ZNOTES.

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UPDATED TO 2023-25 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
MATHS
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
CAIE IGCSE MATHS

1. Number
Natural numbers:
used for counting purposes
A∩B is shaded A∪B ‎is shaded
all possible rational &irrational numbers
Integer: a whole number ‎⊂‎‘is a subset of’
Prime numbers:
divisible only by itself and one
1 is not a prime number
Rational numbers: can be written as a fraction
Irrational numbers: cannot be written as a fraction e.g. π
Cube numbers: made from multiplying a rational number
ξ = {a, b, c, d, e} A’ is shaded
to itself twice.
b∈X
Reciprocals: A number made by raising a rational number
to -1, or 1 over that number
of elements in A

1.2. HCF and LCM ∈ = …is an element of…

\n otin = …is not an element of…
Highest Common Factor and Lowest Common Multiple: A′ = compliment of set A
Ø or = empty set
ξ = Universal set
A ∪ B = union of A and B
A ∩ B = intersection of A and B
A ⊆ B = A is a subset of B
HCF = product of common factors of x and y
A ⊂ B = A is a proper subset of B
LCM = product of all items in Venn diagram
A⊄B = A is not a subset of B

1.4. Indices
Standard form:

10 4 = 10000
10 3 = 1000
10 2 = 100
Prime Factorization: finding which prime numbers 10 1 = 10
multiply together to make the original number 10 0 = 1
10 −1 = 0.1
1.3. Sets 10 −2 = 0.01
10 −3 = 0.001
Definition of sets e.g. 10 −4 = 0.0001
A = { x : x is a natural number} 10 −5 = 0.00001
B = {( x , y): y = mx + c } Limits of accuracy:
C = { x : a ≤ x ≤ b}
D = { a, b, c , … } The degree of rounding of a number
E.g. 2.1 to 1 d.p 2.05 ≤ x < 2.15
Set representations: Finding limits when adding/multiplying: add/multiply
respective limits of values
Finding maximum value possible when
dividing/subtracting: max value divided by/minus min
value
Finding minimum value possible when
A∩B is shaded A∪B ‎is shaded dividing/subtracting: min value divided by/minus max
value
‎⊂‎‘is a subset of’

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Units of speed: km/hr or m/s

1.5. Ratio & Proportion
Units of distance: km or m
Ratio: used to describe a fraction Units of time: hr or sec
e.g. 3 : 1
5
Foreign exchange: money changed from one currency to km/hr × = m/sec
18
​

another using proportion

E.g. Convert $22.50 to Dinars 18
m/sec × = km/hr
$1 : 0.30KD 5
​

$22.50 : 6.75KD
Map scales: using proportion to work out map scales
1km = 1000m
2. Algebra & Graphs
1m = 100cm
1cm = 10mm 2.1. Factorisation
Direct variation: y is proportional to x
Common factors:
y∝x
3x 2 + 6x
y = kx
3x(x + 2)
Inverse variation: y is inversely proportional to x
Difference of two squares:
1
y∝
x 25 − x 2
​

k
y= ​
(5 + x)(5 − x)
x
Group factorization:
1.6. Percentages
4d + ac + ad + 4c
Percentage:
Convenient way of expressing fractions 4 (d + c ) + a(c + d)
Percent means per 100
(4 + a)(c + d)
Percentage increase or decrease:
Trinomial:
Actual Change
P ercentage increase = × 100
Original Amount x 2 + 14x + 24
​

Simple interest:
x 2 + 12x + 2x + 24
PRT
I= x (x + 12 ) + 2 (x + 12 )
100
​

Where, P= P rincipal, R = Rate Of I nterest, and (x + 2)(x + 12)

T = T ime
2.2. Quadratic Factorization
Compound interest:
n General equation:
A = P (1 + )
R
100 ax 2 + bx + c = 0
​

Where, P= P rincipal, R = Rate Of I nterest, and Solve quadratics by:

T = T ime Trinomial factorization
Quadratic formula
1.7. Speed, Distance & Time −b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
​

2a
​

Distance
Speed =
Time When question says, “give your answer to two decimal
​

Total Distance places”, use formula!

