Assignment 7

7/12/23, 6:24 PM Assignment 7
Assignment 7
Due: 12:00pm on Friday, June 23, 2023
You will receive no credit for items you complete after the assignment is due. Grading Policy
Sorting Task: Geometry of Space
Part A
Listed below are some characteristics of flat, spherical, and saddle-shaped geometries. Match each of these characteristics to the corresponding geometry.
Hint 1. Understanding the Three Geometries

The three geometries shown in the sorting bins are two-dimensional analogies to four-dimensional spacetime. The "flat" geometry is the familiar
geometry that we all learn in elementary school: Sometimes called Euclidean geometry, it is the geometry in which parallel lines always remain the
same distance apart, the sum of the angles in any triangle is always 180°, and a circle's circumference is given by 2πr. These geometrial rules differ
in the spherical and saddle-shaped cases, as you can see by studying the figures in the sorting bins. You can find further details in your textbook.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
Flat Geometry Spherical Geometry Saddle-shaped Geometry
sum of angles
lines that
of a triangle is
are initially
sum of angles ∘ sum of angles
greater than 180 parallel
circumf erence of a lines that
of a triangle is eventually of a triangle is
are initially
circle is exactly 2πr
always 180
∘ converge ∘
less than 180 parallel
straightest eventually
possible path diverge
is a segment
of a great circle
Correct
Ranking Task: Understanding Gravitational Lensing
Part A
The figures below show several different astronomical objects. Rank the objects based on the amount that spacetime is curved (relative to flat spacetime)
very near the surface (or event horizon) of each of the objects, from least to greatest.
Hint 1. What determines the strength of gravity?
Suppose that Object 1 has twice the mass and twice the radius of Object 2. Then:
https://session.masteringastronomy.com/myct/assignmentPrintView?assignmentID=2370230 1/33
ANSWER:
Object 1 has stronger surface gravity than Object 2.
Object 2 has stronger surface gravity than Object 1.
the strength of gravity is the same at the surfaces of both objects.
Correct
Newton’s universal law of gravitation tells us that gravity follows an inverse square law, which means that the strength of gravity at an
object’s surface depends on its mass divided by the square of its radius. Doubling an object’s radius therefore means its surface gravity
would go down by a factor of four. Therefore, even though Object 1 has twice the mass of Object 2, the fact that it also has twice the
radius gives it weaker surface gravity. Now, notice that the masses do not vary much for the five objects in Part A but the radii vary a lot.
Think about this fact, and remember that stronger gravity means greater curvature of spacetime.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
Least curvature Greatest curvature
Correct
Stronger gravity means greater spacetime curvature. Although the five objects differ in mass, their radii are so much more different that this is the
primary factor determining the strength of gravity — and hence the curvature of spacetime — near their surfaces (or event horizon).
Part B
The figures below show the same astronomical objects as shown in Part A. Rank the objects based on the amount that each would deflect the path of a
photon of light from a very distant galaxy (as viewed from Earth), assuming the photon passes very near the surface (or event horizon) of each object, from
smallest to largest.
Hint 1. How does curved spacetime affect the path of light?

