CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 About Chhattisgarh

With 70% of its people employed in agriculture, Chhattisgarh is predominantly an agrarian state.
About 80% of the state's 37.46 lakh farmers are small and marginal farmers. A sizable portion of
the state's population is also employed in horticulture and animal husbandry. 4.78 million Ha, or
around 35% of the total geographical area, are under cultivation. 23% of the farmed area is net
irrigated, with red and yellow soil. The important crops sown include millets, pulses, oilseeds,
rice, wheat, and millets.

1.1.1 History

The Chhattisgarh region has a long history; it was formerly referred to as Southern (or South)
Kosala and was first settled in the fourth century. Historically, the Haihaya dynasty of Ratanpur,
which was established in the year 750, ruled over the region now known as Chhattisgarh, which
means "thirty-six forts." The current region of Chhattisgarh was divided into 14 feudatory
princely kingdoms under the Eastern States Agency when it was ruled by the British. The
headquarters of its division were at Raipur. until November 1, 2000, Chhattisgarh was a part of
Madhya Pradesh within the Republic of India. Despite the fact that the movement for Chhattisgarh
statehood didn't really get going until the 1970s, its origins can be traced back to the early 20th century,
when regional leaders started to assert a separate cultural identity for the area. In the early 1990s the
push for statehood was manifested in the election platforms of various political parties, and promises of
a separate state were again prominent during the elections of 1996 and 1998. In August 2000 the Indian
legislature passed the Madhya Pradesh Reorganization Bill to create Chhattisgarh. The formation of
Chhattisgarh was especially noteworthy in that it was peaceful; it was not associated with any of the
agitation and violence that marred the establishment of two other new states— Uttaranchal (now
Uttarakhand) and Jharkhand—about the same time.

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Fig. 1.1.1- Chhattisgarh Map.

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The state is divided into three agro-climatic zones:

(i) Chhattisgarh Plain (15 districts):

The Narharpur and Kanker Development Section includes portions of the districts of Raipur,
Garibandh, Baladbazar, Mahasamund, Dhamtari, Durg, Balod, Bemetra, Rajandgaon,
Kabardham, Bilaspur, Munttli, Korba, Janjgir, Raigad, and Kanker. (ii) Plateau of Bastar (7
districts) Remaining parts of Jagdalpur, Narayanpur, Bijapur, Kondagaon, Dantewada, Sukma
and Kanker.

(iii) Northern Hill Zone:

Remaining parts of Jagdalpur, Narayanpur, Bijapur, Kondagaon, Dantewada, Sukma and

Kanker- Dharmajaygarh Tehsil of Sarguja, Surajpur, Balrampur, Korea, Jashpur and Raigad
districts.

1.1.2 Economy of Chhattisgarh

The state counts agriculture as its primary economic activity. The state's total sown area is 5.788
million hectares, while the net sown area is estimated to be 4.828 million hectares. Agribusiness
and small industries centered on agriculture provide the majority of the state's 80% rural
population with a living. A sizable portion of the state's population is also employed in
horticulture and animal husbandry. Another name for Chhattisgarh is the "Rice Bowl of central
India.The majority of the farmers are still practicing the traditional methods of cultivation,
resulting in low growth rates and productivity. The farmers have to be made aware of modern
technologies suitable to their holdings. Providing adequate knowledge to the farmers is essential
for better implementation of the agricultural development plans and to improve the
productivity.Considering this and a very limited irrigated area, the productivity of not only rice
but also other crops is low, hence the farmers are unable to obtain economic benefits from
agriculture and it has remained as subsistence agriculture till now.

Fruit Crops:

The major fruit crops grown in Chhattisgarh state are Mango, Guava, Lime, Litchi, Cashew-nut,
Cheku etc., apart from these major fruit crops minor fruits like Sitafal, Bael, Ber, Anola etc., are

3
also grown both as cultivated and wild crop. The total area of the fruit crops in the state is
2,39,676 Hac. along with the production of 23,28,811 MT in the year 2015-2016. Agro
climatically Mango can be grown in the whole part of the state successfully while the northern
hilly area of Sarguja and Jashpur district is suitable for production of Litchi. Cashew nut can be
grown well in the plateau region of the Bastar & Raigarh district.

Spices:

Chili, Ginger, Garlic, Turmeric, Coriander &Methi are the major spices grown in the state. The
total area of spices recorded in year 2015-2016 was 93,662 Ha. with the production of 6,59,192
MT.

Aromatic & Medicinal Plants:

The medicinal crops grown in the state are Ashwagandha, Serpagandha, Satawar, Butch, Aonla,
Tikhur etc. Some aromatic crops like Lemongrass, Pamarosa, Jamarosa, Patchauli, E.citridora
are promoted by the department for commercial cultivation among farmers. The present area of
aromatic and medicinal crops in the state is 8529 Ha. with the production of 59,972 MT in the
year 2015-2016.

Flowers:

Area under flower cultivation is negligible in the state. With the formation of new state the
demand of flowers is increasing day-by-day, to meet out the growing demand of flowers it is
essential to promote commercial floriculture among the farmers. The major flowers like Marry-
gold, Tuberose, Gladiolus, Roses, Gaillardia, Chrysanthemum, Orchids etc., can be grown very
well without much care. The present area under floriculture in the state is 11 thousand Ha. with
the production of 53 thousand MT. approximately in the year 2015-2016.

Vegetables:

Mostly all vegetable crops like Solaneious crops, Cucurbits, Beans, Cabbage, Cauliflower etc.,
are grown very well in the state. The total area of vegetable crops in the state was recorded
4,38,849 Ha. in the year 2015-2016 with the production of 60,61,801 MT.

Agriculture and Irrigation:

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Chhattisgarh has a limited irrigation system, with dams and canals on some rivers. Average
rainfall in the state is around 1400 mm and the entire state falls under the rice agro climatic zone.
Large variation in the yearly rainfall directly affects the production of rice. Irrigation is the prime
need of the state for its overall development and therefore the state government has given top
priority to development of irrigation. In Chhattisgarh, rice, the main crop, is grown on about 77%
of the net sown area. Only about 20% of the area is under irrigation; the rest depends on rain Of
the three agro climatic zones, about 73% of the Chhattisgarh plains, 97% of the Bastar plateau
and 95% of the northern hills are rained.

