CONTROL AND COORDINATION (PART I)

COORDINATION IN ANIMALS:

In all animals control and coordination of life processes and adjustments with the environment take
place with the help

i) Nervous System- brings nervous control and coordination.

ii) Endocrine System- brings hormonal or chemical control and coordination

NERVOUS SYSTEM

It is the system of conducting tissues that receives the stimulus and transports it to other.

STRUCTURE OF A NEURON

The generalized structure of a neuron consists of the following parts:

i. CELL BODY- It consists of a cell body called cyton having nucleus and mitochondria

ii. AXON- a long process arising from the cyton and leading away the nerve impulse from the cyton.

iii. DENTRITES-These are highly branched projections of a neuron that conduct the electrochemical
stimulation received from other neuron to the cell body.

iv. TERMINALS-The end portions of the axons have swollen ends like bulbs which store certain
chemicals called neurotransmitters. (Acetylcholine and Nor adrenaline)

Axon terminals are closely packed near the dendrites of another one or more neurons but are not
connected .Such gaps in between are called synaptic clefts (Synapse-The junction between adjacent
neuron, between the axon ending of one neuron and dendrite of the other)

BHPS/CONTROL AND COORDINATION/PART IPage 1

TYPES OF NEURON

There are three main types of neurons:

RECEPTOR NEURONS-These connect the receptor cells or organs(Sense organs)to the spinal cord
or brain.

EFFECTOR/MOTOR NEURONS-Carry impulse from the brain or spinal cord to an effector (muscle
or gland)

RELAY/INTERMEDIATE/ASSOCIATION NEURON-are located in the brain and spinal cord

which interconnect the sensory and motor neurons.

NERVES:-They are thread like structures which originate both from brain or spinal cord extensively
branch out and form a network in all parts of the body. A nerve is formed of a bundle of nerve fibres
(axons) which remain enclosed in a tubular sheath. There are three kinds of nerves:

SENSORY NERVES-They contain only sensory fibres bringing impulses from the receptors (Sense
organs) to the brain or spinal cord.

MOTOR NERVES-They contain only motor fibres and carry impulses from the brain or spinal cord to
the effector organs.

MIXED NERVES- Those which carries both sensory and motor fibres.

NERVE IMPULSE- It is the information in the form of chemical and electrical signals passing
through neurons carried by the dendrites to the cell body (unidirectional).

Mechanism of the conduction of a nerve impulse:

*All information from the environment is detected by some nerves cells called the receptors.

*These receptors are located in our sense organs (Gustatory receptors-tongue, Olfactory receptors-
Nose)

*These receptors of dendritic tip receive information or stimulus and sets an electrical impulse.

*This impulse travels from the dendrite to the cell body and then along the axon. This electrical
impulse sets off the release of some chemicals called neurotransmitters (Acetylcholine) at nerve
ending.

*These chemical cross the synapse and start a similar electric impulse in the dendrite of the next
neuron.

*The impulses then finally delivered from neurons to other cells.

BHPS/CONTROL AND COORDINATION/PART IPage 2

Stimulus-It is an agent chemical or change in external or internal environment which brings about
reaction in an organism.

VOLUNTARY ACTIONS- Which are under the control of our will. Eg. Writing, Speaking

INVOLUNTARY ACTIONS-Which are not under the control of our will. Eg-Breathing, Heart beat

REFLEX ACTION-It is a quick involuntary action in response to an external or internal stimulus

which is monitored through the spinal cord without the involvement of brain.

REFLEX ARC-It is the shortest pathway taken by the nerve impulse from the receptor cell (Skin) to
the spinal cord and from the spinal cord to the effector organ.

STIMULUS REC EPTORS SENSORY NEURONS

EFFECTOR ORGAN MOTOR NEURON SPINAL CORD (Relay Neuron)

RESPONSE

ADVANTAGES OF REFLEX ACTION

*It enables the body to give quick response to harmful stimulus and thus protects our body.

*It minimizes the overloading of the brain.

TYPE OF REFLEXES:

UNCONDITIONED REFLEXES/SIMPLE REFLEXES-These reflexes are inborn and inherited

response to the stimulus which requires no previous experience, learning or judgements. Eg.
Swallowing, blushing, blinking of eyes when some objects close to the eyes, withdrawal of hand on
touching a hot object.