True or False? The greater the amount that spacetime is curved in the region surrounding a massive object, the more the path of a photon will be
deflected as it passes by the massive object.
ANSWER:
True
False
Correct
Photons follow the straightest possible path through spacetime, which means the more that spacetime is curved, the more a photon’s path
is curved. Think about this fact and your rankings from Part A, and you should be able to complete Part B successfully.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
Smallest amount Largest amount
Correct
From Part A, you already know the ranking of these objects according to the curvature of spacetime near their surfaces. Because photons follow
the straightest possible path through spacetime, the ranking of the deflection of a photon is the same.
Ranking Task: Understanding Curved Spacetime
Part A
The figures below show several different astronomical objects. Rank the objects based on the strength of the gravitational force that would be felt by a
spacecraft traveling at a distance of 10 AU from the center of each of the objects, from weakest to strongest. If the gravitational force is equal for two (or
more) cases, show this equality by dragging one figure on top of the other(s).
Hint 1. What would happen to Earth if the Sun became a black hole?
Suppose the Sun magically shrunk to become a black hole, but still had the same mass of 1 MSun. This would obviously cause Earth to become
dark and cold (since the Sun would no longer shine), but what would happen to Earth’s orbit?
ANSWER:
Earth would almost immediately be sucked into the black hole.
Earth would gradually spiral into the black hole.
Nothing; Earth’s orbit would stay the same.
Correct
Although the black hole greatly distorts spacetime near its event horizon (within a few times the size of the event horizon), once you move
farther away its effect is no different from that of any other object of the same mass. So as long as the Sun’s mass does not change when
it becomes a black hole, Earth’s orbit will not be affected. In other words, there is no change in the strength of gravity at Earth’s distance of
1 AU. This fact should help you complete Part A.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
Weakest force Strongest force
Correct
A distance of 10AU is far from all four objects (the red giant’s radius of 100 RSun is equivalent to only about 1 AU), so the gravitational force on
the spacecraft depends only on this distance, the spacecraft’s mass, and the mass of the object the spacecraft is orbiting. Since all four objects
have the same mass, the gravitational force is the same in all four cases.
Part B
at a distance of 10 AU from the center of each of the objects, from least to greatest. If two (or more) cases are equal, show this equality by dragging one
figure on top of the other(s).
Hint 1. What is curvature of spacetime?
According to Einstein’s general theory of relativity, a region in which spacetime is curved is a region in which:
ANSWER:
an orbiting object would feel a gravitational attraction to some massive object.
there is a black hole.
all objects must fall.
Correct
Einstein’s general theory of relativity tells us that gravity arises from curvature of spacetime, so a region in which spacetime is curved must
have this curvature due to the gravity of some massive object. The amount of spacetime curvature depends only on the strength of gravity.
Now think about the strength of gravity in each of the four cases (from Part A), and you should be able to complete Part B.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
Least amount Greatest amount
Correct
Einstein’s general theory of relativity tells us that gravity is curvature of spacetime. From Part A, you already know that the strength of gravity at a
distance of 10 AU is the same for all four cases (because all four objects have the same mass). Therefore the curvature of spacetime is also the
same in all four cases.
Part C
very near the surface (or event horizon) of the objects, from least to greatest.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
Least amount Greatest amount
Correct
It’s important to understand how the combination of an object’s mass and size both contribute to how much it will curve spacetime.
Part D
The figures below show several different astronomical objects. Rank the objects based on the acceleration a spaceship would have as it passed very near
the surface (or event horizon) of each object, from smallest to largest.
Hint 1. How does the spacecraft’s acceleration depend on the strength of gravity?
The closer a spacecraft passes to the center of a 1 solar mass object, the:
ANSWER:
smaller the acceleration of the spacecraft.
larger the acceleration of the spacecraft.
more quickly the spacecraft will be sucked inside the object.
Correct
Remember Newton’s second law of motion: a stronger force means a larger acceleration. Now, from Part C you already know that
spacetime is curved more — which is equivalent to saying that gravity is stronger — near the surface (or event horizon) of the objects with
smaller radii. If you think about these facts, you should be able to complete Part D.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
Smallest acceleration Largest acceleration
Correct
From Part C you know that spacetime is curved more — which is equivalent to saying that gravity is stronger — near the surface (or event
horizon) of the objects with smaller radii. Stronger gravity causes greater acceleration to an object passing nearby, which is why the ranking here
is the same as that from Part C.
Process of Science: Indirect Evidence for Gravitational Waves
Learning Goal:
To understand why scientists strongly suspected that gravitational waves exist, even before they were detected directly.
Introduction. The figure shows data from a binary system consisting
of two neutron stars (called the Hulse-Taylor binary). These data
provide strong evidence for the existence of gravitational waves, which
are predicted to exist by Einstein’s general theory of relativity. Study
the figure before you answer the following questions. Assume that the
masses of the two neutron stars stay constant; that is, they do not lose
or exchange mass as they orbit.
Part A
The data in the figure show how the orbital period of the two neutron stars changes with time. Based on these data, what can we conclude?
Hint 1. Why does the graph show negative numbers on the vertical axis?
Consider the data point from about 1989, which shows a cumulative deviation of − 10 seconds. Why is the deviation negative?
ANSWER:
The orbital period of the neutron stars in 1989 was shorter than it was in 1974.
The orbital period of the neutron stars in 1989 was longer than it was in 1974.
The orbit of the neutron stars in 1989 was in the opposite direction from what it was in 1974.
Hint 2. How is orbital period related to orbital distance?

Assuming that the objects do not lose or gain mass, the orbital period of two objects can become smaller only if the two objects are __________.
ANSWER:
getting farther apart
getting closer together
interacting with a third object
ANSWER:
longer and the two neutron stars are getting farther apart
shorter and the two neutron stars are getting farther apart
The period is getting .
longer and the two neutron stars are moving closer together
shorter and the two neutron stars are moving closer together
Correct
The declining curve on the graph indicates that the orbital period is getting shorter, which can happen only if the two neutron stars are moving
closer together.
Part B
Einstein’s general theory of relativity predicts that two orbiting neutron stars should radiate gravitational waves. How does the fact that the orbital period is
getting shorter support this prediction?
Hint 1. How does orbital energy affect orbital distance?

A satellite orbiting Earth has orbital energy, which is the combination of its kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy as it goes around its
orbit. Suppose the satellite loses some of the orbital energy due to friction with Earth's thin, upper atmosphere. This loss of orbital energy will cause
the satellite's orbit to __________.
ANSWER:
get smaller
slow down without changing the size or shape of the orbit
get larger
Correct
Larger orbits have more orbital energy, so a loss of orbital energy leads a smaller orbit.
ANSWER:
To compensate for the loss of energy to gravitational waves, the neutron stars must become brighter, and this brightening causes their orbital
period to decrease.
Gravitational waves must carry some energy away from the system, and this loss of energy must cause the orbits to get smaller over time.
The accumulation of gravitational waves increases the pull of gravity in the binary system, causing the neutron stars to move closer together.
The gravitational waves add energy to the system, causing the neutron stars to accelerate and orbit faster.
Correct
Scientists can use general relativity to predict both how much energy should be carried away by the gravitational waves and the change that
should occur in the orbit. The solid red curve in the figure represents this prediction.
Part C
Notice how closely the actual data points match the theoretical prediction (red curve). Which of the following statements are supported by this close match
of prediction and data?
Check all that apply.
Hint 1. Definition of a scientific theory