In Chhattisgarh region about 22% of net cropped area was under irrigation as compared to 36.5%
in Madhya Pradesh in 1998-99, whereas the average national irrigation was about 40%. The
irrigation is characterized by a high order of variability ranging from 1.6% in Bastar to 75.0% in
Dhamtari. Based on an average growth trend in irrigated area, about 0.43% additional area is
brought under irrigation every year as compared to 1.89% in Madhya Pradesh and 1.0% in the
country as a whole. Thus, irrigation has been growing at a very low rate in Chhattisgarh and the
pace of irrigation is so slow, it would take about 122 years to reach the 75% level of net irrigated
area in Chhattisgarh at the present rate of growth.

Fairs and Festivals in Chhattisgarh

Bastar Dussehra/Durga Puja, Bastar Lokotsav, Madai Festival, Rajim Kumbh Mela, Pakhanjore
Mela (Nara Narayan Mela), Ratanpur Fair, Shivrinarayan Fair, Sihawa Fair, Girodhpuri Fair,
Damakheda Fair, Sirpur Festival, Pola, Nawakhai, Govardhan Pooja.

1.2 About Jashpur District

Jashpur District lies in the north-eastern corner of the state of Chhattisgarh in India adjoining the
border of Jharkhand and Odisha. Jashpur Nagar is the administrative headquarters of the district.
It is currently a part of the Red Corridor. During the British Raj Jashpur town was the capital of
Jashpur State, one of the princely states of the Eastern States Agency.

Jashpur was a princely State before independence. The history of the region is quite vague. Local
here say evidences suggest that there was a Dom dynasty ruling the area by the middle of 18th

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century. The last Dom ruler Raibhan was defeated and killed by the founder of the present
Jashpur State Sujan Rai. It is said that Banswada, a smaller State in old Rajputana Province, was
the native place of Sujan Rai’s a castors. They established their rule and Kingdom in Sonpur.

Sujan Rai, being the eldest son of the Suryavanshi King, was on a hunting expedition in deep
forest, his father (King) died. In view of the tradition and requirement of the occasion his
younger brother was coronate, as the Throne of King could not be kept unoccupied, even for a
while. On return from hunting expedition, Sujan Rai was offered and requested to take over the
charge of the Throne. But he preferred to be a Sangasi and took to the forest. Wandering about
he reached Khudia, the capital camp of the Dom kingdom. There he found that the subjects were
unhappy and dissatisfied with the Dom Raja Raibhan and were on the verge of revolt. Sujan Rai
led the popular uprising, defeated the Dom Raja in a battle. Now, Sujan Rai became the King and
a new State ‘Jashpur’ was founded by him. Today’s Jashpur Royal family belongs to that
dynasty.

1.2.1 Geography

The north-south length of this district is about 150 km, and its east-west breadth is about 85 km.
Its total area is 6,205 km². It is between 22° 17′ and 23° 15′ North latitude and 83° 30′ and 84°
24′ East longitude. It is divided geographically into two parts. The northern hilly belt is called the
Upper Ghat. The remaining southern part is called Nichghat.

1.2.2 Climate

Kunkuri is the hottest region in Nichghat during the summer and Pandrapat is the coldest region
in Upper Ghat in the winter. It is situated between forests. It is a junction, from raigarh and from
ambikapur or jashpur all the people need to cross patthalgaon first.

1.2.3 Agriculture

Agriculture is the mainstay of most of the population in Jashpur. The district’s economy rests
mainly on rain fed agriculture, horticulture and animal husbandry. The major agro farm produces
are – several varieties of rice including scented rice, pulses, maize, Ramtil and wheat.
Horticulture has gained momentum in last two decades and district is proudly proving to be
horticulture hub of Chhattisgarh. The major fruit produces are Mango, Litchi, Pears, cashew and

6
strawberry. The district is fast becoming vegetable hub of the state. It produces large amount of
Tomato and Chilies along with other green vegetables.

1.2.4 Forest produce

Jashpur has almost 42% of forest cover on its geographical area. Forestry activities and forest
produce collection has been its traditional economic activity. Still, there are several forest
produce which offer good market potential to the local population. The major forest products of
the district are – Tendu patta, Chirounji, Shataavar, Gum, Saal, Harra, Lac etc.

Fig. Map of Jashpur district

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1.2.5. Industry:

The economy of Jaspur nagar district is predominantly agro-based and it has not been made
much headway in industrial sector as compared with similar activities in the adjoining districts.

1.2.6 Service Enterprises

Service enterprises are increasing day by day and due to low-cost in nature people are setting up
service enterprises in the district. Due to increasing awareness about importance of education
among the mass, coaching industry for High School Students seems to be a profitable business in
the district.

1.2.7 Tourism

The district offers tremendous Tourism scope, which has not yet reached its full potential. The
district has beautiful hills, falls, natural water bodies and forests, which amalgamate with historic
and religious landscape of the district to offer an amazing tourist solution.

The major tourist destinations of the district are:

Kailash Cave, Ranidaah, Church- Our Lady of Rosary, Gullu Fall, Sanskrit Mahavidyalaya
Samarbahar, Dangari Waterfall, Khudiyarani, Kotebira, Rajpuri Waterfall, Churi Fall, Bene Fall,
Aghor Ashram Sogra(Tea Plantation and Processing), Rani Jhula, Madheshwar Mahadev,
Mayali Nature Camp, Belmahadev, Deshdekha, etc.

1.3 About Guava

Systematic position

Phylum Magnoliophyte

Class Magnoliopsida

Sub-class Rosidae

Order Myrtales

Family Myrtaceae

Genus Psidium
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Species Guajava
1.3.1 Common names:

Amrood (hindi), Amrutafalam (Sanskrit), Belati (odia), Jama, Jam-pandu, Goya-pandu{ Tel.},
Koyapalam, Koyya, Goyya-pazham {Tam.}, Palamper{Mal.}, Perala-hannu, Jama-phala,
Shebe-hannu{Kan.}, Paera{Kon.}, Zetton, jamphal{Sind.}, Peru, Jamba{Mah.}, Jamrukh{Guj.},
Madhuria{Assam}, Amuk{Nepal}. Amrud{ Arab & Pers}, Amrut{ Punj}, Malakabeng{Burm},
Gua, aduaba, oguawa, eguaba, gouwa, aduaba{Ghana}.

