should be sufficient to aid linked agricultural activities. Extra outlet
is essential on the embankment as a safety measure to avoid damage due to excess raise in the
water level.
 Digging the pond and construction of dyke

Types of pond
For the development of fish at different life stages, specific pond types are needed, such
as ponds for broodstock, nursery, rearing, stocking, and treatment. Because it prevents fish from
escaping during harvest, rectangular ponds are preferred to those with round corners. The pond's
ideal length to breadth ratio is 3:1, with a maximum breadth of 30 to 50 metres. The nursery
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takes up 5% of the total farm area, the raising pond takes up 20%, the stocking pond takes up
70%, and the bio pond or treatment pond takes up 5% of the total farm area.
Nursery pond:
1. The nursery pond measures 0.01 to 0.05 hectares in size and has a depth of 1.0 to 1.5 m.
2. The nursery pond receives the spawn, which is raised there for a maximum of 30 days (to
attain 2 – 3 cm length).
Rearing tank:
1. A tank where fingerlings (fish that are 10 to 15 cm long) are grown from fry over the
course of two to three months.
2. The pond's size ranges from 0.05 to 0.1 ha, and its depth is 1.5 to 2.0 m.
Stocking pond
1. Here, fingerlings (TL 10 to 15 cm) are raised until they are of marketable size.
2. The culture lasts between 8 and 10 months.
3. The intended fish production determines the stocking density.
4. Depending on the situation, the stocking pond serves as a breeding and broodstock pond.
The pond's size is between 1 and 2 ha, with a deeper water depth of 2.5 to 3.0m.
5. Regarding the size of the ponds, there are no strict guidelines.
Bio ponds or treatment ponds are sizable settling tanks where fishpond water is biologically
cleansed. They could also be utilized as ponds for stocking. For simple netting operation, a flat
even bottom is advised. A fruitful farm should build a nursery pond first, then a rearing pond, at
its higher altitude area. The stocking pond should be constructed in the lowest part of the farm,
which will lower construction costs and make farm management easier.
Pond construction types

The two types of ponds used for construction are dug out ponds and embankment ponds.
The dug out pond is best suited for building ponds in plain settings and is made by digging the
earth. It must be built scientifically while keeping in mind elements like shape, size, depth, and
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others. For steep regions, an embankment pond is more ideal. Depending on the need, dykes may
be built on one or both sides. Due to the inability to adjust the pond's size, shape, and depth to
meet the requirements of scientific fish culture, it is economically feasible but not optimal for
fish culture.
Inlet and outlet construction

Except for ponds that are fed by rainwater, feeder canals are built to supply the ponds
with an adequate volume of high-quality water. To prevent the introduction of undesired
particles into the culture system, inlets are placed at the top of the pond and screens are utilized
to filter the pumped water. The intake pipe size needs to be planned so that it should fill the pond
in no more than one or two days. The exit pipe is installed at the pond's bottom. In order to
maintain the pond's water quality during the culture period, it is utilized to partially drain the
pond during harvest and dewater it completely. Before building the pond dyke, the outlet is built.
Soil and vegetation coverage of Dyke
Creeping grass can be cultivated on the top and sides of the dike to lessen soil erosion.
You can grow coconut and banana trees in the embankment. To provide food for the grass carps
raised in the ponds, the slope of the embankment can be planted with grasses including Hybrid
Napier, gunny grass, and elephant grass.
Pond fencing
To prevent theft, the ponds are enclosed. Live fences also act as a windbreak, broaden the
variety of the farm, provide the farm seclusion, and enhance the fish farm's attractiveness. Fences
can be constructed in a variety of ways. These include stone walls, wire fences, post and rail
fences, weaving fences, live fences, pile fences, and wire fences. There are benefits and
drawbacks to each kind of fence. Fish farms frequently employ wired net fencing to deter
trespassers and safeguard the fish population.
4.5 DIFFERENT TYPES OF CULTURE SYSTEM
Fish culture is classified into two based on the number of fish species as monoculture and
polyculture.
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Monoculture
The culture of a single species of fish in a pond or tank is what this is. Monoculture
examples include the cultures of Clarias alone, Oreochromis niloticus, Heterotis, and
Gymnarchus. The benefit of this kind of culture is that, especially in the intense culture system, it
enables the farmer to produce the feed that will suit the needs of a specific fish. It is possible to
stock fish of various ages, which improves selective harvesting.
• Common carp culture in East Germany
• Common carp culture in Japan
• Tilapia nilotica culture in several countries of Africa
• Rainbow trout (Salmon gairdneri) culture in many countries.
• Channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) culture in U.S.A.
• Catfish, Clarias gariepinnus culture in Africa.
Polyculture
The process of cultivating multiple types of aquatic organisms in the same pond is known
as polyculture. The guiding assumption is that raising a variety of species with various feeding
preferences will maximize fish production in ponds. The variety of fish allows for better use of
the natural food produced in a pond. Chinese polyculture dates back more than a thousand years.
Southeast Asia and other parts of the world have seen a proliferation of the practice. Natural fish
food species are in great abundance in ponds that have undergone chemical fertilization,
manuring, or feeding procedures. These organisms can be found living at various depths and
places throughout the water column. The majority of fish primarily consume particular
populations of these creatures. Fish raised in polyculture should be mixed in numbers that
effectively use these natural sources and have a variety of eating patterns. Higher yields are as a
result obtained. In tropical climes, productive polyculture systems can yield up to 8000 kg of fish
per ha per year.
Fishes used in polyculture
In polyculture, the three Chinese carps (bighead, silver, and grass carp) are most
frequently combined with the common carp. It is also possible to employ other species. While
fish can be divided into broad categories according on how they feed, there is some overlap. The
categories of feeding habits are described, along with examples of fish from each category.
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• Plankton Feeders - Since plankton is typically the most abundant food in a pond, a polyculture
system must contain fish that feed on it. This particular kind of fish eats the microscopic, freely
floating plants (phytoplankton) and animals (zooplankton) that proliferate in large numbers in
fertilized ponds. The silver carp, Hypophthalmichthys moltrix, and the bighead carp, Aristichthys
nobilis, are two species that belong to this group.
• Herbivores – This class of fish consumes aquatic plants. Most famous for this behaviour is the
grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella, which is stocked in ponds to reduce weeds. Fish in this
group, known as bottom feeders, eat mostly at the pond's bottom. They eat a range of organic
waste that has decomposed, aquatic organisms like clams, insects, worms, and snails, as well as
bacteria that are present in or on the sediments. It is commonly known that the common carp,
Cyprinus carpio, exhibits this behaviour.
 Piscivorous Fish- These fish are predators that feed on other fish, requiring 5–7 g of prey to
produce 1 g of growth. They are frequently introduced to ponds as stockings to prevent
unintended reproduction, especially in Tilapia and other fish that enter the body of water and
compete with the stocked fish for food.
Predator fish that are frequently utilized include the sea bass (Latius spp.), catfish (Clarius spp.
and Silurus spp.), snakeheads (Ophiocephalus spp.), cichlids (Cichla spp.), knife fish
(Notopterus spp.), and largemouth bass (Micropierus saimoides). The average weight of prey
species rises in a polyculture system where predator fish are present. Utilizing a fish predator that
eats little prey is the most effective strategy. As a result, the prey cannot get big enough to
compete for food with other fish of its species that are bigger. In the majority of the world, the
use of predator fish in polyculture systems is experimental. It is nearly impossible to fill tiny
ponds with the precise number of predator fish needed to mimic the predator/prey ratio found in
nature. To totally regulate the reproduction of the prey species, predator fish are typically
supplied at rates of 5 to 20 fish per 100 m2 of pond surface area in small-scale aquaculture.
Typically, the stocking rate for Catla is 19 fish per 100 m2, and 6 fish/100m2 for mrigal.
Issues in polyculture
To get the most out of the natural food that is present in a pond, polyculture is an
effective strategy. Pond management becomes more challenging, however, when multiple fish
species with distinct feeding preferences are stocked in the same body of water. This is because
proper fertilization and feeding procedures must be followed. If the availability of species for
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polyculture is severely restricted by a lack of fingerling supply, at least one species should
exhibit broad rather than specialized eating behaviour. This will make it possible to use more of
the natural food that is accessible.
4.6 CULTIVABLE INDIGENOUS AND EXOTIC FISHES
Characters of cultivable fish

Before choosing a fish for agricultural purposes, you should take into account the
following factors. There are primarily three distinct types of pisciculture. These are:
• Monoculture: This method permits the rearing of just one species of fish. High productivity
and quality are offered. Consumers enjoy eating these fish. Shrimp is frequently used in India as
an illustration of monoculture fish.
• Polyculture: This practice is also known as mixed or composite fish farming. In a communal
pond, polyculture enables the growing of various species of fish that get along. To enable each
species to subsist on a varied diet sourced from a single resource, their feeding habits must differ.
It is an advantageous form of pisciculture.
 Monosex Culture: Typically, in this culture, either female or male fish of a species may be
grown. This is the method used to produce fish in this culture. Tilapia is one such kind of fish.
1. Growth rate: Fish that reach a larger size in a shorter amount of time are excellent for
culture like carps.
2. Climate adaptation: Cultured fish species should be able to adjust to the farm's specific
climatic circumstances.
3. Tolerance: Fish should be able to withstand significant changes in the physicochemical
properties of the water, such as oxygen content, salinity, and temperature.
4. Acceptance of artificial feed: When there is a requirement to accommodate more fish in
a small area, compounded diets must be supplemented fed. These foods should be
quickly preferred by the fish.
5. Resistance: It is preferable that cultured fish have little to no ability to fend against
parasite and common illness attacks.
6. Amiability and compatibility: The fish species that are to be cultivated together (in a
"poly culture") must get along well and not attack or interfere with one another.
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7. Conversion efficiency: Fish species are chosen if they produce more edible meat per unit
of food eaten.
8. Consumer preferences: People's food preferences vary according to where they live.
As a result, the species raised should be simple to sell locally or to the intended consumers.
Culturable Fishes of India
Carps, Catfishes, Murrels, Tilapia etc. are the main culturable fishes.
• Indian major carps:
Catla catla (Catla)
Labeo rohita (Rohu)
Cirrhinus mrigala (Mrigal)
• Exotic (Chinese) carps
Cyprinus carpio (Common carp)
• Minor Carps
Labeo bata (Bata)
Catfishes
Wallago attu
Mystus aor (Cat fish)
Clarias batrachus (Magur)
Murrels or snake heads
Channa striatus (Striped snake - head)
Tilapia
Oreochromis mossambicus
• Sport fishes (Cold - water fishes)
Salmo gairdneri (Rainbow trout)
• Marine fishes
Lates calcarifer
Chanos chanos
Besides these food fishes, there is an enormous potential for the mass culture of a variety of
ornamental fishes, which can bring in high profit, also from overseas markets.
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4.7 POND MANAGEMENT: WATER, SOIL, MANURING AND

LIMING
Liming and Watering in Stocking Ponds
Liming
Aquaculture methods commonly use lime to enhance the quality of the water. The pond
should be lime-conditioned after being ploughed, cleansed, and smoothed. Liming boosts a
pond's output and enhances hygiene, both preventative and therapeutic. Prior to adding water,
new ponds can be limed. In ponds without water, it is preferable to sprinkle the limestone
uniformly on the water's top rather than the bottom. Whether the pond is new or old, the bottom
should be covered with a layer of lime. Two weeks before the water is pumped into the pond,
lime should be added to it. After fertilization has been discontinued is the ideal time to apply
lime. While the pond is being fertilized, lime should not be used.
The main uses of lime are:
• Liming is absolutely necessary to keep the pH of water stable.
• The water should have a modest alkaline pH since this helps to keep the pond's water clean and
helps to eliminate bacteria.
• Lime can be used to balance the acidic environment that would develop during manuring. 250
kg of lime per hectare is applied. In extremely acidic soils, the dose must be increased to 1000
kg/ha.
• To bring acidic water's pH level up to a neutral or slightly alkaline level. To boost the alkaline
reserve in the mud and water, this prevents a sharp change in pH.
• To increase biological production by enhancing the bacterial decomposition of organic
materials, this increases the reserves of oxygen and carbon.
• To precipitate organic compounds those are soluble or suspended.
• To reduce the need for biological oxygen (BOD).
• To improve light filtration.
• To improve nitrification since nitrifying organisms need calcium to function.
• To counteract the negative effects of some chemicals, such as acid and sulphide.
• To obliquely enhance fine-textured bottom soil that contains organic materials.
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• Liming makes water more alkaline, which makes more carbon dioxide available for
photosynthesis.
• By adding alkaline earths (calcium and magnesium), liming increases the overall hardness. It
can also clear water of humic stains of vegetal origin that obstruct light penetration.
• The overall result of changes in water quality after liming is an increase in phytoplankton
productivity, which then results in an increase in the output of fish, shrimp, and prawns.
Types of Liming Material
The chemical utilized for the liming of soil and water is the oxides, hydroxides, and silicates of
calcium or magnesium. A variety of different compounds are employed as liming materials. The
following are examples of common liming substances:
1. Calcium (CaCO3) and dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2] are both carbonates of magnesium and
calcium. Calcium oxide (CaO) and Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH) 2] are also used.
Applying of lime in the stocking pond
Watering
• The water should be introduced gradually after the lime has been placed to the pond bottom for
at least two weeks.
• The water should descend into the pond from the water inlet such that when it does, it combines
with oxygen from the surrounding air.
• The pond's water should not fill up too soon. The pond bottom will be churned up if the water
enters too quickly, making the water muddy.
• After the pond has been filled, it should be left free for a few days to allow undesired fish and
other organisms to avoid entering the pond by using screens at the inlets.
• Water quality in the pond should be checked before the fish is released into it.
4.8 MANURING (ORGANIC AND INORGANIC) AND LIMING
Manuring:
To encourage the growth of fish food organisms, manuring or fertilization is carried out
after 15 days following liming. Manure may be chemical or organic in origin. 2-3 tonnes/ha of
raw cow dung are applied at a rate for stocking ponds. 5000 kg of poultry manure per hectare is
applied. The amount of chemical fertilizer used varies depending on the amount of phosphate
and nitrogen in the soil. The typical NPK ratio for freshwater ponds is 18:10:4.
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Conditioning the pond:

• For conditioning, a layer of lime or calcium hydroxide is applied and left on the pond's
bottom for two weeks.
• It is typically administered at or following the stage of pond drying.
• By doing so, the soil's acidity is reduced, biogeochemical cycles are facilitated, and
undesirable species are avoided.
There are three methods for liming:
By spreading it over a dried pond, including the dike walls, by combining it with water
and spraying it over the pond, by liming the water entering the pond, and by any other method.
4.9 CONCEPT OF COMPOSITE FISH FARMING AND

POLYCULTURE
Multi-Fish Culture
Fish culture in which different feeding zones are used to cultivate both compatible and
non-competing fish simultaneously.
Primary objective:
• Utilization of all available resources
• To increase the total production per unit area
Steps in Composite Fish Culture:
1. Site selection:
Factors to be considered:
a) Environmental factors, such as geography, water quality and quantity, etc.
b) Biological: species evolution, sickness, and so on.
c) Economical and social factors: amenities offered marketing, security, social factors, etc.
2. Pond Administration
i. Pre-stocking includes removing weeds using mechanical or manual means. The
introduction of several species, such as Grass carp, Tilapia, Common carp, etc.
ii. By repeatedly netting or utilizing mahua oil cake, undesired and predatory fish can be
eliminated. To raise the pH to the required level, use liming.
iii. Liming also has the following additional effects:
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a) Prevents pH swings;
b) Makes soil more parasite-resistant; and
c) Acts as a buffer.
d) Eliminates parasites
e) Speeds up organic decay
iii. Pond Fertilization - The goal of pond fertilization is to boost fish productivity by
enhancing the natural productivity of the pond. The dosage of lime must be calculated depending
on the pH of the soil and water. Fertilizers made from both organic and inorganic materials can
also be employed.
 Inorganic: It comprises several inorganic components like nitrogen, phosphorus, etc. in
the form of nitrogenous and phosphate fertilizers.
 Organic: It includes farm yard manure (FYM)- Cowdung @ 5000 kg/ha, Poultry, sheep
manure, and crop byproducts like cotton seed meal, mustard oil cake, etc.
3) Stocking: Completed 15 days after fertilizer application.
Fish fingerlings should be between 5000 and 8000 in number and between 50 and 100
gram in size. It can be used for stocking. Stocking can consist of a combination of 3, 4, or 6
species, depending on the environmental conditions.
• Depending on the compatibility and diversity of the fish species used in composite fish culture,
• Indian and exotic kinds of fish's feeding patterns have been found and suggested for culture.
• In the composite fish farming technology, the feeding zones and behaviours of the various
species must be monitored.
In order to maximize production per hectare of water body, fast-growing compatible fish
species of different feeding habits (or different weight classes of the same species) are cultured
in the same pond. This practice is known as polyculture, mixed fish farming, or composite fish
culture.
A pond can be divided into three distinct zones based on its depth: the top surface zone,
middle column zone, and bottom zone. A certain species takes advantage of the food in a
certain zone. For instance, Cirrhinus mrigala is a bottom feeder, Labeo rohita is a column
feeder, and Catla catla is a surface feeder. Only one zone will be used or exploited in the case of
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a single species, monospecies, or monoculture, leaving the other zones untapped. The yield or
fish output would be lower as a result of not using the complete ecological area.
Principle of Polyculture:
The most effective way to use all the food sources in the pond for fish production is to
cultivate different kinds of fast-growing suitable fishes that fill diverse biological niches of a
pond or any other water body without damaging one another.
Objectives of Polyculture:
(1) To produce the most fish possible.
(2) To utilize all the available niches.
(3) The fish that are raised should not upset the ecological balance.
(4) The fish species being raised should not be in direct conflict with one another, but each
species may positively affect the development and output of the others. For instance, grass carp
transforms plant tissue into fish flesh by ingesting aquatic vegetation, while their excrement
fertilizes the pond, helping all other species.
(5) Some fish species are raised for their ability to consume wastes generated in ponds to
preserve the water's quality. For instance, grass carp and silver carp excrete enormous amounts
of uneaten plant material, which common carp and mrigal eat.
(6) A recent fish species combination is centered on one or two species as the primary ones and
the rest as auxiliary compatible species that use the food resources that would otherwise be
wasted.
Origin of Polyculture:
Chinese and Indian history provides the foundation for composite fish farming. Based on
varied seed stocks that were gathered from natural sources, polyculture was used in the carp
farming industries in both of these countries. Sorting out stocks of various species in their
infancy was not feasible. Therefore, the farmers were compelled to raise the various carp species
in close proximity until they reached the fingerling stage. The farmers noticed that there were
variations in feeding practices and preferences for natural food sources. This inspired the idea to
modify stocking levels in accordance with the availability of natural food and the niches filled by
each species in the ponds. As a result, it can be advantageous in conventional production
methods by cultivating the right species combinations. The use of considerably more food
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resources and the emergence of a symbiotic interaction between the cultivated species in the
system could both result from such a technique.
As a result, it would be possible to maintain the farm environment at the necessary
standards while increasing productivity at a cheaper cost.
The variety of species raised in China's polyculture system includes:
(1) Grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) which feeds on macro-vegetation.
(2) Silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) which feeds on plankton (mainly phytoplankton).
(3) Big head (Aristichthys nobilis) which feeds on microplankton.
(4) Black carp (Mylopharyngodon piceus) which feeds mainly on snails and other mollucs at the
bottom.
(5) Mud carp (Cirrhinus molitorella) which feeds primarily on detritus.
(6) Additionally, occasionally the omnivorous common carp (Cyprinus carpio), which
essentially acts as a scavenger in farm ponds, is added.
(7) A variety of new species, including Tilapia, Wuchang Fish, Crucian Carp, Red Eye, White
Amur bream, Snake Head have been added to the aforementioned traditional mix.
The following combinations are used in the Indian polyculture system:
(1) The zooplankton-eating surface feeder catla (Catla catla), which eats planktonic creatures in
general. Young fry and larvae consume planktonic unicellular algae.
(2) The rohu (Labeo rohita), a column feeder that eats decaying aquatic plants, algae, and other
vegetable detritus. Zooplanktonic and unicellular algae are the primary food sources for larvae
and fry.
(3) The mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala), a bottom feeder, prefers algae, detritus, organic debris, and
other decomposed plant and animal materials. The larvae and fry eat zooplankton and planktonic
unicellular algae.
(4) The bottom feeder, the calbasu (Labeo calbasu), specifically consumes organic waste and
benthic and epiphytic species.
(5) By including exotic carps like grass carp, silver carp, and common carp, modern culturists
and scientists have created composite carp cultures.
(6) The introduction of grey mullets that feed on benthic organisms has led to the development of
new species combinations for polyculture (Mugil cephalus). To get rid of weed fishes,
carnivorous fish called chitals (Notopterus chitala) have been introduced.
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Drawbacks in Polyculture System:

1. In general, it is largely believed that there are fewer species pairings with distinct roles that are
well understood. The utility of some of the species in these pairings has come into doubt, though,
when there are more species involved.
2. Although there are distinct differences between food preferences under natural circumstances,
it is still too early to determine the relevance of these feeding differences when the stocks are fed
with formulated feeds.
3. Adopting supplementary feeding in an economical manner is not very simple.
4. To preserve the best possible balance of the species, farmers must use special knowledge,
skills, and efforts to generate or buy the right quantity of seed stocks of the different species
chosen.
5. Sorting out the various species after harvest requires more labour.
6. Consumer acceptance of the various species differs in many cases and in most places.
Additionally, finding markets for some species, like the silver carp, has proven challenging.
Modern monoculture with correct feeding has been found and demonstrated to be more
productive than polyculture. Therefore, it is suggested that the value of polyculture greatly
depends on the circumstances and requirements in a particular place. Most likely, polyculture is
not as broadly applicable as previously thought.
4.10 SUMMARY
There are different types of fish culture systems in India. The fishery sector offers
immense possibilities in these culture systems. Pond is a type of freshwater ecosystem having its
own chain and food web. It comprises of both biotic and abiotic factors together making it
habitat for aquatic animals to survive therein. The fish farms are of various types. The ponds are
small types of culture ponds where the fishes mature out. There are different types of fish farms
where the culture of indigenous and exotic fishes is done. There are various steps for the
management of pond water. As a prerequisite for the health of fishes, proper maintenance of
water quality, their timely monitoring, manuring and liming is required. Various methods are
adopted to perform all these steps in a scientific manner. There are various fish culture
techniques like monoculture and polyculture.
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Question No.1 Explain in detail about the pond and its ecology.
Question No.2 What are the basic steps for fish farm construction? Give layout of different types
of ponds?
Question No.3 What are different types of culture systems?
Question No.4 Explain the basic steps of pond water management.
Question No.5 Explain the difference between composite fish farming and polyculture.
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 Murnyak, D. and M. Murnyak. 1990. Raising fish in ponds: a farmer's guide to Tilapia
culture. Evangelical Lutheran Church of Tanzania. 75p.
 Pillay, T.V.R. 1990. Aquaculture: principles and practices. Fishing New Books, Oxford,
UK. 575p.
 Pullin, R.S.V. 1988. Tilapia genetic resources for aquaculture. Information Centre for
Living Aquatic Resources Management (ICLARM), Manila, Philippines. 108p.
 Viveen, W.J.A.R., C.J.J. Richter, P.G.W.J. van Oordt, J.A.L. Janssen and E.A. Huisman.
1985. Practical manual for the culture of the African catfish (Clarias gariepinus).
Directorate General International Cooperation of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The
Hague, The Netherlands. 94p.
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UNIT 5: INLAND FISHING GEARS AND FISHING

METHODS
Contents
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Introduction
5.3 Biological factors in fishing
5.4 Types of fishing gears
5.5 Natural and synthetic fibers
5.6 Preparation and maintenance of fishing nets
5.7 Different fishing method
4.8 Summary
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5.1 OBJECTIVES
• Inland fishing gears and fishing methods
• Biological factors in fishing
• Types of fishing gears
• Natural and synthetic fibers
• Preparation and maintenance of fishing nets
• Different fishing method
5.2 INTRODUCTION
Inland fisheries are any activity conducted to extract fish and other aquatic organisms from
"inland waters". The term "inland waters" is used to refer to lakes, rivers, streams, ponds, inland
canals, dams, and other land-locked (usually freshwater) waters (FAO, 2014). While most inland
waters are freshwater, there are many areas that are classified nationally as inland waters which
have daily or seasonal fluctuations in salinity (eg. estuaries, deltas, some coastal lagoons).
Fisheries in inland waters have long provided an important source of food for mankind.
Individuals can relatively easily begin fishing in inland waters because basic equipment needs
(e.g., nets, hooks, traps) are generally inexpensive and do not require substantial skill to operate
or maintain. Fishing nets and gears are refers to those devices having different shape and sizes
and used in the water body to capture different sizes of fishes. There are two main types of
devices used to capture fishes in both marine and inland fisheries:
(1) Crafts or Boats - Used in fishing operations, for carrying the crew and fishing gears.
(2) Nets or gear - For catching fish these equipments are required. There are various types of
gears and crafts used in different parts depending upon the nature of water bodies, the age of fish
and their species. Some nets are used without craft; however, others are used with the help of
crafts. Selection of appropriate gear for catching fish is of utmost importance in order to increase
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catch. Choice and design of fishing gear is greatly influenced by biological characteristics such
as body size and shape, feeding habits and swimming speed; behaviour in the vicinity of fishing
gear and during capture process; spatial distribution and aggregation behaviour of the target
species.
Fishing gears whether primitive or sophisticated use five methods in the capture process viz.,
gilling and tangling (e.g. gill nets and trammel nets), trapping (e.g. traps, pound nets), filtering
(e.g. trawls, seines and other net fishing systems), hooking and spearing (e.g. hook and line,
harpoons) and pumping (e.g. fish pumps). Netting materials for making of fishing gear are either
of textile or non-textile origin. Textile materials comprise of netting, twine and rope while floats,
sinkers, hooks etc constitute non-textile origin materials. The raw material for fish netting
consists of fibres which can be distinguished into two groups: natural fibres and synthetic fibres.
Earlier, nettings used to be fabricated manually, which is laborious and time consuming while
the introduction of synthetic fibres used in machine made nettings make revolution in fishing
sector.
5.3 BIOLOGICAL FACTORS IN FISHING
Phytoplanktons - Biological factors of water which influence fish production are tied up with
the capacity of the surrounding environment to supply essential food to cultured species. They
are therefore concerned only with rearing operations where no supplementary food is given and
the energy requirements are met through the phytoplanktonic primary production. The biomass
of phytoplankton varies seasonally in general reaching its highest levels in spring and summer.
The density is highest in superficial layers of water and decreases with depth. The appearance of
different populations is linked in part to the characteristics of the surrounding water temperature,
turbidity and depletion of nutrient.
Diseases - The diseases in fishes and prawns are caused by bacteria, virus, fungi, protozoa and
crustacean parasites. These parasites enter into the pond along with water, fish or prawn seed and
nets from other infected ponds.
Weeds - Excess growth of aquatic weeds in fish pond is not a good sign in aquaculture systems.
Weeds utilize the nutrients and compete with desirable organisms.
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The biological prerequisites of fish for aquaculture are
Established hatchery techniques- Large numbers of larvae, fry or juveniles must be available
for grow-out operations. Broodfish must be available to establish successful hatchery techniques;
the species should be fecund and capable of spawning in captivity.
Crowding- Cultivated species must thrive in captivity and be amenable to crowding. The more
fish that can be stocked into a given space, the greater the potential production.
Suitable behavior- Regular observation and sampling of fish are essential for successful culture;
fish that are readily seen and/or easily captured are desirable. Species that school and swim near
the surface or edges are ideal, as are species that can be readily trained to feed at a particular
area. Species that are very flighty or secretive are usually less suitable for aquaculture.
Rapid and uniform growth- Species must be capable of rapid growth to ensure efficient use of
facilities and food. Most species of finfish that are farmed successfully throughout the world
grow rapidly under culture conditions and reach minimum market size (500grams) in 18 months
or less.Variable growth amongst fish within a rearing unit is undesirable as it necessitates culling
or grading, which increases stress and susceptibility to disease, damage to the fish, and requires
extra labour and facilities.
Amenable to artificial feeding- Semi-intensive and intensive fish culture is based on the use of
medium to high stocking densities, prepared feeds (usually specially formulated pellets) and with
some species, fertilisation of pond water. Very high production rates can only be achieved with
species that accept prepared feed.
Appropriate dietary requirements- In general, fish that feed lower in the food chain are most
efficient in the use of food under pond culture conditions. Although some carnivorous species
accept artificial feeds, they require relatively high levels of protein (including animal proteins)
and are unable to use most of the natural food available in ponds.
Non-cannibalistic- Cannibalism reduces survival rate and production .The greater the degree of
cannibalism, the greater the losses.
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Disease resistance- Although all species are susceptible to diseases under culture conditions,
some are more so than others. This factor should be considered when selecting a species for
aquaculture
Hardiness- Species that can tolerate sub-optimal conditions (for example, high or low
temperatures, low dissolved oxygen, high pH) for short periods are more suitable than less
tolerant species.
High meat recovery- Species that have high meat to total body weight ratio are desirable
because of their more efficient conversion of feed into edible flesh. This is particularly important
if the end product is to be processed.
Marketability- In addition to these biological factors, a species must have high market
acceptance
5.4 TYPES OF FISHING GEARS
The use of crafts and gears in fishing technology plays very important role and help enhancing
the production in commercial bases. The success of fishing largely depends on to how and which
types of nets are used to capture the fish. Correct gear may be chosen taking into consideration of
the following points:
1. Body size and shape determine the mesh size required to hold the fish in gill nets and to retain
the target size groups of the species without gilling in the trawls, seines and traps. Body size is
also related to the tensile strength requirements for the netting twine in gill nets and hook size
and lines in hook and line. Body size is again directly proportional to the swimming speed which
is a significant attribute to be considered in the fishing success of dragged gear. For catching the
big and strong fish, the gear should also be strong and sturdy with proper mash size.
2. To catch fish at various level of the water body, different nets should be used, viz. surface gill
nets,’column gill nets and bottom gill nets.
3. Fishes which swim in shoals, may be caught by using encircling nets like drag nets, purse nets,
etc. Similarly using hooks and lines can catch the individual fish.
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Fig.5.1 Types of fishing gears
4. Feeding habit of the target species is more important in passive fishing methods like hook and
line and traps where the fish is attracted by the bait and in the active fishing methods like troll
line used for catching predatory fishes.
India has a wide variety of diversified water bodies, hence the nets used are also diversified.
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Nets used in hill streams:
Cast nets are used in small pockets of hilly regions. Different types of traps and cast nets are
fixed in narrowgaps of streams. It catches fish during breeding seasons.
Nets used in Ponds and Lakes:
These are most commonly used for commercial fishing. Seines are large nets operated from
boats. In biglakes and the Ganges, the most commonly used seine is Jagat Ber Mahajal. Simple
drag nets are alsoemployed in ponds for commercial fishing.
Rangoon Nets and Uduvalai:
They are used in those lakes where use of seines and dragnets are not easy. Rangoon net is made
by finecotton rectangular pieces of net. These pieces are tied in such a way so as to form a big
wall. It is thenspread in water with the help of floats.The fish gets entangled in the net. Rangoon
net is generally used for fishing in less deep water. However, indeep water bodies the use of
uduvalai is preferred. It has small sinkers with footrope.
Gears used in rivers:
The following gears/ nets of different dimensions are used for fishing in rivers.
Seine and Drag Nets:They are most commonly used nets for fishing in rivers. Seines can be
operated from one or more boats.
Purse Net: Special types of purse nets used for fishing in rivers are kharkijal and shanglojal or
sharkijal. In shanglojal the mouth of purse can be opened or closed with a vertical cord.
However, in kharkijal a vertical bamboo rod is fixed to the lower part of mouth of the purse to
open or close it.
Common Inland Fishing Gears
Fixed or Stationary net
These nets are rectangular or conical nets of various shape and size. They are mainly used in the
tidal regions of the river or in the shore water during low tide period. They are provided with
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floats and sinkers to keep the net straightened. The nets are kept fixed to the bottom at the bank
of the river. At the time of high tide the water containing fishes pass over the net. When the tide
recedes, the fishes are tapped with water in the nets. They are of two kinds: Khalpatta Jal and
Bag net or Boat seine.
(a) Khalpatta Jal. The net is fixed by two bamboo poles. The water is enclosed in a vertically
disposed net and the fish is entrapped in the meshes of the net.
(b) Bag net or Boat Seine. It is a triangular conical bag net with a tapering apex and a
rectangular mouth. The two ends of the mouth are tied with floats.
Drag Net (Shore Seines)
A dragnet consists of a pocket net, wing net, ropes, sinkers and floats. The nets are generally
made of cotton or nylon with cotton ropes. It has got different names in different places of the
country, such as ‘Ber Jal’ in Orissa, ‘Maha Jal’ and ‘Kona Jal’ in Bihar and Bengal. The ‘Ber
Jal’ of Orissa and ‘Alvi’ of Andhra Pradesh are almost the same.
Gill Net and Drift Net
Gill nets are wall-like nets with floats attached to the head line rope and sinkers fixed, to the foot
line rope. The mesh size varies with the size of the fish species to be caught. The net is set in
transverse direction of the moving fish or fish shoal so that when the fish tries to cross the net
wall, the head portion along the gill line gets entrapped. They are also called drift nets as they
drift vertically with the help of floats and sinkers. Among drift nets, Chhandijal is more popular.
Three types of gill nets are in common use. They are :
Surface gill net-This gill net is generally meant for entrapping surface feeders among carps The
fishes caught are generally surface feeders such as some major carps.
Column gill net- The basic form of this net resembles the surface gill net. The length of the float
rope is however, kept such that the net remains suspended in mid column of water. The catches
are generally major carps.
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Bottom gill net- As the net is to be set at the bottom of water, additional sinker weights are
attached to the foot rope and the marker buoys or floats, kept hanging on the surface of water are
given increased length of the rope.
Trammel Net
This net is a modified form of gill net, comprising three layers of gill nets. Because of this
peculiar set up of three nets, fishes of various sizes are generally caught by this modified form of
gill net
Cast Net
They are well adapted for the capture of small shoaling fishes. This net is commonly used in
shallow waters. This is a circular-mouthed or umbrella shaped conical net. A strong cord or warp
is attached to the apex of the cone or umbrella and a number of sinkers are fixed all along the
circular periphery.
Fig 5.2 Cast Net
Dip Net or Lift Net
Several kinds of dip nets are in use for catching small sized fishes. They are triangular,
rectangular or square in shape and are made up of bamboo frame along which the net is laced
skillfully.
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Some bait such as the ball of wheat flour or cockroach or earthworm is often put on the net or
somehow kept suspended over the net to attract fishes.
Small sized nets are provided with handle and are generally operated by hand from some boat or
raft, but for the operation of larger ones a long bamboo pole, which is kept fixed to the centre of
the dip net, is used like a lever.
There are four types of dip nets which are in common use in the rural areas: Triangular dip net
(also called ‘Bhesaljal’), Kharrajal (another form of triangular dip net), Hela jal
(anothertriangular net), Khorsulajal (rectangular dip net).
Fig .5.3 Type of Fishing Net
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Purse Net
This is purse shaped net, operational from a boat. Two types of purse nets are in use: (a)
Kharkijal and (b) Shangla jal.
Bag set net
The bag set net has appearance of a conical type.The size of the mesh varies as perexpectation of
kind of fish species to be caught. The cod end of the net is kept closed by a knot, but when
entrapped fish are to be taken out, the pocket is unfastened by loosening the knot. The operation
is generally done at night and the fishing places are long rivers, with the existence of some
current in water, or streams joiningreservoirs or large tanks.
Hooks and lines
Among some other devices of minor grade for catching fishes, more popular are (i) poleand line
and (ii) hook and long line, (iii) hand line which are used generally in ponds, tanks,rivers and
reservoirs.
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i. Pole and Line
This simple gear consists of a pole, a line and hook. A suitable bait is fixed to the hook, and the
line with hook is dropped at a distance in front, after selecting a prospectivefishing site. Fish gets
lured in water and bites the bait. Instantly, the indicator vertical float gets drowned and the pole
holder pulls the pole by a swing action on the pole.
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Fig 5.4 Type of Fishing Hoocks
ii. Hook and long line
The gear consists of a long main line, shorter branch lines tied to the main line, hooks,buoyant or
floats and sinkers. A suitable bait (earthworm piece, fish piece, wheat paste) is useddepending
upon the type of fish to be caught.
Hand line
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The polyamide monofilament lines have a terminal lead sinker and a hook. Different types of
baits are used according to the fish.Bait is a kind of ‘lure’, fixed on the hook, used for attracting
the fish and then hooking it with the hook.
Dredges
Dredges are dragged gear, with an oblong iron frame with an attached bag net .
Traps
They are stationary nets and fishes are directed towards an enclosure through guarded entrance.
The following types are used in inland waters.
Pots: They are small traps designed to catch fish. They are fabricated as small cages or baskets
from locally available materials such as wood and wicker and alsoby using wire netting, metal
rods,synthetic netting and reinforced plastic. Target organisms are enticed into the enclosure by
bait or shelter spaces.
Barriers (Barrage traps): Barriers like walls or dams made of stones, mud, netting or split
bamboo pieces are used to trap fishes during low tides. In water where there are no currents,
fences are provided to guide the fish into pockets. These are then removed by other gears.
Fish screens: Fish screens are of common use to enclose a selected water area of the river for
fishing. Thin pieces of split bamboo are woven to form a sort of screen .Several such screens are
joined together to surround as shallow tidal area at the time of high floods in the river. When the
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flood water recedes, several kinds of fish are left behind on the surrounded water area and these
are easily collected .
Fish Aggregation Device (FAD)
Fish Aggregation Device (FAD) is a man-made object that is used to attract fishes. Itconsists of
buoys or floats tethered to the floor of the water body with concrete blocks.
5.5 NATURAL AND SYNTHETIC FIBERS
Netting yarns/twines forms the main part of majority of fishing gears. Apart from giving
structure and shape to the gear, materials play a substantial role in resource and energy
conservation. Netting materials for fabrication of fishing gear are either of textile or non-textile
origin. Textile materials comprise of netting, twine and rope while floats, sinkers, hooks etc
constitute non-textile origin materials. The raw material for fish netting consists of fibres which
can be distinguished into two groups: natural fibres and man-made fibres.
Natural Fibres:
Different kinds of fibres originating from plant and animal body parts have been used for
production of textiles and other products are termed as natural fibres.Fibres of plant origin such
as that of cotton, manila, sisal, hemp, linen, ramie, coir etc. and of animal origin such as silk, hair
etc are termed as natural fibres. Based on the source of origin, vegetable fibres come as seed
fibre, fruit fibre, leaf fibre and bast fibre. Seed fibre is available from cotton (Gossipium sp.)
while coir (Cocos nucifera) is a source of fruit fibre. Sisal (Agave sisalana), Abaca/Manila (Musa
textiles) and pineapple leaf (Ananas comosus) are sources of leaf fibre. Examples of bastfibres
are True hemp (Cannabis sativa), Indian hemp (Crotalaria juncea) and jute (Corchorus
capsularis). While eco-friendliness and reasonable weather resistance are positive attributes for
natural fibres, the high biodegradability (being cellulose in origin) and very short useful life time,
when exposed to water, are negative attributes of natural fibres. To increase the service life,
frequent preservation and protection measures are required which limit the effective and
continued use of natural fibres in different fishing seasons. Moreover, on wetting, natural fibres
absorb water and swell resulting in increased thickness, bulkiness and weight which limit the
size of gear that can be handled from a boat. While eco-friendliness and reasonable weather
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resistance are positive attributes for natural fibres, the high biodegradability (being cellulose in
origin) and very short useful life time, when exposed to water, are negative attributes of natural
fibres. To increase the service life, frequent preservation and protection measures are required
which limit the effective and continued use of natural fibres in different fishing seasons.
Synthetic fibres
Like elsewhere in the world, in India too, with the introduction of man-made synthetic fibres in
the late 1950s, natural fibres used for the fishing gears have been substituted by these synthetic
materials. This transition was mainly due to the highly positive properties of these fibres such as
highly non-biodegradable nature, high breaking strength, better uniformity in characteristics,
high abrasion resistance, low maintenance cost and long service life. Earlier, nettings used to be
fabricated manually, which is laborious and time consuming while the introduction of synthetic
fibres paved way for machine made nettings which revolutionized the fishing industry
Synthetic fibres have greatly extended the endurance of fishing gears, and together with
mechanized vessels, have increased the size and complexity of nets. It is stated that synthetic
fibres brought to one of man’s oldest occupations, the miracle of science and in doing so provide
easier living for the fishers.. This structure gives the fibre the properties required for a textile
fibre. Synthetic fibres are produced entirely by chemical process or synthesis from simple basic
substances such as phenol, benzene, acetylene etc.
Polyamide fibres (PA): Polyamide, a synthetic polymer, popularly known as nylon.
Polyvinyl chloride: They are used in outdoor fabrics, such as tarps, awnings, rain gear and
fishing nets.
Polyvinyl alcohol:They are durable and resistant to abrasion and wrinkling. Some polyvinyl-
alcohol fibers are more hygroscopic than any other synthetic fiber. The fibers are resistant to
light, microorganisms, sweat, and various chemical reagents . Industrial fibers are used in the
production of cables and fishing equipment.
Polyethylene (PE): It has high crystallinity, melting temperature, hardness and tensile strength.
In India, PE is used for manufacture of netting and ropes.
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Polypropylene (PP): PP netting and ropes are available, in India. They do not absorb moisture
and have a high resistance to UV degradation.
Polyester (PES): It was named the fibre "Terylene”.
Later introductions
Introduction of synthetic materials with high tensile strength properties has made it possible to
bring out changes in the design and size of fishing nets. As the fishing industry became highly
competitive, the search and research for new generation materials which give better strength for
less thickness resulted in invention of new materials. Aramid fibres, Kevlar, UHMWPE,
biodegradable plastic etc are recent introductions to the fishing gear material sector.These
materials have advantages, especially less drag which results in fuel efficiency. Synthetic netting
yarns/twines forms the main part of majority of fishing gears. Apart from giving structure and
shape to the gear, materials play a substantial role in resource and energy conservation. Plastic
materials due to very good strength, durability and other vital properties, are extensively used in
fisheries. The introduction of synthetic fibres has revolutionized the fishing industry and it can
be considered as the major single factor which led to the development of today’s efficient fishing
gears. However, the responsible use and disposal of materials are very essential for resource
conservation, energy saving and ecological well-being
5.6 PREPARATION AND MAINTENANCE OF FISHING NETS
Netting is defined by International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as a meshed structure

