Lecture 3

EE4209 Power System Protection
Fall 2023
Lecture 3
Akbar Ali Khan

System Transducers
Transducers (most commonly current transformer (CTs) and voltage

transformers (VTs)) are employed in power system for:
• Transforming currents and voltages of mainstream power network to

a lower value acceptable for relaying/metering.
• Providing isolation between the power network and the instruments

like relay or meters
System Transducers
• Secondary windings of transducers are standardized to ease out their
setting points for connected equipment.
• Typically CTs have a rated secondary current of 5A in USA while 1A in

Europe.
• VTs secondary voltage is rated at 120V phase-phase or 69.3V phase-

neutral
System Transducers
• Beyond nominal ratings, transducers are designed to withstand
abnormal values during fault alike scenarios.
• CTs are supposed to withstand fault current, multiple times of its

rated current for few seconds.
• VTs are expected to withstand upto 20% of overvoltage consistanly.

Current Transformers
• Typically consists of one or very few
primary turns.
• They can be in the form of flat turn, or a
coil of few heavy rated coil turns.
• It may also have the actual conductor or
bus-bar passing through the central hole
• Secondary may have a large number of
turns wound on a laminated core.
• Cross sectional area is deliberately kept
high for low magnetic field density.
• For CTs targeted for metering are designed to saturated above their
nominal rating (with some margin) so that connected objects can be
saved.
• While the CTs required for protective relaying should have a linear
relationship beyond their rated value so that fault detection can be
achieved
• CTs may be free standing devices or may be built inside bushing of any
power apparatus.
• Can be classified on the basis of construction
as
1. Window/toroidal type current transformer.
2. Bar type current transformer
3. Wound type current transformer
Steady State Performance of Current Transformers
->
Ratio Correction Factor ->
Consider a CT with a turns ratio of 500 : 5, a secondary leakage impedance of (0.01 + j 0.1), and a
resistive burden of 2.0. If the magnetizing impedance is (4.0 + j15) , then find the ratio correcting factor
Typically Zm is not constant, So Im for any

given Em have to be found via the relevant
characteristic curve
Another way of approximating CT

performance is standard class designation.
E.g. 10C400 implies 10% error in CT output at
20times of its rated value (typically 100A) for a
voltage of 400V
Multi-Ratio (MR) Current Transformers
Polarity Marking on Current Transformers
• Current entering the dot in primary corresponds to current leaving the dot in secondary
• Positive potential at primary dot corresponds to positive potential at secondary dot.

CTs Connection for 3phase circuits
• Zf is the phase burden and Zn is the neutral
burden.
• Zn is the neutral burden
• In Delta connection, phase shift of 30o is
applied on the secondary current w.r.t.
primary.
Zero Sequence Current Shunts

Flux Summing CT
• Used for summing the current of three phases.

• The sum corresponds to the (3times) zero sequence current.
• Can detect unbalance in the phases.
• High voltage circuits cannot be placed in such a low clearance, so
applicable for low voltage applications only.
• If a metallic enclosure is used, enclosure may contain sum zero
sequence current, can be compensated by passing the grounding wire
through the core.
Auxiliary Current Transformer
• In many relaying systems, additional CTs have been incorporated.
There are several objectives such as
• Current transformation ratio adjustment
• Providing galvanic isolation between main CT and subsequent circuit
• They can also introduce their own errors in the transformation. Such
as early saturation.
• The burden on secondary winding of auxiliary CT is referred to the
secondary winding of the main CT, similar to transformer secondary
to primary referral rule. E.g. if the auxiliary CT ratio is 1: 𝑛, and its
burden is Z1, it is reflected in the main CT secondary as Z1/n2
Auxiliary Current Transformer
Example: Consider the CT connection shown in Figure 3.9.
CT1 has a turns ratio of 1200 : 5, while CT2 has a turns ratio
of 1000 : 5. It is desired that when the primary current flows
through the two lines as shown, the current in the burden be zero.
Assume the primary current to be 600 A. The current in the secondary
winding of CT1 is 2.5A and that in the secondary winding of CT2 is 3A.
By inserting an auxiliary CT with a turns ratio of 3 : 2.5 or 1.2 : 1 in the