Fig. 1.3.1 - Guava Fruit.

1.3.2 General description:

Guava (Psidium guajava Linn.) locally known as “Amrood” is a popular fruit in India. It is one
of the most gregarious fruit tree species of the Myrtaceae family which has a great potential for
extensive commercial production because of its ease of culture, high nutritional value and

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popularity of processed products. It is usually grown in open areas, second-growth forests, and
backyard or as part of a mixed orchard. Botanically, guava is a small tree that reaches a height of
up to 33 feet; with spreading branches; smooth, thin, copper-colored bark that flakes off showing
greenish layer beneath; trunk reaches a diameter of 25 cm.

Leaves are evergreen, borne opposite, short- petioled, oval to oblong-elliptic, somewhat irregular
in outline, 7-15 cm long and 3-5 cm wide, leathery, with conspicuous parallel veins, downy on
the underside, and aromatic when crushed. Flowers are white, faintly fragrant, borne singly or in
small clusters in the leaf axis, 2.5 cm wide, with 4 to 5 white petals which quickly shed-off, and
about 250 white stamens tipped with pale- yellow anthers. The tree excels better than some other
fruit trees in productivity, hardness and
adaptability.

Fig. 1.3.2 - Guava Tree.

Its fruit exudes strong, sweet, musky odor when ripe; round, ovoid or pear-shaped, 5-10 cm long
with 4 or 5 protruding floral remnants (sepals) at the apex; an excellent source of vitamin C,
which is substantially higher than what is found in citrus. It is also a good source of vitamin A
and other important elements. The fruit contains large amount of citric, lactic, malic, oxalic and
acetic acids and trace amount of formic acid. The green mature guavas can be utilized as a source
of pectin, which yield somewhat higher and better quality pectin than when ripe.

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The ripe fruit is usually eaten as dessert; processed into jellies, jam, paste, juice, baby foods,
puree, beverage base, syrup, wine, dehydrated guava powder, marmalade, catsup, ice cream and
other products. It can be eaten sliced with cream and sugar and as ingredient in cakes and pies.
The sour guava fruits are used in local dishes like “singing.”
Moreover, many parts of guava tree have medicinal and commercial uses. The bark and leaves
are rich in tannin (10% in the leaves on a dry weight basis, and 11- 30% in the bark), and also
used in childbirth to expel the placenta.

Leaves can be made into tea and astringent decoction to cure stomach ache; also act as
vermifuge; treat toothache when chewed; pounded leaves may be used to relieve rheumatism;
can also be used for dyeing and tanning. Its wood is moderately strong and durable indoor and
useful for carpentry and turnery. It is also a good fuel wood, and as source of charcoal.

Table 1.1 - Food Value per 100 g of Edible Portion of Guava Fruit:

Nutrient Content Value

Calories 36 to 50 g
Moisture 77 to 86 g
Crude Fiber 2.8 to 5.5 g
Protein 0.9 to 1.0 g
Fat 0.1 to 0.5 g
Ash 0.43 to 0.70 g
Carbohydrates 9.1 to 10 g
Calcium 9.1 to 17 mg
Phosphorus 17.8 to 30 mg
Iron 0.30 to 0.70 mg
Carotene {Vitamin A} 200 to 400 I.U.
Thiamine 0.046 mg
Riboflavin 0.03 to 0.04 mg
Niacin 0.6 to 1.068 mg

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 Vitamin B3 40 I.U.
Vitamin G4 35 I.U.
Ascorbic Acid 56 to 600 mg

1.4 Area of production

In India, guava occupies an area of 264.85 thousand ha with an annual production of 4053.51
thousand mt. and accounting for 3.0 and 3.1 percent of area and production, respectively. Punjab
is the largest producer of guava accounting for 13.99 per cent followed by Uttar Pradesh
(11.70%) and Madhya Pradesh (10.77%) although best quality guava is produced in Uttar
Pradesh. The district of Allahabad has a reputation of growing the best guava in the country and
world. In India, guava is widely grown in almost all the states of the country. Guava is
commercially grown in India, USA, Mexico, Peru, Egypt, South Africa, Algeria, Brazil,
Columbia, West Indies, Southern China and Malayan Peninsulania.

Table 1.2 - State wise area, production and productivity in total of guava during 2019-20:

State Area{ha.} Production{mt.} Productivity{ha/mt}

Uttar Pradesh 49.53 928.44 18.75

Madhya Pradesh 35.08 686.7 19.58
Bihar 27.61 427.61 15.49
West Bengal 16.25 215.2 12.95
Chhattisgarh 21.89 197.18 9.01
Punjab 8.69 195.6 22.5
Haryana 12.09 137.02 11.33
Gujarat 12.67 169.57 13.38
Maharashtra 9.07 122.83 13.55
Andhra Pradesh 9.53 229.78 24.12
Tamilnadu 9.69 155.06 16
Others 52.75 558.52 11.16
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Total 264.85 4053.51 187.82
1.5 Soil

Guava is grown on heavy clay soils to very light sandy soils as well as on those which are
commonly considered suitable for fruit production. Guava trees are very hardy and can thrive on
all types of soil. Guava plants are sensitive to water logging hence soil should be well drained.
Guava is grown in areas with pH ranging from 4.5 to 7.5. The best soil must be deep, friable and
well drained.

1.6 Climate

Guava is now being cultivated in countries with tropical and subtropical climate from sea level to
1500 m and can tolerate a wide range of climates. It can be grown in plains as well as in the sub
mountainous tracts provided sufficient care is taken to shelter the trees against frost and cold
winds during early stage of growing. It grows best with annual rainfall below 100 cm restricted
between June to September. The optimum temperature requirement of guava ranges between
23°C to 28°C. The areas having distinct winter season is considered best for increasing yield and
improving quality. High temperature at the time of fruit development causes fruit drop.