A scientific theory is a model of nature that explains a wide variety of observations in terms of a few simple principles and that has been extensively
verified through observations and experiments. Einstein's special and general theories of relativity both qualify as scientific theories, and they are
among the most well-tested theories in science.
ANSWER:
General relativity is just a theory, so there could be many other equally valid scientific explanations for these data.
These data provide strong evidence for the existence of gravitational waves as predicted by the general theory of relativity.
These data do not provide a useful test of general relativity, because there were too many years in which no data were acquired.
If gravitational waves really are responsible for the decay in this system, we should see similar decay in other systems with two neutron stars.
We can continue to test the predictions of general relativity by continuing to measure the orbital period of this system in the future.
These data prove that the general theory of relativity is true.
Correct
Similar data have now been found for other neutron star binary systems, which gave scientists great confidence that gravitational waves exist,
even before they were detected directly.
Part D
Suppose the binary neutron star system did not emit gravitational waves. Which of the following shows what the data would look like in that case?
Hint 1. Reading the graphs

Each of the four graphs in Part D represents the change in the system’s orbital period with time. A graph sloping downward means that the orbital
period is getting shorter; a graph sloping upward means that the orbital period is getting longer.
ANSWER:
Correct
Energy must be conserved, so if the system were not losing energy to gravitational waves, its orbital period would remain unchanged.
Vocabulary in Context: Gravity and Spacetime
Part A
Match the terms in the left-hand column to the appropriate blank in the sentences in the right-hand column. Use each term only once.
Hint 1. What a black hole is
A black hole is an object from which nothing, not even light, can escape.
Hint 2. What the event horizon is

The event horizon is the boundary that marks the "point of no return" between a black hole and the outside universe; events that occur within the
event horizon can have no inﬂuence on our observable universe.
Hint 3. What gravitational waves are
Gravitational waves are predicted by Einstein's general theory of relativity. These waves travel at the speed of light and transmit distortions of
spacetime through the universe. Although not yet observed directly, we have strong indirect evidence that they exist.
Hint 4. What gravitational lensing is
Gravitational lensing is the magnification or distortion (into arcs, rings, or multiple images) of an image caused by light bending through a
gravitational field, as predicted by Einstein's general theory of relativity.
Hint 5. What gravitational time dilation is

Gravitational time dilation is the slowing of time that occurs in a gravitational field, as predicted by Einstein's general theory of relativity.
Hint 6. What gravitational redshift is
Gravitational redshift is a redshift caused by the fact that time runs slow in gravitational fields.
Hint 7. What a wormhole is

Wormhole is the name given to a hypothetical tunnel through hyperspace that might connect two distant places in our universe.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
1. The event horizon is the boundary of a black hole beyond which a spacecraft could not even in
principle transmit a radio signal to observers outside the black hole.
2. A star that happens to be hidden behind the Sun might become viewable during a solar eclipse due
to the bending of light known as gravitational lensing .
3. According to relativity, at the center of a(n) black hole spacetime becomes infinitely curved.
4. Two neutron stars orbiting each other at close distance will gradually spiral in toward each other
because they lose orbital energy to gravitational waves .
5. If a(n) wormhole can really exist, it might be able to connect two widely separated locations in
the universe.
6. Gravitational time dilation is the slowing of time that you observe when you look at an object
with a strong gravitational field.
7. Spectral lines of hydrogen on a white dwarf appear at longer wavelengths than the same lines
observed in the spectrum of the Sun, illustrating what we call gravitational redshift .
Correct
Ranking Task: Understanding the Four Fundamental Forces
Part A
Following are the four fundamental forces. Rank these forces from left to right based on their relative strengths between two protons located within the
nucleus of an atom, from weakest to strongest.
Hint 1. What force holds the nucleus together?

All atoms except hydrogen atoms contain two or more protons. Protons are positively charged, so the electromagnetic force tends to make them
repel each other. What force holds nuclei together, overcoming this tendency of the electromagnetic force to break nuclei apart?
ANSWER:
strong force
weak force
gravity
ANSWER:
Reset Help
gravity weak electromagnetic strong
Correct
On a per particle basis, gravity is by far the weakest of the four forces. Next weakest is the weak force, which operates only over very short
distances (which is why it can be felt within an atomic nucleus, but not on much larger scales). The electromagnetic force tends to repel two
protons (because they both have the same charge), so the fact that the protons remain together in the nucleus tells us that the strong force
(which holds the nucleus together) must be stronger than the electromagnetic force.
Part B
Following are the four fundamental forces. Rank these forces from left to right based on their relative strengths between two protons separated by a few
centimeters, from weakest to strongest. If you think two (or more) forces have equal strength (or essentially zero strength) in this case, show the equality
by dragging one on top of the other(s).
Hint 1. Why don’t the strong or weak forces hold us to the ground?
We know that gravity is what holds us on the ground on Earth. But from Part A, you know that both the strong and weak forces are stronger than
gravity, at least within an atomic nucleus. Why don’t the strong and weak forces hold us to the ground instead of gravity?
ANSWER:
because the strong and weak forces only affect electrically charged objects
because the strong and weak forces are felt only across very short distances, such as the distance across an atomic nucleus (or
smaller)
because the larger the distance separating two objects, the stronger gravity becomes
ANSWER:
Reset Help
strong
gravity electromagnetic
weak
Correct
The strong and weak forces generally have effects only within atomic nuclei; on larger scales — meaning anything larger than about the size of
an atom (which is thousands of times larger than a nucleus) — both the strong and weak forces have essentially zero effect, which is why they
are ranked equally here. Gravity and the electromagnetic force both follow an inverse square law with distance; however, for two individual
charged particles, the electromagnetic force is far stronger than gravitational force.
Part C
Following are the four fundamental forces. Rank these forces from left to right based on their relative strengths acting between Earth and the Sun, from
weakest to strongest. If you think two (or more) forces have equal strength (or essentially zero strength) in this case, show the equality by dragging one on
top of the other(s).
Hint 1. What force holds Earth in orbit around the Sun?
Earth’s orbit around the Sun is a consequence of __________.