of indefinite shape & size, composed of one yarn or one or more systems of yarns inter laced or
joined or obtained by other means for example by stamping or cutting from sheet material or by
extrusion . Netting materials for fabrication of fishing gear are either of textile or non-textile
origin. Textile materials comprise of netting, twine and rope while floats, sinkers, hooks etc
constitute non-textile origin materials. The raw material for fish netting consists of fibres which
can be distinguished into two groups: natural fibres and man-made fibres. Traditional fishing
gears used earlier, till 1950s were made mainly with natural fibres such as cotton, manila, sisal,
jute and coir. With the introduction of man-made synthetic fibres in the late 1950s, natural fibres
used for the fishing gears have been substituted by these synthetic materials. This transition was
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mainly due to the highly positive properties of these fibres such as highly non-biodegradable
nature, high breaking strength, better uniformity in characteristics, high abrasion resistance, low
maintenance cost and long service life. Fishing Nets made from synthetic materials which
makes them stronger, lighter and cheaper.With the development and wider availability of
synthetic gear materials, recent advances in vessel technology, navigational electronics, gear
handling machinery, fish detection methods and fish behaviour studies, large-scale changes have
taken place in the design, fabrication, operation and catching capacity of modern fishing gears
such as trawls, purse seines and long lines. Widely used traditional fishing gears such as
entangling nets, hook and lines and traps have also benefited by way of design upgradation and
efficiency improvement in the recent years
Properties of fiber used for making fishing nets
Choice of material for different gears Even though different types of synthetic fibres are
available, an ideal material satisfying all the requirements of different fishing gears does not
exist. The various types of synthetics having different qualities provide a range of choice for
selecting the best suited material for each type of gear. The choice of material depends not only
on the technical properties but also on the local availability and price. For each type of gear, a
particular property of the material may be important; for example, sinking speed for purse seine,
transparency and softness for gillnets, high breaking strength and abrasion resistance for bottom
trawls etc.Synthetic netting materials generally are resistant to biodeterioration i.e., they are
resistant against destruction by mildew in air and bacteria in water. This is the major advantage
of synthetics over natural fibres and it is the prime requisite for a fibre for consideration as a
fishing gear material. Besides, synthetic fibres have high breaking strength, better uniformity in
characteristics, long service life and low maintenance cost. However, unlike natural fibres, they
are prone to degradation under sunlight at a much faster rate. As far as the fishing gear purpose is
concerned, properties which are of importance are linear density, diameter, specific gravity, knot
stability, breaking load, elongation, weathering resistance and abrasion resistance.
Diameter: The diameter of netting material is an important factor influencing the fishing gear
performance. Thickness and rigidity of the material influences the resistance of fishing gear to
water flow and hence the power required or the speed obtained in towing gears are depended on
it. Thinner twines offer less resistance.
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Linear density: It is the mass per unit length of the material. The mass in g of 1000 m length of
a material is expressed as R tex and mass of 9000 m of the material as R denier. While
comparing different types of yarns, the Rtex values serve as a relative measure for the mass of
netting. For the same kind of material, lower Rtex means thinner material and generally costs
less while buying on a mass basis.
Specific Gravity: Specific gravity of most of the synthetic fibres is less than the natural fibres.
Specific gravity influences the fishing gear as fibres with lesser specific gravity allows a greater
length of netting for a given weight of yarn and helps in savings in handling and power.
Twist: The number of turns or twists imparted to a twine per unit length is important as it
influences many properties especially the breaking strength, diameter, linear density, resistance
to abrasion and general wear and tear of the twine.
Breaking load and elongation: The breaking strength/load of a material denotes the ability of a
material to withstand the strain. It depends on the type of polymer, type of yarn, degree of twist
and thickness of the material. The strength of fibre changes in the wet condition; in natural fibres
the wet strength is higher while the reverse is true of synthetic fibres. Knotting also causes
reduction in the breaking strength. This is dependent on the type of polymer, type of yarn and
knot, twine construction and also on the degree of stretching.
Weathering Resistance: Even though all fibres, irrespective of natural or synthetic are prone to
degradation on exposure to weathering, the problem is severe with synthetic fibres. The main
factor responsible for weathering is the sunlight, i.e. the ultra violet part of the sun’s radiation.
Different synthetic fibres show variation in their susceptibility to and rate of deterioration by
sunlight depending on the type of polymer and fibre. PVC has very high resistance against
weathering, while PES has high and PA and PE, have medium resistance against weathering.
Environment friendly fibre- In the fishing industry, environment friendly fishing line made of
biodegradable polymer made from poly butylene succinate (PBS) is a recent
development.`Bioline’is a commercial fibre made from PBS which retains its strength and
durability for few months of use and then completely degrades in water (salt or fresh water)
through the enzymatic reactions of naturally occurring microorganisms in the water. It does not
deteriorate when kept clean and dry, but when exposed to bacterial activity underwater or
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underground, it deteriorates viz., it retains its strength and durability for the first 10-12 months of
use and then completely degrade in water or on land within five years. FIELDMATE™ is
another example for biodegradable polymer. If exposed for three months in salt or fresh water, it
decomposes through the enzymatic reactions of naturally occurring microorganisms, before
eventually being reduced to water and carbon dioxide.
Basic terms used in netting
Fibre: The basic material of netting, has length at least 100 times its diameter.
Netting yarn: It is the standardized universal term for all textile material which is suitable for
manufacture of netting for fishing gears and which can be knitted into netting by machine or by
hand without having to undergo further process. Yarn is made into a netting by twisting or
braiding. Monofilaments are used directly for making into netting without further process.
Netting twine: or folded yarn is a netting yarn which is made of two or more single yarns or
monofilaments.
Cabled netting twine: Combines two or more netting twines by one or two further twisting
operations. Fibres are combined to form single yarns. Several single yarns are twisted together to
form a netting twine. Several of these folded yarns or netting twines are twisted together by a
secondary twisting operation to form a cabled netting twine.
Braided netting yarns: These are produced by interlacing a number of strands in such a way
that they cross each other in diagonal direction.
Fishing gear construction
Fishing gear design
Design process for fishing gear has been greatly influenced in the recent years by the resource
management and conservation, environmental safety and energy efficiency imperatives. Design
process involves a divergent phase when analysis of the situation, statement of needs,
specifications, standards of operation and constraints are spelt out; a transformational phase
which includes generation of design ideas; and a convergence phase during which an evaluation
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in terms of objectives of design, utility and economic viability, prototype development, testing
and evaluation takes place
Model testing
Model testing is increasingly used for design evaluation of the existing commercial fishing gear
designs with a view to optimise their design parameters and for development of newer designs.
Factors affecting fishing gear design Important factors which influence the design of fishing
gears are (i) biology, behaviour and distribution of target species; (ii) fishing depth, current and
visibility; (iii) sea bottom conditions; and (iv)other factors such as the scale of operations, size
and engine power of fishing vessel, energy conservation objectives, selectivity and resource
conservation objectives.
Shaping of netting
Each netting panel used in the construction of fishing gear can be derived from one ormore
sections of particular geometric shapes such as rectangle, trapezium or triangle each with
auniform mesh size and twine specifications .The shape of these component piecesconstituting
the netting panels is achieved by increasing, decreasing or maintaining the numberof meshes in
the N-direction or T-direction This is done by shape cutting the pieces frommachine made
webbing. Three types of cuts viz., N-cut, T-cut and B-cut are used to shape the netting.
Taper ratio
Netting sections required to make up the gear panel are cut according to pre-calculated taper
ratio from the machine made netting.
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Types of cuts used to shape netting
Cutting rate
Cutting rate is regular repeated cycle of N-cuts; T-cuts; B-cuts; N-cuts and B-cuts; or Tcuts and
B-cuts made in the correct proportion to obtain the required taper ratio. Netting usage can be
economised by careful planning of thecuts of the complementary pieces used in gear
construction.
Assembly of netting
The various constituent pieces of netting panels prepared by shape cutting, are assembledby
either joining or seaming. Joining requires braiding an extra row connecting the two panels.In
seaming, one or several meshes on the edge of each panel are re-joined together bylacing.
Design drawings and specifications of fishing gears
Design drawing of the fishing gear should provide all information relating to the size,shape,
material and construction using recognised nomenclature and symbols.
Steps in Fishing gear construction
Extruding process - Nylon chip will be extruded to be a nylon monofilament fishing line.
Twisting process- In this stage, the extruded Nylon Monofilament Fishing Line will be twisted
into Nylon Monofilament Net. While PE Monofilament is twisted from Polyethylene Net (PE)
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Weaving process- The finest twine will be fed into the weaving machine with a computerized
system and controlled by highly-experienced staff to ensure that tight knot, precise mesh size, At
Running.
Dyeing process- we can design the character of the products, such as coloring, brightness,
shine, and softness to meet our customer requirements.
Stretching processLengthway/Vertical Stretching (TATE): The nets will be heat-set by

stretching according to the length of the net.
Packaging process- Finished goods will be packed perfectly with a standard plastic bag as per
our premium quality standard in order to make sure that the goods will be in a good condition
when delivered to our customers.
Maintenance of Fishing Gears:
Proper care and handling of fishing gears after their use is as important as their use. Proper
maintenance increases the durability of the gears.Following care is necessary:
1. The gear should be washed thoroughly with the clean water and weeds and mud, etc. should
be removed carefully.
2. Then dip the net in dilute KMnO4 or CuSO4 or common salt solution to get rid of harmful
bacteria.
3. Wash again with clean water and then spread in shade for drying.
4. To increase durability and strength of the fibre of gear, it may be kept immersed for 10-15 min
in hot tar
diluted with kerosene
5.7 DIFFERENT FISHING METHOD
The fishes are one of the main exploitable resources of the aquatic ecosystems that provide a
major source of protein. Fishing technology is the discipline dealing with the natural sciences
and technology for optimizing fish capture and fishing operations. Fishing techniques are
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methods for catching fish. Fishing techniques include hand-gathering, spearfishing, netting,
angling and trapping. Recreational, commercial and artisanal fishers use different techniques,
and also, sometimes, the same techniques.
Fishing without gear
Blast fishing
Dynamite or blast fishing is done easily and cheaply with dynamite or homemade bombs made
from locally available materials. Fish are killed by the shock from the blast and are then
skimmed from the surface or collected from the bottom.
Fish poisoning
Chemicals like copper and lime are used to poison the fish. Plant poisons extracted from
ichthyotoxic plants containing saponin are used to poison and stupefy the fish.
Pesticides
The most commonly used pesticides are Nuvan, Thiodon, and Malathion.These pesticides are
applied in high concentrations to the areas with high probability of catching fishes. The
application of pesticides not only damages the ecosystem but also affects the health of human
beings.
Bleaching powder and lime
Bleaching powder and lime are two chemicals easily available in the Kumaon region, used to kill
fishes. Soon after its application the fishes come to the water surface.
Electro fishing
This is another modern technique confined to the urban areas. The main objective of this method
is tocapture fish by applying electric current to the stream water. Portable generator sets are used
to apply electric current through the stream water.
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Hammering
The upland stream fishes use the boulders as one of its hiding covers. When a strong blow is
given on the boulders using a hammer, the fishes hiding beneath it are injured (Fig. 2). The
injured fishes, including the small sized are collected.
Water diversion
This method is practiced where one or more secondary streams is found within a channel (Fig.
3). The water in one of the secondary streams is diverted to the other by blocking one stream
with mud, boulders, and plants. Thereafter, the fishes are collected from the stream. This method
is practiced in fast moving water habitats of the stream.
Hand Gathering
This is the simplest method used in both freshwater and marine environment. It is mainly done in
shallow waters; particularly hill-streams, shallow channels, intertidal zone, lagoon, mangroves
etc. In hill streams an isolated channel is dammed by putting the stones and then the flow is
diverted to the other side. The fishes trapped in the dammed area are then picked up by hand.
Trap for jumping fish hand picking- In this method, the fishermen move intothe stream and
chase the small fishes hidingbeneath the rocks
Fishing with gear
Type of Gears according to their mobility
Active nets: These are moved by man-powers (group of persons) or machine power to encircle
theshoal of fish and bring them to shore (bank). In active netting, the floats and sinkers areso
adjusted as to keep the two ends of the net stretched apart during the entire operation.They
include drag nets, bag nets, seine nets, trawls, purse seines, cast nets, scoop nets,movable traps,
hook and line (angling).
Passive net: These remain stationary at a place and the fish moving around are caught or gilled.
Thenet is either set at the bottom with the help of anchors and stakes (stake net), or suspended at
intermediate depths with the help of drop-lines from larger buoys at the surface or suspended
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near the surface by its own float line, but the net is attached by means of ropes to larger sinkers
at the bottom. They include various kinds of gill nets, ‘trammel’ nets, hook and line.
Sticks
In shallow streams, the stick is often the best instrument to catch the mighty T. putitora. During
monsoon, the T. putitora migrates to small streams. And takes shelter in the small shallow
streamlets where it can be easily recognized. The local people beat it with sticks and kill the
trapped fish.
Fishing by hunting
Spear- It is the earliest weapon employed by man and still in use to-day in many parts of
theworld. A ‘Spear’ tip is fitted on a bamboo shaft and operated by throwing on the target from a
boat or standing on the bank.
Spears and Harpoons
The harpoon – It has a shaft of about 3 m long to one end of which is attached a barbed iron
point (single or double). The rake is a highly specialized weapon consisting of a long and thin
blade at each end (look like a double-bladed oar)
Fishing with animalsFish and other aquatic animals are caught using trained animals like dogs,
otters,cormorants (a bird), etc.
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Grappling and wounding gears
Certain instruments are used to grapple and wound the fish prior to their capture. These
instruments can be hand instruments or sharp projectiles.
Hand instruments- These are broadly classified into clamps, tongs and rakes.
1. Clamp is a stick with one end split into a few branches. Clamps are mainly used to catch
mussels and snails.
2. Tongs are similar to scissors with long handles and are used to operate slightly deeper
than the clamps.
3. Rakes are used to catch mussels and they rake and dig animals hidden in the mud.
Sharp projectiles- Instruments with sharp points are used, thereby catching the fish in a
damaged or injured
condition.
1. Spears are simplest form of sharp projectiles and they range from single pronged stick to
many pronged barbed ones.
2. Fish plummets: Metal weights with barbed points called fish plummets pierce the
flatfish over the bottom as they are dropped down.
3. Fish combs provided with prongs which pierce the fish when pressed into the mud are
mainly used in eel fishery.
Hand-gathering
It is possible to harvest many sea foods with minimal equipment by using the hands
Noodling: noodler places his hand inside a catfish hole. If all goes as planned, the catfish swims
forward and latches onto the noodler's hand, and can then be dragged out of the hole
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Trout binning - Another method of taking trout. Rocks in a rocky stream are struck with a
sledgehammer. The force of the blow stuns the fish.
Trout tickling - the practice of catching trout by hand is known as trout tickling
Spearfishing
Spearfishing is an ancient method of fishing conducted with an ordinary spear or a specialised

variant such as a harpoon, trident, arrow or eel spear. Some fishing spears use slings (or rubber
loops) to propel the spear.
Netting
Fishing nets are meshes usually formed by knotting a relatively thin thread. Netting is the
principal method of commercial fishing, though longlining, trolling, dredging and traps are also
used.
Cast nets - are round nets with small weights distributed around the edge. They are also called
throw nets. The net is cast or thrown by hand in such a manner that it spreads out on the water
and sinks.
Drift nets - are nets which are not anchored. They are usually gillnets, and are commonly used
in the coastal waters of many countries.
Gillnets - catch fish which try to pass through by snagging on the gill covers. Trapped, the fish
can neither advance through the net nor retreat.
Hand nets - are small nets held open by a hoop. They have been used since antiquity. They are
also called scoop nets, and are used for scooping up fish near the surface of the water. They may
or may not have a handle–if they have a long handle they are called dip nets.
Lift nets - are a method of fishing using nets that are submerged to a certain depth and then
lifted out of the water vertically. The nets can be flat or shaped like a bag, a rectangle, a pyramid,
or a cone. Lift nets can be hand-operated, boat-operated, or shore-operated. They typically use
bait or a light-source as a fish-attractor.
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Seine nets - are large fishing nets that can be arranged in different ways. In purse seining fishing
the net hangs vertically in the water by attaching weights along the bottom edge and floats along
the top.
Surrounding nets -
Tangle nets - also known as tooth nets, are similar to gillnets except they have a smaller mesh
size designed to catch fish by the teeth or upper jaw bone instead of by the gills.
Trawl nets - are large nets, conical in shape. The trawl is pulled through the water by one or
more boats, called trawlers. The activity of pulling the trawl through the water is called trawling.
Angling
Angling is a method of fishing by means of an "angle" (fish hook). The hook is attached to a
line, and is sometimes weighed down by a sinker so it sinks deeper in the water. This is the
classic "hook, line and sinker" arrangement, used in angling since prehistoric times. The hook is
usually dressed with lures or baits such as earthworm, doughball and bait fish.
Line fishing
Line fishing is fishing with a fishing line, but not using rods. A fishing line is any cord made for
fishing. Important parameters of a fishing line are its length, material, and weight (thicker,
sturdier lines are more visible to fish
Rod fishing
Angling with a rod-
Angling with fishing rods give more control of the fishing line, and allows the bait/lure to be
launched much farther than hand-throwing can reach. The rod is usually fitted with a fishing reel
which functions as a mechanism for storing, retrieving and paying out the line. The hook can be
dressed with lures or baits.
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Fishing Rod
Trapping
Fish trap- Traps are culturally almost universal and seem to have been independently invented
many times. There are essentially two types of trap, a permanent or semi-permanent structure
placed in a river or tidal area and pot-traps that are baited to attract prey and periodically lifted.
Artisanal techniques
Dam fishing - An artisanal technique called dam fishing. This involves the construction of a
temporary dam resulting in a drop in the water levels downstream—allowing fish to be easily
collected.
Basket weir fish traps -Thesewere widely used in ancient times. Basket weirs comprise two
wicker cones, one inside the other and easy to get into and hard to get out.
5.8 SUMMARY
Inland fisheries are any activity conducted to extract fish and other aquatic organisms from
"inland waters". Fisheries in inland waters have long provided an important source of food for
mankind. Inland fisheries are critical for a group of developing countries in the world, providing
an important source of nutrition and income. Individuals can relatively easily begin fishing in
inland waters because basic equipment needs (e.g., nets, hooks, traps) are generally inexpensive
and do not require substantial skill to operate or maintain. Despite being 'low-tech, and
inexpensive, these fishing techniques are highly effective at catching large amounts of fish and
are used extensively in inland fisheries around the globe (Welcome et al, 2010).
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Fishing nets and gears are refers to those devices having different shape and sizes and used in the
water body to capture different sizes of fishs. Various fishing nets, fish poison and use of
explosives were main part of this state fishing methods. Gill net, Cast net, Dragged net, Dip net,
Hand net, Hanging rope, Trap, Hook, Line and Explosives were mainly used other than that six
chemical poisons and thirteen Icthyo-toxic plants were observe which was used by the local
fishermen. Explosives and Icthyo-poisons were polluting and damaging aquatic ecosystem by
various ways and was one of the main causes of aquatic biodiversity loss.The raw material for
fish netting consists of fibres which can be distinguished into two groups: natural fibres and
man-made fibres. Different kinds of fibres originating from plant and animal body parts have
been used for production of textiles and other products are termed as natural fibres. Traditional
fishing gears used earlier, till 1950s were mainly with natural fibres such as cotton, manila, sisal,
jute and coir. Like elsewhere in the world, in India too, with the introduction of man-made
synthetic fibres in the late 1950s, A variety of synthetic fibres are used as fishing gear material.
Netting yarns/twines forms the main part of majority of fishing gears. Apart from giving
structure and shape to the gear, materials play a substantial role in resource and energy
conservation.
Q. 1 - Describe different type of Inland fishing gears with diagram
Q. 2 - What are the Biological factors in fishing?
Q. 3- Explain in detail about Types of fishing gears used in Inland fishing
Q. 4 - Describe Natural and synthetic fibers used for fishing gears
Q. 5 - Explain the process of Preparation of fishing nets
Q. 6 - Write about maintenance of fishing nets
Q. 7 - Explain Inland fishing method with diagram
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5.10 REFRENCES
 Basic Principles of Design of Fishing Gears and their Classification M.R. Boopendranath
 Fishing Methods in Streams of the Kumaon Himalayan Region of India SANJEEV K.
SRIVASTAVA, U.K. SARKAR and R.S. PATIYAL
 http://www.nagaura.co.jp/english/bect.html
 https://krishi.icar.gov.in/jspui/bitstream/123456789/30995/2/06_Basic%20Principles%20
of%20Design%20of%20Fishing%20Gears.pdf
 ICAR Winter School: Responsible Fishing: Recent Advances in Resource and Energy
Conservation
 Rakesh Verma,USE OF DIVERSE FISHING TECHNIQUES IN MIDHIMALAYAN
LANDSCAPE OF CENTRAL HIMALAYA, UTTARAKHAND,
 Saly N Thomas* and Sandhya K. M, Netting Materials for Fishing Gear with Special
Reference to Resource Conservation and Energy Saving,
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UNIT 6: COLD WATER AQUACULTURE AND ITS SCOPE IN

UTTARAKHAND
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Introduction
6.3 Scope of aquaculture for sustainable livelihood
6.4 Aquaculture of cold water fishes
6.5 Polyculture of carps
6.6 Sewage feed fisheries
6.7 Summary
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6.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this module, you shall be able to learn and understand :
• Coldwater Fisheries
• Scope of aquaculture for sustainable livelihood in Uttarakhand
• Aquaculture of cold water fishes
• Polyculture of carps
• Sewage feed fisheries
6.2 INTRODUCTION
Fisheries is an economic activity that involves harvesting fish directly from the natural resources
(Capture Fisheries) or culture them in confinement ( Aquaculture). It may be Traditional/ Small
Scale Fisheries for sustenance, or Large-Scale/ Commercial Fisheries for profit.From very
ancient time, the fishes are thecomponent of food and also as a great source of commerce and
recreation. They also provide us a number of by products which are very useful for humans and
their economic value is very high. Due to this, people started Aquaculture to fulfill their food and
economic needs. Fish culture is a very ancient industry and nowadays it has become a large
industry and is known as Pisciculture
The development of the hilly state of Uttarakhand requires a strong and comprehensive
economic base. The economic development of the state can be given a new dimension through
proper scientific and commercial use of the available natural resources. The state, is a very rich
in terms of water resources. There is immense wealth of water resources which exist
in the form of rivers, lakes, reservoirs and ponds. Due to the mountainous landscape and
cold climate, the water resources here are cold water as well as pollution-free . The
province is also fortunate in terms of biodiversity. Along with the diversity of
many organisms and plants , about 100 species of cold water fish are found in the
natural water sources here. From fisheries view point, waters of temperatures falling within
the tolerance limits of the trouts belonging to the family Salmonidae are termed as cold. Such
temperature limits are 0o C to 20o C with an optimum range from 10o – 12oC. In India, lakes
and streams located 914 m above mean sea level where the Indian major carps do not live,
qualify for coldwaters. The characteristics of coldwater lakes include high oxygen, low carbon
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dioxide, inorganic soil, sparse vegetation and food, low fertility and high transparency. The
rearing of almost all native and Chinese fishes is prevalent here. Given the breadth of
water resources, the diversity of fish species and the importance of fisheries industry at
present , cold aquatic fisheries in the State of Uttarakhand.The state's strong fisheries
industry is very important for the development of the state , it can make the broad
economic base for the development of rural people by giving employment to the rural people
and common man .Polyculture or composite fish culture is based on the concept of total
utilization of different trophic and spatial niches of a pond which results in maximum fish
production. The combination of different fish species gives better utilization of available natural
food in a pond. The compatible fish species having different feeding habits are reared so that all
the niches of pond ecosystem are properly utilised.In order to obtain high production per ha of
water body, fast growingcompatible species of fish of different feeding habits, or different
weight classesof the same species, are stocked together in the same pond so that all itsecological
niches are occupied by the fishes. This system of pond managementis called mixed farming or
composite fish culture or polyculture
The farmers observed that there were differences in the feeding habits and different preferences
for natural food organisms. This led to the thought of adjusting the stocking densities according
to the occurrence of natural food and the niche occupied by each species in the ponds. Thus, it
could be beneficial in traditional production systems by culturing appropriate species
combinations.Such a practice could effectively lead to the utilisation of a much larger quantity of
food resources and developing a symbiotic relationship between the cultured species in the
system. This would lead to higher production at a lower cost and the farm environment can be
maintained at required levels.
Sewage is universally considered as a valuable organic fertilizer as it contains abundant
quantities of nutrient elements. In general way, the term sewage is used for a combined liquid
waste discharged from all domestic, municipal and industrial sources within a given area. sewage
fed fisheries is a new idea for India. Fish culture in sewage system involves little investment with
high yield. A sewage itself provides fertilizers and supplemented food to pond. This reduces the
cost of culture and at the same time the growth rate of fish in such ponds is also faster. In India
the practice of sewage fed fisheries is not very popular.
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6.3 SCOPE OF AQUACULTURE FOR SUSTAINABLE

LIVELIHOOD
In terms of the scenario of economy of India, fisheries plays an important role by providing food
security, generating big employments and also small livelihoods, and earning foreign exchange
for the country.
Uttarakhand, one of the Hilly states of India has enormous freshwater fisheries resources
that comprised of 2,700 km of rivers, 24,200 hectares of reservoirs, 297 hectares of lakes and
about 2000 hectares of ponds. The state comprises two major regions namely Kumaon and
Garhwal and both the regions are blessed with an abundance of aquatic resources. Since,
water temperature in the hills falls below 20°C, the exotic carps (common, grass and silver
carps), mahseers and other such coldwater fishes that can grow and survive at lesser temperature
are more suitable for use in hill aquaculture. Among all the cultured species; Silver carp, Grass
carp and Common carp are reported to perform better in composite culture system in the mid
altitude conditions. Common carp plays an important role in augmenting fish production
especially in the hill states of the region. Since the size of fish ponds in the hill areas are small
and principally rain fed and seasonal, the small-scale integrated aquaculture utilizing available
on-farm resources has great potential.
Food and nutritional security are global challenges. It is more of a problem in the hilly region;
there are both challenges and opportunities in hill fisheries and aquaculture. mountain states are
the major hilly regions, which have a huge scope for coldwater fisheries and aquaculture. Fish is
a healthy food and is a rich source of all nutrients (except carbohydrates) and in combination
with rice/wheat (carbohydrate rich) make a complete diet. Most of the coldwater fishes are quiet
nutritious with high proteins (16-18%) and are moderately rich in oils (Labeo dyocheilus 5.7%,
Tor putitora, 4.3%) and the polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), EPA in
Schizothoraxrichardsonii and DHA in T. putitora. The PUFA content of some of the coldwater
fishes are comparable or close to the marine fishes. Some coldwater fishes are very rich in
essential amino acids arginine ( T.putotora ) and tyrosine (T. putitora). Similarly, some of them
are rich in micronutrients calcium (N. hexagonolepis), iron (N. hexagonolepis) and zinc
(Cyprinus carpio). If the coldwater fisheries and aquaculture production reach its potential, it
could not only provide nutritional security to the hilly region but would ensure livelihood
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security also, owing to their nutritional richness. Thus, the coldwater fisheries and aquaculture
sector needs special focus for increasing farmer’s income as well as providing nutritional and
livelihood security to the hill people. Understanding it, the aquatic resources in hills are quite
valuable for the development of fishery both for food, sport, recreation and employment but
scientific management of these resources is necessary to achieve the objectives. In order to
manage these ecosystems, it is necessary to take up appropriate strategic plans and action so that
hill aquatic resources and aquaculture activities may contribute to fishery and aquaculture
substantially in remote hilly regions on a sustainable basis.
There is a vast scope and potential in improving fish production in hills by bringing natural
Himalayan lakes located at different altitudes, under scientific management for fishery
enhancement.This would actually reduce the gap between actual fish yield and production
potentials. Through application of modern techniques, significant scope exists for promoting
trout farming, which in long run, will have both domestic and export demand. There is also a
great potential for sport fishery development and ecotourism in hill regions. Use of modern
techniques such as molecular and biotechnological intervention, selective breeding programme
for improvement of strains both of exotic and indigenous species, coldwater fish health
management for the containment of diseases have now become imperative. Ornamental fish
culture for small scale enterprises in the hills can provide an alternative source of employment.
6.4 AQUACULTURE OF COLD WATER FISHES