1.7 Commercial Varieties

Salient characteristics of some important guava cultivars are given below:

Allahabad Safeda
This is the most popular cultivar of Uttar Pradesh. Tree vigorous, medium tall, branching heavy
with dense foliage, tendency to produce long shoots, crown broad and compact. Fruits medium,
average weight 180 g, roundish in shape, skin colour yellowish white, keeping quality good.
Lucknow-49
It is a selection made at Poona, also known as “Sardar Guava”. Semi dwarf tree, vigorous, heavy
branching type with flat crown, leaves large, Fruits roundish ovate in shape, skin colour
primrose-yellow with occasional red dots on the skin, taste sweet and keeping quality excellent.
Banarsi

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This is one of the sweetest guavas, lacking acidity. Tree medium to tall, crown broad, leaves
long, oblong in shape with acute apex and base obtuse. Fruits round and dresden-yellow in
colour, keeping quality medium.
Apple Colour
Tree medium, crown broad, spreading growth, Fruits spherical in shape, dawn-pink in colour
with deep minute dots on the surface, taste sweet and keeping quality good.
Chittidar
It is Very popular in Uttar Pradesh. Trees are like Allahabad Safeda. Fruits are round with yellow
straw coloured skin having red dots. Flesh is whitish, TSS 8.5 per cent and vitamin C content
240 mg/100 g, taste sweet and keeping quality good.
Seedless
A tall tree with rather long trunk, upright branches, leaves large, oblong in shape. Fruits oblong
to globose in shape, straw-yellow in colour, flesh thick and creamy white in colour, keeping
quality excellent.
Arka Amulya
Dwarf variety with compact, round crown with dense foliage. Fruit is of large size, smooth,
round and having white flesh. TSS ranges from 9.3 to 10.1%. Gives average yield of 144 kg per
Tree.
Punjab Safeda
It has creamy and white flesh. The fruit contains 13.4% sugar content and are 0.62% sour.
Sardar
Also known as L-49. Dwarf variety with spreading branches. Fruit is large in size having rough
surface. Flesh is of creamy white, smooth, juicy with rich test. TSS ranges from 10-12%. Gives
average yield of 130-155 kg per tree.

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 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Vito Verardo (2017) studied that there is increasing interest in discovering new bioactive
compounds derived from ethno medicine. Preparations of guava (Psidium guajava L.) leaves
have traditionally been used to manage several diseases. The pharmacological research in vitro
as well as in vivo has been widely used to demonstrate the potential of the extracts from the
leaves for the co-treatment of different ailments with high prevalence worldwide, upholding the
traditional medicine in cases such as diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and
parasitic infections. Moreover, the biological activity has been attributed to the bioactive
composition of the leaves, to some specific phytochemical subclasses, or even to individual
compounds. Phenolic compounds in guava leaves have been credited with regulating blood-
glucose levels. Thus, the aim of the present review was to compile results from in vitro and in
vivo studies carried out with guava leaves over the last decade, relating the effects to their
clinical applications in order to focus further research for finding individual bioactive
compounds. Some food applications (guava tea and supplementary feed for aquaculture) and
some clinical, in vitro, and in vivo outcomes are also included.

Sumra Naseer & Shabbir Hussain(2018) studied that Psidium guajava (guava) is well known
tropic tree which is abundantly grown for fruit. Many countries have a long history of using
guava for medicinal purposes. This plant finds applications for the treatment of diarrhea,
dysentery, gastroenteritis, hypertension, diabetes, caries and pain relief and for improvement in
locomotors coordination. Its leaf’s extract is being used as a medicine in cough, diarrhea, and
oral ulcers and in some swollen gums wound. Its fruit is rich in vitamins A, C, iron, phosphorus
and calcium and minerals. It contains high content of organic and inorganic compounds like

15
secondary metabolites e.g. antioxidants, polyphenols, antiviral compounds, anti-inflammatory
compounds. The phenolic compounds in guava help to cure cancerous cells and prevent skin
aging before time. The presence of terpenes, caryophyllene oxide and p-selinene produces
relaxation effects. Guava leaves contain many compounds which act as fungistatic and
bacteriostatic agents. Guava has a high content of important antioxidants and has radio-
protective ability. Quercetin is considered as most active antioxidant in the guava leaves and is
responsible for its spasmolytic activity. Its ethyl acetate extract can stop the germ infection and
thymus production. Guava possesses anti-viral, anti-inflammatory, anti-plaque and anti-
mutagenic activities. Guava extract shows antinociceptive activity and is also effective in liver
damage inflammation and serum production. Ethanolic extract of guava can increase the sperm
quality as well as quantity and can be used for the treatment of infertile males.

Arjun K. et al.(2018) studied about the extensive use of allopathic drugs in the treatment and
prevention of diseases has led to the rapid development of drug resistance. Drug resistance is one
of the leading cause of failure in drug therapy. Amongst all, drug resistance is frequently
encountered during antimicrobial therapy. However, the development of resistance in case of
natural therapy or Ayurvedic therapy is very rare which encouraged people to switch from
allopathic to Ayurvedic therapy. However, the active ingredient is very difficult to extract from
the crude natural compound which becomes a huge challenge for the researchers for which
simplified method has to be developed. The use of natural therapy in the treatment and
prevention of disease is not only safe, easily available but is economical as well. Presently, even
physicians or practioners are looking for alternative treatment of medicine for curing various
diseases, so importance must be given to development of traditional herbal medicine from
natural resources.

Shakib U. et al.(2018) studied that guava (Psidium guajava) has Antioxidant, Anti-diabetic,
Antibacterial, Anti-diarrhoeal, Anti-hypotensive, Analgesic & anta inammatory, Anticancer,
Anti-hypertensive, Antifungal, Antipyretic and high nutritional value. The whole fruit of this
plant is edible. The fruit can be eaten raw or even cooked. Fruits are sliced and used as salads or
desserts. Beverages are also prepared from the pulp of the fruit. Many varieties of delicacies such
as jam, guava paste, and guava cheese are produced from the fruit. The leaves are also edible and

16
have medicinal properties. This vital fruits should be cultivated more to meet the nutritional
requirements at cheaper value.