ANSWER:
the strong force
the electromagnetic force
gravity
ANSWER:
Reset Help
strong
electromagnetic gravity
weak
Correct
The strong and weak forces generally have effects only within atomic nuclei; on larger scales — meaning anything larger than about the size of
an atom (which is thousands of times larger than a nucleus) — both the strong and weak forces have essentially zero effect, which is why they
are ranked equally here. Gravity and the electromagnetic force both follow an inverse square law with distance, which is why Part B showed that
the electromagnetic force is stronger between two individual charged particles. But for very large masses, such as Earth and the Sun, the
electromagnetic force becomes very weak because the objects are essentially neutral. In contrast, gravity grows stronger for larger masses,
which is why gravity dominates large-scale interactions in the universe.
Sorting Task: Fundamental Forces
Learning Goal:
To recognize important characteristics of the four fundamental forces in nature.
Part A
Listed below are characteristics and effects of the four fundamental forces: gravity, electromagnetism, the strong force, and the weak force. Match each
item to the correct fundamental force.
Drag the appropriate items to their respective bins.
Hint 1. How is the strong force transmitted across nuclei?
According to the standard model, the strong force is felt when two particles exchange other particles called _____.
ANSWER:
photons
weak bosons
gluons
gravitons
Correct
Gluons are the exchange particles that carry the strong force; they get their name because they act like "glue" that holds nuclei together.
Hint 2. What can produce a photon?

A photon can be emitted when __________ is in motion.
ANSWER:
an electrically charged particle
a weakly interacting particle
any massive particle
ANSWER:
Reset Help
Gravity Electromagnetism Strong force Weak force
weakest force (across

affects only electrically
short distances) transmitted by gluons
charged particles governs nuclear
fission and radioactive decay
governs large-scale holds nuclei together
transmitted by photons
structure of the universe
Correct
Now try the following questions to be sure you understand some of the key ideas.
From Part A, you know that gravity is the weakest of the four forces across short distances, yet it dominates on large scales. The following questions will help
you understand why.
Part B
Which of the forces are unimportant on large scales because they can be felt only across distances about the size of atomic nuclei or smaller?
Check all that apply.
Hint 1. Inverse square law forces

Gravity and the electromagnetic force both follow an inverse square law with distance, which means they become weaker with the square of the
distance between interacting particles. For example, if you double the distance between two particles, you make each of these forces one-quarter
as strong.
ANSWER:
the electromagnetic force
gravity
the weak force
the strong force
Correct
The strong and weak forces are both much stronger than gravity within atomic nuclei, but they have essentially no effect on larger size scales,
which is why gravity can dominate them for objects such as planets, stars, and galaxies.
Part C
The electromagnetic force is much stronger than gravity over short distance scales. So why doesn't it dominate over gravity for large masses, such as
planets, stars, and galaxies?
Hint 1. Differences between the electromagnetic force and gravity
Gravity and the electromagnetic force are similar in that both follow the same type of inverse square law with distance. But they differ in two critical
ways:
1. Between two electrically charged particles, such as two protons, the electromagnetic force is far stronger for any particular distance
between the particles.
2. The electromagnetic force can counteract itself because there are both positively and negatively charged particles, while there is only
one type of mass that contributes to gravity.
ANSWER:
Because the electromagnetic force acts only over distance scales the size of molecules or smaller.
Because gravity gets stronger as the distance between two particles increases.
Because the electromagnetic force only affects massless particles such as photons.
Because large masses are electrically neutral.
Correct
The fact that there are both positive and negative electrical charges means that large objects tend to be electrically neutral, and therefore they do
not interact with other large objects through the electromagnetic force. In contrast, because there is only one type of mass, gravity becomes quite
strong for large masses.
Part D
How does the existence of helium nuclei (with 2 protons and 2 neutrons) demonstrate that there must be a force in nature that is stronger than the
electromagnetic force?
Hint 1. How do protons interact?
If you place two protons a very short distance apart, they will __________.
ANSWER:
repel each other
attract each other
glow with photons that they produce
Correct
Protons are positively charged, and like charges repel. Therefore, by itself, the electromagnetic force would tend to make the two protons
in a helium nucleus fly apart.
ANSWER:
The electromagnetic force can only affect two particles at a time, so some other force must act when there are four particles.
The electromagnetic force makes protons repel, so there must be a stronger force that keeps them together.
The electromagnetic force does not affect neutrons, so they must be held together by some other force.
The electromagnetic force is transmitted by photons, and they travel so fast that they would escape nuclei in a tiny fraction of a second.
Correct
In fact, the strong force gets its name from the fact that it is the strongest of the four forces.
Visual Activity on Annihilation and Pair Production
Learning Goal:
To understand and interpret diagrams showing interactions between subatomic particles and photons.
Introduction. Carefully study the figuresbefore answering the questions.
Part A
Which part of the figure shows an example of matter/antimatter annihilation?
Hint 1. What is antimatter?