India has significant coldwater fishery resources in terms of gene pool, and some of them being
suitable for food, sport and ornamentalpurpose.The Coldwater natural resources includes around
8243 km long streams and rivers, 20500 ha natural lakes, 50000 ha of reservoirs both natural and
manmade and 2500 ha brackish water lakes at high altitude. Coldwater fishes occupy an
important place amongst the freshwater fishes of India. The coldwater fisheries deal with
fisheries activity in water where temperature of water ranges from 5 to 20 degrees centigrade.
The gills of cold water fish are greatly reduced and the gill opening are smaller in size for
adaptation to cold temperatures. Important coldwater fishes of India are Mahseers such as Tor
putitora, T. tor, T. khudree, T. mosal, Snow Trout such as Schizothoraxrichardsonii and
Schizothoraichthysesocinus, Mountain Trout such as Barilius vagra, B. bendelisis, other fish
such as Glyptothorax sp., Garra sp., etc.Exotic trouts: Onchorhynchusmykiss ,Salmo trutta
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fario.Exotic carps: Cyprinus carpio var. specularis C. carpio var. communis C. Carpio Var.
nudus CtenopharyngodonIdella,Hyphthalmichthys molitrix,Carrasiuscarrasius.Minor carps:
Labeo dyocheilus, Labeo dero,Chaguniuschagunio, CrossocheiluslatiuslatiusGaragotyla, G.
hughi, Barils/Minnows/Catfishes/ Loaches: Barilius bendelisis B. bakeri B. vagra B.
barilaRaimas bola Danio divarioBotiabirdiGlyptothoraxpectinopterus G. conirostreconirostre.
The state Uttarakhand is blessed with plenty of natural beauty, including ice covered Himalayan
Peaks and centre of beauty is many freshwater streams and snow fed rivers all along the
landscape. The head water of the holy river Ganges such as Alaknada and Bhagirathi rivers take
origin from Garwal Himalaya and the other major tributaries like Ramganga and Kali river drain
along the Kumayan region of Uttarakhand region. The important game fishes reported from this
regions are: golden mahseer (Tor putitora), silver mahseer (Tor tor), goonch
(Bagariusbagarius), Mully (Wallago attu), murrels (Channa spp.) and snow trout (Schizothorax
spp.).
Species of Cold Water Fisheries:
(1) Mahaseer:
There are 4 species of mahaseer. It has a big head hence it is known as Mahaseer. Two of them
are edible fishes and are of commercial use, they are Tor putitora and Tor tor.
Fig 6.1 :(a) Tor tor(b) Tor putitora
(2) Snow Trout:
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Two genera are present; Schizothorax Spp. and Schizothoraichthysare endemic to Kashmir and
Ladakh while Schizothoraxprograstus occurs in Eastern Himalayas up to certain stretch.
Schizothoraxrichardsonii is distributed almost all along the Himalayas.
Fig: 6.2 (a)Schizothorax Spp.(b)Schizothoraichthysesocinus
(3) Barilius:Barilius vagra, B. bendelisis and, B. bola fishes are also called as Mountain trouts .
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Fig: (a)Barelius bendelisis (b)Bariluis bola
(4) Labeo:The fishes which are present in mountain rivers are minor carp and have no
significance as commercial fisheries. The fishes are L. dero, L. dyocheilus and
Crossocheiluslatius.
(5) Garra:There are two species found in lakes of the Himalayas as they are not edible fishes but
are relished as food of fishes. They are Garra lamta and Garra gotyla.
Fig:(a)Labeo dero(b)Carassious auratus
Exotic Fishes:
1. Trouts:Thefew trouts are now acclimatized in the streams, lakes and reservoirs in Indian
waters. These are brown troutSalmo trutta fabrio, Salmo eredius, Salmo gairdinariiand
Oncorhynchus mykiss (rainbow trout), Oncohrynchusnakrii
2. Cyprinus Carpio: The culture is being successfully done by induced breeding methods.
Flow through Hatchery:
This is device for rearing fish seed up to the fry stage. It has been designed and fabricated by
National Research Centre on Coldwater Fisheries at Bhimtal in Kumaun hills. It has the
capacity of incubating 0.225b million eggs.The capacity of flow through hatchery further
increased with installation of more troughs/ trays and nursery facilities with substantial increase
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in the quantity of water through overhead tanks. This method gives 30% more survival rate from
traditional pattern.
6.5 POLYCULTURE OF CARPS
When different species of fast growing compatible fishes, occupying different ecological niches
of a pond or any water body, are cultured together, they most efficiently utilises all the food
sources available in the pond for fish production without harming each other.
Objectives of Polyculture:
(1) To obtain maximum yield or fish production.
(2) To utilise all the available niches.
(3) The fishes cultured should not cause any ecological disbalance.
(4) The fish species cultured should not have any serious competition between them but each
species may have a beneficial influence on growth and production of the other. For example,
grass carp by consuming aquatic vegetation, converts plant tissue into fish flesh but its excreta
fertilises the pond which benefits all other species.
(5) Some species of fishes are cultured which have specific roles to play in maintaining water
quality in ponds by feeding on wastes accumulated in it. For example common carp and mrigal
consume the faeces of grass carp and silver carp, which contain large amounts of undigested
plant matter.
(6) Recent combination of fish species cultured are based on one or two species as the main ones
and the others as subsidiary compatible species which would be utilising those parts of the food
resources that would have been wasted.
Fish used in polyculture
Polyculture method traditionally combines the Indian major carps rohu (Labeo rohita); catla
(Catlacatla); and mrigal (Cirrhinuscirrhosus).The research modified the fish composition to
include the small carps mola (Amblypharingodon mola) and punti (Puntius sophore) and the
replacement of the bottom feeder mrigal by common carp (Cyprinus carpio). Chinese silver carp
(Hypophthalmitrix molitrix), an inexpensive species that farmer families can afford to eat instead
of selling, is currently being tested.Combinations of three Chinese carps (bighead, silver and
grass carp) and the common carp are most common in Polyculture. Other species may also be
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used. While fish may be grouped into broad categories based on their feeding habits, some
overlap does occur. In our state Polyculture systems has tremendous potential and our endemic
Schizothoracid species can be utilized effectively in composite fish culture .
Fig:6.5. Polyculture of carps
Polyculture is an effective way to maximize benefit from available natural food in a pond.
Polyculture or mixed fish farming or composite fish culture is the culture of fast growing
compatible species of fishes of different feeding habits (or different weight classes of the same
species) in the same pond so as to utilise the various available ecological niches in order to
obtain high production per hactare of water body.
A pond according to its depth can be divided into three distinct zonesupper surface zone, middle
column zone and bottom zone. A particular species exploits food of a particular zone. For
example Catlacatla is a surface feeder, Labeo rohita a column feeder and Cirrhinusmrigala is a
bottom feeder.
In case of single species or monospecies or monoculture only one zone will be utilised or
exploited while the other zones would remain unutilised. As a result the entire ecological area
would not be exploited and the yield or fish production would be less.
(A) Renovation of the Pond:
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Generally due to rain and flood the edges or dykes of the ponds may get damaged and a lot of silt
or mud may accumulate at the pond bottom, thereby decreasing the depth of water. In such cases
the entire water of the pond is to be removed through the help of a pump.The pond bottom
should be allowed to dry. The humus at the pond bottom should be removed through the help of
manual labours. The dykes has to be repaired and plants to be planted on it so that its roots would
prevent soil erosion. The pond is then filled with water.
(B) Clearance of Weeds:
One of the crucial problems encountered by Indian pisciculturists is the excessive growth of
aquatic vegetation in water bodies and its control.
1. Manual and Mechanical Control:
If the weed infestation is scanty, then it can be easily removed manually with the help of a long
bamboo. The entire weeds are swept with the bamboo to a side and then removed manually with
the hand. As the weeds grow again, it is difficult to eradicate them completely. In case of denser
infestation the weeds can be removed with the help of weed cutter.
2. Chemical Control:
In case of dense weed infestation suitable weedicides may be used. A large variety of chemical
herbicides are used as weedicides.
3. Biological Control:
Weeds in a water body can be controlled by means of selected varieties of herbivorous fishes.
The important herbivorous fishes used are: grass carp (Ctenopharyngodonidella), tawes (Puntius
javanicus); common carp (Cyprinus carpio); Tilapia mosambica and gourami (Osphro-
nemusgoramy).
(C) Eradication of Weed and Predatory Fishes:
It is not desirable to have weed and predatory fishes in the cultural impoundment. Weed fishes
by consuming the nutrients from water competes for food, space and oxygen with the fingerlings
of culturable carps
The predatory fishes, on the other hand, directly prey on the culturable carp spawn, fingerlings
and young fishes.One way of eradicating these unwanted fishes is by dewatering and drying the
pond. However, where dewatering is not possible then these fishes have to be killed by the
application of fish poison, generally of plant origin.The most widely used fish poison of plant
origin is mohua oil cake. The application of Brassica latifolia (mohua oil cake) is of much
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significance in fish ponds because of its role as piscicide in the initial phase of treatment and as
manure in later phase after its loss of toxicity.
(D) Addition of Lime:
The first step in fertilisation is the application of lime. The common form used is limestone.
Liming is essential for successful pond manuring. .
(E) Addition of Fertilisers:
(a) Inorganic Fertilisers:
The major fertilising elements are nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium and calcium.
(b) Organic Fertilisers:
Organic fertilisers are either of plant or animal origin. It contains almost all the nutrient elements
required in the metabolic cycle. The nutrients locked in them are either made available directly
or after decomposition and transformation by the microbes.
Organic Manures
The manures falling under this category are:
 Liquid Manure from Stable and Byres has been found to impart fertility for good fish
yield.
 Through the use of dried blood and guano an increase in fish yield has also been reported
 Oil Cakes:Oil cakes such as mustard oil cake, mohua oil cake, cotton seed meal, soybean
meal, etc. have been used for manuring fish ponds. Mustard oil cake is used either singly
or in combination with cowdung.
 Green Manuring:Green manuring is used to fertilise fish ponds. In this method green
plant tissues are decomposed and turned into soil. This is done by sowing a nitrogenous
or other crop on dry pond bottom at the time of pond preparation or by dumping it in a
heap at one end of the pond.
 Compost:Another good organic manure is compost. It is formed by dumping organic
wastes, vegetable debris, cut grass, cow dung, aquatic weeds, etc. into a large pit and then
the pit is covered with soil. The aerobic bacteria in the presence of nitrogen convert the
above mentioned wastes into humus.
Organic manures with carbohydrates and nitrogenous matter:
(i) Farm Yard Manure
(ii) Poultry Manure
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2. Stocking Management
In aquaculture practices only the common carp is cultured in monoculture system. While in poly-
culture system either the Indian major carps or in combination with the exotic carps are cultured
in various combinations. However, prior to the introduction of fry or fingerlings the cultured
water has to be tested whether it is suitable for culture or not.
For rearing of carp the main or basic objective is the production of an optimum quantity of the
desired size of fish, at minimum cost.There are two systems of stocking that the fish farmers
generally adopt:
(i) Multi-Size Stocking:
This involves stocking, in the same pond different sizes (fry, fingerlings and young adults) of
fishes in order to utilise the food resources more efficiently. In this system additional stocking of
fishes and periodic harvesting of marketable fishes are undertaken.
(ii) Multi-Stage Stocking:
In this system fishes are stocked in progressively larger ponds (nursery, rearing and stocking) as
they grow in size. Here, the stocking rates are reduced and harvesting of marketable fishes are
done after a period of approximately one year culture.
(B) Species Combination:
Three broad combinations are practised in India, i.e.
(1) Culture of Indian major carps alone,
(2) Culture of exotic carps alone and
(3) Culture of Indian and exotic carps together.
In cases where silver carp is cultured along with catla, the silver carps introduced should be
smaller in size and lesser in number.
As silver carp feeds on phytoplankton, the density of phytoplankton would fall if silver carp is
introduced in large numbers. This would hamper the quantity of zooplankton and ultimately the
growth rate of catla, that feeds predominantly on zooplankton.
Besides the above, a number of other species are also stocked in polyculture system. The more
common ones being tilapia (Tilapia mosambica), gouramy (Osphronemusgoramy), grey mullet
(Mugil parsia), tawes (Puntius javanicus) and a small number of carp hybrids (calbasu male x
catla female).
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Sometimes a carnivore, chital (Notopteruschitala), is added to control weed-fishes. However,

this carnivore should be smaller in size (2 inches to 3 inches) so that they do not prey on carp
fingerlings.
Although polyculture envisages compatible combinations of species or age groups that do not
compete in feeding habits, but there is often considerable overlap of the feeding habits and
preferred food items. When several species are added in ponds, the concept of exclusive
ecological niches and special separation are not always applied.
Recent combinations are generally based on one or two species as the main ones (depending
upon the market demand) and the others as subsidiary compatible species that will utilise the
unutilised food resources or would help in reducing the deterioration of water quality by feeding
on the wastes.
(C) Stocking Density and Ratio:
Several stocking rates in different combinations is practised in different areas depending upon
the market demand and the size to which it is grown. Under normal management, a stocking rate
per ha of 5000-6000 fingerlings of 2.5-5 cm length is grown to a size of 600-1000 g or more in
one year or less. A lower stocking density 4000-5000 is recommended if the fishes are to be
grown to marketable size in a short time.
Different species of fishes are stocked in varying ratios. The commonly stocked ratio of catla,
rohu and mrigal in the ponds of Bengal are 3: 3: 4 (Alikunhi, 1957). Recently, the most
commonly stocking ratio is catla 30 per cent, rohu 60 per cent, and mrigal 10 per cent.
3. Post-Stocking Management:
Culture of carps in pond is mainly based on fertilisation and supplementary feeding.
A. Pond Fertilisation:
Fertilisation with inorganic and organic manure helps to meet the requirement of carbon,
nitrogen, phosphorous and other nutrients. It is a known fact that manure increases plankton and
chironomid production in fish ponds, probably due to high production of bacteria and protozoa
developing on the organic matter of the manure. Detritus or the decomposing organic matter has
a high protein content.
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The stocking density and the environmental conditions of the pond determine the rate of
application of fertilisers. Moreover, the dosage and mode of application is also important,
whether the entire quantity has to be applied in one lot or sporadically.Too much of nutrients,
resulting from manuring may lead to the development of algal bloom, particularly under Indian
conditions. It may cause clogging of the gills and also depletion of the oxygen concentration in
the ponds. Manuring, thus, should not be done during persistent cloudy weather or when algal
bloom appears.
(i) Application of Organic Manure:
Raw cow dung is generally used as an organic manure. Under most situations a dose of 100-120
kg (dry matter) per day can be safely used under most situations. Generally in India, the
application of organic manure is 10,000- 20,000 kg (wet weight/ha/year).
(ii) Application of Inorganic Manure:
Using chemical fertilisers is advantageous. In intensive culture, where fishes are stocked in
higher densities, fertilisation at a dose of 60 kg/ha of single superphosphate and 60 kg/ha
ammonium sulphate, every two weeks is considered to be beneficial.In polyculture carp ponds
where supplementary feeding is adopted, nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium fertilisers are
applied at a ratio of 18: 8:4 at the rate of 500 kg/ ha/year.
(iii) Liming:
Liming should be done monthly, 1 -2 days after the application of organic manure
B. Supplementary Feed:
The spawns after being stocked, start feeding voraciously on zooplankton. Within 2-3 days of
stocking, the natural food available in the pond gets depleted. At this time artificial feed along
with natural food enhances the growth and survival of spawns. For Indian carps the commonly
given feed are rice/ wheat bran and oil cakes of ground-nut, coconut, mustard, etc.
D. Control of Diseases:
Prophylactic treatments with dip or bath in 0.38% potassium permanganate are given to fishes as
a precautionary measure. Therapeutic treatments are given to cure parasitic infections and
bacterial diseases.
E. Final Netting for Harvesting and Marketing:
Polyculture is generally practised for a period of 10 to 12 months, after which the entire stock is
harvested in case of multi-stage stocking. Some farms have marketing ponds where the live
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fishes are temporarily kept till they are marketed. After harve¬sting, the catches are sorted out
species-wise and size-wise before marketing.
6.6 SEWAGE FEED FISHERIES
Sewage is defined as a cloudy fluid arising out of domestic, municipal and industrial waste,
containing mineral and organic matter in solution or having particles of solid matter floating, in
suspension, or in colloidal and pseudo-colloidal form in a dispersed state. Sludge differs from
sewage in that it is the solid portion of waste and does not include fecal matter urine.
Fig:6.6 Physicochemical characteristics of Sewage
Domestic sewage has been reported to contain about 250 – 400 ppm of organic carbon and 80 –
120 ppm of total nitrogen. Thus giving the C:N ratio of around 3:1. Industrial sewage may
contain more organic carbon and hence may have a higher C: N ratio. Nitrogen in sewage is
present partly as organically bound element and partly as ammonical nitrogen. The fish farmer of
Kolkata developed a unique technique of utilization of domestic sewage for fish culture long
back in 1930s. The early inspiration of utilizing the sewage for fish culture emerged from the
waste. Stabilization pond used as water source of vegetable fields. This technique is considered
to be the largest operational system in the world to convert the waste in consumable product.
The growing fish demand of the metro city Kolkata is widely met by this technique. Present
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Status of Sewage Fed Fish Culture . In the course of time the area under sewage-fed fish culture
reached up to 12,000 ha. But recently due to rapid and indiscriminate urbanization it has come
down to 4,000 ha. Resulting in crisis of livelihood of rural people. There are appeals to
Government to declare the existing sewage-fed aquaculture area as sanctuaries.
Treatments of Sewage
1.Primary treatment This is mostly the physical removal of solids by mechanical means. The
solid material is removed by screening (for larger coarse particles), skimming (for floating
solids) and sedimentation (for suspended particles whose density is greater than that of liquid)
techniques.
2. Secondary treatment Soluble organic and inorganic matter, namely the carbohydrates,
proteins, fats, hydrocarbons and other nitrogenous materials which are degraded mostly
biologically, using microorganisms into the smaller constituents i.e. CO2 , H2O, NO3 , NO2 ,
SO4 , PO4 etc. which can be easily disposed. Some times chemical and physical removals of
substances are combined with this to increase the effectiveness. There are three basic methods
for secondary treatments: – Activated sludge (flocculation) – Biological filtration – Waste
stabilization
3. Tertiary treatment This is biological and chemical removal of soluble products of partial or
complete oxidation. For example, removal of NO3 , NO2 , SO4 , PO4 etc. Physical or chemical
removal of refractory organic or other substances which may be unpleasant and even toxic.
Chemical treatment comprises of : (a) Coagulation or chemical precipitation (e.g. by alum), (b)
Deodorization (by Cl2 , FeCl3 ), (c) Disinfections or sterilization (by Cl2 , CuSO4 , liming etc.).
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Oxidation Pond : Organic mattercontained in the waste is stabilized and converted in the pond
into more stable matter which find their way into effluents.A conventional oxidation pond
contain the algal bacterial culture, which oxidizes the organic matter into CO2, H2O, H₂S, NH,
and other decomposition products that are used as nutrients like nitrite, phosphate
FiltrationThere are two types of filtration process, viz., mechanical filtration and biological
filtration such as trickling filter which uses filter medium grains covered with biofilm.
Fig:6.7 Filtration
The process generally adopted for the use of sewage treatment before release in fish ponds
 Sedimentation
 Dilution
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 Storage
The process generally adopted for the use of sewage treatment before release in fish ponds
Sedimentation Dilution Storage Technologies adopted by farmers. The sewage fed ponds are
locally known as BHERIES. These are the ponds of different sizes, which can be as big as 40
ha.The ponds are shallow with a depth ranging from 0.5 to 1.5 m. Generally the culture practice
includes five phases:
Pond Preparation
1. Sewage fed ponds are pumped out to dry
2. Drying of pond during winter months
3. Bamboo sluice & dikes are repaired
Primary Fertilization
After pond preparation, sewage is passed in to the pond from the feeder canal through bamboo
sluice. It is left to stabilize for 15 – 20 days. The self-purification of sewage takes place in
presence of atmospheric oxygen and sunlight. When the water turns green due to photosynthetic
activity, the pond is considered ready for stocking. Allow sewage flow in pond through open
channel
Fig:6.7 Sewage flow in pond through open channel
Fish Stocking
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All the species of Indian major carps e.g. Labeo rohita (Rohu), Catlacatla, Cirrhinusmrigala
(Mrigal) and Exotic carps e.g. Hypophthalmichtys molitrix (Silver carp), Ctenopharyngodon
Idella (Grass carp), Cyprinus carpio (Common carps) are preferred to be stocked but the
percentage of Mrigal is kept greater and that of exotic carps is lesser.The popularity of Talapia
and fresh water prawn, Macrobrachiumrosenbergii is increasing these days.
Pangasiushypophthalmus is also stocked by some farmers to get rid of mollusks. As the sewage
contains high content of nutrient, the farmers keep very high stocking density, i.e. 40,000 to
50,000 fingerlings/ha.
Secondary Fertilization
After stocking, sewage is taken in ponds throughout the culture period at regular intervals @ 1–
10% of the total water volume of the pond. In bigger ponds, water level is maintained by
continuous inflow and out flow. The requirement of sewage is determined by observing the
water colour, transparency, temperature and depth.
Feeding of stocked fishes
Due to high contents of nutrients in sewage, the cultured fishes don't require at all any
supplementary feeding. However, occasionally, especially in rainy season when the potential
sewage is lacking, they are fed with supplementary feed.
Health care of fishes
The fishes are most vulnerable to bacterial diseases, but surprisingly the occurrence of bacterial
or any other disease is not common in sewage-fed fish farms. Even when EUS was prevailing in
past years in other areas, the sewage-fed ponds were uninfected. However, parasitic infections by
Lernea (Anchor worm) and Argulus (Fish lice) are common but they are not given any proper
treatment.There is a need to develop a technique to keep these problems aloof.
Harvesting
The BHERI farmers have evolved rotational cropping system to maintain the supply to the
market. Fishes are stocked and harvested throughout the culture period leading to periodical
stocking and regular harvesting. After completion of one phase, fishes are restocked @ 1 Kg
fingerlings per 5 kg harvested fish. Another harvest phase starts after 15days of restocking.
Generally, drag nets are used for harvesting by encircling technique. Some fishes like Tilapia and
Common carp require hand picking technique for their harvesting. Specialized fishermen are
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employed in fishing.7.5 cm long fingerlings of rohu, catla and mrigal stocked in the ratio 1: 1:1
@ 550 kg/ha gave an annual fish production of c. 3,237 kg/ha. The results of further experiments
on the ratio of stocking and the yield/ha of water area. Best results were obtained when the ratio
of stocking of rohu, catla and mrigal was 1:2:1.For fish culture sewage water of stablizing tank
as well as the water after dilution can be utilized. Air breathing fishes are more suitable to be
cultured in sewage treatment ponds as they can survive in water with lesser dissolved oxygen
content. The fish like Clarias batrachus, Heteropneustesfossalis, Channa spp., Tilapia
mossambicus and Ctenopharyngodonidella(grass carp) are the species of choice to be considered
for culture in sewage treated ponds.
6.7 SUMMARY
Cold water Fisheries occupy anvery important place amongst the freshwater fisheries of India.
The cold water fisheries deals with fisheries activity in water where temperature of water
resource ranges from 5 to 25 degrees centigrade. The temperature of water under cold water
fisheries should not be more than 25°C even in summer season.
Such conditions occur in Himalayan and peninsular regions of India . There are 16 big and small
rivers in Himalayan and peninsular regions having an area of.Government of India established
National Research Centre on Cold Water Fisheries in Uttarakhand at Bhimtal. It has played a
significant role in the aquaculture improvement and conservation of indigenous as well as in the
successful survival of exotic species of fishes in this region.Thesurvival at high altitude depend
upon several factors resulting in different adaptations in fishes. The torrential streams of water in
mountain regionis rich in oxygen and low incarbon di-oxide quantity, the parameters of which
are very important for the growth of fishes.
In the cold-climate State of Uttarakhand, the general public needs a protein-rich
digestible, easy-to-eat food. Fish can provide good nutrition. Cold aquatic fish species like
Mahashir and Trout have always been the choice of hunting lovers. By organizing the
fishing areas in the beautiful places of Uttarakhand and more, tourism of the state can be
made attractive and economically beneficial.
Fish as a source of Protein will provide abundant nutrition as well as become an assured
synonym for future food security.In addition to animal protein, fish contain unique long-chain
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poly-unsaturatedfatty acids (LC-PUFAs) and highly bioavailable essential micronutrients—

vitamins D and B, minerals (calcium, phosphorus, iodine, zinc, iron, and selenium). These
compounds,often not readily available elsewhere in diets, have beneficial effects for adult health
and child cognitive development (HLPE, 2014). So, fisheries can effectively play a role in
economic development, food provision, and ultimately poverty alleviation and reducing
malnutrition.This requires the implementation of a comprehensive project with a
scientific and professional basis . The species being more tasty and nutritious sells
at higher prices in the market and at the same time has good demand in the international
market. The export of these fish is likely to generate good foreign exchange in the
State.
The possibilities of increasing fish production per unit area, through polyculture, is considerable,
when compared with monoculture system of fish.Polyculture is the practice of culturing more
than one species of aquatic organism in the same pond. The motivating principle is that fish
production in ponds may be maximized by raising a combination of species having different food
habits. Different species combination in polyculture system effectively contribute also to
improve the pond environment. Algal blooming is common in most tropical manure fed ponds.
By stocking phytoplanktophagusSilver carp in appropriate density certain algal blooming can be
controlled. Grass carp on the other hand keeps the macrophyte abundance under control due to
its macrovegetation feeding habit and it adds increased amount of partially digested excreta
which becomes the feed for the bottom dweller coprofagous common carp. The bottom dwelling
mrigal, common/mirror carp help re-suspension of bottom nutrients to water while stirring the
bottom mud in search of food. Such an exercise of bottom dwellers also aerates the bottom
sediment. All these facts suggest that polyculture is the most suitable proposition for fish culture
in undrainable tropical ponds.
With the purpose of getting maximum production of fishes from a water body
(lake/reservoir/pond) culture of fast growing compatible species of different feeding habits and
ecological niches is being practiced in different parts of the globe. This is popularly known as
composite fish culture or mixed farming. Termpolyculture is also loosely applicable for such a
culture. In composite fish culture, all available food supply of the pond (phytoplankton,
zooplankton, periphyton, macrophytes, benthos and detritus matter etc.) is mostefficiently
166
utilized by the cultured fishes. Such fishes do not harm each other; rather, they promote growth
of other fishes. By proper care and management fish production can be raised by 5-6 times more
than usual production through polyculture.Polyculture is the practice of culturing more than one
species of aquatic organism in the same pond. The motivating principle is that fish production in
ponds may be maximized by raising a combination of species having different food habits. The
concept of polyculture of fish is based on the concept of total utilization of different trophic and
spatial niches of a pond in order to obtain maximum fish production per unit area. The mixture of
fish gives better utilization of available natural food produced in a pond. The compatible fish
species having complimentary feeding habits are stocked so that all the ecological niches of pond
ecosystem are effectively utilised
Ponds that have been enriched through chemical fertilization, manuring or feeding practices
contain abundant natural fish food organisms living at different depths and locations in the water
column. Most fish feed predominantly on selected groups of these organisms. Polyculture should
combine fish having different feeding habits in proportions that effectively utilize these natural
foods. As a result, higher yields are obtained
Sewage fed fisheries is a new venture for India. Fish culture in sewage system involves little
investment with higher yield. A sewage fed pond does not require fertilizers and supplemented
food. This reduces the cost of culture and at the same time the growth rate of fish in such ponds
is also faster. Unfortunately, in India the practice of sewage culture of fish is not very popular

Q. 1 - What is Cold water aquaculture? Explain.
Q. 2 - Write the scope of Cold water aquaculture in Uttarakhand.
Q. 3 - Explain Scope of aquaculture for sustainable livelihood.
Q. 4 - Explain Aquaculture of cold water fishes.
Q. 5 - Describe in detail about Polyculture of carps.
Q. 6 - Explain Sewage feed fisheries in detail.
6.9 REFRENCES
 https://agritech.tnau.ac.in/fishery/fish_coldwater.html
 https://www.academia.edu/2938957/Carp_polyculture_in_India_Practices_emerging_tren
ds
167
 https://www.academia.edu/11497487/Sewagefed_aquaculture_system
 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259174775_Waste_Water_Management_Throu
gh_Aquaculture
 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351993728_HILL_AQUACULTURE_IN_UTT
ARAKHAND
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UNIT 7: EXOTIC FISHES AND THEIR ROLE IN FISH

FARMING
CONTENT
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Introduction
7.3 Exotic fishes for aquaculture
7.4 Trout farming in uplands and culture of common carp
7. 5 Summary
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7.1 OBJECTIVES
The study of this unit will let the students understand the following:
 Exotic fishes for aquaculture
 Trout farming in uplands and culture of common carp
7.2 INTRODUCTION
The exotic fishes are those species that are non-indigenous having their origin in
another country and has been introduced into the Indian waters. They commonly have
recognized culture technologies and the economics of manufacture and marketability.
Species of fishes imported and introduced into a country for the purpose of culture are
called exotic species. Several exotic species have been introduced successfully into
different parts of India and belong to three categories food fishes, game fishes and
larvicidal species.
For such well-known exotic species, there is a strong dispute for their introduction and
transplantation. But, the difficulty often faced is whether it is essential to initiate such
exotic species and what are the procedures and protection to be taken to prevent likely
unwanted consequences.
7.3 EXOTIC FISHES FOR AQUACULTURE

Regional transplantation of new species has also been attempted in India. This includes Catla
transplanted from the Godavari and the Krishna Rivers to the Cauvery, Rohu (Labeo) has been
successfully transplanted from Bengal to Madras. A few salt-water food fishes have been
acclimatized to fresh water in Madras, e.g., fingerlings of coastal species of mullets, Mugil
cephalus, milk fish Chanos chanos.The milk fish and the Bekti have been found to grow in fresh
water.
However, great care must be exercised in introducing exotic species for culture, since they might
disturb the biological balance of the existing species. For example, introduction of Tilapia into
carp culture areas in India adversely affected the survival of mrigal (Cirrhina), when the two
species were stocked together. Hence, a detailed study must be made regarding the overall
170
suitability of the exotic species, before they are introduced into an area. Some important exotic
species is given below:
1. Trout: There are three main species of Salmo which are important game fishes introduced
into India. These are S. gairdnerii (Rainbow trout) and S. trutta fario (Brown trout) and
Oncorhynchus nerka a hybrid species. Earlier attempts to introduce S. trutta made by Sir Francis
Day in 1863 were not successful. Trouts were first successfully transplanted in Nilgiris in 1960.
At present there are six trout reservoirs in the Nilgiris. Trout have been introduced into the
Kodaikanal lake of Tamil Nadu in 1965 by the Madras Fisheries Department.
Brown trout was introduced into Kashmir in 1901 by the Maharaja and is flourishing in several
snows fed streams. In 1909, 10,000 eggs of salmon were introduced into Kashmir. Besides the
brown and rainbow trouts, another species, the brook trout (salvelinus fontinalis) has also been
introduced into Kashmir. In 1919, about 5000 ova of the rainbow were transplanted from
Kashmir to kulu water of Himanchal Pradesh. Ova and fingerlings of trout were introduced in
Bhowali, Nainital, Naukuchia Tal and Sat-Tal of Kumaun but did not prove to be a success.
2. Mirror carp: This is also called the common carp and is the native of temperate region of
Asia. But is now worldwide in distribution and is extensively cultivated in different parts of
world. There are three varieties of this fish:
(i) Cyprinus carpio var, communis (scale carp)
(ii) Cyprinus carpio var,specularis (mirror carp)
(iii) Cyprinus carpio var,nudus ( leather carp)
The mirror carp was first introduced into the Nilgiris in 1939 from Ceylon and stocked in
Ootacamund lake. Later on, it was carried to Bangalore, and in 1947, transplanted into the
Nainital lake and and other lakes of Kumaon Himalayas. The mirror carp is now well established
in Himachal Pradesh, Panjab, Jammu and Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Delhi, Bihar,
Manipur and Sikkim. It is an ideal fish for introduction into the hilly regions, being an
omnivorous, non-predator and fast growing species. It breeds in confined waters and has two
peak breeding periods, one from mid January to March and the other from July to August. In
India, breeding of common carp is done in hapas or cement cisterns. The brooders comprising
one female and two-three males are introduced into the hapas in the evening and eggs are
collected in the morning with the help of aquatic weeds. Pituitary injection is also used in some
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countries for breeding the common carp. In India the common carp is generally cultured in
combination with other carps.
3. Carassius carassius: This is commonly called the crucian carp or golden carp and is a native
of Central Europe. It was introduced into the Ooty lake in Madras in 1874 from Central Europe.
It is well estabilished in Nilgiri waters, and breed in ponds throughout the year. Attempts have
been made to introduce the species in the plains, and it is reported to have bred at Sunkesula fish
farm in Andhra Pradesh.
4. Silver carp:Hypothalmichthys molitrix is a native of China but has now been introduced in
several countries like India, Japan, Malaysia, Nepal, Burma, Pakistan, Philippines, Ceylon,
Hongkong, Israel etc. In India, silver carp was brought from Japan in 1959, and introduced in
Orissa, Cuttack. Later on, the fish has been transplanted in various states all over the country. It
feeds on phytoplankton and thrives on rice bran and flour. The species naturally breeds in rivers
in China and Japan. But in India, silver carp was bred in ponds by hypophysation in 1962
(alikunhi et al., 1963). Later on Chaudhuri was also successful in breeding grass and silver carp
by pituitary injection in 1966. The technique adopted is almost the same as for other Indian
major carps. Silver carp grows very fast and attained the weight of 2-5 kg in reserve Kulgarhi
reservoir in Madhya Pradesh. It is cultured in combination with Catla catla in ponds, and has
shown faster growth rate than the Indian carp ( Sukumaran et.al 1968). The maximum yield was
obtained when silver carp and Catla were stocked in the ratio of 2:1.
5. Tunca tinca: The tench was first introduced in 1874 in the Ootacamund, Madras from
England. It is not able to acclimatize itself to the warmer water of the plains. But is reported to
be breeding and living in the Sunkesula Fish Farm, Andhra Pradesh along with Carassius
carassius.
6. Grass carp:Ctenopharyngodon idella, the grass carp, also known as the ‘white Amur’ in
Russia, is the natural inhabitant of China and introduced into the ponds of Central Inland
Fisheries Research Station (CIFR), Cuttak Orissa. The first shipment of grass carp comprising
382 fingerlings (5.5 cm in length), which came to India from Hong Kong, was introduced into
the Pond Culture Division of CIFRI, Cuttack in December, 1959.
In due course they were effectively bred by hypophysation at Cuttack in 1962 and the fry were
then circulated to the other states of India. Gift consignments of grass carp fry were sent for
culture to other countries like Philippines in 1964, Nepal in 1966 and Burma (Myanmar) in 1968.
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Although a freshwater fish, grass carp can tolerate slightly brackish water. Grass carp has a
toothless mouth but has strong and specialised pharyngeal teeth (which occur in two rows) for
rasping aquatic vegetation. It is, therefore, herbivorous and feeds on macro vegetation, including
grass and aquatic plants. It starts feeding on macro vegetation when about 2.5-3.0 cm in length
and can ingest plants up to 50% of its weight.
Although grass carp is not of high profitable value, still it has been a popular species for
aquaculture due to its capability to control macrovegetation. It is a fast grower, compatible and
its excreta fertilises the pond water. Grass carp, however, when cultured with prawn, makes
serious inroads in the habitat of prawn and the two thus cannot be said to be compatible (Sinha,
1978).
This species has acclimatised itself in Indian conditions and can breed even in weed-infested
water bodies and can control the growth of economically important fishes. To avoid the breeding
of this species efforts have been made to produce all-male grass carp by management of
methyltestosterone, however, with little success.
7. Tilapia: The natural habitat of Tilapia mossambica is along the East coast of Africa, but it has
been transplanted to several countries and reared in ponds. In India, Tilapia was brought by the
Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Mandpam, from Bangkok in 1952, and by the
fisheries Department, Madras from Ceylon. The fry of Tilapia feeds on zoo-and phytoplankton,
but the adult is chiefly herbivorous. It becomes mature when about two months old growing to a
size of 80-90mm. It breeds throughout the year, with an interval of about 16-25 days between
successive spawning. The male prepares a shallow circular nest in the sand, and the eggs are laid
by the female after brief courtship. The eggs are fertilized by male and soon the female picks up
the eggs in her mouth thus exhibiting buccal incubation. Hatching takes place in 3-4 days and
8.0mm fry are liberated from the mouth. it can tolerate wide range of salinity and is therefore,
recommended for culture in coastal lagoons.
Tilapia is a fast growing hardy fish but does not survive at a temperature lower than 10°C. As it
feeds on carp fry, Tilapia is not suitable for culture along with carp. When cultured in sewage
water mixed with fresh water, it is reported to yield 7000 kg/year, in Indonesia, It can also be
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successfully cultured in rice fields. Tilapia also serves well as a forage fish and when cultured
with Channa striatus in ponds, the yield is considerably increased as it is utilized as food by the
murrels.
8. Gourami:Osphronemus goramy was first brought to Tamil Nadu from Mauritius and Java in
1865, but was successfully established in 1916. The fish naturally breeds in ponds and streams,
but does not survive below 15°C. The fry feed insect larvae, crustaceans, but the adult is a
herbivore. Gourami builds nests from grasses and weeds. Both the sexes take part in building
nest taking about 10 days. Nest is oval in shape with a circular mouth of about 10cms. The
female lays eggs in batches which are fertilized by the male, after which both the parents stand
guard over the nest. In India, Gourami is cultured in ponds which are provided with marginal
plants to help in nest building. It is considered as an excellent food fish and has a flesh of good
flavor. It is therefore, a popular fish for fish culture in Madras, but has a slow growth rate. It has
now been introduced into Bombay, Bengal, Orissa and a few other states.
7.4 TROUT FARMING IN UPLANDS AND CULTURE OF