Kumar M. et al.(2021) studied about Guava leaves. The Guava leaf extracts are documented as a
source of natural compounds that are readily available. Guava leaf extracts have been extensively
studied for their high levels of antioxidant, anticancer, hypoglycemic, and other biological
activities. The rich presence of minerals and proteins, as well as vitamins, in Guava leaves
promote their utilization as a direct source of nutrients. The presence of numerous bioactive
chemical compounds in Guava leaves have been reported to enhance and stabilize different
physiological and metabolic functions in the human body. Guava leaf also contains many
secondary metabolites, such as flavonoids, triterpenoids, sesquiterpenes, glycosides, alkaloids,
saponins, and other phenolic compounds. These compounds play a key role as immune
stimulators and modulators of chronic diseases including diabetes, cancer, and gastrointestinal,
neurodegenerative, and cardiovascular diseases. Guava leaf essential oil also has antioxidant,
antimicrobial, and antiproliferative activity. Guava leaf extracts that contain high concentrations
of vitamin E, flavone (apigenin), or β-caryophyllene show significant antiproliferative activity
against colon carcinoma and various forms of human cancer. Guava leaf therefore has peculiar
characteristics and pharmaceutical and medicinal profiles that promote diverse applications as an
essential plant component in medicinal research and a low-cost ingredient in foodstuffs.
Furthermore, as an ingredient of plant origin, Guava leaf may help in mitigate drug resistance,
which is a major problem for the pharmaceutical industry and also can be utilized as a functional
food ingredient, which are in high demand. Thus, guava extract with its multiple medicinal
properties needs to be further developed for wider applicability. In future studies, the
identification and isolation of new chemical components for the development of specific
products will be the key research area.

17
 CHAPTER III
MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 Survey Site

Snjay Nikunj Kansabel
Snjay Nikunj is located in Kansabel Tehsil of Jashpur District, Chhattisgarh. It is located 67 km
towards west from District head quarter Jashpur Nagar and 357 km from State capital Raipur.
Kansabel Pin code is 496223 and postal head office is Kansabel. Kansabel is surrounded by
Bagicha Tehsil towards north, Duldula Tehsil and Kunkuri Tehsil towards east, Pharsabahar
Tehsil towards south and Pathalgaon Tehsil towards west.

Sanjay Nikunj is spread over about 4 acres (approx) of land where a variety of plants like-
Mango, Guava, Litchi, Coconut, Moringa, Papaya, Mulberry, Banana and some flowering plants
are cultivated on a small scale and these plants are provided free of cost in the nearby Gram
Panchayats and also sold in the market.

3.2 Data Collection

Guava plants are prepared and cultivated here in about 0.7 acres of land. About 70 plants have
been planted here and more quantity of samplings are prepared.

18
After 2-3 years of transplanting the Guava plants, the plants start bearing fruits. Fruits are
harvested after full ripening. Its fully developed plants yield two to three times in a year. When
the colour of the fruits on its plants starts appearing pale yellow, during that time they should be
harvested.
A potassium- rich fertilizer is best for Guava trees to increase fruit production. Guava plants
should be feed liquid fertilizer during the growing season. Guava trees develop iron deficiency in
alkaline and high pH soils. It should be fertilized with iron sulphate 1-2 times per year.

3.2.1 Fertilizer Requirement (kg/acre)

Table 3.2.1 Fertilizer requirement of Guava

Cow dung Urea (in SSP MOP

Age of crop (Year)
(in kg) gm) (in gm) (in gm)

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 First 3 year 10-20 150-200 500-1500 100-400

4-6 year 25-40 300-600 1500-2000 600-1000

7-10 year 40-50 750-1000 2000-2500 1100-1500

10 year and above 50

1000 2500 1500

3.2.2 Yield
The yield varies in different cultivars and with care and management of the plant, age of the
plant and season of cropping.

The yield per tree may be as high as 350 kg from grafted plants and 90 kg from the seedling tree.
A 3 years old grafted Lucknow-49 Guava tree may yield 55-60 kg under suitable conditions.
Yield starts with 4-5 kg in the second year. On an average a single plant can produce yield of 20-
40 kg. The yield increases with each passing year. The yield of Guava in Kansabel (Sanjay
Nikunj) is about 25-28 quintals per year.

Table 3.2.2 – Production of Guava in Chhattisgarh

Year Production (in Tonnes)

2021-22 187.04

2020-21 185.81

2019-20 192

2018-19 193.42

2017-18 197.18

2016-17 180.21

20
3.2.3 Cost & Profit Analysis

The cost of Guava plant is Rs. 50/piece (however, other varieties can cost as maximum as Rs.
150-200 per piece).
Cost of 1 kg Guava = 40-100 (depending on the market type).
Insecticides & pestisides costs = 600/kg.

Table 3.2.3 - Average cost of produce Guava fruits (on 1 acre of land)

Farming Variables Average Costs (in Rs.)

Planting Material 11000

Manure & Fertilizer Cost 7000

Insecticide & Pesticide 5000

Labour Cost 20000

Energy & Power Bills 10000

Drip Irrigation System 35000

Irrigation Pipeline 40000

Agriculture Stationary 10000

Pump House 20000

Farm Area Fencing 35000

Soil Leveling 80000

Total Cost 201200

Total income of the produce after 2 years = Rs. 270000

Total return on investment = Rs. 68000

21
 CHAPTER IV
OBSERVATION

4.1 Nursery Practices

4.1.1 Seed germination and care of seedlings
Guava seeds should be thoroughly cleaned and air-dried right after extraction from the fruits. It is
necessary to treat the seeds with fungicides to prevent damping off. Seeds should be planted as
soon as possible to ensure high germination. Germinate seeds in beds or boxes using a mixture of
fine sand and garden soil as growing medium. Sow them evenly in furrows 2-3 cm apart and
lightly cover them with soil 0.5-1.0 cm deep. Water regularly preferably in the morning to keep
the soil moist. Protect seedlings against pests and diseases by spraying insecticides and/or
fungicides. Organic pesticides are highly recommended. A month after emergence or when the
first true leaves have formed, transplant seedlings in individual containers or polybags using clay
loam soil mixed with compost as growing medium. Partial shading is necessary until the
seedlings have established. Seedlings are ready for field transplanting or used as rootstocks when
they are six months to one year old.

22
 Fig. 4.1.1 - Seed Germination/ Seed Propagation.

4.1.2 Propagation
Guava is commonly multiplied by seeds. However, it can also be propagated asexually by root
cuttings, marcotting, budding, grafting and inarching.
4.1.2.1 Seed Propagation

Guava is usually propagated by seeds. Guava seeds remain viable for many months. They often
germinate in 2 to 3 weeks but may take as long as 8 weeks. However, this method will not
produce true-to-type plants. Variability in seedlings can be minimized by hand self-pollination.
Honeybee (Apis mellifera) is one of the major pollinators of guava. The amount of cross
pollination ranges from 25.7 to 41.3%.