BHPS/CONTROL AND COORDINATION/PART IPage 3

CONDITIONED/COMPLEX REFLEXES-These reflexes are learned response to stimuli, acquired
individually during the life of an organism. Eg. Spontaneous application of brakes, to avoid accidents,
knitting while watching TV etc.

NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION-It is a point where a muscle fibre comes in contact with a motor
neuron carrying nerve impulse from central nervous system. The impulse travels from the neuron to the
muscle fibre by means of a neurotransmitter in the same way as the transmission of impulses across the
synapse between two neurons.

NERVOUS SYSTEM

It is system of conducting tissues that receives the stimulus and transmits it to the other.

Functions of Nervous System:

1. It regulates the involuntary actions of the body.

2. It enables us to think ,reason and remember.

3. It keeps us informed about the outside world.

Three major divisions of the HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM:

1. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM:-It consists of two parts:

i) Brain-Largest part , composed of two hemisphere ,highly evolved ,outer grey matter and inner white
matter.

BHPS/CONTROL AND COORDINATION/PART IPage 4

ii) Spinal Cord- Lies within the neural canal, inner grey matter and outer white matter. It controls the
reflexes below the neck and conduct sensory impulses from the skin and muscles to the brain and
motor impulses from brain to muscles.

2. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM:-It consists of :

i) Cranial nerves-12 pairs arise from the brain.

ii) Spinal nerves-31 pairs arise from the spinal cord.

Functions of PNS:-

 Conveys nerve impulse from the periphery to the brain and from the brain to the periphery.
 Also concerned with reflex action.

3. AUTONOMOUS NERVOUS SYSTEM:-It performs many functions which are not under our
control. It has two parts-

i) Sympathetic system-Controls violent action during emergency.

ii) Parasympathetic system-It restores the normal activities after violent actions.

For eg. If the nerves of the sympathetic system dilates the pupil of the eyes , parasympathetic nerves
constricts it.

STRUCTURE OF THE BRAIN

It weighs about 1350 g, and is protected by the brain box or the cranium. It is covered with three
layered membrane, MENINGES-

i)The outer membrane DURAMATER-protects the inner parts.

ii) The middle layer ARCHNOID-thin delicate middle layer.

iii) Innermost layer PIAMATER-supplied with blood,nourishes the brain. (The spinal cord is also
covered by meninges)

The spaces between the covering membranes, central spaces of the brain ,neural canal are filled with a
watery fluid called cerebrospinal fluid which protects the delicate parts from shocks.

Parts of the brain:

Forebrain:-It has two 3 parts-

i) Olfactory lobes –Smell controlling centre.

ii) Cerebrum-It is the largest part consisting of two hemispheres. The surface is greatly folded to
increase the surface area (Gyre and Sulci- Ridges and grooves).The two hemispheres are connected to
BHPS/CONTROL AND COORDINATION/PART IPage 5
each other by a tuft of tissues called corpus callosum. It enables us to think, plan, reason out and
memorise. It is the seat of intelligence, consciousness and will power. It controls all voluntary actions.
There are specific regions in cerebrum for each kind of stimulus such as Occipital lobe-vision,
Temporal lobe-hearing, Frontal lobe-speech, Parietal lobe-taste and Olfactory lobe-smell.

iii)Diencephalon-consisting of thalamus ,hypothalamus(controls pituitary gland, regulates heartbeat,

blood pressure, peristalsis etc.), pituitary gland and pineal gland.

Midbrain:-Small part of the brain which consists of :

i) Optic lobes –controls vision

ii)Central Peduncle-Connects forebrain to the hind brain.

Hindbrain:-Consist of three parts:

i)Cerebellum: lies at the roof of the hindbrain. It has two hemispheres bridged by Pons. It maintains
body balance and coordinates muscular movements.

ii) Pons: Lies just above medulla. It is a kind of relay station between the cerebellum, the spinal cord
and the rest of the brain. It regulates respiration and carries impulse from one cerebellum hemisphere to
the other to coordinate muscular movements on both sides of the body.

iii) Medulla: It lies at the floor of the hindbrain and continues into the spinal cord. It controls all the
involuntary actions like regulate heartbeat, breathing, swallowing, sneezing, coughing, sleep, loss of
consciousness, hiccups, vomiting, salivation and activities of cerebrum.

STRUCTURE OF BRAIN

REFER ACTIVITY FROM THE TEXT BOOK

BHPS/CONTROL AND COORDINATION/PART IPage 6