COMMON CARP
Trout farming in India

The freshwater fish trout is of family Salmonidae. Of the 15 trout species which are found
universal, brown (Salmo Trutta fario) and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss (Old name
Salmo gairdneri)) are found in India. The main trout producing states are Uttarakhand,Himachal
Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.These states have recognized a well
developed infrastructure for trout production depending on the accessibility of water in necessary
quantity and quality, i.e. from springs and snow-melt/glacier-fed streams.British were the first to
introduce trout in the country from Europe to get together their need for entertaining fishing in
absence of any fast-growing indigenous fish in Indian waters. Thus, trouts were introduced to
support sport fisheries. Now not together from sport fisheries, culture of trouts is increasingly
being recognized as a profitable project for table fish production.The first attempts to transport
brown trout eyed-eggs from England into India were from Howeiton in Scotland and the eggs
fruitfully hatched in a small trout hatchery at Harwan in Kashmir. In 1905, in Kashmir,the first
batches of eggs were obtained from the store which had been produced from the Scottish eggs.
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This was the establishment of the spread of brown trout in the Himalayas and in another
place.From Kashmir the species was taken to Jammu, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, North
Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya and Nagaland In 1918 steelhead strain of rainbow trout
was introduced from England. Of the two species of trout, brown has become cultivated in
culture systems, streams and lakes, and has emerged as a self-financing population in the
Himalayas. The rainbow trout, however, has remained restricted to pond culture and is not very
common in streams and rivers of India.
The transplantation of these fishes has provided outstanding game fishing to the anglers and
ongoing attracting large number of tourists to the country. However, large scale road
construction in the valleys followed by destruction of breeding and feeding grounds of the fishes,
progress of river-valley projects, rapid urbanization, fishing pressure and of course illegal and
unhelpful means of fishing etc. have been posing threat to this species as sports.
CULTURE OF COMMON CARP
Culture in Paddy fields: Various techniques are employed for fish culture in paddy fields
depending upon the climate, local condition, species of fish available and the verity of paddy
cultivated. The cultivation of paddy is the primary purpose of the farmer, hence fish culture is to
be adopted to the schedule of paddy cultivation. Species that are suitable for culture in paddy
fields must be able to thrive in shallow water. They should be able to tolerate relative higher
temperature and tubidity. Certain carps, murrels and Tilapia are suitable for culture in paddy
fields.
In India experiments conducted on fish culture in paddy fields in W. Bengal have shown that the
survival rate of Labeo, Catla and Mrigal ranges from 34-40% and the species showed more rapid
growth in paddy fields than in ponds.
During the recent years, however, high yielding varieties of paddy are being cultivated. These
requires of insecticides, pesticides, weedicides etc, which are harmful to the fish. Under such
conditions, fish culture along with paddy is not possible. However, where common varieties of
paddy are cultivated, fish culture is practiced. Fields that are left flooded for a long or short
period after harvesting can be easily utilized for fish culture.
It is, therefore, essential to make a well planned survey of prevailing condition before attempting
fish culture in paddy fields on a large scale.
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Fig.7.1 Some Indian carp species

(Source:https://www.google.com/search?q=indian%20major%20carps&tbm=isch&hl=en&sa=X
&ved)
Culture in manmade lakes: A large number of dams and reservoirs have been constructed
during the recent years to provide water for irrigation and power generation. It is estimated that
these manmade lakes provide about two million hectares of water and this would continue to
increase. These bodies of water offer immense scope for fish culture.
For successful fish culture in dams and reservoirs, it is essential to make a detailed hydrological
study of the water body. Suitable species that are stocked in dams are major carps such as Catla
catla, Chirrhina mrigala and Labeo calbasu. These are capable of adjusting successfully to
ecological condition of reservoir. The reservoirs, in their initial stages are very rich in
microscopic organisms which start dwindling after 5 or 6 years. It is therefore necessary that new
reservoirs are stocked on a large scale with fry of Gangetic carps so that they are able to establish
themselves and provide sustained fisheries during later years. In the absence of large scale
stocking of major carps weed fishes and carp minnows establish themselves in the reservoirs.
Some of these like Ambassis nama, A.ranga, Osteobrama cotio and Gudusia chapra, compete
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with Catla for food and reduce the latter productivity. Carp minnows compete with Chirrhina
mrigala, Labeo rohita and L. calbasu.
Of the major carps, Labeo rohita has not been has not been able to adjust to the environmental
conditions of the reservoirs. But catla, mirgal and calbasu form a best assortment of species. In
Rihand dam, Catla forms 98% of the total fish catch. Rohu has not been able to adjust to the
ecological condition of the reservoirs and dams. A catla- rohu hybrid, however, grows
successfully in the reservoirs and is a good fish for stocking. It has feeding habits of rohu and
can be used as a substitute for rohu. The exotic silver carp also thrives in manmade lakes and is a
suitable species for thrives in manmade lakes and is a suitable species for culture. Besides the
Gangetic major carps, some of the medium sized carp like Labeo fimbriatus, C. cirrhosa, Puntius
dubius and P. carnaticus are alsoconsidered to be useful for culture in dams and reservoirs. The
omnivorous Cyprinus carpio is also a good species for stocking in reservoirs.
Studies have shown that fry and fingerlings of the major carps should be stocked in the
intermediate zone of the reservoir, after removing predatory fishes. This zone is rich in plankton.
For successful fish farming in reservoirs, it is necessary to impose restriction on size limit. Fish
below a minimum size should not be caught.
Carp Culture in Cages: Rearing of carp spawn to produce fry or fingerlings has recently been
attempted in cages because nursery space available in the country is far short of requirement.
Velon screen cage were used in Poongar swamp (Bhawanisagar, Tamil Nadu) for this purpose.
Four cages, each measuring 5×5m with 1/32̋ mesh, were tied to poles in the marginal area of the
swamp at 1.5 to 2 m depth. The bottom of the cage was kept just above the bottom and the
margin of the cage is 0.5 m above the water level to prevent entry of predatory fishes and escape
of fry. Manuring of the cage was done with cow dung, superphosphate and ground-nut oil cake.
Carp spawn was released into the cages 2 days after the manuring, and after two days of stocking
cages were cleaned of algal growth with the help of nylon brush to allow free exchange of water.
The cages had to be cleaned every day. Spawn (5-6 mm long) of Labeo rohita was stocked at
60,000 spawn/cage. After 16 days rearing,fry 10-15 m were harvested with 55-66% survival. In
another cage, spawn (5-7mm) of Cirrhina mrigala were stocked at 15,000/ cage. After 18 days
of rearing, 10-20 mm long fry were harvested and survival was 66-80%. Rice bran and ground
nut oil cake in the ratio of 1:2 was used as supplementary feed.
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Thus, the marginal area of a tank can be successfully used for growing carp spawn and fry in
cages. Natural food available to the spawn and fry can be increased if the cage is allowed to
touch the bottom of the pond. In cage culture, harvesting is complete and management easier,
Carp fry upto 20-25 mm size can be reared in velon screen cages with 1/8̋ mesh size.
7.5 SUMMARY
The exotic fishes are those species that are non-indigenous having their origin in
another country and has been introduced into the Indian waters. Species of fishes
imported and introduced into a country for the purpose of culture are called exotic
species. Several exotic species have been introduced successfully into different parts of
India and belong to three categories food fishes, game fishes and larvicidal species.
For such well-known exotic species, there is a strong dispute for their introduction and
transplantation. But, the difficulty often faced is whether it is essential to initiate such
exotic species and what are the procedures and protection to be taken to prevent likely
unwanted consequences.
Some important exotic species are Trout, Mirror carp, Carassius carassius, silver carp, tunica
tinca, Grass carp, Tilapia, Gourami etc.
The freshwater fish trout is of family Salmonidae. Of the 15 trout species which are found
universal, brown (Salmo Trutta fario) and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss (Old name
Salmo gairdneri)) are found in India. British were the first to introduce trout in the country from
Europe to get together their need for entertaining fishing in absence of any fast-growing
indigenous fish in Indian waters. The rainbow trout, however, has remained restricted to pond
culture and is not very common in streams and rivers of India.
The transplantation of these fishes has provided outstanding game fishing to the anglers and
ongoing attracting large number of tourists to the country. However, large scale road
construction in the valleys followed by destruction of breeding and feeding grounds of the fishes,
progress of river-valley projects, rapid urbanization, fishing pressure and of course illegal and
unhelpful means of fishing etc. have been posing threat to this species as sports.
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Various techniques are employed for fish culture in paddy fields depending upon the climate,
local condition, species of fish available and the verity of paddy cultivated. In India experiments
conducted on fish culture in paddy fields in W. Bengal have shown that the survival rate of
Labeo, Catla and Mrigal ranges from 34-40% and the species showed more rapid growth in
paddy fields than in ponds.
A large number of dams and reservoirs have been constructed during the recent years to provide
water for irrigation and power generation. It is estimated that these manmade lakes provide about
two million hectares of water and this would continue to increase. These bodies of water offer
immense scope for fish culture.
Rearing of carp spawn to produce fry or fingerlings has recently been attempted in cages because
nursery space available in the country is far short of requirement.

7.6.1 Multiple Choice Questions:
1. Induced breeding technique is used in
a) Culture fishery (b) Marine fishery (c) Capture fishery ( d) Inland fish
2. Smooking is used as a technique of
a) Fish preservation (b) Crop harvesting (c) Crystalisation of sugar ( d) Mushroom cultivation
3.Inand fisheries are
a) Raising and capturing fishes in fresh water 9( b) Oil extraction from fish (c) Deep sea fishing
d) Capturing fishes from sea coast

4. If more than single species of fish is cultured at a time, then it is called
a) Mori culture (b) Monoculture (c) Aquaculture (d) Polyculture
5. Identyfy the edible freshwatwr teleost
a) Hilsa ilisha (b) Sharks (c) Rays and skates (d) Catla catla
6. Cartilaginous fishes are
a) Osteichthyes (b) Chindrichythyes (c) Acanthodians (d) Placoderms
ANSWERS: 1. a), 2a), 3d, 5d), 6b)
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7.6.2. Short Answer Question:
1.What do you mean by exotic fishes? Name three important exotic fishes that are being
cultured in India.
2. What is exotic species in aquaculture?
3.What are the exotic major carps?
4.What are the scientific names of two exotic fish?
7.3.3. Long Answer Question:
1. Detailed account of exotic species in aquaculture.
2. Describe the methods ofculture of common carp.

3. Describe Trout farming in India.
REFERENCES
1. Jhingran: Fish and Fisheries of India (1985, Hindustan Publishing Corporation)
2. Khanna and Singh: Textbook of Fish Biology and Fisheries (2003, Narendra Publishing
3. https://www.nabard.org/demo/auth/writereaddata/ModelBankProject/1612162213Trout
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UNIT 8: LARVIVOROUS FISHES AND THEIR

CULTURE
CONTENT
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Introduction
8.3 Larvivorous fishes
8.3.1 Indigenous
8.3.2 Exotic
8.3.3 Culture of larvivorous fishes
8.4 Use of larvivorous fishes for biological control
8.5 References
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8.1 OBJECTIVES
In this topic we will learn about the Larvivorous fishes, different species of Indigenous and
Exotic Species of Larvivorous fishes, About the Culture of larvivorous fishes, Use of larvivorous
fishes for biological control.
8.2 INTRODUCTION
The western mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis) is a North American freshwater fish, also known
commonly, if ambiguously, as simply mosquitofish or by its generic name, Gambusia, or by the
common name gambezi. Its sister species, the eastern mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrooki) is also
referred to by these names.
Mosquitofish are small in comparison to many other freshwater fish, with females reaching a
maximum length of 7 cm (2.8 in) and males a maximum length of 4 cm (1.6 in). The female can
be distinguished from the male by her larger size and a gravid spot at the posterior of her
abdomen. The name "mosquitofish" was given because the fish eats mosquito larvae, and has
been used more than any other fishes for the biological control of mosquitoes. Gambusia
typically eat zooplankton, beetles, mayflies, caddisflies, mites, and other invertebrates; mosquito
larvae make up only a small portion of their diet.
Mosquitofish were introduced directly into ecosystems in many parts of the world as
a biocontrol to lower mosquito populations which in turn negatively affected many other species
in each distinct bioregion. Mosquitofish in Australia are classified as a noxious pest and may
have exacerbated the mosquito problem in many areas by outcompeting native invertebrate
predators of mosquito larvae. Several counties in California distribute mosquitofish at no charge
to residents with human-made fish ponds and pools as part of their mosquito abatement
programs. The fish are made available to residents only and are intended to be used solely on
their own property, not introduced into natural habitat. On 24 February 2014, Chennai
Corporation in India introduced western mosquitofish in 660 ponds to control the mosquito
population in freshwater bodies.
Fertilization is internal; the male secretes milt into the genital aperture of the female through
his gonopodium Within 16 to 28 days after mating, the female gives birth to about 60 young. The
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males reach sexual maturity within 43 to 62 days. The females, if born early in the reproductive
season, reach sexual maturity within 21 to 28 days; females born later in the season reach sexual
maturity the next season, in six to seven months.
8.3 LARVIVOROUS FISHES
Fishes are the natural enemy of mosquito eggs and mosquito larvae and use as a biological
control which has been identified since olden times, because mosquito are the vector of several
disease & carry parasites of malaria, filarial & yellow fever etc. They breed in all sorts of
stagnant water & shallow weeds, infested pond, swamps, pits, gutters & all other kind of water
for breeding purpose ,during the past several years, DDT and other insecticides have been used
in increasing quantity to control the mosquito hazards but these chemical have their ill effect on
human health also.
Several species of the fresh water fishes are known to be larvicidal and of used in control of
mosquito population, some important features of the larvicidal fishes like:
(a) It should be of small size so as to capable of moving freely among weeds.
(b) It should be hardy fish.
(c) It should be breed freely in confined waters.
(d) It should be surface feeder and carnivorous in habit
(e) It should have no food value.
The Eggs, larvae and adult mosquito form an excellent food for several species of fish, but those
of small size prefer the mosquito larvae and feed on them throughout their life, these species are
more useful as larvicidal fishes than the larger one. There are several exotic and indigenous
species which at one stage or the other feed on larvae and are considered larvicidal; fishes.
8.3.1 INDIGENOUS
Freshwater fish are those that spend some or all of their lives in fresh water, such
as rivers and lakes, with a salinity of less than 1.05%. These environments differ from marine
conditions in many ways, especially the difference in levels of salinity. To survive fresh water,
the fish need a range of physiological adaptations.
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41.24% of all known species of fish are found in fresh water. This is primarily due to the
rapid speciation that the scattered habitats make possible. When dealing with ponds and lakes,
one might use the same basic models of speciation as when studying island biogeography
PHSIOLOGY
Freshwater fish differ physiologically from saltwater fish in several respects. Their gills must be
able to diffuse dissolved gases while keeping the salts in the body fluids inside. Their scales
reduce water diffusion through the skin: freshwater fish that have lost too many scales will die.
They also have well developed kidneys to reclaim salts from body fluids before excretion.
MIGRATING FISHES
Many species of fish do reproduce in freshwater, but spend most of their adult lives in the sea.
These are known as anadromous fish, and include, for instance, salmon, trout, sea
lamprey[1] and three-spined stickleback. Some other kinds of fish are, on the contrary, born in
salt water, but live most of or parts of their adult lives in fresh water; for instance the eels. These
are known as catadromous fish.
Species migrating between marine and fresh waters need adaptations for both environments;
when in salt water they need to keep the bodily salt concentration on a level lower than the
surroundings, and vice versa. Many species solve this problem by associating different habitats
with different stages of life. Both eels, anadromous salmoniform fish and the sea lamprey have
different tolerances in salinity in different stages of their lives.
Among fishers in the United States, freshwater fish species are usually classified by the water
temperature in which they survive. The water temperature affects the amount of oxygen available
as cold water contains more oxygen than warm water.
Coldwater
Coldwater fish species survive in the coldest temperatures, preferring a water temperature of
50 to 60 °F (10–16 °C). In North America, air temperatures that result in sufficiently cold water
temperatures are found in the northern United States, Canada, and in the southern United
States at high elevation. Common coldwater fish include brook trout, rainbow trout, and brown
trout.
Warmwater
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Warmwater fish species can survive in a wide range of conditions, preferring a water
temperature around 80 °F (27 °C). Warmwater fish can survive cold winter temperatures in
northern climates, but thrive in warmer water. Common warmwater fish
include catfish, largemouth bass, bluegill, crappies, and many other species from the
family Centrarchidae.
Habitat destruction
Intentional anthropogenic reconstruction and rerouting of waterways impacts stream flow, water
temperature, and more, impacting normal habitat functionality. Dams not only interrupt linear
water flow and cause major geological channel shifts, but also limit the amount of water
available to fishes in lakes, streams and riversand have the potential to change the trophic
structure because of these alterations of the habitat and the limitations to movement and
connectivity.
Unnatural water flow below dams causes immense habitat degradation, reducing viable options
for aquatic organisms. Upstream migration is hindered by the dam structure and can cause
population declines as fishes don't have access to normal feeding and/or spawning grounds.
Dams tend to affect upstream species richness, that is, the number of fish species in the
ecological community. Additionally, dams can cause the isolation of fish populations, and the
lack of connectivity creates possible problems for inbreeding and low genetic diversity. The loss
of connectivity impacts the structure of community assemblies and increases the fragmentation
of habitats, which can compound existing problems for vulnerable species.
Temperature alterations are another unintended consequence of dam and land use projects.
Temperature is a very important part of aquatic ecosystem stability, and thus changes to stream
and river water temperature can have large impacts on biotic communities. Many aquatic larvae
use thermal cues to regulate their life cycles, mostly notably here, insects. Insects are a large part
of most fish diets, so this can pose a great dietary problem. Temperature can cause changes in
fish behavior and distribution habits as well by increasing their metabolic rates and thus their
drive to spawn and feed.
Linear systems are more easily fragmented and connectivity in aquatic ecosystems is vital.
Freshwater fishes are particularly vulnerable to habitat destruction because they reside in small
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bodies of water which are often very close to human activity and thus easily polluted by trash,
chemicals, waste, and other agents which are harmful to freshwater habitats.
Land use changes because major shifts in aquatic ecosystems. Deforestation can change the
structure and sedimentary composition of streams, which changes the functionality of the habitat
for many fish species and can reduce species richness, evenness, and diversity. Agriculture,
mining, and basic infrastructural building can degrade freshwater habitats. Fertilizer runoffs can
create excess nitrogen and phosphorus which feed massive algae blooms that block sunlight,
limit water oxygenation, and make the habitat functionally unsustainable for aquatic species.
Chemicals from mining and factories make their way into the soil and go into streams via runoff.
More runoff makes its way into streams since paved roads, cement, and other basic infrastructure
do not absorb materials, and all the harmful pollutants go directly into rivers and streams. Fish
are very sensitive to changes in water pH, salinity, hardness, and temperature which can all be
affected by runoff pollutants and indirect changes from land use.
Snow Trout:
Two genera are present; Schizothorax Spp. and Schizothoraichthy sare endemic to Kashmir and
Ladakh while Schizothorax prograstus occurs in Eastern Himalayas up to certain stretch.
Schizothoraxrichardsonii is distributed almost all along the Himalayas.
Fig:8.1 (a)Schizothorax Spp.(b)Schizothoraichthysesocinus
Barilius:Barilius vagra, B. bendelisis and, B. bola fishes are also called as Mountain trouts .
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Fig: 8.2 (a)Barelius bendelisis (b)Bariluis bola
Labeo:The fishes which are present in mountain rivers are minor carp and have no significance
as commercial fisheries. The fishes are L. dero, L. dyocheilus and Crossocheiluslatius.
Garra: There are two species found in lakes of the Himalayas as they are not edible fishes but
are relished as food of fishes. They are Garra lamta and Garra gotyla.
Fig:8.3(a)Labeo dero(b)Carassious auratus
LIST OF FISHES OF INDIA
Albuliformes
Albulidae (Bonefishes)
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Albula vulpes (native) Roundjaw bonefish, bonefish
Anguilliformes
Anguillidae (Freshwater eels)
 Anguilla bengalensis bengalensis (native) Indian longfin eel, Indian mottled eel
 Anguilla bicolor bicolor (native) Shortfin eel, Indonesian shortfin eel
Colocongridae
 Coloconger raniceps (native), Froghead eel
Congridae (Conger and garden eels)
 Ariosoma Bathyuroconger vicinus (native) Large-toothed conger

 Conger cinereus (native) Longfin African conger
 Gorgasia maculata (native) Whitespotted garden eel
 Heteroconger hassi (native) Spotted garden eel
 Heteroconger obscurus (native)
 Promyllantor purpureus (native)
 Uroconger lepturus (native) Slender conger
 Xenomystax trucidans (native)
Moringuidae (Worm or spaghetti eels)
 Moringua abbreviata (native)

 Moringua arundinacea (native) Bengal spaghetti-eel
 Moringua bicolor (native)
 Moringua javanica (native) Java spaghetti eel
 Moringua microchir (native) Lesser thrush eel
 Moringua raitaborua (native) Purple spaghetti-eel
Muraenesocidae (Pike congers)
 Congresox talabon (native) Yellow pike conger
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 Congresox talabonoides (native) Indian pike conger

 Muraenesox bagio (native) Common pike conger, pike eel
 Muraenesox cinereus (native) Dagger-tooth pike conger
Muraenidae (Moray eels)
 Anarchias allardicei (native) Allardice's moray

 Anarchias cantonensis (native) Canton Island moray
 Echidna delicatula (native) Mottled moray
 Echidna leucotaenia (native) Whiteface moray
 Echidna nebulosa (native) Snowflake moray
 Echidna polyzona (native) Barred moray
 Enchelynassa canina (native) Viper moray
 Gymnomuraena zebra (native) Zebra moray
 Gymnothorax afer (questionable) Dark moray
 Gymnothorax buroensis (native) Vagrant moray
 Gymnothorax enigmaticus (native) Enigmatic moray
 Gymnothorax favagineus (native) Laced moray
 Gymnothorax fimbriatus (native) Fimbriated moray
 Gymnothorax flavimarginatus (native) Yellow-edged moray
 Gymnothorax hepaticus (native) Liver-colored moray eel
 Gymnothorax javanicus (native) Giant moray
 Gymnothorax meleagris (native) Turkey moray
 Gymnothorax monochrous (native) Drab moray
 Gymnothorax monostigma (native) One-spot moray
 Gymnothorax pictus (native) Peppered moray
Nemichthyidae (Snipe eels)
 Nemichthys scolopaceus (native) Slender snipe-eel
Nettastomatidae (Duckbill eels)
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 Nettenchelys taylori (native)
Ophichthidae (Snake eels)
 Bascanichthys deraniyagalai (native) Indian longtailed sand-eel, Indian longtailed sand-eel

 Bascanichthys longipinnis (native)
 Caecula pterygera (native) Finny snake-eel, Finny snake eel
 Callechelys catostoma (native) Black-striped snake eel
 Lamnostoma orientalis (native) Oriental worm-eel, Oriental sand-eel
 Lamnostoma polyophthalma (native) Ocellated sand-eel
 Leiuranus semicinctus (native) Saddled snake eel
 Muraenichthys gymnopterus (questionable)
Atheriniformes
Atherinidae (Silversides)
 Atherinomorus duodecimalis (native) Tropical silverside

 Atherinomorus lacunosus (native) Hardyhead silverside
 Atherion africanus (native) Pricklenose silverside
 Hypoatherina barnesi (native) Barnes' silverside
 Hypoatherina temminckii (native) Samoan silverside
 Hypoatherina valenciennei (native) Sumatran silverside
Notocheiridae (Surf sardines)
 Iso natalensis (native) Surf sprite

8.3.2 EXOTIC
An exotic (or non-native) species is defined as a species that does not naturally occur in a certain
area or ecosystem. This includes eggs and other biological material associated with the species.
Non-native species are considered invasive if they cause ecological or economic injury
The introduction of exotic fish species into ecosystems is a threat to many endemic populations.
The native species struggle to survive alongside exotic species which decimate prey populations
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or outcompete indigenous fishes. High densities of exotic fish are negatively correlated with
native species richness.Because the exotic species was suddenly thrown into a community
instead of evolving alongside the other organisms, it doesn't have established predators, prey,
parasites, etc. which other species do, and the exotic species thus has a fitness advantage over
endemic organisms.
Some of the exotic fishes found in India are:
1. Carassius carassius
2. Ctenopharyngodon idella
3. Cyprinus carpio
4. Hypothalmichthys molitrix
5. Tilapia mossambica
6. Puntius javanicus
7. Osphronemus gouramy.
India has abundant water resources in which several species of indigenous variety of fishes
survives successfully. Until now the fish culture in India was mainly dependent upon the culture
of some of the most common Indian species like Labeo, Catla and Mrigal.
But it has been found in recent years that the introduction of the foreign breeds of fishes to
Indian fresh water ponds and reservoirs and their culture in isolated condition or in suitable
combination with the Indian counter-parts yields a higher production. In this view a number of
fish species have been imported from foreign countries and introduced into Indian fresh water.
Since, these fish are not the natives of this country, are called as exotic fishes.
The exotic fishes have been brought to India for different purposes. On the basis of their utility,
the exotic fishes have been classified into three different categories. These are –
(1) Food fishes
(2) Game or Sports fishes
(3) Larvicidal fishes.
A list of important exotic fishes along with their source and year of introduction in India is given
below-
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Table 8.1
Brief account of important exotic fishes:
1. Carassius carassius:
It is commonly called as crucian carp or golden carp. It was brought to India from central Europe
in 1874 and was first introduced by Maclvor in the Ooty Lake. Later on, it was transplanted to
other places in Nilgiris and to Sunkesula fish farm of Andhra Pradesh. The purpose of its import
is to use as food fish. These are fresh water river fish but survive and reproduce in confined
water, too. In tropics, its breeding season extends throughout the year. Its growth rate is quite
slow and attains a maximum length of 45 cm and a weight of 1.4 kg as recorded in Ooty Lake.
Gold carp feeds on insects, Cladocerans and Crustaceans. They attain sexual maturity in the first
year of their life. The eggs remain attach to aquatic weeds till hatching. The culture of this fish is
of little significance as its growth rate is low and the flesh is also not well relished. However,
when it is cultured along with other species the yield increases. They help to control predators
and weeds in the pond.
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2. Ctenopharyngodon idella:
“Grass carp or white amur” is a native of flat land rivers of China and the middle and lower
sections of the river Amur in Russia. In India it was introduced in 1959 at Cuttack (Orissa) for
the sole purpose as food fish. After the successful hypophysation at the Cuttack, in 1962 the
grass carp culture started at different parts of India and a gift consignment of grass carp fry was
send to Philipines, Nepal and Burma in subsequent years.
Grass carp is a fresh water fish which can tolerate slightly brackish water. The body of an adult
fish is elongated and slightly compressed with broad head. The upper jaw is slightly longer than
the lower jaw. The barbels are absent. The dorsal fin is short. Body is dark grey dorsally with
silvery belly. The scales are of moderate size.
The fries of grass carp feeds upon both zoo and phytoplankton’s (rotifers, crustaceans,
unicellular algae etc.). After attaining a length of 27 mm they take macrovegetations and when
reaches to about 30 mm they becomes strictly herbivorous. By the end of first year, the fish
attains a length of about 120 mm and weight about 225-500 gm. After two years, these attain a
length of 600 mm and weight between 1.8 to 2.3 kg. In about 4 years, a fish attains a weight of
4.5 kg to 7 kg or more.
The grass carp do not breed in stagnant water. In India the maturity of male and female fish was
attained in 2 and 3 years, respectively. Mature females having weight group 4, 766 to 7,036g and
length ranging from 73.8 to 79.2 cm contains 3,08,800 to 6,18,100 eggs in her ovary (Alikunhi
et. al, 1963). In natural conditions, the eggs are usually deposited in the middle of the river. The
egg hatches in 30-40 hours and larvae acquires adult shape in 15-20 days after hatching.
Silver carps are being cultured in India. Breeding of the grass carp from the original stock by
hypophysation was carried in June-July, 1962 (Alikunhi, et. al. 1963; Chaudhari et. al; 1966).
The technique employed for breeding the fish in India is same as those of the other major carps.
One set of breeders consists of one female and two males.
The recommended dose of injecting pituitary extract (Barrackpore, 1971) is 10-14 mg/kg body
weight in females and 2—4 mg/kg in males. The donars are Indian major carps and Chinese
carps.
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The preparation of different tanks is made in the same manner to that of the culture of indigenous
breeds. In nursery ponds the spawn stocked at the rate of 125,000/ha attained 38 to 52 mm in
length and average weight of 1.5 g during 15 days (Alikunhi et. al., 1963).
The growth of grass carp fry and fingerlings, when reared in combination with silver carp and
common carp in the ratio of silver carp 4; grass carp 3: common carp 3, gave 96.8% survival of
grass carp.
Grass carp being a voraciferous herbivorous fish thrives well on aquatic weeds like Hydrilla,
vallisneria and Najas. Sinha and Gupta (1975) observed that 75 grass carps, having an initial
weight of 31 g consumed 17.7 tones of Hydrilla in six months.
Alikunhi and Sukumaran in 1964 at Cuttack observed that grass carp is stocking ponds within
three years attains a length of 73.8 to 86.0 cm and a weight ranging from 4.54 to 7.03 kg.
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Fig 8.1 Exotic Carp
(a) Ctenopharyngodon idella (The Grass carp)