Which statement is true?
ANSWER:
An antielectron is identical to an electron except that it has positive rather than negative charge.
Antimatter is a science fiction idea that does not really exist.
Any negatively charged particle is considered a form of antimatter.
Correct
An antielectron is more commonly called a positron, as you can see in the labels in the figures.
Hint 2. What is matter/antimatter annihilation?

Matter/antimatter annihilation occurs when __________.
ANSWER:
a particle and its corresponding antiparticle meet and are completely converted into energy
two identical particles collide and shatter into smaller particles
a particle and its corresponding antiparticle are created from pure energy
Correct
Now consider which figure represents an example of annihilation; recall also that photons have no mass and therefore represent "pure"
energy.
ANSWER:
only Figure b
neither Figure a nor b
both Figures a and b
only Figure a
Correct
Figure (a) shows a positron and an electron annihilating each other, so that their combined mass is converted into energy in the form of two
photons.
Part B
Which part of the figure shows an example of energy conservation?
Hint 1. How much energy does a particle have?

True or False? An isolated, stationary particle has no energy at all.
ANSWER:
True
False
Correct
Recall that mass itself is a form of potential energy known as mass-energy, with the amount of energy given by Einstein's famous formula
2
E = mc . With this in mind, consider whether energy conservation is violated in either annihilation or pair production.
ANSWER:
only Figure b
both Figures a and b
only Figure a
neither Figure a nor b
Correct
The law of conservation of energy tells us that energy must always be conserved, so it is conserved in both annihilation and pair-production
events.
Part C
Suppose that, rather than starting with an electron and a positron, the event shown in Figure a started with two electrons. What would happen?
Hint 1. How do particles and antiparticles meet?

An electron and a positron that are approaching each other can meet fairly easily because __________.
ANSWER:
they have the same mass
they travel quite slowly through space
their opposite electrical charges attract them together
Correct
Now consider what happens when two particles with the same charge approach each other.
ANSWER:
meet and turn all of their energy into photons.
The two electrons would move away from each other without meeting.
meet and turn into two positrons.
Correct
Particles with the same electrical charge repel each other.
Process of Science: Separating Science from Fiction
Learning Goal:
To learn more about the ideas of quantum physics and their importance to modern astronomy.
Introduction. The ideas of quantum physics can sound quite strange, but they have been well verified by observations and experiments. This tutorial will help
you distinguish between real ideas of quantum physics that are important in astronomy and statements that are either made up or are common misconceptions
about quantum ideas.
Part A
The statements below all relate to quantum physics, but only some of them reflect real, well-tested ideas. Sort the statements into the appropriate bins as
follows:
Real: The statement describes a well-tested aspect of quantum physics.

Not real: The statement does not describe a well-tested idea from quantum physics.
Hint 1. Statement of the uncertainty principle

The following are two equivalent ways of stating the uncertainty principle:
1. The more we know about a subatomic particle's location, the less we know about its momentum. Mathematically, we write
′
uncertainty in location × uncertainty in momentum ≈ Planck s constant
2. The more we know about a subatomic particle's precise energy, the less we know about exactly when it has that energy.
Mathematically, we write
′
uncertainty in energy × uncertainty in time ≈ Planck s constant
Hint 2. What is the exclusion principle?
Which of the following is a statement of the exclusion principle?

ANSWER:
Two fermions of the same type cannot occupy the same quantum state at the same time.
No two particles can be in the same place at the same time.
The more we know about a subatomic particle's location, the less we know about its momentum.
Correct
Recall that particles are divided into two categories by spin: fermions and bosons. Fermions include all the quarks and leptons and
particles made from quarks such as protons and neutrons. Bosons include photons and other exchange particles. The exclusion principle
applies only to fermions, not to bosons.
Hint 3. What are protons, neutrons, and electrons made of?
Which of the following describes the composition of protons, neutrons, and electrons?
ANSWER:
Protons, neutrons, and electrons are all made of smaller particles called quarks.
Protons and neutrons are made of smaller particles called quarks; electrons are one of six known types of lepton.
Protons and neutrons are made of smaller particles called leptons; electrons are one of six known types of quark.
Correct
This information should help you sort at least one of the items.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
Real Not real

An electron can "tunnel" from one
place to another without crossing the
Electrons,
space
likeinphotons,
between. are both
"Virtualparticles
particles"andpopwaves.
in and out of
existence before anyone can detect
Quantum lawsthem. lead to degeneracy
pressure that does not change with
The better we temperature.
know the location of a
particle, the less we know about
Two neutrons
wherecannot
it will be
share
next.the same
quantum state.
All attempts used; correct answer displayed
The remaining questions in this tutorial will help you understand the astronomical implications of the real quantum ideas.
Part B
Quantum tunneling (such as an electron being able to "tunnel" from one place to another without crossing the space in between) sounds almost too
strange to be true, but in fact it is a well-tested process that turns out to be important both in our everyday lives and in astronomy. For example, quantum
tunneling is important in our everyday lives in __________, and it is important in astronomy in explaining __________.
The format of the answers below is answer for first blank / answer for second blank.
Hint 1. What quantum idea underlies quantum tunneling?