Average Speed = Derivation of the Quadratic Formula is the same as saying
Total Time
​

“Make x the subject in ax 2 + bx + c = 0 ”

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ax 2 + bx + c = 0 - Quadratic Formula
e.g. x 2 − x − 6 = 0
Factorize a out
Where a = 1 , b = −1 , c = −6
Plug the numbers in the Quadratic Formula:
a (x 2 + x) + c = 0
b
​

a −b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
​

2a
​

Complete the Square

2 Therefore:
a ((x + ) − 2) + c = 0
b b2
2a 4a (−1 )2 − 4 (1 ) (−6 )
​ ​

− (−1 ) ± ​

x=
2 (1 )
​

b 2 b2
a (x + ) − +c=0
2a 4a
​ ​

x1 = 3
​

2
b2 − 4ac
a (x + ) =
b x 2 = −2
​

2a 4a
​ ​

- Complete the Square

2
b2 − 4ac e.g. x 2 + 10x + 5 = 0
(x + ) =
b
2a 4a2 (WARNING! Coefficient of x 2 Must be 1 for this to work)
​ ​

b b2 − 4ac x 2 + 10x + 5 = 0
x+ =±
2a 4a2
​ ​ ​

(x + 5 )2 − 5 2 + 5 = 0
b ± b2 − 4ac 2
x+ =
​

2a
​

4a2 ​
​

(x + 5 ) − 20 = 0

Note: 4a2 is a square number (x + 5 )2 = 20

b ± b2 − 4ac x + 5 = ± 20
x+ =
​
​

2a 2a
​ ​

x = −5 ± 20 ​

−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
​

2a
​

Answer is:

Standardized form: x 1 = −5 +
​ 20 , x 2 = −5 −
​ ​ 20 ​

y = ax2 +bx + c
Complete Square form: 2.3. Reciprocal Graphs (Hyperbola)
y = (x + a)2 +b (Where axis of symmetry is x =
−a) Standardized Form:
To find turning point of quadratic equation, complete y = ax ​

the square, then the turning point is: (−a, b)

Ways to solve Quadratic equation: If a is Positive: If a is Negative:
Graphing Method The Line will be in the The Line will be in the
Factorizing 1st &3rd Quadrant 2nd&4th Quadrant
Quadratic Formula
Complete the Square
2.4. Cubic Equation
- Graphing Method – Graph the equation,
see where the it touches the x-axis Standardized Form:
- Factorizing y =ax3 +bx2 +cx + d
e.g. x 2 −x−6=0 Properties:
Highest Exponent of x is 3
x2 − x − 6 = 0 Has a maximum of 2 turning points

(x − 3 ) (x + 2 ) = 0 Turning points are points after which a graph changes its

gradient’s sign, therefore changing direction between up or
x1 = 3 ​

down

x 2 = −2 ​

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Using differentiation
dy
dx gives you the gradient of the curve at any point in
​

terms of x
dy
When y = xn , dx ​
= nx n−1
Stationary/ turning point: dy
dx ​ =0
st ′
1 Derivative = dy
dx = f ( x ) ​

d2 y ′′
2nd Derivative = dx2 = f (x ) ​

To determine if stationary point is maximum or

minimum:
2.5. Exponential Graphs
Use 2nd derivative
d2 y
Maximum point: dx2 ​ <0
d2 y
Minimum point: dx 2 ​ >0
Use gradients around the point
Input x values slightly above and below
stationary point and calculate gradient

2.7. Simultaneous Equations

Can be solved either by substitution or elimination
Generally solved by substitution as follows:
Step 1: obtain an equation in one unknown and solve
this equation
Step 2: substitute the results from step 1 into linear
equation to find the other unknown
The points of intersection of two graphs are given by the
solution of their simultaneous equations

2.8. Inequalities
Standardized form:
y = a (b )x Solve like equations
Properties: Multiplying or dividing by negative ⇒ switch sign
a is the y-intercept y
Asymptotes are lines that a curve approaches, but −3 ≥ −7
​

never touches because the curve continues to infinity. y ≤ −7 × −3

In this case, The asymptotes are y = 0 and x = 4
b is the rate of growth y ≤ 21
When 0 < b < 1 , the graph will go downwards from When two inequalities present, split into two
left to right
x < 3x − 1 < 2x + 7
2.6. Gradient of a Curve
x < 3x − 1 3x − 1 < 2x + 7
1
By drawing tangents x> 2
​
x<8
In a straight line, gradient is constant
Curves have varying gradients throughout the graph. 1
To find the gradient at a point:
<x<8
2
​