(b) (b) Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (The Silver carp)
(c) (c) Cyprinus carpio communis (The Scale carp)
(d) (d) Cyprinus carpio specularis (The Mirror carp)
3. Cyprinus carpio:
Cyprinus carpio, which is commonly called as “common carp” is a native of temperate Asia but
now it has a world-wide distribution. It was initially, imported in 1939 from then Ceylone and
was transplanted in Nilgiri. However, another variety (scale carp) was brought from Bangkok to
Cuttack (Orissa) in 1957. In India, it is being cultivated for quit long, either, singly or along with
other Indian major carps. The fish has considerable food value. The fish is ideal for culture in
both cold and warm water of India however the optimal water temperature ranges between 20 –
25°C.The fish has a moderately compressed oblong body. The protractile mouth bears smooth
simple lips. Two pairs of barbels are present, of which one pair is rudimentary. The dorsal fin is
long which originates opposite to the ventral fin. The body colour, scales and size of the body
varies in different varieties of common carp.
The three varieties of this fish are Cyprinus carpio var. Communis (scale carp), Cyprinus carpio
var. Specularis (mirror carp) and Cyprinus carpio var. Nudus (leather carp). Mirror carp possess
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large, shiny, yellowish scales, scale carp bears small scales covering whole body while, leather
carp is devoid of scales giving leathery appearance.
Cyprinus carpio is voraciously omnivorous, grows very fast, have the capability of efficiently
converting food into flesh. In culture, they thrive well on artificial food. In the plains of India the
fish attains maturity within six month of hatching but it takes about an year in upland lakes. In
natural conditions the carps breed in confined water, in shallow, marginal, weed infested areas.
They breeds twice a year. In India the season is July to August and January to March. The eggs
are released on plant roots hanging below water surface. Hatching occurs in 2 to 3 days. Fry
feeds on the zooplanktons and later shift on all kinds of food available in the pond.
In India, prior to breeding the males and females are segregated few months earlier and stocked
in separate ponds, prefrebly free from other fishes. The breeders are regularly fed on artificial
food which is mixture of oil cake and rice bran in the ratio of 1:1. Breeding is done in hapas or in
cement hatcheries or in ponds.
One female and two or three males comprises one set of brood. Hydrilla and Najas, which act as
egg collector are released in the hapas or cement hatcheries at the rate of 2 kg per kilogram
weight of the female. About 40,000 to 100,000 eggs get adhered to about 1 kg of aquatic weeds.
Larvae hatches in 4-5 days. Such larvae are transferred to nurseries. The nursery and rearing
ponds for spawn are prepared as those prepared for Indian major carps.
Common carps are generally cultured in combination with Indian carps. The growth rate depends
upon enviornment and temperature. In India, at a stocking density of 2,500/ha the growth of
common carp in manured pond withoutt artificial food and with artificial food in one year, the
weight becomes 600 – 800 g and 1 kg, respectively. In second year, the weight of individual fish,
becomes 1500 g to 2000 g at a stocking density of 1500/ha. Alikunhi (1966) recorded fish with
ten kilogram weight after 30 months at Barang Fish farm in Orissa. Common carps are probably
the easiest fish to culture. A matured fish breeds upto five years of age.
4. Hypothalmichthys molitrix:
It is commonly called as “silver carp”. This exotic species is a natural inhabitant of Amur basins
of Russia and river systems of China. Its culture is extensively practiced in China, Thailand,
196
Taiwan, Malaysia, Japan, Sri Lanka, and Russia and now in India, Pakistan, Nepal and
Philippines. Owing to its rapid growth and valued flesh, the fish is becoming popular in many
parts of the world. In India, for the first time 360 fingerlings of silver carp was brought from
Hongkong in 1959 to the pond culture division of CIFRI, Cuttack, and Orissa. These fingerlings
were cultured and successfully bred by induced breeding techniques to raise the population.
The adult fish bears an oblong and slightly compressed body with pointed head. Lower jaw is
little protruding and the eyes are small. Body is covered by small scales. Abdominal keel is
present. Silver carp is a pelagic and planktophagus species. According to Nikolskii (1961) post
larvae feed, on zooplankton and on reaching 1.5 cm of length, “the fry begins to feed on
phytoplankton. The adult subsist on protozoa, rotifers, decayed macro-vegetation and detritus.
Hora and Pillay (1962) noticed that during culture, they survive well on artificial food like rice
bran, bone meal etc. Kuronuma (1968) reported that in wild the fish attains sexual maturity in 2
to 6 years, however Alikunhi (1965) found that the induced bred specimens in India becomes
sexually mature in only eleven months.
Silver carp is a freshwater river fish but can survive in slightly brackish water. It does not
naturally, breed in confined water but through induced breeding techniques breeding is possible
even in confined water areas. The breeding technique is the same as that of other Indian major
carps. For breeding, each set of breeders consists of one femal and two males. Both males and
female are injected with pituitary extracts. The donars are usually Indian major carps or Chinese
carps.
For rearing spawn of silver carps, nursery pond is prepared on the same pattern as those used for
Indian major carps. At a stocking rate of 5 lakhs per hectare, silver carp spawn, with an average
length of 7.4 mm, recorded a growth of 24 mm in length and 103.8 mg in weight with a survival
of 42.5% during nine days of rearing. Survival rate upto 83% have also, been achieved in other
nursery ponds. Rearing of silver carp fry and fingerlings along with other exotic species have
been experimentally studied at Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Barrakpore. Six silver carps,
five grass carps and five common carps at a stocking density of 93,750 fry per hactere gave
99.5% survival of silver carp fingerlings. Silver carp cultured along with Catla was
experimentally observed by Sukumaran et. al., (1968) and it was found that silver carp develops
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faster than Catla. A stocking ratio of 2 silver carp: 1 Catla gave the highest production after six
months.
5. Tilapia mossambica:
It is commonly called as “tilapia”. Tilapia is a native of rivers on the East coast of Africa. The
fish is being cultured in both fresh-water as well as in brakish water ponds. The first
consignment of Tilapia was brought to India in August 1952 from Bangkok and was introduced
in Mandapam. The fish is very hardy with rapid growth rate.
Adult fish has oblong and compressed body, with grey, brownish or blackish body colour. Body
is covered by small scales. Head is round with upper concave profile. Pectoral and anal fins are
large. Dorsal fin is very much extended. The maximum body length is 40 cm. Sexual
dimorphism exist in the form of body colour. The female is grayish with black spots while the
males are strickingly black with whitish lower part of head.
The fry of Tilapia, initially feeds upon zoo-planktons, but later on they take phytoplanktons, as
well as zoo-planktons. The adult’s predominantely become herbivorous feeding upon
phytoplankton’s, filamentous algae and the leaves of aquatic plants. In scarcity of the vegetable
food, the adults may feed upon crustaceans, worms, insects, fish larvae and detritus. During
culture they are fed with rice bran, oil cakes, chopped leaves and kitchen refuse.
Breeding in Tilapia takes place throughout the year at an interval of two months. During
breeding phase the edges of pectoral, dorsal and caudal fins become red. Tilapia becomes
sexually mature when it is only two months old and attains a length of 9 to 10 cm. Mironova
(1969) recorded the fecundity of Tilapia between 80 – 1000 eggs. In natural habitat male fish, by
scooping out sand from mouth, makes a shallow circular pit of about 25 cm diameter and 6 cm
deep. After a brief courtship female extrudes a single batch of eggs. Males quickly pour its sperm
over the spawp and then leave the site. Female picks up the eggs in her mouth for buccal
incubation. The embryo hatches out within 3-5 days. The younge fries, in hour of danger enters
into the mouth of female, exhibiting a highest order of parental care.
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(c)
Fig 8.2 Exotic Fishes
Since Tilapia breeds readily and frequently in all types of water, no special breeding techniques
have been developed. The polyculture with carps however is not recommended because it feeds
upon the fries of carp and produces adverse effect on the growth of carps. According to Hora and
Pillay (1962) under favourable ecological conditions Tilapia attains a weight of 850 g at the end
of first year Monosex culture experiments have been attemped in Indonesia Belgium, Congo and
todia During monosex culture Tilapia attains larger size, which is good for marketing.
Tilapia can be cultured in sewage water ponds and in perrenial water lodged paddy fields. India
the Tilapia is not preferred by consumers, hence its culture is not practiced on large scale.
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6. Puntius javanicus:
It is commonly known as “Tawes”. It was brought о India from Indonesia in the year 1972 and
was first introduced in the ponds of West Bengal.
Puntius breeds naturally all over the year; however it requires well oxygenated water. Owing to
its not very familiar taste, it is not recommended for culture. Its Cultivation is done along with
other carps in poly-culture system mainly to keep the aquatic weeds under control.
7. Osphronemus gouramy:
It is commonly known as “Gouramy”. Osphronemus gouramy is a native of fresh water ponds
and streams of Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, Cambodia and Veitnam. Gouramy was brought to
India from Java to Calcutta and then from Mauritius to Madras in 1916 Gourami is a fresh water
fish of the tropical countries which do not survive and reproduce below 15° C. They may,
however, survive in water with low oxygen content as they possess air breathing organs.
Gourami breeds in ponds and streams all the year round, with a peak period in April and May.
Ovoid nest is build of grasses and aquatic weeds at the bank of ponds by both males and females.
Female lays 3000 – 4000 eggs in batches inside the bottom of the nest and male instantly
fertilizes them. Incubation period is 36 hours. Newly hatched out larvae are transparent
measuring 5.3 mm to 6 mm in length. Initially, they are without gills, mouth and fins. After 4th -
5th day of hatching they start feeding. The fry feed on insect larvae, crustaceans, rotifers,
infusorians and other coarse zoo-planktons. The adults are herbivorous feeding upon aquatic
vegetation but in scarcity may become omnivorous.
No special technique is employed for breeding gouramy in India as the fish is prolific breeder.
Same pond is used for breeding and culture of fish. A pond where plants like Typha grows near
the bank is suitable for gouramy culture. Nest building materials like “indjuk fibres”, grasses etc.
are thrown in the pond. Larvae are fed with white ants and after they attain a length of 1 cm are
transferred to rearing ponds which is four times larger than spawning tank. In Sri Lanka the
breeding and culture of gouramy is more organised.
200
The pond is provided with coconut fibres and frames made of bamboo or sticks tied together. In
this frame brood make nests. In Indonesia, the fish breeds in spawning tank of about 100 m2 in
size and 60 cm in depth with muddy bottom and steep bank.
Growth of gourami is very slow and therefore it is not preferred for culture in India. Sukumaran
(1969) at CIFRI, Cuttack noticed that fry stocked at 2,500/ha attained an average size of only 92
mm and 15 g in weight during nine months of culture. Despite, its slow growth the fish is
cultivated in Chennai, Mumbai, Orissa and West Bengal because people appreciate its taste
8.3.3 CULTURE OF LARVIVOROUS FISHES
Mosquito control operations require the introduction of a large number of larvivorous fish in
aquatic habitats. With the exceptions of guppies, Gambusia and Oreochromis species, most other
fish species do not breed in large numbers in their natural habitats since they require special
spawning grounds, egg laying sites and optimum temperature. Because of the low food value of
these other fish species; fish farmers do not culture them in captivity as part of inland fisheries.
Thus, mass production of these other fish species, often under controlled conditions, is required.
Mass production of guppies and Gambusia can be achieved by rearing these fish in specially
constructed hatcheries or in naturally available ponds as both fish are viviparous and require no
special breeding sites. These fish breed throughout the year and, therefore, large stocks can be
produced within a short time. The mass culture techniques for guppies and Gambusia fish are
described below and can be adapted for other fish species. Developing natural ponds/habitats
into nurseries Site selection Perennial ponds of different sizes are commonly found in rural areas,
many of which could be used for mass production of larvivorous fish.
In urban and industrial areas, man-made tanks of suitable sizes can be similarly used. The
important steps for preparation of natural ponds into hatcheries are outlined below. Removal of
predatory fish It is important to remove large predatory fish for better survival of the mother
stock of larvivorous fish to be raised in the ponds. Predatory fish such as catfish (Mystus spp.),
snake-headed fish (Channa spp.) and freshwater shark (Wallago attu) may devour the mother
stocks and offspring of larvivorous fish. The various methods for removal of predatory fish are
described as follows. Repeated netting. A fine mesh (3 mm) seine net is generally used for
removal of predatory fish by repeated netting. A seine net is the most commonly used fish net
201
and is available in different mesh and sizes. It has Use of fish for mosquito control 33 floats
(hollow plastic balls) fastened on the upper margin and some weights (often iron balls) on the
lower side. When fishing in ponds, when the two ends of the net are pulled forward, it presents a
horseshoe shape. Total cleaning and drying up of the water body is the most favourable method
where small ponds are developed for mass multiplication of larvivorous fish. After pumping out
the water, the bottom should be exposed to sunlight for up to a fortnight. The bed of the pond is
then treated with powdered quicklime at 250–300 kg/hectare to ensure hygienic conditions and
adjustment of soil pH. Lime neutralizes the acidic condition and kills bacteria and fish parasites
(optimal pH is 7.0–8.5). After 15 days of lime application, the pond may be refilled with water
for fish culture. Using fish toxicants. Mahua (Madhuka indica) oil cakes (MOC) may be used at
2500 kg/ha for removal of the predatory fish. Bleaching powder may also be applied at 500-1000
kg/hectare to kill predatory fish. Two weeks after the application of fish toxicants and the
removal of the dead fish, the pond may be used for fish culture.
8.4 USE OF LARVIVOROUS FISHES FOR BIOLOGICAL

CONTROL
Some fish species eat mosquito larvae and pupae. In disease control policy documents, the World
Health Organization (WHO) includes biological control of malaria vectors by stocking ponds,
rivers, and water collections near where people live with larvivorous fish to reduce Plasmodium
parasite transmission.
Use of fish in mosquito control has been well-known for more than 100 years. In India, as far
back in 1904 larvivorous fishes were used in Mumbai City for the control of malaria vector An.
stephensi. Larvivorous fishes Poecilia reticulata (Guppy), a native of South America and
Gambusia affinis (Gambusia), a native of Texas were imported in India in 1908 and 1928,
respectively for the control of malaria vectors. Soon after that use of larvivorous fish became a
common practice in India, e.g. in Bengaluru and Kolkata cities and during the construction of
Sharda Canal in Uttarakhand. During mid-1980s National Institute of Malaria Research
demonstrated the use of larvivorous fish as part of an integrated vector control strategy. Though
202
use of larvivorous fish is an important component of vector control in the urban malaria schemes
in India.
Mass Production of Larvivorous Fish

Mass Production of Larvivorous Fish Mass production of P. reticulata and G. affinis was
undertaken for mosquito control programme as part of the bioenvironmental control of malaria at
many places in India. Some innovative methods have been developed to reduce the cost of mass
production and distribution of fish. A number of hatcheries for mass production were established
and fish were transported to the villages where they were stocked and introduced in the mosquito
breeding places from time-to-time.
Species of fish that can be used for mosquito control Fish species known to have larvivorous and
herbivorous potential in different regions of the world and the most promising larvivorous fish
belong to the families Poeciliidae, Cyprinidae, Cyprinodontidae and Chichlidae. Use of fish for
mosquito control 15 Fish species with proven larvivorous potential in the Eastern Mediterranean
Region are:
Indigenous species
Aphanius dispar
Aplocheilus panchax
Aplocheilus blockii
Aplocheilus lineatus
Nothobranchius patrizii
Nothobranchius cyaneus
Nothobranchius guentheri
Nothobranchius microlepis
Oreochromis spilurus spilurus
Oreochromis niloticus
Oreochromis zillii
Puntius ticto
Puntius sophore
Rasbora daniconius
Exotic/Introduced species
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Gambusia affinis
Gambusia holbrooki
Poecilia reticulata
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UNIT 9: INTEGRATED AQUACULTURE
Contents:
9.1 Objectives:
9.2 Introduction
9.3 Concept of integrated fish farming
9.4 Different practices of integrated fish farming:
9.4.1 Fish-cum-poultry
9.4.2 Fish-cum-duckery:
9.4.3 Fish-cum-piggery
9.4.4 Fish-cum-horticulture:
9.4.5 Paddy-cum-fish culture
9.5 Economic and biological importance of integrated fish culture
9.6 Summary:
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9.1 OBJECTIVES
1. Understand key concepts in integrated fish farming.

2. Understand various ways of Integrated Fish Farming
3. Understand some of the economic & biological benefits of Integrated Fish Farming
9.2 INTRODUCTION
Aquaculture is the fastest growing food production sector in the World with annual growth
ofmore than 10 percent over the last two decades. Asia has seen a large portion of this evolution
and also has the greatest diversity of cultivated species and cultural systems. Since aquaculture
has a long history in many parts of the region and traditional systems are the most well-known,
Asia is also regarded as the "home" of aquaculture. Additionally, Asia has the best-developed
system for combining cattle and fish production.
Aquaculture is the practice of raising aquatic organisms under regulated conditions, including
fish, algae, crustaceans, mollusks, and other valuable species including aquatic plants like
lotus.The breeding, cultivation, and harvesting of fish and other aquatic plants is referred to as
aquaculture, or "farming in water." It is an environmental source of food and commercial product
which helps to improve healthier habitats and used to reconstruct population of endangered
aquatic species.
Aquaculture can be conducted in completely artificial facilities built on land (onshore

aquaculture), as in the case of fish tank, ponds, aquaponics or raceways, where the living
conditions rely on human control such as water quality (oxygen), feed, temperature. As an
alternative, they can be carried out inshore (nearshore) in well-sheltered shallow waters where
the farmed species are exposed to a somewhat more natural habitat.
Particular kinds of aquaculture include fish farming, shrimp farming, oyster farming,
mariculture, pisciculture, algaculture (such as seaweed farming), and the cultivation of
ornamental fish. Aquaponics and integrated multi-trophic aquaculture are two specific
techniques that combine fish farming and aquatic plant farming.
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Integrated fish farming system is a type of farming practices in different forms mostly in the East
and South-East Asian countries is one of the important ecological balanced sustainable
technologies. Integrated fish farming has a long and illustrious history throughout Asia. Aquatic
plant cultivation and fish farming were combined, according to written accounts from the first
and second century B.C. Records date back to the ninth century and describe fish farming in a
paddy field. There are records of fish and grass culture rotation from the fourteenth to sixteenth
centuries, and by the 1620s, sophisticated systems of various companies integrated with fish
farming, the mulberry-like fishpond, and the integration of fish and cattle farming had all been
established.
Integrated fish farming is the method by which fish is cultured along with paddy, piggery,
poultry or any livestock, or horticulture. Based on their knowledge and practises that have been
used for a very long time, farmers in Asian nations, particularly China, have embraced the
integrated aquaculture tenets. Small farmers have supported themselves for millennia by using
integrated agricultural systems and various forms of crop diversification. Given that cultivating
crops and raising animals, birds, and fish has shown to be a successful integrated technique,
small-scale farmers in China are adopting it.
Fish species for integrated fish farming are Catla (Catlacatla) which are zooplankton feeder and
exotic species.The greatest example of a surface feeder is the silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys
molitrix), while Rohu (Labeorohita) is an omnivore and a column feeder. Detritivores include
the Mrigal (Cirrhinusmrigala) and Kalabasu (Labeocalbasu), whereas bottom-feeders include
common carp (Cyprinus carpio), which is both a detritivore and an omnivore. Herbivorous
species like grass carp (Ctenopharyngodonidella) cover the surface, column, and periphery of the
feeding zone. The common fish species raised under integrated fish animal husbandry to increase
productivity is tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)(Fagberno and Sydenham, 1988).
9.3 CONCEPT OF INTEGRATED FISH FARMING

The various forms of aquaculture play a crucial role in the development of agricultural and
farming systems and can help reduce food insecurity, malnutrition, and poverty by producing
food with a high nutritional value, creating income and jobs, lowering production risk, enhancing
access to water, managing resources sustainably, and boosting farm sustainability. Aquaculture
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may benefit from the byproducts of the production and processing of livestock. Direct utilization
of livestock wastes and recycling of nutrients derived from manure, which act as fertilisers to
promote natural food webs, are the key connections between livestock and fish production.
Integrated fish farming is based on the concept that ‘there is no waste’, and waste is only a
misplaced resource which can become a valuable material for another product. Utilizing the
synergistic effects of linked agricultural activities and conservation, including complete
utilisation of animal wastes, are the fundamental tenets of integrated farming(Dalsgaard et.al.,
1995).
Integrated fish farming systems refer to the production, integrated management and
comprehensive use of agriculture, aquaculture, and livestock, with an emphasis on aquaculture.
The technology combines fish polyculture with cattle and agricultural output. Recycling on-farm
trash, a crucial element of integrated fish farming, benefits farmers greatly by enhancing
production economics and reducing the negative environmental effects of farming. One of the
best examples of mixed farming is integrated fish aquaculture.
Integrated fish farming serves as a model of sustainable food production by following certain
principles:
1. The waste products of one biological system act as food for a different one.
2. A polyculture is created when fish and plants are combined, which boosts diversity and
produces a variety of goods.
3. Through biological filtration and recirculation, water is reused.
4. Access to wholesome foods is made possible through local food production, which also
boosts the local economy.
Integrated fish farming incorporates two or more than two production technologies running
simultaneously on parallel footing to boost each other’s farming. It decreases the adverse
environmental impact of farming. It also increases farm output while minimizing the wastes.
Basically, the integrated fish farming is of two types -
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a) Agri-based fish farming: Rice-fish integration, horticulture-fish systems, mushroom-fish

systems, and seri-fish systems are a few examples of agri-based systems. In this system, the
cultivation of fish is combined with the cultivation of crops including rice, bananas, and
coconuts, resulting in the production of both fish and crops in a single interconnected system.
b) Live-stock fish farming: Practically, vast aquaculture is the most popular traditional method
of fish production since it uses the least number of resources while producing a lot of fish per
unit of land. The production of fish may be enhanced through integration with agriculture or
other activities. This system provides comparatively high yields with relatively cheap input costs
since it is more practical and better solution.
It is believed that this combination would be advantageous for all of the system's components.
However, fish are typically the biggest winners since they either directly or indirectly use
agricultural and animal waste as food.Due to the fact that integrated farming recycles trash, it has
been seen as an economical and effective method of environmental management.
9.4 DIFFERENT PRACTICES OF INTEGRATED FISH FARMING
In countries like China, Thailand, Japan, Indonesia, Malaysia, etc., integrated fish farming is
widely used, and it is now becoming more common in India. For the full and best use of
available resources, fish culture is coupled with agriculture or livestock. It boosts productivity
and generates more money from modest landholdings. With a few adjustments, the farming
methods of fish-cum-pig, fish-cum-duck, and fish-cum-poultry can be easily applied in diverse
regions to fully utilize farm waste and available resources. Some of the important integration
models are discussed hereunder.
9.4.1 Fish-cum-poultry
Integrated fish poultry farming is practiced in many countries of the world, more particularly in
Asia. The integration of aquaculture with poultry results in a more efficient use of resources.
Such integrated farming is not only an efficient way of recycling the farm wastes but also yields
high economic returns.In this kind of integrated fish farming, the Nitrogen and Phosphorous rich
dropping of poultry is used as a fertilizer for fishponds.
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In India it is practiced in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana, Kerala, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Orissa, and Tamil Nadu etc.The costs associated with pisciculture operation are
reduced by approximately 70% when integrated with chicken. It is because such an integrated
fish farming recycles chicken wastes and spilled chicken feed as food and fertilizer for the fishes.
Consequently, supplemented food and fertilizer is hardly required. A strict adherence should be
followed in the schedule of vaccination against some of the contagious and infectious diseases,
as it is important to prevent the loss of the birds.
Raising chicken over ponds has various advantages:
1. The chicken coops built on ponds make the best use of the land available for various
uses.
2. Because the excrement fall directly into the pond's water, hygienic conditions are better
in chicken houses built over ponds.
3. Chicken waste feeds the pond's plants and encourages planktonic bloom.
Methodology
Poultry house may be constructed above the water level using bamboo poles, and the dropping
may fertilize the pond directly.About 500 birds produce enough litter to fertilize one ha of water
and poly fish culture. Balanced feed needs to be given to the chicks. Eggs can be collected every
morning and evening, and the birds to be sold after 18 months of egg laying. Under the
integrated fish-cum-poultry farming, 4000-4,500 kg fish, more than 70,000 eggs and 1,250 kg
chicken meat can be produced from one ha of pond in one year.
The poultry barn may be built over the pond, depending on conveniences, so that bird droppings
may directly contact the pond water or land on the pond banks. Fully built-up deep litter is taken
from the chicken pans and stored in appropriate locations for remote poultry homes. It is applied
to the pond @ 50 kg/ha/day every morning(Singh and Khanna, 2006).
Nutritional status of poultry manure: Each bird produces about 40 g of manure/day. Poultry
manure is considered a complete fertilizer having both organic and inorganic contents.The
application of poultry manuring in the pond provides a nutrient base for dense bloom of
phytoplankton, particularly nano plankton which helps in intense zooplankton
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development.Bacteria that eat the organic portion of the added poultry excrement provide the
zooplankton with an extra food source.
This shows that Phytoplanktophagous and Zooplanktophagous fish need to be stocked in the
pond. The pond bottom produces a lot of detritus in addition to phytoplankton and zooplankton,
which serves as a substrate for the colonisation of microorganisms and other benthic species,
particularly chironomid larvae. Another addition will be macro-vegetation feeder grass carp,
which can feed on green cattle fodder grown on the pond embankments in the absence of
macrophytes. Bottom feeders eat this fish's semi-digested excretions as food. Three primary
Indian carps and three foreign carps are raised in polyculture in fish and poultry ponds in order to
utilise the aforementioned food sources. Due to the harsh winters, which have an impact on fish
growth, ponds in the northern and north-western states of India should be supplied in March and
harvested in October or November.
Ponds should be stocked between June and September in the southern, coastal, and north-eastern
states of India where the winters are moderate. Fish should then be taken after a full year of
raising. Mixed culture of only Indian major carps can be taken up with a species ratio of 40 %
surface, 30 % column and 30 % bottom feeders. For high fish yields, a species ratio of 40%
surface feeders, 20% column feeders, 30% bottom feeders, and 10%–20% weedy feeders are
desirable. The ponds may be stocked with fingerlings of the three Indian major carps or together
with exotic carps as in case of carp polyculture at a stocking density of 5,000-6000 nos/ha. After
the pond water has been thoroughly detoxified, it is stocked(ICAR, 2009).
9.4.2 Fish-cum-duckery:
Probst conducted the first scientific study on duck-cum-fish farming in 1934 in Germany, but the
results were never put to use because of the Second World War. In order to find the best
husbandry practises for rearing ducks in fishponds in the climatic conditions of central Europe,
large-scale studies were launched in Hungary (1952), Czechoslovakia (1953), and East Germany
(1955) during the period of severe protein shortage that followed World War II.
The best breeds and strains available have been developed for their excellent egg/meat
production in Europe and America through systematic breeding, feed management and disease
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control.Fish-culture in combination with duck rearing is highly profitable, as it enhances the

production of both the animals and decreases expenditure on fertilizers for the pond.Duck-fish
integration is most common in China, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Russia and to some extent in
India.In India, this farming is practiced in Tamil Nadu, Assam, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Tripura,
Orissa, Karnataka, Kerala, and Uttar Pradesh.
The 'Indian Runner' and 'Khaki Campbell' varieties are found more suitable for this culture. Duck
eggs are an important source of food in India. Consumption as well as production of duck eggs in
India is mostly done by socially weaker sections of community.By integrated fish and duck
culture, it is possible to obtain 3500-4000 kg fish, 18000 eggs and 500-600 kg duck meat from
one hectare of pond, without using fertilizer for the pond and supplementary food for fish, thus
ensuring high profit with less investment (Singh and Khanna, 2006).
Some of the advantages of integrating fish and duck farming are:
1. The fish polyculture approach works very well with duck farming.
2. Duck droppings serve as fertiliser and cut the cost of creating planktonic fish food by
roughly 60%.
3. The majority of the feed that ducks need comes from the pond in the form of aquatic
weeds, earthworms, leeches, insects, larvae, and other food sources.
4. Farmers typically provide rice bran, a byproduct of the kitchen, for their relatively
limited dietary needs.
5. Ponds use 10–20% of the feed that ducks squander as fertiliser and fish food.
6. Ducks loosen the pond bottom with their dabbling and help in release of nutrients from
the soil, which increase pond productivity.
7. Ducks are referred to as biological aerators because they aerate the water as they swim.
8. Since duck houses are built on pond dikes, no extra land is needed for duckery
operations.
Housing and management:
The ducks normally do not need elaborate house, as most of the time they remain in pond. Split
bamboo can be used to build a cheap duck house on the pond embankment, or a floating duck
house can be placed on the water's surface. It should protect birds from their natural predators,
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such as foxes, jackals, dogs, cats, crows, and snakes etc. From sunrise till dusk, the ducks are
given free reign over the pond, at which time they scatter poop all over it. Night droppings are
collected from the duck house and applied to the pond every morning. There is no need of
additional fertilizer. 10,000–15,000 kg of droppings are made available for the pond each year by
stocking 200–300 ducks per ha.
Selection of ducks: Ducks of strong breeds should be chosen.Due to its hardness, the upgraded
breed of "Indian Runners" has been discovered to be more appropriate. To create the amount of
dung needed to fertilise one hectare of water area, around 300 ducklings are needed. The duck
controls aquatic vegetation (Lemna, Azolla, etc.), aquatic insects, mollusks, tadpoles, and other
organisms by splashing water with their webbed feet. The ducks are fed premium poultry feed
and rice bran in a weight-based 1:2 ratio at a rate of 100 g feed per bird per day.
Pond Management: Successful Pond management is the basis of profitable fish culture. Build
the pond (about 1000 m2) close to your home so you can properly care for the ducks and fish and
deter poaching. Examine the pond dikes and, if necessary, fix any damage. Increase the pond's
depth so that it can hold more water throughout the dry seasonmore than 1 m. Applying 15 kg of
bleaching powder and 15 kg of urea per 1,000 m2 will drain or dry the pond and destroy or kill
every last fish stock present in the pond. The dead fish can be removed with a net after being
treated with urea and bleaching powder. A different option is to use 250 kg of Mahua oil cake
(Basia latifolia), which not only kills fish but also serves as pond fertilizer.
Apply 20-25 kg of lime about a week before manuring the pond. In case a mixture of bleaching
powder and urea is applied to eradicate the predatory and weed fishes, apply only 5-10 kg of
lime (reducing the amount of bleaching powder applied). Manure the pond with a basal dose of
cattle dung at 500 kg/1 000 m². Stock the pond with fingerlings 7 days after poisoning as the
toxicity of bleaching powder lasts for about 1 week. Some alterations can be made on the
stocking density and species ratio depending upon the pond conditions and availability of fish
seed (Fig 1).
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Fig. 1:Duck-cum-fish farming
Feeding: Feeding is very important component, as first three weeks are vital for future growth.
There should be enough protein in the feed. Natural food might not be sufficient in the
beginning, thus artificial feed must be given daily. Ducks eat a range of creatures, including
snails, earthworms, aquatic insects, fingerlings and aquatic weeds, tadpoles, and frogs, as well as
natural food from the pond. Better pelleted feed minimizes wastage. After feeding, about 50 to
60 percent of their waste enters the pond and fertilises it.Regular feedings of aquatic or terrestrial
vegetation are necessary for grass carp. Before letting the ducks out of the duck house, it needs
to be fed; otherwise, they'll spread the weeds across the pond's entire surface. Since the ducks
might eat smaller ones, it is preferable to stock advanced fingerlings (those larger than 10 cm)
when raising fish and ducks.
Egg-laying of ducks:When the ducks are 6 months old, they begin to lay eggs.Only 3 months
old, the Khaki Campbell breed begins laying eggs, and the process lasts for 2 to 3 years,
depending on the variety of duck, its health, diet, and environment.In the morning, eggs are
collected after being laid overnight. Due to a decline in egg production after two years, ducks are
sold once they reach that age (ICAR, 2006).
Composition of duck manure: Ducks are known as "living manuring machines" because they
are excellent fertilisers for fishponds. Additionally, as ducks dangle their heads at the bottom in
quest of food, nutrients are released from the soil, increasing pond productivity. They consume
aquatic weeds, insects, larvae, tadpoles, mollusks, and other organisms that do not constitute
food for stock fish, making the relationship between the two particularly compatible. Duck
droppings cause enhanced production of both Phyto- and Zooplankton, hence Catla, Common
Carp and mrigala are most suitable species for culture. Duck droppings act as a good fertilizer
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and are used as food by fish. The duck droppings contain 25% organic and 20% inorganic
substances and are rich in carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium etc.
Management of ducks for fishponds:
Ducklings that are day old or 10 to 14 days old are best for stocking. Breeders must be between 1
and 2 years old, with a sex ratio of 1 male to 4 to 6. Egg laying can last up to 4 years;however,
the yield is decreasing. Egg laying starts around the sixth to seventh month after reaching sexual
maturity towards the end of the fifth month.
A suitable protein rich feed, drinking water and proper illumination are essential. A daily feed
ration of 9 to 10 percent of body weight is recommended. About 120 to 140 eggs per female per
year. An average egg weighs about 80–90 grammes, is 8 cm length by 5 cm wide. There is a 28-
day incubation period. Seventy-five percent of day-old ducklings that are incubated survive. Up
until the age of 10 to 14 days, when they can be stocked in the ponds, day-old ducklings need
specific attention and a controlled environment with regard to temperature, feed, drinking water,
light, and space, among other factors.
9.4.3 Fish-cum-piggery: Fish culture is linked with pig husbandry by providing pig-houses on
the pond embankment or near the pond so that the waste and excreta is directly drained into pond
or carried from the animal house to the pond. Pig waste works well as fertiliser. Pig excrement,
which provides around 70% digestible food for fish, is another source of food for fish. As a
result, there is a significant decrease in the cost of fertiliser and artificial feed for fish production.
FAO (1977) report reveals that Chinese consider pigs as free fertilizer factories on hooves.Pig
manure is a full manure and contains a lot more phosphorus than cow dung. Along with trace
elements including Ca, Cu, Zn, Fe, and Mg, pig dung also contains significant amounts of the
inorganic nutrients N, P, and K. Pig urine contains a large amount of easily decomposable
nitrogen in the form of urea.
Use of pig dung in the pond causes heavy growth of phytoplankton followed by zooplankton,
and there is considerable increase in detritus at the bottom of the pond. Microvegetation is
expanding, providing food for grass carp, whose semi-digested excreta are consumed by bottom
feeders. In light of this, a polyculture of Catla, Rohu, Mrigala, Silver, Grass, and Common Carp
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produces a high output of 4,200–4,500 kg of pig meat and 6,000–7,000 kg/ha/year of common
carp. We stock fingerlings at 8,000–8,500/ha (Singh and Khanna, 2006).
Feed of pigs: Balanced quality feeding plays an important role in successful pig production. Pigs
are the livestock that grows the fastest, but they are also more prone to nutritional shortages than
ruminants. To prevent mineral deficiencies, chopped grass is also provided to pigs once a week.
Protein, carbs, fats, minerals, healthy water, and vitamins make up a pig's full diet.
Growth of pigs: Pigs take 8 to 9 months in the winter and 9 to 11 months in the summer to reach
a body weight of 70 kg. The piglets weigh about 15–16 kg when they are ready to be weaned.
Pigs managed properly may attain a body weight of 70–80 kg in six months (Pandey and Shukla,
2007).
Advantages of fish-cum-pig farming: Fish-cum-pig farming system has obvious advantages:
1. Pig excrement serves as a great pond fertiliser, increasing the pond's biological
productivity and, as a result, the number of fish produced.
2. Some fish consume pig excrement directly, which contains 70% digestible fish food.
3. There is no need for supplemental feed, which in conventional fish production typically
makes about 60% of the overall cost of input.
4. The pond dikes offer room for the construction of animal dwelling structures.
5. Pigs are bathed in pond water after being cleaned in the pigsties.
9.4.4 Fish-cum-horticulture:
Fish farming in the paddy field is documented in ninth-century records. There are records of fish
and grass culture being rotated between the 14th and 16th centuries. By the 1620s, mulberry-dike
fishponds, the blending of fish and animal farming, and complex systems of numerous
companies integrated with fish farming had all been developed.
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Fig. 2Fish-cum-horticulture
Pond preparation: Get rid of aquatic weeds.Compost them and utilise them later as pond
manure. By repeatedly netting and draining the pond, get rid of all the fish that are already there.
If draining the pond is not an option, kill the fish by putting 15 kg of bleaching powder and 15 kg
of urea in the water (for 1000 m2 pond). After using urea, bleaching powder may be used the
next day. Fish can be eliminated by applying a 250 kg cake made of mahua oil. To catch all the
fish, thoroughly combine it with the pond water.
Make compost and fertilise the pond. Apply 500 kg topically; the remaining 500 kg may be
applied in two equal portions spaced four months apart, but more frequent doses, such as twice a
week, are preferable. Since bleaching powder toxicity only lasts for about a week, replenish the
pond with fingerlings 7 days after being poisoned. Depending on the pond conditions and the
availability of fish seed, changes can be made to the species ratio and stocking density (Fig 2).
Harvesting:The rest of the fish should be left to continue growing while the fish that reach
marketable size should be harvested. Ten to twelve months after stocking, the last harvest may
be conducted. Pond silt is used to strengthen, terrace, prepare, and nourish the dikes. On the
dikes, crops like bananas, papayas, pumpkins, gourds, spinach, brinjals, tomatoes, cucumbers,
and leafy greens are produced. Inorganic fertilizer is also applied to the plants in addition to pond
silt. Crops are watered with pond water.Banana and papaya are planted in October or November,
and harvesting begins six and eight months after planting, respectively. A fraction of the
gathered fruits are consumed by the farmer, while the remainder are sold in the market.
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The vegetable crops are grown and harvested twice in a year-once during August/September and
another in March/April. The vegetables are sold once they have satisfied the needs of the farming
family (Tripathi and Sharma, 2001).
The horticulture-cum-fish farming system includes the culture of fruits, vegetables and flowers
on the embankment of the pond. The pond's inner and outer dykes as well as the surrounding
regions are used for the cultivation of horticulture crops. The main criterion for this system's
success is the choice of plant. The plant ought to be little, seasonal, evergreen, lucrative, and less
shade-producing. Mango, Banana, Papaya, Coconut, Lime, and other fruit crops can be
employed, while vegetables like Brinjal, Tomato, Cucumber, Gourds, Chilies, Carrot, Radish,
Turnip, Spinach, Peas, Cabbage, Cauliflower, and Ladies Finger can be produced throughout the
year according to their season.
Another helpful feature is the flower garden on the embankment. We can utilise plants like roses,
jasmine, gladioli, marigolds, and chrysanthemums, among others, which offer beauty and extra
cash to the farm. Compared to aquaculture alone, this technique offers a 20–25 percent higher
yield. Pulses and oil seed crops may also be grown in pond bundhs. Along with air-breathing or
carnivorous fish, aquatic cash crops like Makhana (Euryale ferox) and Singhara (Trapa natans)
can also be included.
Advantages:
1. The farmer earns extra money by planting fruits and vegetables on the embankment of the
pond, which is usually left barren.
2. Organic manure is not needed because the nutrient-rich pond mud is used as fertiliser
instead to cultivate crops.
3. Pond water that has been fertilised is utilised to water plants.
4. Remains from fruits and vegetables are fed to the fish.
5. Thevegetation on the embankment helps the dikes.
9.4.5 Paddy-cum-fish culture:
Rice-fish farming is practiced by the farmers mostly in rainfed and well irrigated areas.Rice-fish
farming is a culture that involves growing rice and fish at the same time in irrigated rice fields to
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produce fish in addition to rice. Rice farming with- fish culture is a type of duo culture farming
system in which rice is the sole enterprise and fish are taken to initiate additional for extra
income.
Production of fish in rice fields is almost as primitive as the practice of rice culture itself. Rice-
cum fish culture is practiced in many rice-growing belts of the world including China,
Bangladesh, Malaysia, Korea, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand and India. Rearing of fish along
with paddy is an older farming practice adopted in India. It has largely been practiced in a
traditional primitive way in the coastal areas of the country.
The paddy plots should be properly repaired for paddy cum brackish water aquaculture. An
earthen dyke must be built around the paddy plot to retain water and keep the fish and shrimp
during the aquaculture operation. Depending on the terrain of the plot and the tidal amplitude at
the location, a dyke height of 50 to 100 cm must be maintained.
In April, rice is transplanted from rice seedbeds to large paddy fields. The paddy is then allowed
for two weeks to strengthen the roots before the release of fish seed at a rate of 2500 nos./ha
area. Fish are raised for 3-6 months while rice crops are raised for 5-7 months. A total of
1200+4300=5500 kg/ha/yr is produced by the kharif paddy, which yields 1200 kg/ha, and the
rabi crop, which yielded 4,300 kg/ha. An output of 700 kg of fish/ha might likewise be attained
in the ten months (Pandey and Shukla, 2007).
Advantages of paddy-cum-fish culture: The principal advantages of this integrating farming

system are:
1. Farmers may employ this strategy for a second crop of paddy and a big harvest of fish in
low-lying places without irrigation infrastructure or rabi crop possibilities.
2. The integrated agricultural system's operational economics demonstrate a higher return
than paddy production alone.
3. Fish faces are used as fertiliser for paddy, increasing paddy yield by 10% to 15%.
All fishes are not suitable for such a type of culture as paddy-fields provide special ecological
conditions such as shallow turbid water with high temperature. A tiny population of fish always
has access to rice fields that are submerged in water for three to eight months out of the year.
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This most likely led to the deliberate stocking of fish and fishing practises. A long-standing
custom in India is the use of "gamcha or dhoti" to catch fish and prawns in barren paddy fields.
9.4.6. Economic and biological importance of integrated fish culture:

An integrated system of elements or components and activities that farmers carry out on their
own farms with their own resources and under their own conditions in order to maximise
productivity and net farm revenue on a sustainable basis is known as an integrated farming.
Consequently, integrated farming is a combination of agricultural businesses to which farm
families dedicate their resources in order to effectively use the current businesses to raise the
productivity and profitability of the farm. Crop, livestock, aquaculture, agroforestry, and agri-
horticulture are the many agricultural enterprises listed.
It is a multidisciplinary, all-farm approach that can be used to effectively address the issues faced
by small and marginal farmers. IFS uses the notion of synergism to integrate multiple farm
enterprises, recycle agricultural leftovers and by-products within the farm itself, and increase
employment and income from small holdings.
Although the land has a very high potential, crop and livestock productivity remain at a very low
level until properly managed and technology with input support is made available to the tribal
communities. Pigs are the fundamental components and play a significant part in the security of
rural livelihoods in tribal communities' animal husbandry practises, which are another significant
support activity in addition to crop cultivation. Bullocks are kept as draught animals and cows
are mostly kept for milk, both at subsistence levels. Like poultry, raising poultry is a domestic
activity.
For local applications and situations, the cash flow analysis will differ, and it for local
businesses, the cash flow analysis will differ. For local applications and situations, the cash flow
analysis will differ, necessitating adaptive trials. Overall, the technology might only be practical
under specific operating circumstances. Only if the ducks are fed only agricultural waste and
kitchen scraps could the duck rearing component be financially sustainable. This limits the
number of ducks that can be retained in the system; typically, five to ten are supported on
household garbage.
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An economically sustainable size of the duck farm must be maintained if the farmer must rely on
purchased feed (to the extent that this is even available in rural locations), which will depend on
regional preferences, market conditions, egg and meat prices, and the cost of duck feed. Rearing
units with even 100 to 200 ducks could not be sustained for a long time, according to prior
experience. In this situation, the farmer would choose to get and use organic manure from
alternative sources instead of starting a duck farm where such a significant cost and risk are
involved. Despite repeated efforts to popularise it over the previous 10 to 15 years, these factors
are the reason why this integrated fish farming technology package has not yet gained popularity
among resource-poor farmers in India, Bangladesh, Nepal, and other neighbouring countries.
The economic benefit of integrated fish farming cannot beover-emphasized since the integration
is varied anddiversified in nature. It is among the most profitable, dependable, and viable
farming ventures there are. It makes a significant contribution to the economic empowerment of
many families, particularly in rural areas. It helps the farmer to maximise productivity and be
productive throughout the entire year.
9.5 SUMMARY
Integrated fish farming and animal husbandry combines fish cultivation with the production of
poultry, pigs, ducks, and other animals. Due to the efficient recycling of waste or byproducts
from one system, this method of farming offers excellent resource use. It also makes it possible
to use the available farming space efficiently to increase production.
Integrated fish farming has the ability to boost a society's socioeconomic standing and increase
farm output. It makes a significant contribution to the economic empowerment of many families,
particularly in rural areas.
It boosts output and economic efficiency while reducing input. Given that the integration is
varied and diversified in character, the economic value of integrated fish farming cannot be
overstated. It is among the most profitable, dependable, and viable farming ventures there are. It
lowers the additional expense for fertilisation and supplemental feeding.
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In integrated fish farming, the majority of the manure loading comes from poultry and other farm
animals, which are rich sources of nutrients for fish growth. Additionally, it includes undigested
feed. It can be used to substitute appropriate amounts of the feed materials used in traditional fish
production to reduce costs.
The various forms of aquaculture play a crucial role in the development of agricultural and
farming systems and can help reduce food insecurity, malnutrition, and poverty by producing
food with a high nutritional value, creating income and jobs, lowering production risk, enhancing
access to water, managing resources sustainably, and boosting farm sustainability.
Integrated fish poultry farming is practiced in many countries of the world, more particularly in
Asia. The integration of aquaculture with poultry results in a more efficient use of resources.
Poultry house may be constructed above the water level using bamboo poles, and the dropping
may fertilize the pond directly.
Duck eggs are an important source of food in India. Consumption as well as production of duck
eggs in India is mostly done by socially weaker sections of community. The 'Indian Runner' and
'Khaki Campbell' varieties are found more suitable for this culture.
Use of pig dung in the pond causes heavy growth of phytoplankton followed by zooplankton,
and there is considerable increase in detritus at the bottom of the pond.
The horticulture-cum-fish farming system includes the culture of fruits, vegetables and flowers
on the embankment of the pond. The pond's inner and outer dykes as well as the surrounding
regions are used for the cultivation of horticulture crops.
Rice-fish farming is practiced by the farmers mostly in rainfed and well irrigated areas. Rice-fish
farming is a culture that involves growing rice and fish at the same time in irrigated rice fields to
produce fish in addition to rice.
All fishes are not suitable for such a type of culture as paddy-fields provide special ecological
conditions such as shallow turbid water with high temperature.
It is a multidisciplinary, all-farm approach that can be used to effectively address the issues faced
by small and marginal farmers.
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An economically sustainable size of the duck farm must be maintained if the farmer must rely on
purchased feed (to the extent that this is even available in rural locations), which will depend on
regional preferences, market conditions, egg and meat prices, and the cost of duck feed.
The economic benefit of integrated fish farming cannot be over-emphasized since the integration
is varied and diversified in nature.
Q1. What is integrated fish farming? Explain in detail.
Q2. Write an essay on integrated fish farming.
Q3. Describe duck-cum-fish farming.
Q4. Write a note on paddy-cum-fish farming.
Q5. Give an account on horticulture-cum-fish farming.
Q6. Explain economic and biological importance of integrated fish culture.
References:
1. Dalsgaard JPT, Light foot C, Christensen V (1995). Towards quantification of ecological

sustainability in farming systems analysis. Ecol. Eng. 4: 181-189.
2. Fagberno OA, Sydenham DH (1988). Evaluation of Clarias isheriensis (Sydenham) under

semi-intensive management in ponds. Aquaculture 74: 287-291.
3. FAO, (1977): China: Recycling of organic wastes in agriculture. FAO soil Bull., 40-Rome.
4. ICAR (2006): Handbook of fisheries and aquaculture. P. No. 307-319.ISBN: 81-7164-061-3.
5. ICAR (2009): Aquaculture technologies for farmers. Published by Director, CIFA,

Bhubaneswar.
6. Khanna, S. S. and Singh, H. R. (2006): A text book of fish biology and fisheries. P. No. 447-
452. Narendra Publishing House Delhi-110006 (India).
226
7. Pandey, K. and Shukla, J. P. (2007): Fish and fisheries. A textbook for university students.
Second Revised Edition. P. No. 500-521.
8. Tripathi, S. D. and Sharma, B. K. (2001): Integrated agriculture-aquaculture, FAO fisheries

technical paper. ISBN 92-5-104599-2.
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UNIT 10: FISH NUTRITION AND PATHOLOGY
Contents:
10.1: Objectives
10.2: Introduction
10.2.1: Nutritional requirement of fish
10.2.2: Feed and feed formulation
10.2.3: Different type of feed
10.2.4: Artificial feeding
10.2.5: Feeding devices
10.3: Fish diseases and their control:
10.3.1: Different fish pathogens: Viral, bacterial, fungal and parasitic
10.3.2: Different fish diseases: pathogenic, nutritional, parasitic and environmental.
10.3.3: Prophylactic measures to control fish diseases
10.3.4: Summary
10.3.5: Terminal Questions and Answers
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10.1 OBJECTIVES
1. Understand nutritional requirements of fish.

2. Understand different kinds of Fish feed.
3. Artificial feeding and Feeding devices.
4. Satisfy all known nutrient requirements for growth of the species.
5. Minimize feed cost.
6. Various viral diseases observed in fishes and the methods of prevention and treatment of
these diseases.
7. The important fungal diseases observed in fishes, the methods of prevention and
treatment.
8. The various bacterial diseases observed in fishes, the methods of prevention and
treatment.
9. Understand parasitic disease observed in fishes, methods of prevention and treatment.
10. Select and use ingredients that will result in products that are readily utilized to minimize
wastage.
10.2 INTRODUCTION
Aquaculture has seen a lot of developments in the last few decades and is currently the fastest
growing agricultural sector in the world. Fish nutrition, feeds, and feeding management play
important roles in increasing the productivity of aquaculture farms and to prevent nutritional
diseases. Feed represents the largest variable cost in most fish production.
To effectively raise fish for food production, aquaculture needs to optimise nutrition. Although
there is a definite demand for less expensive feeds, it is crucial that fish feeds be designed to be
cost-effective rather than just less expensive. This can be done by selectively choosing and
combining several conventional and alternative feedstuffs that are appropriate for use in fish
feeds. The nutritional and physical quality of the feed, fish development, processed production,
and product quality must not be compromised while employing less expensive substitute
feedstuffs.
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Diseases are an important constraint to aquaculture development and sustainability because of

investment loss due to fish mortality, cost of disease treatment and loss of product quality and
quantity. Some of the crucial ingredients for healthy fish growth are lipids, carbs, proteins,
vitamins, and mineral salts. Due to their chronic nature, most nutritional illnesses are highly
challenging to diagnose, but they can be prevented by using effective eating management
techniques.
10.2.1 Nutritional requirement of fish
Nutrition plays a critical role in intensive aquaculture because it influences not only production
costs but also fish growth, health and waste production. Knowing a species' nutritional needs is
essential for creating nutrient-dense, affordable meals that satisfy those needs through balanced
diet formulations and sensible feeding techniques. Our understanding of the nutritional needs of
farmed fish has grown during the past 20 years of research. Different kinds of nutrients are
necessary for the growth, health, and maintenance of fish.
The body metabolises the many nutrients needed by fish, including proteins, lipids, carbs,
vitamins, and minerals, to provide the energy required for a variety of physiological functions
and physical activities. The capacity of different fish species to utilise nutrients that provide
energy varies greatly. Their natural feeding behaviours, which can be categorised as herbivorous,
omnivorous, or carnivorous, are linked to this variety. Thus, there is a connection between
dietary protein needs and natural feeding patterns.
Compared to some carnivorous animals, herbivorous and omnivorous species need less protein
in their diets. Carnivorous creatures use their food's protein and lipids for energy quite
effectively, while they use their carbs less effectively. Research, quality assurance, and
biological assessment are required for the creation of nutrient-balanced fish feed. Poor nutrition
undoubtedly reduces fish productivity and causes a decline in health before noticeable problems
appear.
Protein and amino acids:
Proteins are large, complex molecules that play many critical roles in the body. They are made
up of hundreds or thousands of smaller units called amino acids, which are attached to one
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another in long chains. They do most of the work in cells and are required for the structure,
function, and regulation of the body’s tissues and organs.Proteins are among the most important
constituents of all living cells.
In fish, it is the major organic material in fish tissue constituting about 65-75% of the total (on
the dry weight basis) and are needed for replacement of worn-out tissues as also several
proteinaceous products required for proper body function. Proteins are also required for synthesis
of new tissues and hence growth. For proper growth and health, a fish's diet must have enough
protein or a balanced combination of amino acids. Carnivorous species may need a diet with 40
to 50 percent crude protein, while the majority of herbivorous and omnivorous fish studied to far
need a diet with 25 to 35 percent crude protein. The gross protein demand decreases as fish get
older and bigger.
Table1: Dietary protein requirements of some fish species for their optimum growth
No. Species Protein % Protein source

1. Cyprinus carpio (spawn, 45 Casein
fry and fingerlings)
2. C. carpio (Fingerlings) 54 Fish meal
3. Labeo rohita (fry) 45 Casein
4. L. rohita (fry) 40 Fish meal and ground nut oil
cake
5. L. rohita (Fingerlings) 30 Casein and groundnut oil cake
6. Cirrhinus mrigala (Fry and 40 Fish meal and groundnut oil
fingerlings) cake
7. Catla catla (Fry) 47 Casein and gelatin
8. C. catla (Fingerlings) 40 Casein and gelatin
9. Ctenopharyngodon Idella 36 Leaf protein concentrate
10. C. Idella (Fry) 42 Casein
11. Anabas testudineus 40 Carecass waste and groundnut
oilcake
12. Clarias batrachus 40 Casein gelatin)
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(Fingerlings)
13. Channa striatus (Fry) 55 Fish meal, groundnut (oilcake)
14. Macrobrachium 35 Fish meal, groundnut oilcake,
rosenbergii soybean meal
15. Penaeus monodon 40
The quantity and quality of protein in the feed affects fish growth and health maintenance.
Additionally, protein promotes fish growth and assures the production and function of vital
hormones and enzymes. The quantity and biological availability of the necessary amino acids
play a key role in determining the protein quality for fish nutrition.
The most common signs of protein and/or amino acid deficiency in fish are:
• Reduction of growth rate.

• Mortality
• Scoliosis and Lordosis.
• Anemia (Reduction of RBCs)
The fish needs a well-balanced blend of essential and non-essential amino acids instead of a
genuine protein requirement. For a fish to maintain its metabolic processes, it needs enough non-
specific nitrogen and the necessary amino acids. About 20 distinct amino acids are released
during protein hydrolysis, of which 10 are essential for fish, including arginine, isoleucine,
histidine, lysine, leucine, methionine+cystine, phenylalanine+tyrosine, threonine, tryptophan,
and valine (Table 2).
Table 2: Essential amino acid requirement of some fishes and shrimp (% dietary protein)
Amino acid Rohu Catla Mrigal Common Tilapia Rainbow Prawn Milk
carp trout fish
Arginine 5.75 4.80 5.25 4.3 4.2 5.0 3.7 5.2
Histidine 2.25 2.45 2.13 2.1 1.7 1.8 0.7 2.0
Isoleucine 3.00 2.35 2.75 2.5 3.1 2.0 0.6 4.0
Leucine 4.63 3.70 4.25 3.3 3.4 3.5 1.0 5.1
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Lysine 5.58 6.23 5.88 5.7 5.1 4.5 3.2 4.0

Methionine 2.88 3.55 3.18 3.1 2.7 *3.5 1.2 2.5
Phenylalanine 4.00 3.70 4.00 6.5 5.5 **4.5 1.7 **4.
2
Threonine 4.28 4.95 4.13 3.9 3.8 2.0 1.6 4.5
Tryptophan 1.13 0.95 1.08 0.8 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.6
Valine 3.75 3.55 3.50 3.6 2.8 3.2 2.06 3.6
*With cystine; **With tyrosine
In addition to size, other factors that affect a fish's need for protein include water temperature,
dissolved oxygen levels, pH, and feeding frequency. To guarantee that requirements for protein
and amino acids are met, commercial feeds are carefully prepared.
Lipids: The lipids are a heterogeneous group of substances found in plant and animal tissues,
which share the property of being relatively insoluble in water, and soluble in organic solvents,
such as ether, chloroform and benzene etc. Lipids are an important source of energy, essential
fatty acids, and phospholipids. Lipids provide a vehicle for absorption of fat-soluble sterols and
vitamins. Lipids are important sources of metabolic energy (ATP) and the energy value of lipid
is higher (9.5 kcal/g) when compared to protein (5.6 kcal/g) and carbohydrate (4.1 kcal/g). Free
fatty acids derived from triglycerides (fats and oils) are the major aerobic fuel sources for energy
metabolism of fish muscle. Fatty Acids from lipids are essential for the maintenance and
integrity of cellular membranes. They are also a source of essential steroids, which in turn
perform a wide range of important biological functions.
Lipids may be classified into two basic groups - glycerol-based lipids and non-glycerol-based
lipids, according to the presence or not of the alcohol glycerol. In terms of feed technology,
lipids reduce the dustiness of feeds, increase feed palatability, and act as lubricants for the flow
of feed through pellet dies. Although estimates of the gross lipid requirements for various species
range from 4 to 15 percent, the ideal level of dietary lipids for carps and prawns is typically
thought to be between 7 and 9 percent.
A fish's ability to digest and absorb food is decreased by an excessive amount of dietary lipid,
which also suppresses the production of fatty acids and slows growth. Additionally, it is well
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recognised that feeding too many lipids can result in fatty fish and harm the flavour, consistency,
and shelf life of final goods. Although the body can produce cholesterol, some crustaceans, like
prawns, need cholesterol in their diet. Prawns responded favourably to diets containing sterol and
cholesterol at levels of 0.25 and 0.5 percent.
Animals' main energy stores are fats, which are fatty acid esters of glycerol.These are used to
meet long-term energy needs during periods of intense exercise or when food and energy intake
are insufficient. Fish have the special capacity to easily metabolise these substances, which
allows them to survive for extended periods of time without food. Salmon migrate for weeks to
return upstream to spawn; throughout this arduous journey, accumulated lipid deposits are
consumed as fuel to keep body functions running smoothly.
Esters of fatty acids and phosphatidic acid make up phospholipids.These are the primary lipids
that make up cellular membranes, allowing the orientation of the lipid molecules into
intracellular or extracellular regions to determine whether the membrane surfaces are
hydrophobic or hydrophilic. The substances found in brain and nerve tissue are known as
sphingomyelins, which are fatty acid esters of sphingosine. Long-chain alcohols are fatty acid
esters, and these are waxes. Through the stored lipids of some plant and several animal
molecules, these substances can be digested to provide energy and to impart physical and
chemical properties. Sterols are polycyclic, long-chain alcohols that have a role in several
hormone systems, particularly in the physiological processes of sexual maturation and sex.
Carbohydrates:
Sugars, starches, gums, and celluloses are all included in the large category of compounds
known as carbohydrates. The only elements found in carbohydrates are carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen, and when they are burned, they produce carbon dioxide and one or more molecules of
water.
The three-carbon sugars, which play a significant role in intermediate metabolism, are the
simplest carbohydrates, while the naturally occurring polysaccharides, mostly of plant origin, are
the most complicated. Although fish do not specifically need to consume carbs, having these
substances in diets provides a cheap source of energy.
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In the diet of animals and fish, two classes of polysaccharides are significant:
(A) The structural polysaccharides cellulose, lignin, dextrans, mannans, inulin, pentosans, pectic
acids, algic acids, agar, and chitin are all edible by herbivorous organisms.
(B) Polysaccharides that are universally digested, mostly starch.
It has been demonstrated that in many aquaculture species, carbohydrates have a sparing impact
on the consumption of dietary protein. Fiber would be able to transfer other nutrients through
gastrointestinal tracts for efficient digestion if there was a sufficient balance of carbs in the diet.
Tilapia, milkfish, prawns, and carps all effectively use carbohydrates as fuel.
Dextrin and gelatinized starch are effectively used by rainbow trout. A tiny amount of
carbohydrate in the diet of salmon is usually healthy. Poly and di-saccharides are used more
effectively by shrimp. Carps are capable of digesting carbohydrates at a rate of 55–60%,
compared to rainbow trout at less than 25%, salmon species at 6–15%, and humans at 20% when
lipids and protein are balanced properly. However, carp diets typically do not contain more than
30% of carbohydrates. Typically, 35 to 40% of prawns consumed commercially.
Energy: Energy is not a nutrient, but is a property of nutrients, which is released during
metabolic oxidation of proteins, lipids and carbohydrates. Energy is the ability to do work, but in
a biological sense, it also refers to muscle activity, energy for bodily chemical reactions, the
ability to transport molecules against concentration gradients, and other biological and
physiological processes. Due to their neutral buoyancy and the fact that maintaining their body
temperature requires no energy, fish have low energy needs. Fish's energy needs are influenced
by a number of elements, including temperature, size, growth rate, species, and diet, as well as
physical activities like swimming and evading predators.
Vitamins and Minerals: Vitamins are required in trace amounts; are essential for fish growth
and to fight against diseases. They are necessary for the tissue components' metabolism of other
nutrients. Numerous water-soluble vitamins function as coenzymes as well. Thiamine, riboflavin,
pyridoxine, pantothenic acid, inositol, folic acid, choline, biotin, ascorbic acid, and vitamin B12
are just a few of the eleven well-known water-soluble vitamins. There are also four fat-soluble
235
vitamins, including A, D, E, and K. When consumed in excess over what the body can store,
water-soluble vitamins are expelled after being converted to fish-necessary vitamins. Vitamins A
(retinol), D (cholecalciferol), E (alpha-tocopherol), and K are all fat-soluble vitamins. Fish can
live for lengthy stretches without these vitamins in their diet before showing symptoms of
insufficiency because these fat-soluble vitamins are digested and stored in conjunction with body
lipids. Extra dietary fat-soluble vitamins cause improper development and liver problems.
S. Vitamin Catla Rohu Mrigal Common catfish Seabass Rainbo

N carp w trout
o.
1. Thiamin - - - 2-3 1-3 R 1-12
2. Riboflavin - - - 7-10 9 R 3-30
3. Pyridoxine - - - 5-10 3 5-10 1-15
4. Pantotheni - - - 30-40 25-50 15-19 10-50
c acid
5. Niacin - - - 30-50 14 - 1-150
6. Folic acid - - - NR R - 5-10
7. Vitamin NR R R 0.02
B12
8. Myo- - - - 200-300 R R 200-
inositol 500
9. Choline - - - 1,500- 400 - 50-
2,000 3,000
10 Biotin - - - 1-1.5 R - Na
.
11 Ascorbic - - 650- 30-50 60 700*, 100-
. acid 700 25- 500
30**
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12 Vitamin A 2,00 1,000- 1,000- - 2,000-

. (IU) 0 2,000 2,000 15,000
13 Vitamin D - - - NR 500- - 2,400
. (IU) 1,000
14 Vitamin E 98.4 131. 99 80-200 30 - 30-50
. (IU) 19
15 Vitamin K - - - R R - 10
. (IU) Tabl
e1. Vitamin requirements (mg/kg dry diet) of certain fish species
Minerals are necessary for fish structural functions and the osmotic balance of several metabolic
processes. While some elements, like calcium, are absorbed by fish directly from their gills and
skin, or both, other minerals can be found in natural food sources and swallowed debris. There
are 20 identified inorganic needs that carry out crucial bodily processes. Iron, manganese,
selenium, zinc, aluminium, chromium, vanadium, calcium, chlorine, magnesium, phosphorus,
sodium, and other minerals are needed for fish. In metabolism, calcium and phosphorus are
tightly connected. Calcium and phosphorus are necessary for the development of bones. Calcium
is essential for healthy muscular contraction, blood coagulation, and nerve signal transmission.
10.2.2 Feed and feed formulation
Nutrition is crucial in aquaculture, the production of fish. Recent years have seen a significant
advancement in fish nutrition thanks to the creation of new, balanced commercial diets that
support ideal fish growth and health. In the aquaculture sector, feeding artificial food that is
balanced in all nutrients has taken on top priority. Over 60% of all input costs in an aquaculture
business go toward artificial feeding, making it a crucial technique.
Prepared or synthetic foods come in complete or supplemental varieties. Complete diets give fish
all the nutrients they need for optimum growth and health, including protein, carbs, lipids,
vitamins, and minerals. Supplemental (i.e., incomplete or partial) diets, on the other hand, are
solely meant to complement the natural food that fish in ponds or outside raceways often have
access to. Supplemental diets are often used to assist strengthen the naturally available diet with
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additional protein, carbohydrate, and/or lipids. They do not, however, provide the full
complement of vitamins and minerals.
Feed formulation entails choosing an ingredient combination that will result in a mixture with
critical nutrient levels at or above the minimal requirements of the fish. Applied nutrition is
essentially what feed formulation is. Feeds should never be kept on hand for longer than three
months and should always be maintained in a cold, dry place. The high moisture level in that
climate makes it unwise to refrigerate dry foods. An acceptable method of extending shelf life is
freezing. Commercially produced milled fish food is typically offered as flakes, pellets, or semi-
moist pellets. The most complete diets are often boiled pellets. Negative aspects include the
possibility of rapid sinking if the pellet isn't extruded. The size of the pellets is also crucial. Some
fish, particularly young fish of many species, may not be able to consume a particle that is small
enough to be manufactured. A very little pellet may not be appropriate for larger animals.
Diets that are semi-moist are fluffy and little. Although many of them are pricey, they frequently
consist of high-quality diets and might be a great option for some species. Since they are soft
enough for extremely small fish to ingest, flakes have long been used widely in the ornamental
fish market. Additionally, they sank slowly. Unfortunately, the volume needed to satisfy the
animals' nutritional needs could be overly large. A diet should only contain ingredients that have
a defined purpose, such as being a great source of energy or having a high concentration of an
amino acid that is a dietary limit. Each feed component in a particular diet formulation should
also be the least expensive one available for the diet's intended usage. The assumption that any
nutrient available in a particular feed, like an amino acid, is equally helpful to that nutrient
present in any other feed, which is what this leads to, is another presumption in feed design. This
makes it possible for feed formulators to switch out various feedstuffs when availability and
pricing change.
Fish meals primarily consist of byproducts from the manufacture of food for humans made from
plants and animals. Since they have restricted nutrient levels or potentially feature antinutritional
qualities, the majority of these ingredients are employed in diet formulations only within specific
constraints. However, it is possible to combine complementary elements to meet the nutritional
requirements of fish.
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Supplements for energy and protein make up the majority of the ingredients in prepared fish
diets. Mineral and vitamin supplements are two additional categories of feedstuffs that are
frequently bought as premixes and added to nutritionally complete diets to make sure that all
nutrient requirements are met. Additives make up the last category of feedstuffs. Antioxidants,
binding agents, enzymes, immunostimulants, flavour enhancers, prebiotics, and probiotics are
some examples of substances that can be added to fish meals at relatively low quantities to
provide specific benefits.
Energy concentrates have less than 20% crude protein and less than 18% crude fibre than protein
supplements, which have more than 20% crude protein. Energy concentrates contain mill wastes
like wheat middling and rice bran as well as feed-grade cereal grains including corn, wheat, and
sorghum. Fats and oils are the other concentrated energy source for fish diets.
A pellet binder is often added to the mixture to boost pellet durability, even though heating of the
components and gelatinization of starch do occur during the pre-conditioning and pelleting
process. In order to expose the feed mixture to heat and moisture from steam, extrusion
processing also uses a preconditioning chamber. However, as the feed mixture descends the
extruder barrel and is forced out the other end through a die, it is exposed to higher moisture
(roughly 25 percent) and much higher temperatures (190 to 300 °F). Both pressure and heat are
generated significantly as the mixture slides down the extruder barrel.
Part of the moisture vaporises when the mixture leaves the die due to an abrupt drop in pressure,
which causes the pellets to expand and lose density. Extruded pellets must be dried in a dryer to
a moisture content of 8 to 10% in order to be maintained without refrigeration. Pellets may only
contain a certain amount of fat due to frictional losses during processing. Extrusion offers some
advantages over pelleting, one of which is that bigger pellets will absorb more lipid when they
are coated with it using a fat coater. Fat is frequently supplied after drying and just before the
feed is put into storage bins. Food with a fat coating has more energy and may taste better as well
as produce less feed dust. The finished feed is taken out of the storage bins and either loaded
onto a truck for distribution in bulk or packaged for delivery to a single customer.
It is possible to produce food for small fish in a variety of methods. Using methods for micro
binding, micro coating, and microencapsulation, larval meals with diameters ranging from 25 to
239
400 microns will be created. Pellets are reduced in particle size and filtered into predetermined
size ranges to create conventional meals and crumbles. The processing techniques and diet types
used to feed microscopic fish of a particular species may be influenced by the physical properties
of a fish and the requirements of the culture system for effective dispersion.
Major cultured fish species have well-established dietary requirements. When comparing
animals with similar natural food habits and habitat requirements, these estimates are remarkably
consistent. The information also includes the typical feeds used in fish diets' nutritional
composition and suitability. This knowledge has inspired the creation of food formulations and
feed management strategies that support efficient and successful production while preserving the
wellbeing of the cultivated species.
Steps in feed formulation:
The first step in diet formulation is balancing the crude protein and energy levels. Trial and error,
the square approach for calculating crude protein or energy levels and then correcting, or the
solution of simultaneous equations can all be used to achieve this. When first balancing the
levels of protein and energy, it is helpful to utilise at least three feedstuffs: one high in protein
and high in ME, one low or intermediate in protein and high in ME, and one low or intermediate
in both protein and ME. Any number of feedstuffs can be used once diet formulation is mastered
via practise. It's important to keep in mind to leave space in the recipe for any feed additives, like
a vitamin or mineral premix.
To ensure that the dietary levels fulfil the needs of the animal to be fed, the second step in diet
formulation is to evaluate the levels of essential amino acids in the formulation. Fish's essential
amino acid needs are represented as a percentage of the diet's total calories or as a percentage of
the protein in the diet. Divide the dietary level of each amino acid by the dietary protein level to
convert an amino acid level from the percent of diet to the percent of protein.
Calculating the dietary intake of each essential amino acid may be interesting, but it is not
always practical to do so. The levels of the other six essential amino acids will most likely be
above necessary levels if the levels of arginine, lysine, methionine, and tryptophan satisfy the
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nutritional needs of the fish to be fed. It is important to monitor the amounts of all ten essential
amino acids when utilising unusual protein supplements.
If any of the amino acids in the diet formulation are low, the diet must be supplemented with a
feed that has high levels of that amino acid at the expense of another ingredient. Following the
fulfilment of the amino acid requirements, the diet's protein and calorie levels must be evaluated
again to determine whether any ingredient substitutions resulted in an unbalanced formulation.
A diet mixing sheet should be constructed to standardize diet formulation. A sample sheet is
shown in table 2.
Table 2:Some feed formulations for fry and fingerlings of Indian major carps
Feed Fry Fingerlings and growers