4.1.2.2 Root cuttings

This is the oldest method of asexually propagating guava. Cut about 12-20 cm long roots and
induce to sprout by placing flat on the bed and cover them with about 2 inches of fine soil, which
must be kept moist to promote germination.

23
4.1.2.3 Budding
An efficient vegetative propagation for selected varieties of guava. Both the patch budding and
forkert techniques are recommended. The diameter of seedling stock and budwood should be
from 15-25 mm. Budwood should be mature, bark no longer green. Condition the budwood by
defoliating the leaves of selected branches 10-14 days before removing the branches for use as
budwood. During this period the buds become more enlarged and grow more readily after
budding.

4.1.2.4 Marcotting or Air layering

Low branches of guava are bent down, with about 12-15 cm of the branch is covered with soil
and kept damp to induce root formation.

Fig. 4.1.2.4 - Air Layering.

4.1.2.5 Stem cuttings

Stem cuttings are made from the young portion towards the end of the branches. These are
rooted using sandy loam soil medium in a nursery house or shed. Guava stem cuttings treated
with Indole Butyric Acid (IBA) or Naphthalene Acetic Acid (NAA) proved to be successful for
rooting and produce numerous and vigorous roots.

24
 Fig. 4.1.2.5 - Stem Cutting.

4.2 Land preparation

4.2.1 Ploughing and harrowing

For backyard planting, land preparation may consist of primarily digging holes about 50 cm
wide and 50 cm deep. Place kerosene can of compost before planting. For open areas, plow the
field 1-2 times alternated by harrowing to completely pulverize and expose the soil, and
eradicate weeds. It is best prior to the onset of wet season.

4.2.2 Staking
Staking is making at 5 to 7 m apart which will serves as guide where to dig holes. About 277
guava seedlings is needed to plant a hectare. The exact planting distance is decided according to
variety, soil fertility, and availability of irrigation facilities.

4.3 Planting
The best time to plant is at the onset or during the rainy season. Prior to planting, place compost
in holes. Also, harden the guava seedlings at least a week before planting by exposing them
gradually to sunlight. During planting, carefully remove the potting containers or plastic bags,
seeing to it that roots are not disturbed; carefully place guava seedling on dug hole, cover it with

25
fine soil until to the base of the seedlings. Water the seedlings right away if soil moisture is not
sufficient.

Fig. 4.3 - Planting of Guava Trees.

4.4 Irrigation
While guava can tolerate dry spell, supplementary irrigation during prolonged dry periods is
desirable to provide adequate water supply for the growing guava tree.
Irrigation has been shown to increase fruit production by increasing fruit size when applied
during fruit development.

26
 Fig. 4.4 - Drip Irrigation.

4.5 Training & Pruning

Training of Guava trees improves yield and fruit quality. The main objective of training Guava
plants is to provide a strong framework and scaffold of branches. For this, shoots coming out
close to the ground level should be cut off up to at least 30 cm from the soil. The centre should
be kept open, while four scaffold limbs may be allowed to grow. Pruning is a most important
activity in guava production. This is done to have the desired form or shape of the guava tree
such as spreading or symmetrical or limited crown or to keep number of branches. However,
when the trees have established a strong framework and started to bear fruit, little training is
required. The root sprout; low-lying branches, disease infected and other dead branches, have to
be eliminated. It should be pruned and trained within first 3 to 4 months after field planting to
increase yield and to reduce the total cost of field operations.

Fig. 4.5 – Pruning.

4.6 Intercropping
The interspaces can be economically utilized by growing suitable intercrops in the early stages
till the bearing. A crop combination of several plantation crops, vegetables and leguminous crops

27
like papaya, pineapple, beans, cucumber, cabbage, cauliflower, peas, cowpea, etc. are considered
safe intercrops.

4.7 Diseases and Pests

4.7.1 Diseases of Guava
4.7.1.1 Anthracnose or Canker
This disease is caused by Gloeosporium psidii G Del. The fungus produces two kinds of
symptoms: formation of cankerous spots throughout the fruit surface which are circular, dry and
raised; in some areas, however, infected fruits become undersized misshapen, hard and dry.
Typical sunken soft lesions usually produced by anthracnose can be observed on ripe fruits.
Under moist conditions; pinkish masses of spores can be seen on lesion surface. It also causes
dieback of plants. On the leaves, the disease produces angular, rusty brown spots of varying
sizes, usually 2-5 mm in diameter. During the rainy season, the blight on shoots is a common
symptom. No definite control measure is recommended although spraying of fungicide can be
done.

Fig. 4.7.1.1 – Anthracnose Disease.

4.7.1.2 Spotting of Leaves and Fruits

This disease is caused by the parasitic alga, Cepaleuros spp, is rather severe on some types and
varieties of guava in humid areas. Spray copper fungicide to control this disorder.
28
 Fig. 4.7.1.2 - Spotting of Leaves & Fruits.

4.7.1.3 Wilting
This disease is caused by Glomremella psidii Sheld is another disease known to attack guava.
The disease causes mummification and blackening of immature fruits.

Fig. 4.7.1.3 - Wilting of Guava.

29
4.7.2 Pests of Guava
4.7.2.1 Oriental fruit fly (Daucus dorsalis Hendel)

This is one of the major insect pests of guava. Its larvae burrow through the ripe fruits making
them unfit for human consumption. To control this pest, bag the guava fruits, and harvest as soon
as fruits are ripe. Infested fruits must be collected and burned or buried to destroy the larvae and
pupa of the insect pest.

Fig. 4.7.2.1 - Fruit Fly.

4.7.2.2 Aphids (Aphis gosypii Glover)

It feeds on young growth causing the curling of leaves. Aphids are fed upon by lady beetles and
by maggots of syrphid flies. They are also parasitized by minute parasitic hymenopterans. Spray
with appropriate insecticides (like Malathion) to control the pest.

30
 Fig. 4.7.2.2 – Aphids.

4.7.2.3 Mealy Bugs and Scale Insects

Common white mealy bug (Lanococcus lilacinus Ckll) attacks and draws plant sap from the
young shoots and fruits of guava though its actual damage is economically insignificant,
however, the ants that it attracts are nuisance when picking the fruits.

Fig. 4.7.2.3 – Mealy Bug.

31
4.7.2.4 Green Scale Insect (Coccus viridis Green)

Coccus viridis green is a soft scale insect that infests the young shoots, mostly the leaves. The
use of entomogenous fungi is effective control during rainy season. Likewise the use of small
wasp parasite, Coccophagus tibialis is also recommended.