1. Draw the graph

2. Draw a tangent at the point in the graph, ensuring it 2.9. Linear Programming
only touches the graph at that point (Use a ruler)
3. Find the gradient of the tangent For strict inequalities (<, >) use broken line
For non-strict inequalities (≤, ≥) use solid line
Steps to solve:
Interpret y = mx + c
Draw straight line graphs
Shade

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Solve From O to A: Uniform increase in speed

From A to B: Constant speed (acceleration = 0)
From B to C: Uniform deceleration / retardation

Area under a graph = distance travelled.

Gradient = acceleration.
If the acceleration is negative, it is called deceleration or
retardation. (moving body is slowing down.)
2.10. Sequences
Linear sequences: Find common difference e.g. 3, then 2.13. Functions
multiply by n and work out what needs to be added
Quadratic sequences: Function notation:
Format: an2 + bn + c f : x → 2x − 1
Function f such that x maps onto 2x − 1
Composite function: Given two functions f (x ) and g (x ) ,
the composite function of f and g is the function which
maps x onto f (g (x ))
Work out the values and then place into formula to f (2 )
work out nth term formula Substitute x = 2 and solve for f (x )
Geometric progression: sequence where term has been
fg(x)
multiplied by a constant to form next term
Substitute x = g (x )
−1
nth term of G.P . = ar(n−1) f (x)
Let y = f(x) and make x the subject
a = 1st term r = common ratio

2.11. Distance-Time Graphs

3. Geometry
3.1. Similarity
Similarity can be worked out by the AAA (Angle – Angle –
Angle) rule.
AAA (Angle – Angle – Angle) rule: All the corresponding
From O to A: Uniform speed angles of the triangles must be equal.
From B to C: Uniform speed (return journey)
From A to B: Stationery (speed = 0)

3.2. Congruence
Gradient = speed
SSS (Side – Side – Side) rule: All the three sides of the
triangles must be equal
2.12. Speed-Time Graphs

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Rectangle:

diagonals bisect each other

RHS (Right angle – Hypotenuse – Side) rule : Parallelogram:

There must two right-angled triangles Opposite sides parallel/equal

The length of the hypotenuses must be the same
One of the corresponding sides of each triangle must be opposite angles equal
the same
diagonals bisect each other
SAS (Side – Angle – Side) rule: Rhombus:
There must be an angle and a side present
A parallelogram with all sides
The angle of the adjacent sides must be equal
equal
The two sides of the triangle must be equal

opposite angles equal

diagonals bisect each other

Trapezium:

ASA (Angle – Side – Angle) rule: The sides adjacent to the

equal angles must be of the same length. One pair of sides parallel

Kite:

Two pairs of adjacent sides

equal

diagonals are perpendicular

3.3. Triangles to each other

3.5. Construction
Constructing triangles:

3.4. Quadrilaterals
Rectangle:
Opposite sides parallel/equal
all angles 90°

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3.6. Symmetry
Line of symmetry: Divides a two-dimensional shape into
two congruent (identical) shapes
Plane of symmetry: Divides a three-dimensional shape
into two congruent solid shapes

The number of times shape fits its outline during a

complete revolution is called the order of rotational Corresponding angles are equal
symmetry

Number of Lines of Rotational Symmetry

Shape
Symmetry Order
Square 4 4
Rectangle 2 2
Parallelogram 0 2
Alternate angles
Rhombus 2 2
Trapezium 0 1
Kite 1 1
Equilateral
3 3
triangle
Regular
6 6
hexagon

Properties of circles:
Equal chords are equidistant from the centre
The perpendicular bisector of a chord passes through
the centre
Tangents from an external point are equal in length

Co-interior angles add up to 180°

3.7. Polygons
Sum of angles at a point = 360 ∘
Angles on a straight line = 180 ∘
Sum of angles in a triangle = 180 ∘
For regular polygon
∘
External angles = 360n ​

∘
Internal angles = 180 ∘ − 360
n ​

For irregular polygon:

Sum of exterior angles = 360 ∘
Sum of interior angles= 180(n − 2)
Vertically opposite angles are equal

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1
Trapezium= 2 ​ (a + b) h
Circle= πr 2
Sector= πr 2 × θ
360 ​

4.2. Volume and Surface Area

Cuboid
Surface Area = 2(lw + hw + hl)
Volume = hlw
Cylinder
Curved surface area = 2πrh
Volume = πr 2 h
Cone
Curved surface area = πrl
Exterior angle=sum of interior opposite ∠ Volume = 13 (πr 2 h)
​

Sphere
Surface Area = 4πr 2
Volume = 43 πr 3
​

Hemisphere
Surface area = 3πr 2
Volume = 23 πr 3
​

Kite
pq
Surface area = 2 ​

4.3. Units
3.8. Circle Theorem
Volume:

Angle at center = twice

Angle subtended by same arc at
angle on circumference
circumference are equal

Angles in semicircle are

90° Opposite angles in a cyclic
quadrilateral = 180°
Mass:

Tangents from one point

are equal. ‎∠‎between
tangent and radius is 90° Alternate segment theorem

4. Mensuration
4.1. Area
Parallelogram = b × h or AB sin θ
Triangle= 12 b × h
​

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Capacity:

f(x) = 1‎ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑓( 𝑥) = 𝑥2

Connecting volume and capacity: f(x) = x3‎ f(x) = 1/x f(x) = 1/x2
1ml = 1cm3
1kl = 1m3
Mass
Density = Volume ​
6. Trigonometry

5. Coordinate Geometry 6.1. Bearings

The bearing of a point B from another point A is:
5.1. Graphs An angle measured from the north at A.
In a clockwise direction.
Gradient of a Straight Line: Written as three-figure number (i.e. from 000° to 360°)
e.g. The bearing of B from A is 050°
y2 − y1
Gradient =
​ ​

x2 − x1
​

​ ​

Equation of Line:

y = mx + c
Find the gradient, m 6.2. Pythagoras Theorem
Find the y -intercept, c
To find hypotenuse
a2 + b2 = c 2

Midpoint of Graph:

x 1 + x 2 y1 + y2
( , )
​ ​ ​ ​

2 2
​ ​

Length between two points:

2 2
(x 2 − x 1 ) + (y2 − y1 )
​ ​ ​ ​
​

To find one of the shorter sides

a2 = c 2 − b2
5.2. Sketching Graphs b2 = c 2 − a2
Angle of elevation:
Angle above the horizontal line

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Angle of depression:
Angle below the horizontal line.

∘
cos (x ) = cos (360 − x)

1
Area of a triangle: 2 ab sin c ​

6.3. Ratios
Right angled triangles:
opposite
sin x = hypotenuse → SOH
​

adjacent
cos x = hypotenuse → CAH ​

tan x = opposite
adjacent → TOA
​

Sine and cosine shifted by 90°

Sine has x-intercepts at multiples 180°, and cosine at (90°
+ multiples of 180°)
∘
tan (x) = tan (180 + x)

6.4. Graphs of simple trigonometric

functions
∘ Goes to infinity at 90°, 270°, 450°, …
sin (x) = sin (180 − x) Has x-intercepts at multiples of 180°

6.5. Sine & Cosine Rules

Sine rule:

A B C
= =
sin a sin b sin c
​ ​ ​

Cosine rule
To find the angle given 3 sides

b2 + c 2 − a2
cos a =
2bc
​

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To find side given angle and two sides Translation (T):

a2 = b2 + c 2 − 2bc cos a

7. Vectors & Transformations

7.1. Vectors
When describing a translation, it is necessary to give
Vector quantity has both magnitude and direction the translation vector
E.g. Vectors a and b represented by the line segments, Enlargement (E):
can be added using ‘parallelogram rule’ or ‘nose-to-tail To describe an enlargement, state the scale factor, K
and the centre of enlargement

length of image
Scale factor =
length of object
​

Area of image = K 2 × area of object

If K > 0, both object and image lie on same side of the
centre of enlargement
method’ If K < 0, object and image lie on opposite side of the centre
Multiplication by a scalar: of enlargement
Scalar quantity: has a magnitude but no direction
The negative sign reverses the direction of the vector
Column vector:
8. Probability
Probability is the study of chance, or the likelihood of an
event happening

number of favourable outcomes

P (event) =
total number of outcomes
​

If probability = 0, event is impossible

If probability =1, event is certain to happen
Top number = horizontal component All probabilities lie between 0 and 1
Bottom number = vertical component