Quantum tunneling is explained by __________.
ANSWER:
the uncertainty principle
the existence of virtual particles
the exclusion principle
Correct
The uncertainty principle can be described mathematically, which means that we can build electronic devices that actually control the
amount of quantum tunneling. Similarly, we can calculate the amount of tunneling expected under natural conditions.
ANSWER:
describing ordinary thermal pressure / degeneracy pressure
the operation of electronic devices such as computers / nuclear fusion in the Sun
explaining energy levels in atoms / nuclear fusion in the Sun
the operation of electronic devices such as computers / degeneracy pressure
Correct
Strange as this idea of quantum tunneling may sound, it is very important in nature. Nuclear fusion in the Sun would not be possible without
quantum tunneling, and nearly all modern electronic devices rely on quantum tunneling.
Part C
Degeneracy pressure occurs as a result of a combination of the uncertainty principle and the exclusion principle. This pressure play an important role in the
astronomical objects known as __________.
Hint 1. What is a brown dwarf?

A brown dwarf is __________.
ANSWER:
a type of stellar corpse, formed after an ordinary star exhausts all its fuel for fusion
a small, cool cloud of gas in interstellar space
a starlike object that never gets hot enough for sustained fusion
Correct
A brown dwarf has a mass below the minimum of 0.08 solar masses required for a star; its low mass means that its gravitational collapse
is halted by degeneracy pressure before it gets hot enough for sustained fusion.
ANSWER:
brown dwarfs, white dwarfs, and neutron stars
virtual particles and black holes
white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes
brown dwarfs, white dwarfs, and black holes
virtual particles and vacuum energy
Correct
Brown dwarfs, white dwarfs, and neutron stars are all supported against the crush of gravity by degeneracy pressure, which prevents them from
shrinking to smaller sizes. Electron degeneracy pressure supports both brown dwarfs and white dwarfs; neutron degeneracy pressure supports
neutron stars.
Part D
The idea that space can contain virtual particles has been verified in laboratory experiments. In astronomy, this idea is used to predict that black holes
__________.
Hint 1. Can anything escape from a black hole?

A black hole is an object __________.
ANSWER:
that does not emit visible light
that is supported against the crush of gravity by virtual particle pressure
from which nothing, not even light, can escape
Correct
Nothing can escape from within the event horizon of a black hole.
ANSWER:
can "evaporate" over time, even though nothing escapes from inside a black hole's event horizon
can exist in places where gravity has become extremely strong
should actually shine in visible light with the faint light of Hawking radiation emitted from inside their event horizons
can be supported against further gravitational collapse by the pressure exerted by virtual particles.
Correct
Stephen Hawking predicted that the existence of virtual particles would lead to evaporation of black holes, which is why the radiation that leaves
(from outside the event horizon since nothing escapes from inside) is called Hawking radiation.
Vocabulary in Context: The Quantum World
Part A
Match the terms in the left-hand column to the appropriate blank in the sentences in the right-hand column. Use each term only once.
Hint 1. What the quantum state is
The quantum state refers to the complete description of the state of a subatomic particle, including its location, momentum, orbital angular
momentum, and spin, to the extent allowed by the uncertainty principle.
Hint 2. What the exclusion principle is
The exclusion principle is the law of quantum mechanics that states that two fermions cannot occupy the same quantum state at the same time.
Hint 3. What electron degeneracy pressure is
Electron degeneracy pressure is degeneracy pressure exerted by electrons, as in brown dwarfs and white dwarfs.
Hint 4. What quantum tunneling is
Quantum tunneling is the process in which, thanks to the uncertainty principle, an electron or other subatomic particle appears on the other side of a
barrier that it does not have the energy to overcome in a normal way.
Hint 5. What neutron degeneracy pressure is

Neutron degeneracy pressure is the degeneracy pressure exerted by neutrons, as in neutron stars.
Hint 6. What thermal pressure is
Thermal pressure is the ordinary pressure in a gas arising from motions of particles that can be attributed to the object's temperature.
Hint 7. What the uncertainty principle is

The uncertainty principle is the law of quantum mechanics that states that we can never know both a particle's position and its momentum, or both
its energy and the time it has the energy, with absolute precision.
ANSWER:
Reset Help
1. The exclusion principle is consistent with the notion that two electrons cannot exist in the same
place at the same time.
2. Hydrogen nuclei in the core of the Sun do not seem to be moving quite fast enough to overcome the
electromagnetic force of repulsion, but they nevertheless can fuse together thanks to the process we
call quantum tunneling .
3. The location, momentum, and spin of a proton are part of what we call the proton's
quantum state .
4. Brown dwarfs do not collapse due to electron degeneracy pressure .
5. A balloon filled with air does not collapse due to thermal pressure .
6. Knowing both the exact position and velocity of an electron simultaneously is a violation of the
uncertainty principle .
7. Neutron stars do not collapse into black holes because they are supported against the crush of
gravity by neutron degeneracy pressure .
Correct
Prelecture Reading Question 24.08
Part A
Which of the following is not considered crucial for life to exist on some world?
ANSWER:
a source of nutrients
a liquid, such as liquid water
an atmosphere
a source of energy that can be used by life
Correct
An atmosphere is not necessarily required for life. For example, life might exist in Europa's ocean, but Europa has no atmosphere.
Problem 24.54
Suppose there are 17,000 civilizations broadcasting radio signals in the Milky Way Galaxy right now.
Part A
On average, how many stars would we have to search before we would expect to hear a signal? Assume there are 500 billion stars in the galaxy.
Express your answer using two significant figures.
ANSWER:
NA = 2.9×107 stars
Correct
Part B
How would the answer change if there were only 120 civilizations instead of 17,000?