secondary circuit of CT1, the current in the auxiliary CT secondary
becomes 3A. With the polarity markings as shown, the burden current
is zero.
Linear Couplers
CTs without core.
Magnetizing Inductance is very low.
Secondary current is very limited
Transformation ratio is practically constant due to linearity
Can be considered current to voltage converter.
Majorly used where saturation is a problem
Electronic Current Transformers
Uses the polarization plane of polarized light passing through an optical fiber
block around the magnetic field produced by current carrying conductor
The angle of rotation of polarized plane is detected and electronically
converted to voltage corresponding the magnitude of current.
Can have a linear relationship for a large variation of current, are smaller in
size and does not have a fire hazard.
However, needs a separate supply, which is a challenge in the grid area.
Voltage Transformers
• Also called potential transformer, are normal transformers with the primary
winding connected to the high-voltage line/equipment while secondary is wound
to have 69.3V phase or 120V line voltage.
• Their performance, equivalent circuit, and phasor diagrams are similar to those of
a power transformer.
• The error of transformation of such a transformer is negligible for all practical

purposes in its entire operating range.
• They are expensive, especially at higher voltages.
• VTs are usually found on low-, medium-, and high-voltage systems.
• For higher voltages, capacitive VTs are more commonly used.

Voltage Transformers
• In case of single phase to ground fault on ungrounded system, VTs of
healthy phases go to phase-phase voltage, possibly deriving it into
saturation region.
• In saturation, high magnetizing current can blow the protective fuse.
Coupling Capacitor Voltage Transformers
• One of the most common voltage sources for relaying – particularly at extra
higher voltages.
• A string of capacitors is used as a potential divider between the high-voltage
apparatus and ground, and a tap provides a reduced voltage of about 1-4 kV.
• The tap point is connected to a transformer through an inductance.
• The turns ratio of the transformer is such that the secondary voltage is the
standard 120 V.
• The burden impedance is Zb , while Zf is a specially designed damping circuit for
suppressing Ferro resonance that may arise in certain conditions
• The load current drawn by the parallel combination of Zf and Zb is relatively small
under normal operating condition.
• Figure below shows the Thevenin’s impedance seen from the primary of
electromagnetic VT into the CCVT.
• If 𝐿 is chosen to resonate with 𝐶 at the system frequency, there will be no voltage
• drop across the 𝐿𝐶 series circuit.
• Thus, the output of the CCVT will become independent of the current drawn by
burden.
• As the transformer supplies the load current, there may be a phase
shift between the primary voltage and the voltage appearing at the
load.
• To avoid a phase angle error, an inductance of an appropriate size is
introduced to satisfy the resonance condition.
• Often, by careful design of the transformer, its leakage inductance can

be made equal to 𝐿, and provides this compensation.
• Since the Thevenin’s impedance of the CCVT is capacitive, the
nonlinear magnetizing branch of the connected transformer may give
rise to ferroresonant oscillations, especially under light loads.
• Unless these oscillations are eliminated voltages of multiple
frequencies – including subharmonic frequencies such as 𝑤/3 –
superimposed on the power frequency are likely to appear at the
secondary terminals of the transformer.
• A special suppression circuit, represented by Zf, is usually provided to

damp these oscillations. In general, this circuit is a damped 𝑅, 𝐿, 𝐶
circuit, a nonlinear resistor, a spark-gap, or a combination of these
elements.
• Windings of three-phase VTs may be connected in wye or in delta, as
needed in each application.
• The delta connection introduces a magnitude factor 3, and a phase
angle shift of ±30o, depending upon the manner in which delta is
connected.
• The VT windings are also marked to indicate their polarity. Terminals
of like polarity may be indicated by dots, or by terminal label H1, H2,
X1, and X2.

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EE4209 Power System Protection

Akbar Ali Khan

Transducers (most commonly current transformer (CTs) and voltage

• Transforming currents and voltages of mainstream power network to

• Providing isolation between the power network and the instruments

• Typically CTs have a rated secondary current of 5A in USA while 1A in

• VTs secondary voltage is rated at 120V phase-phase or 69.3V phase-

• CTs are supposed to withstand fault current, multiple times of its

• VTs are expected to withstand upto 20% of overvoltage consistanly.

Ratio Correction Factor ->

Typically Zm is not constant, So Im for any

Another way of approximating CT

• Positive potential at primary dot corresponds to positive potential at secondary dot.

Zero Sequence Current Shunts

• Used for summing the current of three phases.

By inserting an auxiliary CT with a turns ratio of 3 : 2.5 or 1.2 : 1 in the

• The error of transformation of such a transformer is negligible for all practical

• They are expensive, especially at higher voltages.

• VTs are usually found on low-, medium-, and high-voltage systems.

• For higher voltages, capacitive VTs are more commonly used.

• Often, by careful design of the transformer, its leakage inductance can

• A special suppression circuit, represented by Zf, is usually provided to

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