Parallel vectors: 8.2. Events

Vectors are parallel if they have the same direction
In general, the vector k ( ab ) is parallel to ( ab )
​ ​
Exclusive events:
Modulus of a vector:
Two events are exclusive if they cannot occur at the same
In general, if x = (m
n ) , ∣x ∣ =
​ (m2 + n2 ​

time

7.2. Transformation
Reflection (M):
When describing a reflection, the position of the
mirror line is essential
Rotation (R):
The centre, angle and direction of rotation are needed
to describe a rotation
A clockwise rotation is negative, and an anticlockwise
rotation is positive

The OR Rule:

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For exclusive events A and B Take the required number from the table and divide
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) by the sum of all values in the row/column of the
condition provided.
Independent events: Remember: P(A|B) and P(B|A) are not the same
Two events are independent if occurrence of one is
unaffected by occurrence of other
The AND Rule:
9. Statistics
P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B)
9.1. Histograms
8.3. Conditional Probability
Probability of an event (A), given that another (B) has
already occurred

Symbol : P (A∣B)

Histogram: Displays frequency of continuous or grouped

discrete data in the form of bars
Bars are joined together and may be of varying width
Frequency of the data is represented by the area of the
bar and not the height
When class intervals are different, area of the bar
represents the frequency, not the height
Frequency density plotted on y-axis, not frequency
Class width = Interval
Frequency density = Height

F requency = Class width × F requency density

9.2. Averages
Calculate using Venn diagram:

Construct the Venn diagram, using sample space of both Mean

events Sum of values
P(A|B) = P(A ∩ B) / P(B)
number of values
​

Calculate using tree diagrams: Median:

The middle value - when the data has been written in
ascending or descending order
5+1
Odd no. of values 2 = 3rd value
​

Even no. of values 6+1

2 = 3.5th value
​

(add two values divide by 2)

Mode:
Construct tree diagram. Most frequently occurring value
Write the outcomes of the first event Range:
Connect both the second and first events outcome Difference between highest and lowest values
Write probability on top of each event’s line Estimated mean of grouped data:
Multiply probabilities on the lines to the required outcome Work out midpoints of each group and multiply by
Note: The probabilities reduce with each step if objects frequency
are replaced Divide by number of values

Calculate using two-way tables:

Column and row headers are the sample space of the 9.3. Cumulative Frequency
two events
Fill in each cell with the correct number of outcomes

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Cumulative frequency is the total frequency up to a given Number of an item ∘

θ= × 360
point Total number of items
​

Inter-quartile range = upper quartile −

lower quartile

9.4. Box-and-whisker plots

Construction
Find median and two quartiles Sum of angles in a pie chart is 360
∘

Draw three lines of equal width along these values

Complete the boxes
Draw ‘whiskers’ extending from the box to the
9.6. Stem and Leaf diagrams
maximum and minimum values.
Stem-and-Leaf diagram is a quick way of summarizing a
Draw two more lines at the ends
range of data.
There is a column known as the stem, contains which
contains unique elements of data formed by removing
last digits of the data.
Keys are used in this diagram

Interpretation:
Median, quartiles and extreme values can be found by
reading on the scale of y-axis
Short boxes mean low IQR and vice versa (2), (3)
Long whiskers mean a lot of extreme values and vice
versa (1) 9.7. Pictograms
Difference in position of boxes represents if data in
one set is overall higher or lower than another data Data is represented in pictures
set. (3) and (4) A key is given to represent the value of a picture.
Variation in lengths of different sections and position
of median show how evenly the data is spread,
compared to other data sets (1) E.g. = 5 people

9.5. Pie Charts Favorite Fast Food of 100 Children

Sectors represent data, and these sectors form a circle.

9.8. Scatter Diagrams
Angle of a sector:
b f

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Displays the correlation between two sets of data

May have positive, negative or no correlation

Line of best fit drawn through points that has an equal

number of points on each side to show the trend

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