Ingredients Composition Ingredients Composition
(%) (%)
1. Azolla powder 60.0 Rice-bran 35.0
Soybean meal 19.0 Groundnut 25.0
oilcake
Groundnut oilcake 13.9 Roasted soybean 25.0
meal
Sesame oilcake 4.0 Fish meal 7.0
Rice-bran 2.0 Vegetable oil 5.0
Vitamin mineral mix 1.0 Fish oil 2.0
Attractant (Seeds of 0.1 Vitamin-mineral 1.0
Trigonella and Murraya) premix
2. Groundnut oilcake 26.0 Groundnut 28.0
oilcake
Soybean meal 23.0 Soybean meal 20.0
Rice-bran 33.0 Rice-bran 30.0
Fish meal 16.0 Meat-cum-bone 20.0
meal
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Vitamin mineral mix 2.0 Vitamin-mineral 2.0

premix
3. Groundnut oilcake 28.0 Soybean meal 7.0
Soybean meal 20.0 Groundnut 30.0
oilcake
Rice-bran 30.0 Mustard oilcake 35.0
Meat meal 20.0 Rice-bran 26.0
Vitamin mineral mix 2.0 Vitamin-mineral 2.0
premix
4. Groundnut 40.0
oilcake
Soybean meal 20.0
Fish meal 8.0
Rice-bran 30.0
Vitamin-mineral 1.5
premix
Vegetable oil 0.5
5. Fermented 6.7
silkworm pupae
Rice-bran 19.3
Ground nut 62.0
oilcake
Groundnut oil 5.0
Binder mix 5.0
(tapioca flour,
maida and rice
flour in 6:3:1
ratio)
Vitamin-mineral 2.0
premix
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10.2.3 Different type of feed:
There are different types of fish food in the water such as dissolved nutrients and different types
of plants and animals. Some fish have been observed to directly absorb glucose from water,
while specifics on direct food intake are unknown. There are numerous primary and secondary
ingredients and ions that are dissolved in water and absorbed by fish directly through the gills or
with food to the digestive tract. Different kinds of food are consumed by various fish. Some fish
only consume plant matter, but others rely on animal sources of nourishment. The majority of
fish need nutrients from both plant and animal sources, including protein, carbohydrates, lipids,
vitamins, and other nutrients for development and health.
Fish need to eat organic things like plants, animals, or prepared meals that incorporate plant
and/or animal material in order to survive, grow, and reproduce. Therefore, it is crucial for you to
make sure your fish receive the food they need in both quality and quantity.
These fish foods come from two main sources, namely-
(1) The environment in which fish live, i.e., from the aquatic environment and
(2) Outside the aquatic environment i.e., from the land surface of the earth.
Selecting fish foods:
According to this difference in food sources, fish food can be mainly divided into two types, viz
1. Natural food
2. Supplementary feed
1. Natural Food: Natural fish food is defined as foods that are naturally created in reservoir
water. Fish naturally eat plankton, aquatic plants and insects, aphids, organic materials at the
bottom of the reservoir, etc. The quality of the water has a big impact on their quantity. For fish
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to thrive, natural food is their primary source of nutrition. Liming and fertilisation, especially
organic fertilisation, can assist you in giving your fish a plentiful supply of natural food.
2. Supplementary Food:
Some food is provided from outside the reservoir in addition to the natural food that is provided
to promote higher output. Supplemental food refers to certain foods provided from outside
sources. Supplemental food for fish includes things like rice husk, wheat bran, mustard oil cake,
etc.
In addition to the above methods, fish food can also be classified in the following ways, viz.
1. Plants food
2. Animal food
3. Mixed food
4. Prepared food
Plants Food: Foods obtained from plants or vegetable sources are called vegetable foods, such
as phytoplankton, grasses, soft aquatic plants, rice husk, cornmeal, mustard oil cake, wheat bran,
etc.
Animal Food: Animal food includes items like zooplankton, tiny aquatic insects, calf blood,
silkworms, fish dinners, etc. that are produced from animals or animal sources.
Mixed Food: Food that has been combined from both plant and animal sources, such as rice
husk, cow blood, and decaying organic debris at the bottom of a pond, is known as mixed food.
Prepared Food: A balanced diet formed from combining various food elements called prepared
food. Food is made in pellets, tablets, or granules. Today's market offers a variety of prepared
food options. Such as- starter, grower etc.
Different species of fish have different diet and food intake. Nikolsky (1983) divided fish food
into four categories, viz
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Basic Foods: Basic foods are the foods that most fish eat. It typically appears in the majority of
fish diets.
Secondary Foods: Fish occasionally eat tiny amounts of food that is connected to basic dietary
components. Such foods make up fish's secondary diet.
Incidental Foods: An ingredient that rarely enters the digestive tract to form such food.
Obligatory Foods: Compulsory foods are those that fish must eat in poor settings because they
lack access to fundamental nutrition.
The system of production can be defined according to the type of food given to the fish.
1. Extensive: All natural foods are required for fish production.
2. Semi-intensive: A greater number of fish may be raised in the pond depending on the
availability of natural food and supplemental feed.
3. Intensive: Fish productivity is solely dependent on full feed, and the stocking rate is now
influenced by other elements, such as water quality, rather than the availability of food.
10.2.4 Artificial feeding
Fish, like all other living things, need food to eat and grow in order to survive. For a range of
essential life processes, such as blood circulation, respiratory control, hypertension management,
suspension, and submersion, fish need a lot of energy. Fish use food to produce energy. Fish
food is the food that fish consume in order to grow, produce energy, and reproduce. When they
consume a healthy diet, fish grow more quickly and reach sexual maturity earlier. The fish's
reproductive organs fully develop as a result, and their egg and sperm production are increased.
When supplied as a natural dietary supplement, artificial fish food aids in the growth, control of
health, production of heat and energy, and reproduction of fish or shrimp. Modern aquaculture
relies heavily on fish feed as a source of nutrients and energy for fish growth, reproduction, and
health.
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Artificial Fish Feed Types
Artificial fish food is often manufactured as food that floats, or sinks. Both types of food help
fish grow, while some fish species prefer floating food and some prefer drowning food. Shrimp
don't eat floating food, but the majority of fish species are rather adept at doing so. It is very
expensive because creating floating food is very expensive. This type of food has the advantage
that the fish farmer can easily monitor the fish's direct food consumption and can modify the
feeding rate as necessary. It is essential to determine whether the rate of food intake is too high
or too low in order to maximise fish development and food consumption.
It is noted that the fish diet varies in size. It varies from a small particle to a huge pellet, in
particular. The size of the pellet is typically 20–30% of the fish species' mouth. The fish must
spend a lot of time and energy searching for several small-sized pellets in order to devour them.
Consequently, the pellets are often of medium size.
Fish farming that is both intensive and semi-intensive uses a variety of artificial foods. The most
frequent fake food varieties are:
1. Dry Feeds
2. Non-dry feeds
1. Dry Feeds
Dry food ingredients or a combination of dry and moist ingredients are used to make this kind of
cuisine. Depending on the environmental factors, this sort of food typically contains 8–10%
water and is not fully moisture free. Typically, this kind of food is devoid of bacterial diseases.
Such food is divided into two types, viz
(A) Mashes or Meals: Foods that are made with very common dry food ingredients are called
Mashes or meals.
(B) Pellets: Foods that are dry and have a certain size are called pellets.
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2. Non-dry Feeds
Non-dry meals often come in two varieties, such as wet or moist. Wet cuisine typically consists
of a variety of wet elements, such as non-dry vegetable ingredients, fresh or frozen fish, whole,
shredded, or abandoned fish, as well as other wastes like cow slaughter blood, etc. Wet meal is
made from a variety of fish, including herring, caplin, mackerel, blue whiting, and sand lance.
Squid or other aquatic animals make up a big portion of this dinner. Moisture levels in this type
of food range from 47% to 80%. Due to the increased production and consumption of tailored
foods, the use of such foods has greatly declined.
Wet food is primarily used by a number of aquatic animals. Such food contaminates the water,
which is a bad thing. By consuming such food, several disease-causing microorganisms are
transmitted. Due of the wide variety in size of such food, the use of such food is restricted in
several countries, especially on freshwater farms, which increases food waste and causes water
contamination.
Wet and dry components are combined to make moist food, or water is added to dry ingredients.
These foods are all between 18 and 40% moist. Certain fish species prefer wet meals to dry ones.
In salmon hatcheries, this type of feed is frequently used. Non-dry foods, especially moist and
wet, tend to be pellet, ball or cake shaped. Both kinds of food are produced using a mixture of
additives, oils, vitamins, and minerals.
Commercial Fish Feed Types
According to the stages of the fish's life cycle, food is categorised. Starter feed, fry feed,
fingerling feed, grow-out feed, brood stock feed, etc. are examples of these food kinds. The
production of cultivable species is increased using the five food categories mentioned above.
Grow-out and brood stock food are both essentially the same type of food as starter and fry feed.
To boost fish output and quality, various nations utilise a variety of feeds, including medicated
feed, low pollution feed, high energy feed, pigmented feed, etc.
Starter Feed: This type of food is nutritious, easily digestible and of suitable size. Depending on
the fish's size and nutritional requirements, different types of feeds are available, each with a
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different set of ingredients. This kind of meal typically consists of tiny pieces. Such meal is
offered to fish while they are larvae or when they first eat.
Fry Feeds: This type of food contains high levels of protein (50-55%). The meal in question is
also cut into little bits. When a fish is in the fry stage of its life cycle, this kind of diet is
employed. High protein and calorie intake is necessary at this time for the fish's quick physical
development.
Fingerling feeds: These foods contain less protein (45-50%) than fry and starter feeds. These
foods come in a variety of sizes, from tiny bits to round pellets. These formations often depend
on the species that can be cultivated and their size.
Grow out feeds: This type of food is used during the growth of fish. These foods have high
sugar and protein content. Such foods contain protein for both metabolic and physical growth
purposes. These foods typically cut into small pieces.
Brood stock feeds: This type of food contains only high levels of protein. These commercially
available foods typically include substances like colour, vitamin C, and vitamin E. During sexual
activity, the rate of bodily growth slows down, while the genital growth quickens up till
conception. These feeds are used to satisfy the nutritional requirements of fish that are in the
reproductive stage.
Product quality feeds: This type of food is used to increase the quality of the fish produced.
These foods are utilised near fishing areas to improve consumer acceptance. Carotenoids are
used in some dishes to improve the colour of the meat. Feeds of high product quality are
typically utilised for highly prized species.
Medicated feeds (Product quality feeds): It should be obvious that anything is wrong when the
fish starts to eat less or stops altogether. Disease or water pollution are the causes of this type of
behaviour. In this instance, the FDA has given approval to various sorts of medications.
Additionally, a variety of medicated fish foods are readily available on the market in appropriate
amounts. While treating fish with such food is fairly simple, it must be done immediately and
early because ill or weak fish typically cease eating rapidly.
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Antibiotics are used in medicated feeds to treat bacterial diseases of fish and shrimp. Several
guidelines for the use of medicated diets in fish farming are provided by Scott (1993), among
them:
1. Use antibiotics only if the bacterial infestation of fish is high;
2. To start treatment as soon as possible after taking a bacterial test sample;
3. The use of antibiotics to preserve the common bacterial environment;
4. Avoidance of antibacterial treatment;
5. To ensure the appropriate tissue level and apply the correct dose at the appropriate time;
6. To apply prevention policy based on the type of antibacterial agent.
Pigmented feeds: Carotenoid dyes are used in pigmented feeds to make the color of fish flesh
pink-red. To produce shrimp shells with the proper colour, this kind of meal is also utilised in
shrimp farms. Food contains 100 mg/kg of synthetic carotenoids, such as astazanthin and
canthazanthin.
High energy feeds: These foods contain 15-30% protein which increases the total energy of the
food and increases the physical growth of the fish. These foods are more expensive since they
include a lot of protein and fats. When such food is consumed more frequently, the fish's quality
often suffers as a result of an increase in muscle fat content.
Low pollution feeds: This type of food is prepared in a special way where the water holding
capacity of the food is high and the digestion of sugars is increased. This kind of meal uses top-
notch food components that are fully digestive, excrete very little stool, and cause the least
amount of contamination.
10.2.5 Feeding devices
In fish and shellfish farming, feed accounts for more than 60% of the operational cost and thus
different feeding methods can be adopted to avoid wastage of feed. Numerous varieties of
automated systems for distributing fish feeds have been developed as a result of the widespread
availability of robust dry feeds and the quick advancements in control technology.
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Traditional hand feeding techniques and mechanised, computer-controlled technologies are both
available to fish growers. Fish producers must first decide whether to hand-feed their fish or
employ labor-saving mechanical or mechanised systems. This choice is dependent on a number
of factors, including labour costs, the size of the farm operation, the species being raised, the
types of holding systems, hatchery or grow-out operations, etc.
Feeding Methods
Cultured fish may be fed by one of two ways:
1. By broadcasting or hand feeding or manual feeding.
2. By feeders (mechanized)
Handfeeding
Hand feeding is the practise of hand distributing food to fish that actively feed at the surface and
are raised in clear water systems, allowing researchers to observe their appetites and feeding
habits. If food waste is to be prevented, effective hand feeding requires some early training and
expertise. For fish, dry pellets, granules, and crumbles could be dispersed. Broadcasting is quite
suitable for tiny ponds (less than 0.50 hectare). Broadcasting should be complemented for larger
ponds with distribution utilising a small boat in slightly interior locations.
Avoid broadcasting damp or semi-moist materials; instead, keep them in plastic trays or earthen
pots and arrange them along the edges of the pond's bottom. 30–40 feeding trays are sufficient
per ha to provide fish with the most opportunity.
Advantages: Behaviour of fish is regularly observed.
Disadvantages:
1.Labourintensive
2.Moretimeconsuming
3. Limited in application on large farms
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MechanizedFeeding
Different types of feeding equipment are now in use. There are two main categories of fish
feeders, as follows:
(a) Stationary feeding equipment
1. Without supplied energy - Example: demand feeders
2. With supplied energy -Example: automatic feeders (electric, pneumatic, hydraulic)
(b) Mobile feeding equipment
1. feeding carts
2. feeding boats.
Demand feeder
Demand feeders come in a variety of forms, but their fundamental idea remains the same. The
fish themselves regulate demand feeders based on their appetite.
Demand feeders are typically inappropriate for small fish because they cannot operate them,
however some species of fish may learn to utilise them very quickly.
1. The fish make contact with the rod that is attached to a plate or plug at the feed hopper's base.
2. Typically, this stopper seals the hopper to prevent feed from spilling out. A modest amount of
feed is released whenever the bait rod is moved.
3. The plug's shape and design can be used to regulate how much feed is released each time.
The plug typically has a spherical or an inverted cone shape.
10.3 FISH DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL
Fish in aquaculture are considered to be healthy due to their physical well-being. Two factors-
one related to the aquatic environment and the other to the fish's cold-bloodedness-lead to
abnormal changes in the body. All aquatic creatures, including fish, are susceptible to a number
of diseases that are brought on by inadequate diet, dirty water, or parasite infestations. One of the
major issues that fish farmers deal with is this.
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Fish living in tropical waters are more susceptible and prone to diseases than fishes living in
temperate waters, because the former provides favorable conditions for introduction and spread
of diseases. Such waters are easily contaminated by discarded food and biodegradable materials,
which quickly create unclean conditions. Fish in ponds may become ill from a lack of food, a
sudden change in the water's physico-chemical characteristics, such as pH, temperature, or
oxygen deprivation, or from overcrowding.
Disease defenses in fish can be either particular or general. Non-specific defenses include skin
and scales as well as the mucus layer released by the epidermis that traps germs and stunts their
growth, while specific defenses are tailored reactions to certain diseases that the fish's body has
identified.
10.3.1 Different fish pathogens: Viral, Bacterial, Fungal and parasitic
A sick fish is typically unable to maintain its balance in the water and will typically lie on one
side, either at the bottom of the tank or floating above it. The skin loses its natural colour, the
gills turn pallid, and the body is covered in a grey slime. Disease-causing pathogenic bacteria,
viruses, fungi, protozoans, worms, helminths, and crustaceans can infest any species of fish.
Diseases caused by Viruses:
A virus is a tiny organism that can only procreate by residing in host cells and utilising the
genetic material of the host.
Their size ranges from 10 nm to 500 nm, which is smaller than the light microscope's resolution.
RNA or DNA, a specific type of nucleic acid, is how viruses transport their genetic material.
Typically, a protein coat that closely resembles the protein "albumin" surrounds the genetic
material. As a result, viruses are sometimes known as "nucleoproteins."
Viruses are referred to as "obligate intracellular parasites" because they cannot reproduce outside
of a host cell and must utilise the components of the host cell to create their genetic material.
Although many viruses have so far been discovered, only a small number have been proven to
cause serious illnesses in fish. Since viral infections are difficult to treat, it is crucial that they be
kept under control using preventative medications.
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Some of the viral diseases of fish are discussed below -
1. Viral Hemorrhagic Septicemia (VHS) of Rainbow Trout: Schaperclaus (1941) made the
initial discovery, which was later validated by Zwillenberg (1965). Egtved sickness is another
name for VHS, and Egtved virus is another name for VHSV. The death rate for this illness is
significant. A virus with the shape of a bullet, similar to the IHN virus, is the cause. The signs
include general anaemia, pale gill discolouration, eye and belly edoema, intestinal inflammation,
etc.
The emergence of this disease and its dissemination in the fish farm are significantly influenced
by high population densities and high feeding practises. The viral disease known as viral
haemorrhagic septicemia (VHS) affects rainbow trout and is extremely infectious. Salmonids in
freshwater and saltwater are both impacted by VHS.
Freshwater fish have been reported to have clinical illness, and occasionally marine species as
well. The majority of epizootics in rainbow trout occur in freshwater farms, although outbreaks
have also been documented in fish raised in brackish or salt water. Age, water temperature (9–12
degrees Celsius), and stressful situations are a few of the variables that increase the risk of this
infection.
The rhabdovirus that causes VHS has a bulletlike form. The illness results in a significant
mortality rate in fingerling rainbow trout. Older fish are susceptible to chronic illness if they are
exposed for the first time. Both infected eggs and water transfer between fish are ways that
VHSV can transmit from one fish to another.
Fish that are afflicted exhibit high death rates. The body develops a dark hue. Internal organs,
eyes, skin, muscles, serosal surfaces of the gut, and other tissues bleed out in diseased fish. The
organs most commonly impacted are the kidney and liver. The most significant signs are
bleeding in the air bladder, renal edoema, blood in the gills and fins, liver discolouration, etc.
The fins started to fray, and skin sores started to appear.
The fish gradually disappear over a few months. Fish become drowsy and occasionally
hyperactive. They change how they swim and almost completely blacken in hue. The fish gets
acute anaemia, which is shown by a lower haemoglobin level.
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Laboratory testing or a clinical examination can be used to make the diagnosis. The possibility of
viral hemorrhagic septicemia should be considered in rainbow trout, turbot, Japanese flounder,
and other sensitive species with haemorrhages, exophthalmia, neurological signs, or other
symptoms suggestive of this condition. Expected water temperatures range from 1 to 18°C (34 to
64°F). At temperatures exceeding this range, disease has not been linked to any cases. Among
the probable diagnosis are infectious hematopoietic necrosis, enteric red mouth disease, and
furunculosis.
Viral isolation in cell cultures can be used to identify viral hemorrhagic septicemia.
Immunofluorescence, immune-histochemistry, or ELISA can also be used to detect viral antigens
directly in tissues, particularly the kidney and spleen. PCR is another option. Although it has not
yet been proven to be reliable for routine diagnosis, serology by virus neutralisation or ELISA
may be useful in identifying carriers.
The VHS illness has no recognised treatment. As with other viral infections, prevention is the
best form of control. The impact of viral hemorrhagic septicemia can be lessened in endemic
areas by hatchery disinfection, the adoption of specific-pathogen-free (SPF) stock, spring or well
water, and management measures that lower physiological pressures.
HSV is sensitive to many common disinfectants including formalin, iodophor disinfectants,

sodium hydroxide and sodium hypochlorite. Disinfectants lose some of their virucidal effects
when diluted in seawater. VHSV is highly sensitive to UVC (280–200 nm wavelength)
irradiation, which can be utilised to treat water in recirculation systems or for hatcheries' input
water. Fish that are sick or dead need to be removed right away. High stocking densities are to be
avoided at all costs. Ponds with clear bottoms and no infection should be chosen.
It is not recommended to co-cultivate flatfish and salmonids, especially rainbow trout, because
VHSV can transmit across species and non-virulent isolates have the potential to virulent. There
are no effective antiviral drugs or commercially available vaccines to treat this condition.
2. Papillomatosis: Diverse fish species from freshwater and marine settings can develop benign
epithelial tumours known as papillomas in remote geographic zones. It is considered that the
majority of papillomatous epithelial lesions are entirely or partially viral in origin. It has been
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discovered that environmental factors affect the illness. Examples include the papilloma in
Atlantic salmon, cauliflower illness, and "carp pox."
The papilloma virus, a halophilic virus, is the disease-causing agent in eels and cyprinids. It is a
contagious illness. The disease's progression seems to follow a pattern similar to that of
metastasis-followed cancer. The condition first manifests as minute skin folds that are around 1
mm in size and that proliferate and replicate over the lower jaw and nasal orifices. Large
papillomas may develop as a result of anastomosis between these basic centres of development.
Several papillomas appeared all over the afflicted fish's body. Three to six months after the
disease initially manifests, eating becomes increasingly challenging. Finally, the papillomatosis
causes mortality from full emaciation.
The fish that have been assaulted exhibit a growth in skin proliferation throughout, but especially
on the upper and lower jaws. Because of how much these growths resemble cauliflower, the
condition is known as cauliflower disease. The cauliflower-like papillomonous that affects the
fin, body, and tail may be white, pale red, or dark grey in colour.
Affected fish's skin and jaws also exhibit lesions. The pectoral fins, the back, the belly, the sides,
and the caudal area all exhibit proliferations. Fish that were ill could not eat adequately.
Significant alterations can be seen in the internal organs, particularly the liver and intestine. The
fish rapidly loses weight and becomes more and more malnourished.
Diagnosis is usually made based on clinical signs. Histopathology will reveal epithelial
hyperplasia. Electron microscopy may reveal viral particles or viral inclusion bodies, but this
does not occur in all cases by far. There is no known cure for papillomatosis. To stop the
sickness from spreading, the sick fish must be removed and destroyed. It is advised to take a bath
containing soluble quinine sulphate at a dosage of 60 mg/lit for roughly 40–50 days.
3.Infectious pancreatic necrosis (IPN) of salmonids:
Infectious pancreatic necrosis (IPN) is a severe viral disease of salmonid fish.IPN symptoms are
also seen in other fish species, including carp, eel, and Atlantic salmon. It is also a virus that kills
young fish in large numbers. Fish fry and immature fish frequently contain it. In addition to
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being a severe issue in North America and Europe, this fish sickness has now been identified in
Japan. When it affects trout fingerlings and fry, it manifests as an acute illness.
IPN virus, a member of the Birnaviridae family, is the disease's primary cause. Since the virus
causes gastrointestinal and pancreatic damage in infected fish, it is known as IPN. Eggs are a
normal method of disease transfer from parents to offspring, and this is probably one of the main
causes of IPN's geographic spread.
Fish that are affected turn their bodies while swimming and turn a dark colour. Death occurs
within an hour or two of this whirling movement, which is a terminal symptom. Individual fish
exhibit a generally pale colouring, exophthalmia, stomach distension, and haemorrhages in the
ventral regions. Fish that are infected frequently have poor hematocrits and stomach
haemorrhages, mainly in the pyloric region. The intestines are stuffed with mucus. The liver and
spleen are both pale, and there are signs of necrosis in the gall bladder. There is an anaemic state.
Clinical signs of the illness include spiral swimming, darkening of the skin, enlarged eyes or
abdomen. The disease can be diagnosed by ELISA, the typical histological pancreatic lesion,
indirect fluorescent antibody tests, and virus culture. Fish that make it through should recover in
one to two weeks. There are no effective treatments for this illness, but providoneiodine has been
recommended by Economon (1963) as a potential treatment option.
4. Channel catfish virus (CCV): The Alloherpesviridae family of viruses, which includes the
channel catfish virus, is responsible for catfish illness. A herpes virus is what causes CCVD. A
100 nm-long DNA genome virus is the source of this illness. Fish less than a year old (fry and
fingerlings) or shorter than 15 cm in length are most commonly affected by the sickness.
The channel catfish virus is believed to mostly propagate vertically, via the egg, from brood
stock to young fish. Additionally, the virus shed in water and the virus transmitted by animal
vectors both directly cause horizontal spread of the illness. This illness may cause visceral
organs to bleed.
A fish that is unbalanced hangs vertically in the water. The intestine is filled with a yellow
mucous fluid with bleeding from the muscles, air bladder, and internal organs. Enlarged
abdomen. Additionally, fish may exhibit signs like irregular swimming and a loss of appetite.
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By using virus neutralisation, fluorescent antibody testing, ELISA, or PCR, CCV can be found in
water containing damaged fish organs and infected fish. While virus neutralisation or PCR
should be used to detect carrier fish, FAT and ELISA should be used to diagnose fish that are
clinically affected.
There is no cure at this time. To lower illness occurrence, stress and excessive stocking densities
should be avoided. To stop the spread of disease, appropriate quarantine and hygiene precautions
should be taken. The virus is inactivated by pond mud and sea water but is susceptible to heat,
UV light, and an acidic pH.
5. Lymphocystis: Both freshwater and saltwater species exhibit it. Irido virouses are the
lymphocystis' etiological agent. Fish to fish transmission is how it spreads. Two months after
infection, the first nodules are seen. On the skin, fins, and gills of the infected fish, little to
variable-sized white to yellow nodules or lumps appear clinically. This virus can occasionally
spread throughout the body and cause peritoneal and mesentery white nodules.
The illness has a self-limiting course and is resistant to therapy. Fish with nodules may be
susceptible to subsequent bacterial infections for several months after becoming ill. The entire
affected stock should be destroyed because there is no cure. Draining the contaminated pond will
then disinfect it. It is advised to apply lime at a rate of 200–300 kg/ha after drying. Fresh fish
culture should begin following cleanings.
Bacterial Diseases: Bacteria are responsible for many fatal diseases in fishes like furunculosis,
Columnaris, fin and tail rot, vibriosis, dropsy, cotton mouth disease and tuberculosis. Bacteria
are fairly common in the aquatic environment. The majority of bacterial disease pathogens are
frequently found in the flora of water. The only time fish become unwell is when they are under
stress from unfavourable environmental factors, insufficient nutrition, and poor husbandry
techniques.
Similar to viruses, bacteria can cause significant losses in aqua forms. This disease's onset might
not be as abrupt. Most bacterial illnesses are brought on by hot water. Under these conditions, a
rapid loss of appetite is a sign that the fish needs immediate diagnosis, treatment, and care;
otherwise, severe losses could result. Dropsy disease, Lymphocystis, bacterial haemorrhagic
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septicemia, fin and tail rot disease, Columnaris, and bacterial gill disease are a few of the
bacterial infections that affect fish.
Dropsy: Aquarium fish frequently have dropsy, which is typically recognised as a symptom
rather than a disease. Fish-borne dropsy is a sickness. caused by a fluid buildup in the tissues or
organs of the body. It can signify a number of underlying conditions, such as bacterial infections,
parasite infections, or liver failure, but it is not a disease in itself.
Both Aeromonas hydrophila and Pseudomonas punctata are bacteria that induce dropsy in fish.
Bacterial haemorrhagic septisemia is more likely to develop in areas with high population
density, overfed fish, and overfertilized water. One of the illnesses most dreaded in carp culture
is infectious dropsy.
Bloating is the recognisable sign of dropsy. Originally, the word "swelling" was used to denote
swelling brought on by a buildup of fluid, primarily in body cavities and tissues. Although it is
frequently the case, the swelling is primarily in the abdomen.
Accumulation of body fluid or water in the cavities of the body or in the pockets of the scales,
the scales becoming loose, the abdomen bloating noticeably, and when pressed, water flows out
of the mouth, etc. Other symptoms include eye edoema and gill haemorrhages. The fish respond
more frequently by jumping when ulcerative dropsy—a condition in which the skin develops
ulcers, the fins stretch, and the backbone is deformed—occurs. The epidermis and muscle of the
diseased fish exhibit sores. The color of the ulcers may be black, white or red. At some times the
protrusion of the scales and loss of scales occur.
Chloromycetin, which is dissolved in water at a concentration of 60 mg per gallon, can be used

to treat fish. The fish are left in the solution for 3 to 7 days. The fish are not fed while they are
receiving treatment. To stop the disease from spreading, it is recommended that the fishpond be
completely drained, dried out, and disinfected with quicklime.By dipping the sick fish for two
minutes in a solution of 5 mg/l KMnO4, the fish can be treated. Use of chloromycetin or
streptomycin is required for preventive therapy. Sanitation and disease management are both
possible uses for glutaraldehyde. Penicillin, tetracycline, and naladixic acid are only a few of the
available medicines.
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3. Columnaris Disease: It is caused byFlexibacter columnaris.The primary symptom is the

development of tufts that resemble fungi around the mouth. On the head, fins, gills, and lateral
sides of the body, there are grey patches that are pale in colour. These spots develop ulcers and a
reddish rim surrounding the lesion.
Regular water changes and gravel sweeping can help to control it. The fish won't become
stressed and vulnerable to illness if they are fed properly and the water is generally kept in good
condition. Utilize 2-3 ppm of KMnO4 in the fishpond. In a solution of 1-2 ppm KMnO4, soak
the fish. Inject 25 mg of streptomycin and 20 000 IU of penicillin per kilogramme of larger fish
that weigh more than 1 kg. Provide 6.5 g of Nitrofurazone per 100 kg of fish each day in fish
feed.
4. Bacterial Hemorrhagic Septicemia (BHS):
Pseudomonas flurescense, Aeromonas hydrophila, and Aeromonas liquefaciens typus (or forma)
ascitae. Red fluid builds up inside the body cavity; other signs include the death of lesion cells, a
green or yellow liver, skin necrosis, and blood vessel inflammation. Exophthalmia (bulging eyes)
(bulging eyes). Use KMnO4 at 2-3 ppm in the fish pond and Terramycin at 65-80 mg/kg of fish
for 10 days. Only for larger fish weighing more than 1 kilogramme, administer an injection with
25 mg of streptomycin and 20 000 IU of penicillin.
5. Furunculosis: This is one of the most serious bacterial illnesses that affects wild and farmed
salmon, especially those who dwell in contaminated water that is high in decomposing debris.
Aeromonas salmonicidae, a rod-shaped bacterium with a length of around 2-3 m, is the causative
agent for this disease.
Hemorrhagic septicemia causes ulcerative skin lesions caused by the release of blood-tinged
fluid into the water. Fish should be fed logical, vitamin-rich food. The fishponds and hatcheries
shouldn't be able to contain foreign substances. Use oxytetracycline and chloramphenicol at 5-8
g/100 kg of fish per day with feed, as well as sulfonamide at 5g/100 kg fish per day.
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6. Fin rot:
Water contamination in the environment and unsanitary conditions in fishponds are associated to
fin and tail rot. Aeromonas salmonicid and A. liquefaciens are the culprits behind the fin and tail
rot disease. Protozoans and fungi, however, might also be implicated.
The appearance of white lines around the fin edges is one of its defining features. Typically,
erosion and bleeding occur when the opacity extends towards the base of the fins. The fin rays
initially become brittle before fracturing, which causes the fins to be destroyed. The skin's
surface could also become contaminated. The outer edges of the fins develop a minor cloudiness,
and as the condition progresses, the tissues of the tail and fins become necrotic and eventually
vanish.
Use a dip therapy with emequil @ 10 ml/100 lit for 24-48 hours; use a lengthy bath in acriflavine
@ 10gm/100-liter water or sulfonamide @ 10gm/100-liter water. Give larger fish (20 mg/kg
body weight) an injection of the antibiotic kanamycin, then clean the tanks and raceways with
chlorine and copper sulphate (1:2000).
7. Gram-positive Bacterial Infections of Fish
Although these infections are rare, when they do happen, they can have a significant fatality rate
(>50%). Only a few fish every day may die as a result of chronic infections, which might last for
weeks. All fish species are susceptible, however some are more vulnerable than others, such as
salmonids, a variety of marine fish (such as mullet and sea bass), tilapia, sturgeon, and striped
bass. Rainbow sharks, red-tailed black sharks, rosy barbs, danios, and various tetras and cichlid
species are among the aquarium fish that are susceptible. In cyprinids like tiger barbs (Puntigrus
tetrazona), pink barbs (Pethia conchonius), and tetras, rostral ulceration and stomatitis are
usually linked to the gram-positive bacterium Erysiopelothrix sp. Fish that are infected with the
disease frequently survive for several days.
Streptococcus and allied genera Lactococcus, Enterococcus, and Vagococcus may be responsible
for these infections. Neurologic illness, which frequently presents as spinning or spiralling in the
water column, is a defining symptom of Streptococcus infection.
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Suspect fish should have their brain and kidney cultures cultured on blood agar for 24-48 hours
at 25°C. Gram stains of specific bacterial colonies show gram-positive cocci in characteristic
chains, enabling a tentative identification. Confirmation needs the organism to be positively
identified.
The environment or live foods, such as amphibians, fish that have already contracted the virus, or
tubeficid worms, may be the source of an infection. If the source of infection is found and
removed, future epizootics can be avoided. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing should serve as
the foundation for antimicrobial therapy. Although erythromycin is frequently used, the FDA has
not approved it for this use. Facilities for aquaculture can employ autologous vaccinations.
Fungal diseases:
Among the most prevalent ailments affecting temperate fish are fungi. A rise in fungal infections
in a fish population that is otherwise healthy might also be caused by poor water quality. Only a
few numbers of fungi can infect a fish's interior organs; the majority of fungi only affect the
exterior tissues. When a fish sustains a mechanical injury or when parasite infections result in
significant fish mortalities, fungus develops as a secondary infection. The spores that are
produced by all fungus are what easily spread disease. Like a seed, the fungal spore is resistant to
heat, drying, cleaning agents, and the natural defensive mechanisms of fish. It has been
established that the fungi, which are common in the natural environment, can infect fish eggs,
fry, fingerlings, and adults. They thrive very well where there isn't much slime.
Various kinds of fungal diseases in fishes are illustrated below:
1. Saprolegniasis: Freshwater fish are susceptible to the illness saprolegniasis (winter fungus),
which affects their skin and gills. Young and adult fish both frequently contract this sickness. A
superficial, cotton-like growth on the skin or gills is the most typical manifestation of this
condition. These lesions typically start as little, localised infections that have the potential to
spread quickly across the surface of the body. Lesions are initially white, but they eventually turn
red, brown, or green. Fish's exterior surfaces can become infected with the common fungal
disease known as saprolegiasis. Once the fundamental source of the ailment has been found and
addressed, it is simple to eradicate. Saprolegniasis is brought on by saprolegnia fungus,
sometimes known as "water moulds."
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Direct contact between unhealthy and sick fish or fish eggs. Indirect interaction resulting from a
variety of factors, such as the water supply, transport vehicles, workers moving between
aquaculture plants, and farm machinery like nets.
The diseased fish first have muted body colours. the appearance of a white to grey or cotton-like
growth on the eyes, gills, fins, or skin of fish. In some instances, fungus growth may cover 80%
of the body. Skin lesions are grey or white in appearance during early infections. The respiration
is obstructed by the growth of fungus in the gill lamella. The diseased fish becomes lethargic and
frail. The skin of the sick fish may also develop ulcers, and it will eventually pass away.
A clinician may suspect saprolegniasis if they notice a cottony, proliferative growth on the skin
or gills. The diagnosis of saprolegniasis is aided by direct smears from fungal growth and the
presence of long, branched non-septate hyphae.
The first step in illness control should be avoiding the underlying causes, such as improper
handling, injuries, inadequate sanitation, infection of feeding bags, and low water quality.
Preventing skin harm while transporting fish. Fish must be given plenty of the proper kind of
food. Fish overcrowding must be avoided. Cleaning the tools and utensils to stop the infection
from spreading. Potassium permanganate (1 g per 100 litres of water for 60–90 minutes) and
ordinary salt baths are used to cure sick fish (10 g per litre of water for 20 minutes for young fish
and 25 g per litre of water for 10 minutes for older fish).
2. Branchiomycosis or gill rot: It is a fungus that affects the gill tissues of most freshwater fish
species, including cyprinids and catfish. Branchiomycosis is a relatively recent issue that has
killed a lot of cultured fish and is challenging to control.
The causative agent of this disease are two fungi namely, Branchiomyces demigraus and B.
sanguinis belonging to Phycomycetes and Archiomycetes respectively. Fish that are under stress
due to environmental factors including low pH (5.8 to 6.5), low dissolved oxygen, or a strong
algal bloom have both types of fungal. Although they thrive between 77° and 90°F,
Branchiomyces species can grow at temperatures as high as 95°F. It mostly develops in the gill
lamellae, filaments, and blood vessels of the gill arches. The parenchymal tissues of the gills
contain this fungus species. The primary sources of infection are debris on pond bottoms and
fungal spores conveyed in the water.
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In the beginning of the infection the fish shows pale gills with deep red patches. Fish start to
move more sluggishly. Fish can be caught by hand and don't respond when a man approaches
them. Infected fish experience respiratory discomfort and are unable to consume air. Gills may
look red due to poor circulation. When fungus grows on or inside the gill tissue or enters the
blood vessels, the gill tissues become obstructed, congested, and necrotic. Study of a moist
preparation made from an infected gill under a microscope. Finding and separating the
responsible agent.
The impacted fish must be taken out of the pond and put to death. Avoid wearing dense
stockings. For the management of diseases, strict sanitation and disinfection are necessary. Dead
fish should be gathered each day, burned, or buried deeply. By supplying clean, fresh water, high
quantities of organic matter in the water supply should be avoided. To assist reduce deaths,
formalin and copper sulphate have been utilised. Branchiomycosis-affected ponds should be
dried up and treated with copper sulphate or 2-3 kg of calcium oxide per hectare. Malachite
green can be used to cure sick fish for extended periods of time (0.1 mg/l) or for a 12-hour period
(0.3 mg/l). Transfer of diseased fish from infected to uninfected areas needs to be stopped.
Adjusting the feeding rate when it's warm outside.
3. Ichthyophonosis: Both freshwater and saltwater fish are affected by the fungus disease. Skin
that is rough or granulomatous, internal organ lesions that are white to grey-white, and other
physical manifestations of the disease. There is no treatment for the systemic fungal disease
known as ichthyophonus once it has infected a fish.
Ichthyophonus hoferi, which enters the host fish's body with food, is the fungus that causes this
sickness. It is a spherical or oval-shaped, yellowish-brown, obligatory parasite with granulated
cytoplasm. The tissues of different organs are home to the fungus, which exists as an
intercellular parasite. A temperature of 100 C is ideal. Seven to ten days following the
inoculation, growth started to show.
Consuming raw or processed fish that has been contaminated with illness spreads it. Infections
can spread more easily when there are skin wounds or damaged gills. By faecal excretions,
carriers aid in the infection's transmission. When a sick fish comes into contact with a healthy
one, the sickness is spread.
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Fish with a mild to moderate illness show no outward symptoms. In severe cases, infection under
the epidermis and in muscular tissue may give the skin a "sandpaper texture." The spine of some
fish might curve. The internal organs could swell and have white to grey-white lesions. The
condition is known as swinging disease because such fish exhibit peculiar swinging movements.
When this fungus's viable spores are consumed along with tainted food, they spread throughout
the fish's visceral organs, infecting the liver, brain, kidney, gonads, and other areas. In severe
situations, the infection extends to the skin, which may break and release spores that can cause
many ulcers.
Study of afflicted tissues under a microscope to find the fungi. Locating and identifying the
responsible party. Examination of the histopathology. The ichthyophonus disease cannot be
treated using therapeutic methods. The best way to control the condition is to avoid infection.
Avoid feeding raw fish or contaminated food. At the same time, all nets, brushes, and utensils
used near contaminated fish must be cleaned and disinfected.
Parasitic Diseases
Parasitic diseases are among the most serious problems in farmed fish, though not of much
concern among the wild fish. The three main types of fish parasites are protozoa, helminths, and
arthropods, which are dominated by crustaceans.
Protozoan diseases in fishes:
Single-celled organisms known as protozoans are only visible under a microscope. They come in
a variety of sizes and shapes and feed primarily on the skin and gills of fish. A small number of
them can also infect internal organs and cause serious illnesses. The fishes' bodies are covered in
a variety of protozoan parasites. They may reside outwardly on the body's surface, inwardly in
the visceral organs, or both. The following is a list of significant diseases brought on by
protozoan parasites:
1. Ichthyophthiriasis: The visible and recognisable white spots that are a symptom of
ichthyophthiriasis, also known as the "white-spot illness," are quite common. Young parasites
that are in the water cling to the fish's skin. When they reach a certain size and are large enough,
they fall to the pond's bottom.
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The ciliated protozoan Ichthyophthirius multifillis is responsible for the deadliest protozoan
illness. Ich illness is another name for this condition. The disease can affect any type of pond-
cultured fish, including trout, Chinese carp, and common carp.
The presence of white patches on the host's skin and fins serves as the primary diagnostic
indicator. A single Ichthyophthirius, or spot, is a unicellular creature. These organisms have a
rounded form and stick out from the surface. The interior epithelial tissue is destroyed. Fish
retaliate by leaping into the water and rubbing their bodies on the items in the water. Moreover,
breathing is impacted, and a strong attack may lead to the extinction of all the fish in a pond. In
mild infections, the epidermis may separate in some places as a result of apparent skin and fin
damage. Other severe signs, such as acute restlessness and fish weakness brought on by an
osmoregulation imbalance, can be seen in severe infections.
Liming and draining the pond are beneficial. Malachite green, at a concentration of 1 g per
square metre in the culture, treats carps' illness. The ponds can be dried out to destroy the ciliated
bodies as well. It has been suggested that treating the pond once, twice, or three times with 0.1
ppm malachite green and 15 ppm formalin is effective.
2. Costiasis: The severe disease costiasis, often called ichthyobodosis, affects several fish
species, including young trout and common carp. A parasite on the skin is the cause of costiasis.
Mastigophora pathogen Costiasis necatrix is often referred to as Ichthyobodo necatrix. The
parasite embeds itself in the host's skin. At the place of attachment, its anterior end develops
finger-like structures that pierce the host cell and suck out its contents. Transmission happens
over water.
The increased mucus secretion causes the affected fish to develop dull patches on its sides and
fuse into a continuous greyish film. The tissue in the fins is frequently corroded; this corrosion
begins in the space between the rays. The gills turn pallid and mucus-covered. The fry gathers
around the intake, rise to the surface, and ingest the oxygen present in the air. Fish eventually
deteriorate, lose interest in food, and perish.
During 10-15 minutes, sick fish are kept in either a 3-5% sodium chloride solution or a 1-2500
ppm formalin solution. Young fish should be fed nutritious food and should not be kept in
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spawning and rearing ponds for too long if the disease is to be avoided. Before adding spawners,
quicklime should be used to sanitise carp spawning ponds.
3. Whirling disease: In the 1950s, whirling illness was discovered for the first time in
Pennsylvania; it probably arrived with shipments of frozen fish from Europe. One of the well-
known salmonid diseases, whirling disease has been documented throughout the world. All trout
and salmon species are affected, especially the young ones.
Myosoma cerebralis, parasitic protozoans, are the cause of this illness. The condition gets its
name from the Myxosoma cerebralis spores, which also produce the rapid-whirling movements.
Contaminated salmonid fish, either alive or dead. Transplanting sick fish is the main method of
transmission between rivers. Spores are spread within a river system by water currents,
contaminated tools, boats, and birds that have eaten contaminated fish.
There is no reliable technique to get rid of the infection of whirling illness once it has entered a
stream. There are, however, steps that can be taken to lessen the disease's effects. As the parasite
invades cartilage and harms the neural system, a distinct "whirling" swimming movement may
be seen. Skeletal deformation linked to spine curvature can be seen in later stages of the illness.
Nerve compression causes colour alterations, causing the tail to seem dark or even black. Mass
deaths among fry. Trout that recover from the condition have faulty opercula, mandibular and
vertebral malformations, and depressions in the skull, especially posterior to the eyes. Increased
breathing rate. Skin discoloration from the vent to the tail.
Fish raised in water free of the infectious stage are protected against this disease (nematode
worms in the mud of the pond). The best way to manage this illness is to control tubifex worms.
Before moving from one body of water to another, clean and dry your equipment. Transferred
fish stocks have undergone a whirling disease quarantine inspection. Instead of throwing out
leftover bait into the water, do so in the garbage or on dry land. Never move live fish between
different bodies of water. Take out all the diseased fish. Restock only fish that have been proven
to be free of surface-infected eggs or whirling disease.
Metazoan Parasitic diseases of fish:
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Metazoan parasitic diseases are less pathogenic than protozoan parasitic diseases. Despite
having a multicellular structure, they can rarely reproduce themselves inside of their hosts'
bodies. Hence intensity of infection depends on the number of initial infective stages. This
category includes illnesses brought on by myxozoans, parasitic helminths, crustaceans, and
leeches. Members of the phyla Platyhelminthes and Nematohelminthes are referred to as
helminthes.
1. Gyrodactylosis: The skin of cyprinids, notably the common carp, gets infected with
gyrodactylosis. Salmonids in both freshwater and saltwater are impacted by it. Young common
carp are troubled by the virus.
Gyrodactylus sp. is the responsible party for the disease gyrodactylosis. Although it rarely
affects the eyes or gills, it frequently affects the skin. It is a tiny monogenean fluke that is
infrequently visible to the unaided eye. It is abundant on the skin of freshwater and saltwater
salmonids.
Gyrodactylus elegans is a widespread parasite that can be found on the skin, gills, and fins of
trout and carp. The increased mucus secretion causes the affected surface to become covered in
bluish slime. The infected fish's colour fades and turns pale when the infection is severe. The
skin grows slimier, and the fin progressively rips and frays.
By scraping mucus, G. elegans is easily visible under the microscope. Fish with this parasite are
frequently observed rubbing their bodies against the pond's sides or bottom or any other objects
in the water in an effort to get rid of the parasite.
Gill epithelial hyperplasia and gill lamellae distortion are brought on by infection. This injury is
particularly serious in young fish and causes respiratory failure. The attachment sites where
adult flukes adhere, where necrotic foci develop, are also damaged. The likelihood of
subsequent infections rises as a result.
The most common form of treatment is a potassium permanganate bath. It is typically advised to
do a 3–5-minute dip treatment in a 5-5000 ppm formalin solution or a 5% Nacl solution.
Alternately, they could be kept for two to three days in water tanks with 2-4 ppm of methylene
blue dye or 10 ppm of acriflavine.
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2. Dactylogyrosis: Other significant sources of infection in aquaculture are trematode larvae.