4.7.2.5 Moth (Zuezera coffeae Nietn)

Moth of pink caterpillar bores into young upright growing stems tunnelling on its center where it
feeds and develops; stem may suddenly die or break off. Infested stem may be saved by inserting
leaf midrib into the tunnel and pushing it in as far as it would go to kill the caterpillar inside. If
infested twigs have broken, spear or kill the larvae.

4.7.2.6 Guava Shoot Borer

It is a serious pest of nursery. Infested shoots get dry up.

Fig. 4.7.2.6 – Guava Shoot Borer.

4.8 Harvesting & Storage

32
Guava fruits mature in 90-150 days after flowering. Currently, guava fruit are handpicked.
Harvesting guava requires care and usually handpicked. Harvesting of ripe guavas cannot go on
for more than 2 to 3 days during the height of the season because of potential losses from insects
and over ripening of fruits.
The picked fruit should be placed in a cool dry place away from the sun. To maintain quality, it
is best to process the fruits soon after harvest. The puree can be chilled, frozen, or aseptically
packaged. If the fruits need to be stored overnight, the fruit boxes should be places in a covered
and well-ventilated area.

Fig. 4.8 - Harvesting & Storage of Guava Fruits.

4.9, Packaging & Transport

4.9.1 Packaging
The fruits are packed in baskets made from locally available plant material. For distant markets,
wooden or corrugated fibre board boxes are used along with cushioning materials viz. paddy
straw, dry grass, guava leaves or rough paper. Good ventilation is necessary to check build up of
heat. Guava is a delicate fruit requiring careful handling during harvesting and transportation.

33
4.9.2 Transport/ Marketing
Road transport by trucks / lorries is the most convenient mode of transport due to easy approach
from orchards to the market.
Majority of the cultivation sell their produce either through trade agents at village level or
commission agents at the market.

CHAPTER -V
RESULTS, DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

RESULTS
The yield varies in different cultivars and with care and management of the plant, age of the
plant and season of cropping.
The yield per tree may be as high as 350 kg from grafted plants and 90 kg from the seedling tree.
A 3 years old grafted Lucknow-49 Guava tree may yield 55-60 kg under suitable conditions.
Yield starts with 4-5 kg in the second year. On an average a single plant can produce yield of 20-
40 kg. The yield increases with each passing year. The yield of Guava in Kansabel (Sanjay
Nikunj) is about 25-28 quintals per year.

A potassium- rich fertilizer is best for Guava trees to increase fruit production. Guava plants
should be feed liquid fertilizer during the growing season. Guava trees develop iron deficiency in
alkaline and high pH soils. It should be fertilized with iron sulphate 1-2 times per year.

Cost & Profit Analysis

A Guava plant costs 50/piece (the cost varies on varieties)
Guava fruit costs 40-100/kg (depending on the market type)
Total income of the produce after 2 years = 270000 (Approx)
Investment on Guava farming = 201200
Total return on investment = 68000

34
DISCUSSION
Chemical Composition
Guava (Psidium guajava Linn.) commonly known for its food and nutritional values throughout
the world. It has number of chemicals isolated from plants like quercetin, guaijaverin,
isoflavonoids, gallic acid, catechin, epicathechin, rutin, naringenin, kaempferol flavonoids and
galactose-specific lecithins etc. that are used in pharmaceuticals.

35
 Fig. 5.1 – Structures of Phenolic Compounds Present in Guava Leaf Extracts.

Uses of Guava
 Action (various):
Stem, bark and root-bark are astringent. Unripe fruit is indigestible, causes vomiting and
feverishness. Bark is astringent, febrifuge, antiseptic. Fruit is laxative, leaves are astringent
[Nadkarni and Nadkarni]. Locally, decoction of the leaves is applied with much benefit to the
prolapsus ani of children; [Nadkarni and Nadkarni]. Indians also employ it for sore throats,
vomiting, stomach upsets and for vertigo [Raintree].

36
 Fig. 5.2 – Various Bioactivities of Guava Leaf Extracts.

 Antibacterial activity:
The extract also showed in vitro antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli, Salmonella
typhi, Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus mirabilis, and Shigella dysenteria [Iwu]. Another paper
showed the effectiveness of the leaf extract against Staphylococcus aureus [Gnan and Demello].
It was shown to antibacterial in another study and in addition to Staphylococcus aureus was also
useful against Streptococcus spp [Pranee]. The leaves are rich in tannin, and have antiseptic
properties [Hernandez].

37
A strong antimicrobial action of guava leaves on Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms
has been reported (Sarcina lutea and Staphylococcus aureus) and also noted action on
Mycobacterium phlei. The flavone derivatives isolated were reported to inhibit the growth of
Staph. aureus in a dilution of 1:10,000 [Oliver-Bever].
A leaf extract enters into a Nigerian remedy for skin infections, and examination has shown a
positive action on Gram-positive microbial organisms, but no action on Gram-negative
organisms, nor any antifungal action. Three antibacterial substances have been detected in the
leaves which are derivatives of quercetine. As in the bark polyphenols and many other
substances are present [Burkill].

 Anti-diarrhoeal
A leaf infusion is taken in Ghana and Nigeria for stomach complaints e.g. constipation, and in
Adamawa with “red” potash for dysentery; a decoction is taken in Senegal to combat diarrhoea
and dysentery; the shoots and roots may also be used while in neighbouring The Gambia the
leaves are chewed for queezy tummy, a treatment that is said to work very well. A leaf infusion
is drunk in Hawaii and Trinidad and in Indonesia for medical purposes [Burkill]. The ripe fruit is
mildly laxative. The unripe fruit is astringent, anti-diarrhoeic, and has medicinal use [Burkill].
The ripe fruit is a good aperient, and should be eaten with the skin, for without it, costiveness
results. The unripe fruit is said to indigestible, causing vomiting and feverishness, but it is
sometimes employed for diarrhoea. [Conway].

 Antispasmodic:
This plant is among the aromatic antispasmodics; a decoction of the young leaves and shoots is
prescribed in the West Indies for febrifuge and antispasmodic baths. In India and Ghana the stem
and twigs are considered astringent (bark as well). In the West Indies it is used as a febrifuge,
antispasmodic bath (decoction of shoots and young leaves) [Ayensu]. They are recommended for
swollen legs. The young leaves and shoots are used for The leaves of the guava tree in decoction
It has been used for spasms, fevers, worms, diabetes [Ticzon].