ANSWER:
NB = 4.2×109 stars
Correct
Problem 24.56
Suppose we have a spaceship about the size of a typical ocean cruise ship today, which means it has a mass of about 120 million kilograms, and we want to
accelerate the ship to a speed of 9 % of the speed of light.
Part A
How much energy would be required? (Hint: You can find the answer simply by calculating the kinetic energy of the ship when it reaches its cruising speed;
1
2
because 9 % of the speed of light is still small compared to the speed of light, you can use this formula: kinetic energy = ×m × v .)
2
Express your answer to two significant figures and include the appropriate units.
ANSWER:
E = 4.4×1022 J
Answer Requested
Part B
How does your answer compare to total world energy use at present, which is about 5 × 1022 joules per year?
Express your answer as a percentage using two significant figures.
ANSWER:
E spaceship
= 87 %
E world energy use
Correct
Part C
The typical cost of energy today is roughly 5 cents per 1 million joules. Using this price, how much would it cost to generate the energy needed by this
spaceship?
Express your answer in dollars to two significant figures.
ANSWER:
cost = 2.2×1015 $
Correct
Problem S3.52
Make a spacetime diagram on which the time axis is marked in years and the space axis is marked in light-years. Assume you are floating weightlessly and
therefore consider yourself at rest. Assume the direction to the right of you as the positive direction, and that time is measured from the moment when you meet
the person.
Part A
Draw a worldline for Sebastian, who is moving to your right at 0.5c .
ANSWER:
No elements selected
10
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
Select the elements from the list and add them to the canvas setting the appropriate attributes. Press TAB to get to the
main menu.
Correct
Part B
Draw a worldline for Michaela, who is moving to your left at 0.7c .
ANSWER:
10
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6 8 10
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
main menu.
Answer Requested
Part C
Draw a worldline for Angela, who is traveling away from you at a speed of 100,000 km/s .
ANSWER:
10
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6 8 10
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
main menu.
Correct
Problem S3.53
Consider a spacetime diagram on which the vertical time axis is marked in seconds and the horizontal space axis is marked in light-seconds. Assume a
worldline with a slope of 30 ∘ (from the horizontal).
Part A
At what speed would an object have to be traveling to have this worldline?
Express your answer to two significant figures and include the appropriate units.
ANSWER:
m
v = 5.2×108
s
Answer Requested
Part B
Can any object have this worldline?
ANSWER:
yes
no
Correct
Part C
What is the least possible slope of the worldline?
Express your answer in degrees to two significant figures.

ANSWER:
∘
ϕminimal = 45
Correct
Problem S3.58
The Andromeda Galaxy is about 2.5 million light-years away. Suppose you had a spaceship that could constantly accelerate at a = 1.7 g .
As long as the ship is gone from Earth for many years, the amount of time that passes on the spaceship during the trip is approximately:
2c a×D
t ship = ln( )
2
a c
where D is the distance to the destination and ln stands for the natural logarithm (which you can calculate with the "ln" key on most scientific calculators). If D
is in meters, g = 9.8 m/s2 , and c = 3 × 108 m/s , the answer will be in units of seconds.
Part A
Could you go to the Andromeda Galaxy and come back within your lifetime?
ANSWER:
no
yes
Correct
Part B
How long would that trip last for you?
Express your answer in years to two significant figures.
ANSWER:
t personal = 35 yr
Answer Requested
Part C
How many time would pass on Earth?
Express your answer in years to two significant figures.
ANSWER:
t Earth = 5.0×106 yr
Answer Requested
Problem S3.59
For a relatively weak gravitational field, such as that of a planet or an ordinary star, the following formula tells us the fractional amount of gravitational time
dilation at a distance r from the center of an object of mass Mobject :
GMobject
1
×
2 r
c
(G = 6.67 × 10−11 m3 /(kg × s2 ) ; c = 3 × 108 m/s .) For example, while 1 hour passes in deep space far from the object, the amount of time that passes
at a distance r is 1 hour minus 1 hour multiplied by the factor above. (This formula does not apply to strong gravitational fields, like those near black holes.)
Part A
Calculate the amount of time that passes on Earth's surface while 3.0 hour passes in deep space.
Express your answer in seconds to three significant figures.
ANSWER:
Ton Earth
= 3.0 hr - 7.49×10−6 s
Answer Requested
Problem S4.52
In this problem, we compare the strength of gravity to the strength of the electromagnetic (EM) force for two interacting electrons. Because both electrons are
negatively charged, they will want to repel each other according to the EM force. Because electrons have mass, they will want to attract each other according to
gravity. Let's see which effect will dominate. You will need the following information for this problem:
2
M1 M2 −11 N×m
1) The force law for gravitation is: Fg = G 2
(G = 6.67 × 10
2
) where M1 and M2 are the masses of the two objects, d is
d kg
the distance between them, and G is the gravitational constant. (" N " is the abbreviation for newton, the metric unit of force.)
q1 q2 2
9 N×m
2) The force law for electromagnetism is: FEM = k 2
(k = 9.0 × 10 2
) where q1 and q2 are the charges of the two objects (in
d Coul
coulombs, the standard unit of charge), d is the distance between them, and k is a constant. (" Coul " is an abbreviation for coulomb.)
3) The mass of an electron is 9.10 × 10−31 kg .
4) The charge of an electron is −1.6 × 10−19 Coul.
Part A
Calculate the gravitational force, in newtons, that attracts the two electrons if a distance of 10−10 m (about the diameter of an atom) separates them.
Express your answer in newtons to three significant figures.
ANSWER:
Fg = 5.52×10−51 N
Answer Requested
Part B
Calculate the electromagnetic force, in newtons, that repels the two electrons at the same distance.
Express your answer in newtons to two significant figures.
ANSWER:
FEM = 2.3×10−8 N
Answer Requested
Part C
How many times stronger is the electromagnetic repulsion than the gravitational attraction for the two electrons?
ANSWER:
F EM
= 4.2×1042
Fg
Answer Requested
Problem S4.59
Suppose you are running at a speed of about 10 km/hr , but there is an uncertainty of 0.7 km/hr in your precise speed. Given your mass, you can calculate
your momentum and the uncertainty of that momentum.
uncertainty uncertainty
′
(Hint: You'll need the first form of the uncertainty principle, × ≈ Planck s constant. You can use the value of Planck's
in location in momentum
2
kg × m
−34
constant, h = 6.626 × 10 .)
s
Part A
What is the corresponding quantum limit to the measurement of your position? Assume that your mass is 65 kg.
Express your answer to three significant figures and include the appropriate units.
ANSWER:
Δx = 5.24×10−35 m
Answer Requested
Part B
Is this significant? Why or why not?
ANSWER:
The uncertainty is very small compared to human size, but this effect could be significant.
The uncertainty is significant compared to the Planck's constant, so this effect is important.
The uncertainty is very small compared to human size, so this effect is not significant.
The uncertainty is much less than the Planck's constant, so this effect is not significant.
Correct
Problem S4.60
You are conducting an experiment in which you can measure the location of individual electron collisions to within 10 -10 m.
Part A
What is the theoretical limit to which you can simultaneously measure the momentum of those collisions? (Use the expression of the uncertainty principle in
S4.3 Quantifying the Uncertainty Principle to make your estimate.)
Express your answer in kilograms times meter per second to three significant figures.
ANSWER:
6.63×10−24 kg × m/s
Answer Requested
Part B
What is the uncertainty in the electron's speed? (The electron has a rest mass of 9.1 × 10−31 kg .)
Express your answer in meters per second to two significant figures.
ANSWER:
7.3×106 m/s
Answer Requested
Problem S4.55
The time it takes for a black hole to evaporate through the process of Hawking radiation can be calculated using the following formula, in which M is the mass
2 3 2
2 G M −34 kg×m
of the black hole in kilograms and t is the lifetime of the black hole in seconds: t = 10240 × π
4
(h = 6.63 × 10 ,
hc s
3
−11 m
G = 6.67 × 10 )
2
kg×s
Part A
30
Use the formula to calculate the lifetime of a black hole with the mass of the Sun (MSun = 2.0 × 10 .
kg)
Express your answer in years to three significant figures.
ANSWER:
t black hole = 2.12×1067 yr
Answer Requested
Part B
How does your answer compare to the current age of the universe? Assume the current age of the universe is about 1010 years.
Express your answer using three significant figures.
ANSWER:
t black
= 2.12×1057
hole
t universe
Answer Requested
Score Summary:
Your score on this assignment is 51.1%.
You received 21.57 out of a possible total of 46 points, plus 1.91 points of extra credit.