Dactylogyrosis is a disease that mostly parasitizes the gills of other fish, including Chinese carp
and common carp. The term "dactylogyrosis" refers to the illness this parasite causes.
Dactylogyrosis symptoms include rapid breathing, irritated gills, and clawing on the bottom.
Later on, the gills are entirely damaged, which causes a high rate of carp death. The gill fluke, or
dactylogyrus, is the cause of dactylogyrosis. Dactylogyrus is a tiny organism that lives on the
fish's gill filament.
The gill epithelial cells are the primary food source for the fluke, which lives between the
secondary lamellae. Gill epithelial hyperplasia and gill lamellae distortion are brought on by
infection. This injury is particularly serious in young fish and causes respiratory failure. As the
host becomes older, the illness becomes more severe. The gills are harmed and covered in
mucus, which prevents regular breathing.
The common hygienic procedures in pond farms help control the diseases. For treatment,
ammonia baths with a concentration of 2 ml of 25% ammonia solution per litre of water for 30
to 60 seconds are advised. The quick development of fingerlings depends on proper pond
management. It is as a result of Dactylogyrus susceptibility to fingerlings. The suggested
chemical treatment is the same as for Gyrodactylus.
3. Diplozoon disease: The organism Diplozoon paradoxum, sometimes known as "Twin worm,"
is the cause of this sickness. It is a single-celled trematode that lives on the gills of several
different fish species, including Carassius, Gobio, Phoinus, Rhodeus, Rutilus, and others.
After hatching, the larvae freely navigate the pond's water until they come across a fish. Twin
worms are created when the young become attached to each other in pairs by sucking discs. At
the point of touch, the bodies merge and cannot be separated. Larvae that are unable to mate
pass away. They can be discovered on gills. By administering a very diluted solution of either
picric acid or the methylene blue dye to the fish, the twin worm can be eliminated. By treating
the fish with diluted NaCl solution, it is simple to get rid of.
Fish diseases caused by Copepod parasites:
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1. Lernea (Anchor worm): Because to its extreme specialisation and worm-like appearance
after losing all of its limbs, this copepod is known as a "anchor worm."It preys on a variety of
freshwater fish species, including trout, Indian carp, silver carp, and goldfish. The female
possesses hook-like appendages on the front end that are used to firmly adhere to the host after
the parasite has made sores and holes in the host body by penetrating deep into the fish tissue.
The fish perishes when the wounds are infected by germs and fungi. The male anchor worm is
distinct in shape and does not attack the fish. At her posterior end, the female has two egg sacs.
After eggs hatch, nauplius larvae emerge, swimming freely and developing.
The parasite is removed from the diseased fish and killed by touching it with a brush dipped in a
potent potassium permanganate solution. Within 30 minutes of exposure to acidic water, the
parasites are dead. After the fish have been transferred to another pond, the pond water can be
sanitised using a potassium permanganate solution.
2. Fish louse (Argulus): The huge, well-known fish parasite Argulus preys on a variety of fish
species, including carps. It can be attached to the host using two enormous suckers. The female
louse then perishes after laying eggs on rocks or the aquarium wall. When the eggs hatch, the
larvae go through four to five moults before attaching to the skin of a host. A forcep is used to
remove the parasite after paralysing it with a strong salt solution. Fish with louse infestations
experience secondary bacterial infection. With a weak potassium permanganate solution, large
ponds can be cleaned.
10.3.2 Different fish diseases: Pathogenic, Nutritional, Parasitic and Environmental
Pathogenic:
The number of new pathogenic bacterial species identified from fish has been constantly
growing along with the rapid expansion and development of aquaculture, increased usage of
water bodies, pollution, globalisation, and transboundary migration of aquatic fauna. Researchers
studying fish health face a significant challenge as a result of the growing virulence and host
range of known pathogens. These researchers are actively searching for more effective vaccines
and therapeutic medications to tackle bacterial fish disorders. The existing therapeutic
approaches are inefficient and fraught with problems.
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Both wild fish and fish raised in aquaculture facilities are susceptible to infectious illnesses
brought on by a variety of phylogenetically distinct bacterial pathogens. Drug and vaccine-based
methods of prevention and therapy are either ineffective, impractical, or inadequate. The
traditional method for examining fish bacterial infections has been to focus on a single or small
number of virulence variables. Our knowledge of the biology, host adaptation, and virulence
traits of these significant infections has recently been greatly expanded by the genome
sequencing of numerous bacterial fish pathogens. Comparative genomics has made it possible to
locate distinct gene clusters that are exclusive to particular pathogens. Also, the genome
sequencing has revealed a number of intricate adaptive evolutionary methods that operate in fish
pathogens that are mediated by horizontal gene transfer, insertion sequence elements, mutations,
and prophage sequences.
Infectious illnesses and death in wild fish stocks and fish raised in cramped settings are primarily
caused by bacterial infections. It is the main factor causing the most economic losses in
aquaculture. Together with aquaculture's rapid growth and development, greater use of water
resources, pollution, globalisation, and the transnational movement of aquatic life, the number of
novel pathogenic bacterial species found in fish has been steadily increasing. The therapy
methods now in use are ineffective and problematic. To combat bacterial fish illnesses,
researchers are continually looking for more potent vaccinations and treatment drugs.
Nutritional:The most crucial prerequisite for fish's appropriate growth, wellbeing, and brain
development is nutritionally sound diet. Fish kept in captivity are unable to choose a balanced
diet. Full rations, often known as aquafeed, must be created to satisfy all dietary needs.
Fish nutritional problems can arise from a lack (undernutrition), an abundance (overnutrition), or
an imbalance (malnutrition) of nutrients in their diet. Some essential elements for healthy fish
growth include lipids, carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, and mineral salts. Because animals have
body reserves that can partially compensate for dietary deficiencies, the sickness typically takes
time to manifest. Only when the availability of any food component falls below a threshold level
do disease symptoms appear. When there is an abundance of food, the extra can be turned to fat
and stored in the tissues and organs of fish, which can have a negative impact on their
physiological processes.
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Aquaculture nutritional disorders are a serious threat to food production because they are hard to
detect, which can increase production costs, lead to lost investments, increase fish mortality,
increase susceptibility to infectious diseases, and ultimately decrease yield quality and quantity.
In order to boost fish supply through aquaculture production, it is crucial to regulate nutritional
illnesses since a lack of certain nutrients will make the immune system less able to defend the
body against an outside intruder. It is well known that, in addition to nutrient inadequacies,
excess nutrient supply compared to what is needed for optimum growth also has a substantial
impact on immune responses and disease resistance.
A diet that is too high in protein causes the fish to excrete more protein, which raises the level of
ammonia in the environment. For the communities who live on farms, a change in the water's
composition has major health implications.
While deciding on fish feed, some aspects to consider include:
Due to the possibility of Aspergillus flavins growing on mouldy feed and producing aflatoxins,
feed should be stored correctly in a dry, cold, and covered area. Adding stabilised vitamin C (l-
ascorbyl-2-polyphosphate) during the production process will lengthen the shelf life of fish food.
Don't feed food that is more than 90 days old. Directly adding vitamin C to the water can offer
the required complement. Nutritional disorders with vitamin B deficiency are widespread.
During lengthy antibiotic therapy, specific B vitamin requirements significantly increase, thus
patients in this situation may want to think about taking supplements.
Within 30 seconds of contact with water, up to 90% of the water-soluble vitamins in fish flakes
are lost. To maximise the benefits of vitamins, owners should feed their animals more frequently
and in smaller portions. Many advantages of eating live food include improved colour. Wild-
caught live food should never be consumed, and live foods from controlled artificial cultures
should always be used instead. Increased vitamin intake is said to assist tissue regeneration after
injury or tissue damage caused by low temperatures as well as offer some protection against
disease. It is generally accepted and performed to employ vitamins as preventative measures in
animal feeding.
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Aquatic animals' health may be improved through the use of high-quality, contaminant-free feed
ingredients, a balanced diet, the prevention of micronutrient loss during feed processing, better
handling, storage, and feed management. Because they include high levels of iron that may make
fish more susceptible to common bacterial infections, feed formulations based on blood and fish
meal should be regularly monitored. Anti-vitamin factors in feed can cause deficiencies that can
be remedied through heat processing, cooking, or other heat treatments.
Don't feed the animals with waste fish that can't give a healthy diet. Fish with less natural
resistance are more susceptible to pathogenic infection due to this sort of feed. Utilize dry pellet
feed that is healthy, bacteria-free, and hygienic. Fish immunity can be further boosted by adding
vitamins and minerals to dry pellet diet.
Parasitic: Fish are susceptible to illnesses and parasites much like people and other
animals.Specific and non-specific disease defenses are present in fish.Skin, scales, and the mucus
layer released by the epidermis-which traps germs and prevents their growth-are examples of
non-specific defenses.Fish can produce inflammatory reactions that increase blood flow to
contaminated places and deliver white blood cells that try to kill the viruses if pathogens manage
to get past these defenses.
Fish parasites are a frequent occurrence in nature. It is possible to learn about the ecology of host
populations through parasites. For instance, in fisheries biology, different populations of the
same fish species that coexist in one area might be distinguished using parasite communities.
Parasites also have a number of specialised characteristics and life-history techniques that allow
them to inhabit hosts. Studying these intriguing elements of parasite ecology can shed light on
how hosts protect themselves against parasites.
Normally, parasites (and pathogens) must refrain from killing their hosts because the absence of
hosts may result in the parasite's extinction. The natural variation in host defence tactics may be
sufficient to maintain host populations in a viable state, or evolutionary restrictions may operate
to prevent parasites from killing their hosts.
Several external parasites that are linked to fish gills but live outside of them choose to live in the
gills as their preferred habitat. Monogeneans and specific types of parasitic copepods, which can
272
be quite numerous, are the most prevalent.Leeches and gnathiid isopod larvae, which live in
seawater, are two additional external parasites that live on gills. The majority of isopod fish
parasites are external and eat blood. The Gnathiidae family larvae and adult cymothoidids have
clawed limbs and piercing and sucking mouthparts designed for attaching to their victims. Many
marine fish are hosts to the parasite Cymothoa exigua.
In what is thought to be the first instance of a parasite replacing an animal host structure
functionally, it causes the fish's tongue to atrophy and takes its place. Other parasitic diseases
include Glugea, Ceratomyxa shasta, Kudoa thyrsites, Tetracapsuloides bryosalmonae, Cymothoa
exigua, Gyrodactylus salaris, Ichthyophthirius multifiliis, cryptocaryon, velvet disease,
Brooklynella hostilis, Hole in the head, leeches, nematodes, flukes, carp lice, and salmon lice.
Internal or exterior parasites, protozoan parasites have a direct lifecycle. They can be found in
great quantities in the internal organs, gills, or skin of fish. In fish culture systems, ciliates are the
most prevalent protozoan parasites seen, however certain obligatory amoebic, flagellate, and
microsporidian (sporozoa) parasites are also present.
Metazoan parasitic diseases are less pathogenic than protozoan parasitic diseases. Despite having
a multicellular structure, they are largely unable to proliferate inside the body of their hosts.
Hence, the number of initial infective phases affects how severe an infection is. This category
includes illnesses brought on by myxozoans, parasitic helminths, crustaceans, and leeches.
There have been numerous reports of parasitic organisms producing serious issues in grouper
farming. Protozoans, particularly ciliates, are the main source of grouper parasite illnesses in the
hatchery and nursery phases.
Environmental:
Aquatic species are crucial to maintaining the ecological equilibrium. They are particularly
vulnerable to chlorine and chloramine, which are frequently added to city water and are among a
wide range of toxicants. Moreover, tanks and other equipment are cleaned with chlorine.
Amination has stabilised chlorine into the substance chloramine. Ammonia is released into the
system when the chlorine molecule is removed during treatment. Even at chlorine concentrations
as low as 0.02 mg/L, both substances are extremely harmful to fish, with mortality occurring at
273
0.04 mg/L. To assess chlorine and chloramine in aquatic systems, a straightforward colorimetric
technique is available.
At all times when live animals are present, no chlorine or chloramine should be found. If on-site
testing of water samples for chlorine is not possible, the samples may be transported in glass
bottles. A negative test result may not entirely rule out some contamination in the system being
assessed because the chemical can be transitory and challenging to detect.
A regular and consistent supply of nutrients is necessary for the sustained generation of
organisms that serve as fish food in proper pond management. Nutrients may come from outside
sources or from the pond itself. Also, the pond ecosystem's physico-chemical characteristics
must be regulated to stay within the safe tolerance ranges for the type of farmed fish. This calls
for regular pond environment monitoring and prompt corrective action. While some of the
characteristics necessitate laboratory facilities, the majority of them can be simply monitored at
the pond site. The monitoring provides fish producers with trustworthy recommendations for
maximising fish production.
Following water characteristics may be tracked from environment perspective -
Water colour:A straightforward but significant reflection of the fundamental production

processes is the visual colour of the pond water.
Water transparency:A Secchi disc is used to quantify the outcome of the processes that define
and alter the appearance of colour in water. However, a low transparency may be caused by
either a high turbidity level alone or a dense algae population, and as a result, it may not
accurately reflect the water's trophic or production level. Nonetheless, the Secchi transparency
readings and the visual colour offer useful data on the water's productivity.
Water depth:Rainfall that occurs during the monsoon is typically the main supply of water. After
the rainy season, the water level progressively drops, resulting by the end of the dry season in a
very shallow water column.
Chemical environment in the water column:By measuring the pH, alkalinity, NH4-N, NO3-N,
and PO4-P according to accepted procedures, the water is chemically classified. Typically, on
274
the same types of mother soil, the pH and alkalinity do not vary from pond to pond. The basic
inorganic nutrient condition of the pond is shown by the measurements of NH4-N and PO4-P.
With the aid of field kits, simple chemical parameters like pH and dissolved oxygen can be
tested. The ideal conditions are indicated by slightly alkaline water (pH 7.0–8.5) and oxygen
concentrations of 6–9 ppm.
Dawn oxygen:The dissolved oxygen level in fishponds typically varies greatly from day to night.
In order to determine the community metabolism of the entire pond and to quantify the
production and respiration processes in the ecosystem, this diurnal oxygen fluctuation is
typically observed. A single measurement taken right before sunrise would be a crucial predictor
of the likelihood of fish kills caused by low oxygen levels.
10.3.3 Prophylactic measures to control fish diseases
Maintaining good health of aquatic animals is the key to the economic sustainability of the
industry. Losses due to diseases and environmental stress have become a major impediment to
the economic sustainability of the industry. Prophylactics and therapeutics are the major
approaches for effective health management both in human and veterinary medicine. Application
of drugs and medicines has become inevitable to maintain the health of the cultured animals and
the environment. Prophylactic approach in aquaculture will reduce our dependence on
antimicrobials, disinfectants, anti-parasitic drugs which are known to be harmful to the host and
the environment in the long run. Prophylaxis refers to all the preventive steps such as
vaccination, immuno-stimulation and use of probiotics including group improve routine
husbandry practices that are taken during a hatchery and farming operation to minimize the load
of pathogen and to prevent the occurrence of disease.General prophylactic measures followed in
aquaculture operations are-
1. Following Best management practices (BMPs) for optimum culture environment: maintain the
optimum water and soil quality parameters like, pH, transparency, hardness, ammonia, nitrite,
nitrate, sulphur, etc.
275
2. Using probiotics: a live microbial feed supplement which beneficially affects the host animal
by improving its intestinal balance [Fuller]. In hatcheries probiotics can be applied directly into
the rearing waters, through live feed like artemia and rotifer or by immersion treatment.
3. Improving immunity using immunostimulants: Immunostimulants are dietary additives that

enhance the innate (non-specific) defense mechanisms and increase resistance to specific
pathogens.Immunostimulants are of various types - Synthetic chemicals, bacterial derivatives,
animal and plant extract, nutritional factors, antimicrobial components and nucleic acids.
4. Immunization of the host against specific pathogens using vaccines: Fish vaccination has a
clear advantage of reducing the impact and loss due to diseases, reducing the use of
chemotherapeutants and provide long-term protection. Hence vaccination of fish is an important
tool in health management.
5. Nutritional interventions with nutraceuticals: Nutraceuticals refer to a food (or a part of food)
that provides medical or health benefits, including the prevention and or treatment of a disease.
They may contain dietary fiber, anti-oxidants & pre/pro-biotics.
6. Selective breeding to support genetic resistance: These programs are costly & targeted towards
such diseases that cause most economic harm. It involves selection of most healthy fish for
further progeny so that the next generation of that breed carries their genetic traits.
10.4 SUMMARY
Aquaculture has seen a lot of developments in the last few decades and is currently the fastest
growing agricultural sector in the world. Fish nutrition, feeds, and feeding management play
important roles in increasing the productivity of aquaculture farms and to prevent nutritional
diseases. Feed represents the largest variable cost in most fish production.
Nutrition plays a critical role in intensive aquaculture because it influences not only production
costs but also fish growth, health and waste production. Different kinds of nutrients are necessary
for the growth, health, and maintenance of fish.
Proteins are large, complex molecules that play many critical roles in the body.The lipids are a
heterogeneous group of substances found in plant and animal tissues, which share the property of
276
being relatively insoluble in water, and soluble in organic solvents, such as ether, chloroform and
benzene etc. Lipids are an important source of energy, essential fatty acids, and phospholipids.
Lipids provide a vehicle for absorption of fat-soluble sterols and vitamins.
Sugars, starches, gums, and celluloses are all included in the large category of compounds
known as carbohydrates. The only elements found in carbohydrates are carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen, and when they are burned, they produce carbon dioxide and one or more molecules of
water. Energy is not a nutrient, but is a property of nutrients, which is released during metabolic
oxidation of proteins, lipids and carbohydrates.Vitamins are required in trace amounts; are
essential for fish growth and to fight against diseases.
There are different types of fish food in the water such as dissolved nutrients and different types
of plants and animals. Different kinds of food are consumed by various fish. The majority of fish
need nutrients from both plant and animal sources, including protein, carbohydrates, lipids,
vitamins, and other nutrients for development and health.
Feed formulation entails choosing an ingredient combination that will result in a mixture with
critical nutrient levels at or above the minimal requirements of the fish.Supplements for energy
and protein make up the majority of the ingredients in prepared fish diets.
Fish in aquaculture are considered to be healthy due to their physical well-being. Two factors-
one related to the aquatic environment and the other to the fish's cold-bloodedness-lead to
abnormal changes in the body.
A sick fish is typically unable to maintain its balance in the water and will typically lie on one
side, either at the bottom of the tank or floating above it. The skin loses its natural colour, the
gills turn pallid, and the body is covered in a grey slime. Disease-causing pathogenic bacteria,
viruses, fungi, protozoans, worms, helminths, and crustaceans can infest any species of fish.
A virus is a tiny organism that can only procreate by residing in host cells and utilising the
genetic material of the host. Since viral infections are difficult to treat, it is crucial that they be
kept under control using preventative medications.The viral disease known as viral haemorrhagic
septicemia (VHS) affects rainbow trout and is extremely infectious. Salmonids in freshwater and
saltwater are both impacted by VHS.
277
Diverse fish species from freshwater and marine settings can develop benign epithelial tumours
known as papillomas in remote geographic zones.Infectious pancreatic necrosis (IPN) is a severe
viral disease of salmonid fish.IPN symptoms are also seen in other fish species, including carp,
eel, and Atlantic salmon.The channel catfish virus is believed to mostly propagate vertically, via
the egg, from brood stock to young fish.Irido virouses are the lymphocystis' etiological agent.
This virus can occasionally spread throughout the body and cause peritoneal and mesentery
white nodules.
Bacteria are responsible for many fatal diseases in fishes like furunculosis, Columnaris, fin and
tail rot, vibriosis, dropsy, cotton mouth disease and tuberculosis. Aquarium fish frequently have
dropsy, which is typically recognised as a symptom rather than a disease.
Both Aeromonas hydrophila and Pseudomonas punctata are bacteria that induce dropsy in
fish.Columnaris disease is caused byFlexibacter columnaris. The primary symptom is the
development of tufts that resemble fungi around the mouth. On the head, fins, gills, and lateral
sides of the body, there are grey patches that are pale in colour.
Among the most prevalent ailments affecting temperate fish are fungi. A rise in fungal infections
in a fish population that is otherwise healthy might also be caused by poor water quality. Only a
few numbers of fungi can infect a fish's interior organs; the majority of fungi only affect the
exterior tissues.Various kinds of fungal diseases in fishes are illustrated, Saprolegniasis,
branchiomycosis or gill rot and ichthyophonosis etc.
Parasitic diseases are among the most serious problems in farmed fish, though not of much
concern among the wild fish. The three main types of fish parasites are protozoa, helminths, and
arthropods, which are dominated by crustaceans.
Single-celled organisms known as protozoans are only visible under a microscope. They come in
a variety of sizes and shapes and feed primarily on the skin and gills of fish. A small number of
them can also infect internal organs and cause serious illnesses.
The following is a list of significant diseases brought on by protozoan parasites,

Ichthyophthiriasis, costiasis, whirling disease etc.
278
Metazoan parasitic diseases are less pathogenic than protozoan parasitic diseases. Despite having
a multicellular structure, they can rarely reproduce themselves inside of their hosts' bodies.
The number of new pathogenic bacterial species identified from fish has been constantly
growing along with the rapid expansion and development of aquaculture, increased usage of
water bodies, pollution, globalisation, and transboundary migration of aquatic fauna.
Fish nutritional problems can arise from a lack (undernutrition), an abundance (overnutrition), or
an imbalance (malnutrition) of nutrients in their diet. Some essential elements for healthy fish
growth include lipids, carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, and mineral salts.
Fish are susceptible to illnesses and parasites much like people and other animals. Specific and
non-specific disease defenses are present in fish. Skin, scales, and the mucus layer released by
the epidermis-which traps germs and prevents their growth-are examples of non-specific
defenses.
Aquatic species are crucial to maintaining the ecological equilibrium. They are particularly
vulnerable to chlorine and chloramine, which are frequently added to city water and are among a
wide range of toxicants. Moreover, tanks and other equipment are cleaned with chlorine.
Maintaining good health of aquatic animals is the key to the economic sustainability of the
industry. Losses due to diseases and environmental stress have become a major impediment to
the economic sustainability of the industry.
Prophylaxis refers to all the preventive steps such as vaccination, immuno-stimulation and use of
probiotics including group improve routine husbandry practices that are taken during a hatchery
and farming operation to minimize the load of pathogen and to prevent the occurrence of disease.
Q1.Give a detail account of nutritional requirements of fish.
Q2. Explain fish nutrition, feeds and feeding.

Q3. What is a feed and feed formulation? Explain.
279
Q4. Give a detain account of different types of food.

Q5. Give an account of signs of sickness and defensive devices in fishes against diseases.
Q6. Give an account of protozoan diseases in fishes and their possible treatment.
Q7. Give an account of fungal diseases in fishes and also add their control measures.
Q8. Write a short note on parasitic and nutritional fish diseases.

Q9. Write an essay on viral fish diseases.
Q10. Define bacterial diseases.
10.6 REFERENCES
1. FAO.org. (1978): Lectures presented at the FAO/UNDP Training Course in Fish Feed Technology,
held at the College of Fisheries, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, U.S.A., 9 October-15
December 1978. UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS
Rome, 1980. ISBN 92-5-100901-5.
2. ICAR (2006): Handbook of fisheries and aquaculture. P. No. 307-319.ISBN: 81-7164-061-3.
3. ICAR (2009): Aquaculture technologies for farmers. Published by Director, CIFA, Bhubaneswar.
4. Khanna, S. S. and Singh, H. R. (2006): A text book of fish biology and fisheries. P. No. 447-452.
Narendra Publishing House Delhi-110006 (India).
5. Pandey, K. and Shukla, J. P. (2007): Fish and fisheries. A textbook for university students. Second
Revised Edition. P. No. 500-521.
6. Verma, Vinay (2008): Fungus disease in fish, diagnosis and treatment. Veterinary World, Vol. 1 (2):
62. Review.
280

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MSCZO-607

Fish and Fisheries (Applied

Dr. Neera Kapoor Dr. A. K. Dobriyal

Dr. S. P. S. Bisht Dr. Shyam S. Kunjwal

Dr. Mukta Joshi

Dr. Pravesh Kumar Sehgal

Dr. Deepali Rana(Unit No:1, 3, 4 ) Dr. Shyam S. Kunjwal (Unit No. 8)

Dr. Mukta Joshi (Unit No. 2, and 7)

Course Title and Code : Fish and Fisheries (Applied Ichthyology)

Course I: Fish and Fisheries (Applied Ichthyology)

Unit Block and Unit title Page

Different types of culture system, Cultivable indigenous &amp; exotic fishes,

Unit 9 Integrated Aquaculture: Introduction, Concept of integrated fish farming, 208-227

Economic and biological importance of integrated fish culture

UNIT 1: GENERAL FISHERY RESOURCE IN INDIA

1.3.1 RIVERINE FISHERIES

1.3.2 REGULATION AND EXPLOITATION

1.3.3 IMPROVEMENT OF FISH STOCKS

• Wetlands and reservoirs fisheries management:

Fig. 1 Layout of a cage culture

Fig. 2 Layout of a pen culture

1.3.4 RIVER POLLUTION

 Causes of River Pollution

1.3.5 DAMS, THEIR EFFECT ON FISH MIGRATION AND

Fig. 3 Layout of a dam

Designing a fish pass requires an interdisciplinary approach. Managers, biologists, and

Fig. 4 Different types of Fish Migration

1.4 LACUSTRINE FISHERY: MANAGEMENT, DEVELOPMENT

The primary determinants of a reservoir's biogenic productivity are the physico-chemical

1.5 COLD WATER FISHERY: MANAGEMENT, DEVELOPMENT

 Cold water fisheries:

1.6 ESTUARINE FISHERIES: MANAGEMENT, DEVELOPMENT

1.7 MARINE FISHERY: EXPLOITATION OF MARINE FISHERY

Initiatives and status of Mariculture practices in India:

(ii) Sea bass (Lates calcarifer):

1.9 TERMINAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Question No.1 Give a brief account on the fishery resources of India.

 Anon, 2007. Statistical Bulletin of Fisheries 2006 – 2007. Directorate of Fisheries of

UNIT 2: FISH GROWTH AND AGE

2.3 Factors responsible for growth

2.4 Age and growth relationship

2.7 Terminal questions and answers

 What are the Factors responsible for growth?

Growth is a bio-energetic process that is characterised by an increase in an object's length and

2.3 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR GROWTH

Where, W is the weight of fish in grams, and L is the length in cms.

2.4 AGE AND GROWTH RELATIONSHIP

DIRECT METHODS FOR DETERMINATION OF GROWTH

LENGTH FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION METHOD

RINGS OR ANNULI ON HARD SUBSTANCES

Fig.2.1 A scale with annuli

Where Ln= fish length at n years.

L= fish length at the time of capture.

Vn= Scale radius, distance from focus to nth annulus.

Vr= Scale radius from focus to scale edge.

RADIO-CARBON UPTAKE METHOD

RNA- DNA RATIO METHOD

2.5 NATURAL FISH FOOD ORGANISM AND THEIR ROLE IN

Natural Fish Food Organism:

Role of Plankton in the Survival and Growth of Fry

Different types of culture system, Cultivable indigenous & exotic fishes,