 Conjunctivitis:

38
Flowers are also used as a poultice for conjunctivitis [Ayensu]. This use is reflected by that in the
Amazon, where the flowers are also mashed and applied to painful eye conditions such as sun
strain, conjunctivitis or eye injuries [Raintree].

 Coughs:
Boiled with lemon grass (Cymbopogon citratus) to make a decoction that is drunk for coughs. A
decoction is also taken in Senegal for tracheobronchitis [Burkill]. The leaves are also used for
cough [Wyk et al] a use also followed in Peru [Raintree].

 Diabetes:
The leaves are also used for several other ailments including diabetes. The leaf infusions are used
in the Cape for diabetes [Wyk et al]. Water in which the fruit is soaked is good for thirst in
diabetes [Conway].

 Kidney problems:
The young leaves and shoots are used for inflammation of the kidney and kidney problems
[Ticzon]. In India the leaf decoction used for nephritis(an inflammation of the kidney) [Ayensu].

 Malaria:
The leaves are used as an ingredient in the preparation of fever "teas". They are also used as part
of the pot herb used in steam treatment for malaria. Indeed, the main ethnotherapeutic use in
Africa is said to be for malaria. Psidium guajava stem-bark extract contained anthraquinones,
flavonoids, seccoirridoids and terpenoids andwas found to be effective for the treatment and/or
prophylaxis of malaria in KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa. The in vitro antiplasmodial
assay was carried out using a chloroquine-sensitive strain of malarial parasite [Nundkumar et al].

 Oral Care:
In the lagoon area of coastal Ivory Coast young twigs serve as chewsticks [Burkill]. In southern
Nigeria the twigs are used as chew sticks and the presence of bioactive compounds comprised of
saponins, tannins, flavonoids, and alkaloids is responsible for their effectiveness. Chewing sticks
when used without toothpaste are very efficient, effective, and reliable for cleaning teeth. The

39
teeth of chewing sticks users are usually strong, clean, fresh, and devoid of dental plaques and
carries [Okwu and Ekeke].

 Food uses:
The fruit is sweet and is eaten raw or cooked. It makes good jam and is universally known for its
jelly [Burkill]. The fruit is rich in vitamin C, and is eaten raw, candied, or made into jellies and
jams [Hernandez]. The fruits are edible and the juice is used as a refreshing drink [Iwu]. Eating
the fruit may well have longer term cardio protective effects as a result of the antioxidant and
free radical protection the plant was proved to offer [Yamashiro et al]. The fruit is also a source
of antioxidant dietary fibre [Jimenez-Escrig et al]. Guava powder containing 2,500-3,000 mg
ascorbic acid was commonly added to military rations in World War II.

 Other uses:
A black dye is made from it in E. Africa for dyeing matting, silk and cotton. It is used in Gabon
for tanning hides [Burkill].

40
CONCLUSION
Guava (Psidium guajava Linn.) commonly known for its food and nutritional values throughout
the world. A number of chemicals isolated from plants like quercetin, guaijaverin, isoflavonoids,
gallic acid, catechin, epicathechin, rutin, naringenin, kaempferol flavonoids and galactose-
specific lecithins have shown promising activity. Toxicity studies in mice and other animal
models as well as controlled human studies show leaf, seed, pulp, skin and fruits different extract
in different concentration are helps to prevent cancer, regulating blood pressure, and treating
diarrhea. Much of the traditional uses have been validated by scientific research. The plant has
been extensively studied in terms of pharmacological activity of its major components and the
results show antioxidant, antipyretic, antifungal, antimicrobial, hypotensive, analgesic & anti-
inflammatory effect.
It is of great economic importance in many countries of the world, due to its high production and
diversity of products derived from its fruit. It can be consumed fresh or processed. During the
fruit’s processing, some residues are generated, such as seeds, rinds, and pulp, which is about
30% of the fresh fruit’s volume. Different studies have shown that it can be used in various
industries, such as food, chemical, and pharmaceutical. By-products or processing residues have
valuable components. Evidence indicates that it contains significant amounts of dietary fiber
(soluble and insoluble), vitamins (A, B, C, β-carotene), essential oils, minerals, proteins
(transferrin, ceruloplasmin, albumin), pectins, antioxidants (flavonoids, flavonols, condensed
tannins) and volatile organic compounds; these elements can help in the prevention of chronic
and degenerative diseases. P. guajava L. is considered a nutraceutical due to its compounds with
beneficial properties on health and disease prevention. Therefore, this paper aims to review the
physicochemical composition of the different by-products of the processing of guava and its
reported uses.

41
 CHAPTER -VI
SUMMARY

It has a yellow or green skin and a pink or red flesh with edible seeds. It has a sweet and sour
taste and a strong aroma. Guava is rich in vitamin C, fiber, antioxidants, and other nutrients that
can benefit health. It may help lower blood pressure, cholesterol, and blood sugar levels. Guava
can be eaten raw or cooked, and it is used in various dishes, desserts, sauces, and beverages. It
can also be made into jams, jellies, and preserves. Guava has many varieties, such as apple
guava, lemon guava, strawberry guava, and pineapple guava. Each variety has different
characteristics and flavors. Guava is also known as guayaba, goiaba, amrood, or pera in different
languages and cultures. It is a popular fruit in many tropical and subtropical regions of the world.
Guava is one of the very important fruit crops of India because of its hardy nature, prolific
bearing, high vitamin C i.e., high nutritive value, easy availability at moderate price with
pleasant aroma and good flavor of fruits. The effect of Time, IBA, different rooting media and
combination of these are being studied on the air-layers of the plant. On the basis of the
experimental findings, it can be concluded that the rainy season of air layering, the exogenous
application of root promoting chemical IBA at higher concentration and rooting media
individually and in combination is the best for higher rooting and survival percentage and can be
used for mass multiplication of true-to type plants of Sardar Guava through air layering under the
sub-tropical condition of Kota Rajasthan. Rooting media, Rainy season and IBA treatments
seems to have influence the activation of root primordial and provide carbohydrates, cause
considerable increase in the success in promoting roots and improved root characters like
number of roots, root length and root weight

42
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