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7/12/23, 6:24 PM Assignment 7

Sorting Task: Geometry of Space

Hint 1. Understanding the Three Geometries

Flat Geometry Spherical Geometry Saddle-shaped Geometry

Ranking Task: Understanding Gravitational Lensing

Hint 1. What determines the strength of gravity?

Object 1 has stronger surface gravity than Object 2.

Object 2 has stronger surface gravity than Object 1.

the strength of gravity is the same at the surfaces of both objects.

Least curvature Greatest curvature

Hint 1. How does curved spacetime affect the path of light?

Smallest amount Largest amount

Ranking Task: Understanding Curved Spacetime

Earth would almost immediately be sucked into the black hole.

Earth would gradually spiral into the black hole.

Nothing; Earth’s orbit would stay the same.

Weakest force Strongest force

Hint 1. What is curvature of spacetime?

an orbiting object would feel a gravitational attraction to some massive object.

there is a black hole.

all objects must fall.

Least amount Greatest amount

Least amount Greatest amount

smaller the acceleration of the spacecraft.

larger the acceleration of the spacecraft.

more quickly the spacecraft will be sucked inside the object.

Smallest acceleration Largest acceleration

Process of Science: Indirect Evidence for Gravitational Waves

Hint 2. How is orbital period related to orbital distance?

getting farther apart

getting closer together

interacting with a third object

Hint 1. How does orbital energy affect orbital distance?

slow down without changing the size or shape of the orbit

Check all that apply.

Hint 1. Definition of a scientific theory

These data prove that the general theory of relativity is true.

Hint 1. Reading the graphs

Vocabulary in Context: Gravity and Spacetime

Hint 1. What a black hole is

Hint 2. What the event horizon is

Hint 3. What gravitational waves are

Hint 4. What gravitational lensing is

Hint 5. What gravitational time dilation is

Hint 6. What gravitational redshift is

Hint 7. What a wormhole is

principle transmit a radio signal to observers outside the black hole.

to the bending of light known as gravitational lensing .

because they lose orbital energy to gravitational waves .

with a strong gravitational field.

Ranking Task: Understanding the Four Fundamental Forces

Hint 1. What force holds the nucleus together?

Weakest force Strongest force

gravity weak electromagnetic strong

Weakest force Strongest force

Hint 1. What force holds Earth in orbit around the Sun?

Earth’s orbit around the Sun is a consequence of __________.

the strong force

the electromagnetic force